Process Engineering and Technology Principles of Fluid Flow

Module 5 Principles of Fluid Flow

Objectives of the Module At the end of this module, you will be able to:

1. Define the basic properties of fluids.

2. Recall the principles of static fluid flow and apply the concepts
to real fluid flow problems.

3. Recall the various flow regimes and discuss differences in the

two.

4. Recall the principles of dynamic fluid flow and apply the

concepts to real fluid flow problems

Module Contents This module covers the following:

1. Basic Fluid Properties

2. Static Fluid Flow

3. Dynamic Fluid Flow

4. Bernoullis Equation

5. Flow Regimes and Fluid Velocities

6. Darcys Equation and Pressure Losses in Straight Pipe

7. Pressure Losses in Fittings and Valves

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Process Engineering and Technology Principles of Fluid Flow

Overview Fluids can be divided into two broad groups:

Liquids e.g. water, beer, syrups, liquid refrigerants like NH 3 or

glycol
Gases e.g. CO2, O2, N2, Air, gaseous refrigerants like NH3

A third group can be plasmas but since these fluids are not very
common, we will consider only liquids and gases.

Liquids are considered incompressible and the density is constant,

where as gases are normally compressible and the density of the
gas will depend on the temperature and pressure.

Since the density has a profound effect on the fluid flow, it is

important to understand the effect of density on gases with
respect to fluid flow and how the Ideal Gas equation can be used
to define volume etc.

Basic Properties of In fluid flow it is essential to understand the properties e.g. density
Fluids and viscosity and characteristics e.g. Newtonian fluid, of the fluid,
before trying to understand how a system operates.

The next couple of pages will look into some of these properties
and characteristics.

Density () Density is defined as the mass of a fluid contained within 1m 3 or

Units kg/m3 the mass per unit volume.

As the volume of a substance varies with temperature, it stands to

reason that density will also vary with temperature. This is a very
important fact to take into consideration when doing fluid flow
calculations.

Liquids are considered incompressible and thus have constant

density as the volume cannot vary, however gases on the other
hand are compressible and the volume will vary with temperature
and pressure, so the density of a gas will vary depending on
the temperature and pressure the gas is exposed to.

Specific Volume (v) This is defined as the volume in 1 kg of fluid or the mathematical
Units m3/kg inverse of density.

This property is usually found quoted in steam tables.

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Process Engineering and Technology Principles of Fluid Flow

Viscosity () Viscosity is possible the most important property to understand as

Units Pa.s it influences fluid flow considerably and thus will influence all of
(or centipoises) the static or dynamic fluid flow situations.

Viscosity is a measure of the resistance of a fluid to deform

under either shear stress or extensional stress. It is commonly
perceived as "thickness", or resistance to flow. Viscosity describes
a fluid's internal resistance to flow and may be thought of as a
measure of fluid friction.

To understand viscosity further we need to look at a bit of theory!

Consider two layers of a fluid within a larger body of fluid, which

are separated by a small distance, y, and move parallel to each
other.

If there is a difference in velocity of the two layers of u, then the

force with which the top layer pulls the lower one along is defined
as:

F = u
y

From a series of experiments, it was determined that the force, F

was indeed directly proportional to the velocity gradient (u/y)
by a constant factor, (more commonly known as dynamic
viscosity) and therefore writing the force per unit area, you will
get:

F = u
A y

The force per unit area is known as the shear stress () and
therefore the above equation can be rewritten as:

= u
y

This is known as Newtons Law of Viscosity.

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Process Engineering and Technology Principles of Fluid Flow

Newtonian Fluids Plotting the shear stress against the velocity gradient for water,
you will end up with the following plot:

This plot confirms that the relationship, the called the dynamic
viscosity, between the shear stress and velocity gradient is indeed
constant (i.e. the line is straight and runs through the origin) at a
certain temperature and is independent of both the shear stress
and the velocity gradient.

We call fluids with this relationship, Newtonian fluids.

Typical examples of Newtonian fluids are water, beer, air etc.

Now if we plot the shear stress against the velocity gradient for
Non-Newtonian Fluids
another solution and you get one of the following plots:

We can call this fluid a Non-Newtonian fluid, as the shear

stress, velocity gradient relationship is not constant i.e. the
viscosity varies with either the shear stress exerted on the fluid or
the change in velocity gradient or both.

Typical brewing examples of Non-Newtonian fluids are

concentrated yeast slurries and concentrated adjunct solutions.

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Process Engineering and Technology Principles of Fluid Flow

Viscosity of Water = 1.7921 x 10-3 Pas (cP) at 0 C

= 1.5188 x 10-3 Pas at 5 C
= 1.3077 x 10-3 Pas at 10 C
= 1.1404 x 10-3 Pas at 15 C
= 1.0050 x 10-3 Pas at 20 C
= 0.8937 x 10-3 Pas at 25 C
= 0.8007 x 10-3 Pas at 30 C
= 0.7225 x 10-3 Pas at 35 C
= 0.6560 x 10-3 Pas at 40 C
= 0.5988 x 10-3 Pas at 45 C
= 0.5494 x 10-3 Pas at 50 C
= 0.5064 x 10-3 Pas at 55 C
= 0.4688 x 10-3 Pas at 60 C
= 0.4355 x 10-3 Pas at 65 C
= 0.4061 x 10-3 Pas at 70 C
= 0.3799 x 10-3 Pas at 75 C
= 0.3635 x 10-3 Pas at 80 C
= 0.3355 x 10-3 Pas at 85 C
= 0.3165 x 10-3 Pas at 90 C
= 0.2994 x 10-3 Pas at 95 C
= 0.2838 x 10-3 Pas at 100 C

The centipoise (cP) is commonly used because water has a

viscosity of 1.0020 cP (at 20 C; the closeness to one is a
convenient coincidence).

The relation between Poise and Pascal-second is:

10 P = 1 kgm1s1 = 1 Pas
1 cP = 0.001 Pas = 1 x 10-3 Pas

Viscosity of Common Below is a list of the viscosities of some of the more common
Brewing Fluids brewing fluids:

Wort at 20 C 1.05 3.00 x 10-3 Pas

Beer at 20 C 1.01 1.10 x 10-3 Pas
Ethyl Alcohol at 0 C 1.197 x 10-3 Pas
Yeast Slurries 30 300 x 10-3 Pas
Dilute Effluent at 20 C 10 - 20 x 10-3 Pas

Air at 0 C 0.018 x 10-3 Pas

Ammonia Gas at 0 C 0.009 x 10-3 Pas

pg 5 of 32
Process Engineering and Technology Principles of Fluid Flow

Viscosity of Wort for

Various Lager Types

Similar charts exist for various styles of beers as well as various

brands; most of which are determined empirically by the brewing
company for use by their process engineers.

Lets now consider the basics of fluid flow by studying static and
dynamic fluid flow theory.

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Process Engineering and Technology Principles of Fluid Flow

Static Fluid Flow This is the study of fluids at rest e.g. the pressure at the bottom of
a vessel or the pressure in a pressure gauge or the NPSH
requirement of a centrifugal pump.

Pressure As defined earlier, static fluid flow is the study of fluids at rest and
Units Pa or kg/m/s2 in the process engineering world this normally means
understanding the dynamics of a tank full of static fluid and
normally this means understanding the pressure exerted on an
area or a point.

Pressure is defined as the force exerted on an area and has the

units of Newton per m2 (N/m2) or Pascal or in SI units, kg/m/s2.

Pressure = Force / area

Where the area is defined as that surface area on which the force
is being exerted.

In the process engineering world, the term bar is also used to

describe a pressure and it is equivalent to 105 Pa.

Worked Example Consider a water reservoir of diameter 10m which is open to the
atmosphere; calculate the force which is exerted on the surface of
the water by the atmospheric pressure.

Solution: We know that atmospheric pressure is approximately equal to 101

325 N/m2. Note that atmospheric pressure reduces as you rise in
altitude.

Force = Pressure x Area

= 101 325 x d2
4
= 101 325 x 102
4
= 7 961 250 N
= 7.96 MN

Gauge and Absolute When walking about the plant you will no doubt come across
Pressure pressure gauges and it is important to understand what you are
reading on the gauge.

In practice, pressure is always measured as the determination of a

pressure difference and in the case of a brewery, the difference
between the pressure of the fluid concerned and the pressure of
the surrounding atmosphere.

This difference is normally recorded by pressure gauges and is

know as the gauge pressure.

Absolute pressure is the difference between the pressure of the

fluid concerned and that of a vacuum i.e. the total pressure of the
system.

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Process Engineering and Technology Principles of Fluid Flow

Therefore we can say the following:

Pabsolute = Pgauge + Patmospheric

Worked example If the gauge pressure at the bottom of a full FV reads 98.5 kPa,
what is the absolute pressure of the system?

Solution: Pabsolute = Pgauge + Patmospheric

= 98.5 + 101.325 kPa

= 199.8 kPa
200 kPa abs (or 2 bar abs)

Note, that absolute pressure is always positive but gauge

pressures are positive only if they are greater than atmospheric
and negative if less than atmospheric.

Dynamic Fluid Flow This is the study of fluid in motion e.g. what is the pressure drop
in the wort transfer line from the whirlpool to the fermenter
through the wort cooling plate heat exchanger and what size
pump should we use to transfer the wort?

Before we get into some practical aspects of dynamic fluid flow we

need to understand two key concepts:

Flow continuity
Bernoullis equation

Flow Continuity Using the principles of a mass balance and the Law of
Conservation of Mass, it is possible to predict the fluid velocity
change at one point, knowing the dimensions of the pipe at the
initial and final points and the initial velocity or any combination of
the above.

Lets consider the following system below:

Fluid flows at steady state from point 1 at a mean velocity, u1 and

density 1 through a constriction to point 2 where the velocity is
given as u2 and the density is 2. The cross-sectional area at points
1 and 2 is given by A1 and A2.

By the Law of Conservation of Mass:

M1 = M2 (1)

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Process Engineering and Technology Principles of Fluid Flow

Now the mass flowrate M can be defined as:

M=uA

Therefore substituting in (1):

1 u1 A1 = 2 u2 A2

Now if we consider the fluid to be a liquid, then we may assume

that it is incompressible and therefore the density is constant.

The equation above becomes:

u1 A1 = u2 A2 = Q

This is known as the Continuity Equation.

Worked Example
Water flows through a 50mm ID pipe at a volume flowrate of 60
hl/hr, what is the velocity of flow in the pipe?
Solution:
Utilising the flow continuity equation, Q = u A, the velocity of the
fluid is easily calculated.

First convert the volumetric flowrate into SI units:

Q = 60 hl/hr = 60 x 100 x 1 = 1.67 x 10-3 m3.s-1

1000 x 3600

* Note, to convert the volumetric flowrate to SI units:

Q = 60 hl /hr = 60 hl/hr x 100l/hl x 1hr/3600s x 1m3/1000l

= 1.67 x 10-3 m3/s

Calculating the cross sectional area of a pipe:

A = d2 = x (50 x 10-3)2 = 1.96 x 10-3 m2

4 4

Substituting the volumetric flowrate and area into the Continuity

equation:

u = Q/A
= 1.67 x 10-3 m3.s-1
1.96 x 10-3 m2
= 0.85 m/s

If the pipe contracts to one of 35mm ID, what then will be the
velocity of flow of water in the pipe for the same volume flowrate?

ANSWER: 1.73 m/s

pg 9 of 32
Process Engineering and Technology Principles of Fluid Flow

Velocity in Pipes Easy

Use Charts

pg 10 of 32
Process Engineering and Technology Principles of Fluid Flow

Energy in Fluids - A fluid which is flowing through a pipe or channel has three types
Bernoullis Equation of energy associated with its motion:

Pressure Energy (Epress) this is the energy associated with

a change in pressure in the fluid. It is defined by:

Epress = pV (p = pressure, V = volume)

Kinetic Energy (Ek) this is the energy associated with a

change in the fluid velocity. It is defined by:

Ek = mu2 (m = mass of fluid, u = fluid velocity)

Potential Energy (Epot) this is the energy associated with a

change in vertical height which the fluid flows through. It is
defined by:

Epot = mgz (g = gravitational constant, z = height)

There are other energies associated with the fluid e.g. energy lost
to the environment due to friction, mechanical energy added by a
pump or fan, or heat energy from a heat exchanger or cooler.

For purposes of Bernoullis we consider the following a steady

flowrate of frictionless fluid (inviscid liquids) at constant
temperature, with no external heat transfer and no external
work by a pump and thus the above energies equal zero.

Now if we consider the following system of pipes:

We can sum the energies at point 1:

Etotal 1 = p1V1 + m1u12 + m1gz1 (1)

And if we do the same for point 2:

Etotal 2 = p2V2 + m2u22 + m2gz2 (2)

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And from the First Law of Thermodynamics, we know that the

total energy is a constant, and therefore the above equations
become:

p1V1 + m1u12 + m1gz1 = p2V2 + m2u22 + m2gz2 = constant

However for constant volume, we can convert the mass terms in

density by dividing through by the volume, to get:

p1 + 1u12 + 1gz1 = p2 + 2u22 + 2gz2 = constant

This is known as Bernoullis Equation.

Note that this holds for the following:

The equation is valid for flow of a fluid from point 1 to point 2

in a system when there are no energy inputs to, or output
from the system between points 1 & 2.

Each term in the equation refers to the components of energy

at a single point in the fluid 1 or 2.

The Bernoulli Equation is a homogeneous equation and each

term in it has the dimensions of pressure in Pascals (Pa)

Dimensions of One of the most common mistakes when using Bernoullis

Bernoullis Equation equation is that people mix up the units of each term.

Lets do the dimensional analysis for Bernoullis equation and you

will see that all terms are pressure terms:

p1 kg/m/s2 (Pa)

1u12 kg/m3 x (m/s) 2 = kg/m/s2 (Pa)

1gz1 kg/m3 x m/s2 x m = kg/m/s2 (Pa)

Now if we divide through by g (units kg/m/s2), we can express

Bernoullis equation in terms of pressure head which has the
dimensions of metres (m).

p1/g kg/m/s2 x m3/kg x s2/m = m

u12/g m2/s2 x s2/m = m

z1 m

So there are two forms of Bernoullis equation one which is

expressed in terms of pressure (Pa) and the other in terms of
pressure head (m). Please ensure that when you are using this
equation that your units are the same for all terms.

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Process Engineering and Technology Principles of Fluid Flow

Worked Example For the fluid flow system shown, calculate the head of liquid in
The head of a liquid in a tank B, if all frictional losses are ignored.
tank

Solution: Before applying Bernoullis equation, it is always a good idea to

write down the known variables:

P1 = Patmospheric = 1 bar = 1 x 105 Pa

P2 = 0.2 bar g = 1.2 bar abs = 1.2 x 105 Pa

u1 = u2 0 (Why is this??)

z1 = 10 m

z2 = unknown

Now substituting directly into Bernoullis equation:

p1 + 1u12 + 1gz1 = p2 + 2u22 + 2gz2

1 x 105 + 0 + 1046 x 9.81 x 10 = 1.2 x 105 + 0 + 1046 x 9.81 x z2

z2 = 8.05 m

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Process Engineering and Technology Principles of Fluid Flow

Worked Example Bernoullis equation is very useful in determining the fluid velocities
The velocity of fluids in a in parts of a static system, as long as the standard conditions
static system apply:

No friction losses;
No external heat transfer and;
No external work by a pump

Lets have a look at the system below and determine the unknown,
u2 .

Solution: Before applying Bernoullis equation, write down the known

variables:

P1 = P2 = Patmospheric

u1 0

u2 = unknown

z1 = 3 m

z2 = 0 m

Now substituting directly into Bernoullis equation:

p1 + 1u12 + 1gz1 = p2 + 2u22 + 2gz2

Patmospheric + 0 + 1gz1 = Patmospheric + 2v22 + 0

u22 = 2 gz1

u2 = (2 x 9.81 x 3)

u2 = 7.67 m/s

pg 14 of 32
Process Engineering and Technology Principles of Fluid Flow

Worked Example Using Bernoullis equation and applying it to the system below, we
Prove the Pressure Head can easily prove that P = gz
equation (P = gz)

Solution: Write down the known variables:

P1 = unknown (actually equals Patmospheric but for purposes

of this example it is unknown)

P2 = unknown

u1 = u2 0

z1 = unknown

z2 = 0

Now substituting directly into Bernoullis equation:

p1 + 1u12 + 1gz1 = p2 + 2u22 + 2gz2

p1 + 0 + 1gz1 = p2 + 0 + 0

p2 - p1 = 1gz1

p = 1gz1

This is known as the Pressure Head of the tank.

Note, that the terms PRESSURE and HEAD are used inter-
changeably in process engineering. Pressure and head are related
by:

P = gh and h = P/ g

Where P is measured in N/m2 (or Pa) and H is measured in m.

pg 15 of 32
Process Engineering and Technology Principles of Fluid Flow

Exercises 1. Beer of density 1008 kg/m3 passes through pipe of 40mm

diameter at a volume flowrate of 45 hl/hr.

Calculate its average velocity of flow.

2. Velocity of discharge of wort into a whirl pool is 10 m/s when

pumped at a volume flowrate of 500 hl/hr.

Determine the diameter of the discharge nozzle.

3. Sugar solution of density 1300 kg/m3 discharges from a tank,

vented to atmosphere, via a pipe 20mm diameter that enters
the top of a sugar boiler which is maintained under
atmospheric conditions whilst being charged.

If the total difference in height between the top surface of the

sugar tank and the bottom of the pipe as it enters the vessel is
4m, calculate the velocity of flow and the mass flowrate of the
sugar solution as it leaves the pipe.

4. Water of density 1000 kg/m3 flows steadily through an inclined

pipe of constant diameter.

If the gauge pressure of the water at the lower end of the pipe
is 1.5 bar, calculate its gauge pressure at the upper end of the
pipe given that this point is 6 m above the lower end and
assuming that there are no flow pressure losses along the
pipe.

5. Calculate the approximate time required to empty a full BBT

(3m diameter by 6m tall) through the outlet of 150 mm.

pg 16 of 32
Process Engineering and Technology Principles of Fluid Flow

Flow Regimes In all the fluid flow work we have done so far, we have only
considered ideal fluids i.e. frictional losses and viscosity have been
ignored and while this helps us explain what is happening from a
theoretical perspective, it is not the real world!

When a fluid flows through a pipe or over a surface, flow patterns

are created within the fluid and they depend largely on the fluid
flowrate.

Laminar Flow When the fluid flowrate is low, the pattern of flow is in the form of
parallel streams which do not interfere with one another. There is
no bulk flow perpendicular to the main stream direction, apart
from some dispersion due to diffusion. This is called LAMINAR
flow.

The velocity profile of the fluid flow from the centre line is a
parabolic curve.

Another characteristic of laminar flow is the formation of a thick

boundary layer, which causes high resistance to heat and mass
transfer.

This thick boundary is caused by slow moving fluid nearest the

wall of the pipe, which experiences drag forces (friction) from the
wall.

pg 17 of 32
Process Engineering and Technology Principles of Fluid Flow

Turbulent Flow However, with increasing flowrate, the flow patterns become
increasingly disordered and there is total mixing of the flow
streams. This is because there is a high level of flow perpendicular
to the main stream direction and eddys form within the pipe. This
is called TURBULENT flow.

Because of flow in all directions the velocity profile of the fluid

appears to be very flat, with just the outer layer being affected by
drag forces. For this reason, the boundary layer is very thin and
gives low resistance to heat and mass transfer and thus it is this
flow regime that is usually preferred in process engineering plants.

Turbulent flow is also preferred for CIP, where you require a high
level of agitation to remove the soil.

In the 1800s, Osborne Reynolds conducted a series of

Reynolds Number
experiments where he observed flow patterns using dye injected
into various flowing streams of differing viscosity and density and
using differing diameter pipes.

From these experiments, he concluded that there was a

relationship between inertia and viscous forces and this
relationship differed for laminar and turbulent flowrates.

pg 18 of 32
Process Engineering and Technology Principles of Fluid Flow

He defined the Reynolds Number, which is a dimensionless

number and is defined as:

Re = u d

where:

= density of the fluid (kg/m3)

u = mean velocity of the fluid (m/s)
d = diameter of the pipe (m)
= viscosity of the fluid (kg/m/s)

For flow within a pipe, the following limits for Reynolds Number
characterise the flow regime:

Re < 2000 Laminar flow

Re > 4000 Turbulent flow

One may ask what happens between these two limits? This is
characterised as TRANSITIONAL flow, where the flow streams
become increasing disordered as the flowrate increases. It is a
mixture between laminar and turbulent flow.

As this is a flow regime that is not really well understood, it is

normally avoided during fluid flow calculations or pipe design.

Worked Example Beer flows through an 80 mm ID pipe at a velocity of 1 m s -1. Is

the flow laminar or turbulent?

Using beer tables, you will find that at 25C, the density of beer is
1044 kg m-3 and the viscosity is 1.21 cp.

Re = ud

= 1044 x 1 x 80 x 10-3
1.21 x 10-3
= 69025

The Re > 4000, therefore the flow is considered to be

TURBULENT.

Exercise 1. Prove that Reynolds Number is dimensionless.

2. A yeast slurry of density 1030 kg/m3 and viscosity 36 x 10-3

Pas is discharged from a fermenter via a 50mm diameter hose
at a flowrate of 60 hl/hr. Calculate Re for the flow and
comment on the result.

pg 19 of 32
Process Engineering and Technology Principles of Fluid Flow

3. Ammonia gas is flowing

at 20 m/s at a density
of 0.86 kg/m3 and
viscosity 0.0098 cP.
Calculate Re for a pipe
diameter of 100mm.

Equivalent Hydraulic In the process engineering world, fluids normally flow in pipes
Diameters which are circular, so when is comes to calculating Reynolds
Numbers for pipes it is easy. However not all fluids flow in pipes
think air conditioning ducts and water culverts, so it s a good idea
to understand this concept.

The equivalent hydraulic diameter is defined as 4 times the cross-

sectional area divided by the wetted perimeter.

The table below details the equivalent hydraulic diameter (dc) for
common pipe and duct cross sections.

* Flow is within the grey area.

Worked Example An air conditioning duct carries cold air from the outside plant
through a duct of dimensions 1.4m wide by 1m high at a flowrate
of 10kg/s. Is the flow laminar or otherwise?

= 1.2 kg/m3, = 1.8x10-5 kg/ms.

Solution First, calculate the hydraulic diameter for the duct.

The equivalent hydraulic diameter is given by,

dc = 2ab/(a+b)

where a is the height and b is the breadth.

dc = 2ab/(a+b) = (2 x 1 x 1.4)/(1 + 1.4)

dc = 1.17m

pg 20 of 32
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The Reynolds number is

given by,

Re = ud

where d=dh.

At the moment we do not know the mean flow velocity u. We can

determine this from consideration of the continuity equation thus,

G = Au

Rearranging for u,

u = G/A = 10/[1.2 x (1.4 x 1)]

u = 5.95 m/s

Hence the Reynolds number becomes,

Re = ud

= 1.2 x 5.95 x 1.17
1.8 x 10-5
= 464 100

The Re > 4000, therefore the flow is considered to be

TURBULENT.

Fluid Velocity the Earlier when we were discussing flow regimes we looked at the
difference between velocity profiles of both laminar and turbulent flow.
mean and maximum
flowrates As fluid flows along a pipe, the fluid which is in direct contact with
the pipe wall is at rest (or almost!). Adjacent layers of fluid move
at an increasingly higher velocity as we move further away from
the wall until we reach the centre line where the maximum
velocity occurs.

Note:

1. The velocity at the centerline is denoted uo, which equals umax.

2. The velocity at any radius r from the centerline is denoted u r.

pg 21 of 32
Process Engineering and Technology Principles of Fluid Flow

3. The velocity at radius R,

is the velocity at the
wall and is denoted uR
which is approximately
equal to zero.

As we have seen before, the

shape of the velocity profile
depends on whether the
flow is laminar or turbulent.

Laminar Flow Velocity The velocity profile for laminar flow is generally depicted as:
Profile

And mathematically the profile can be approximated by the

equation for a parabola. Therefore we can relate the following:

2
ur 2r
= 1-
u0 d

We know that the maximum velocity, umax is at the centerline (r=0)

and is given by uo and also that the mean velocity, u, is half the
maximum velocity, so we can manipulate the above equation to
get

u = 0.5 uo = 0.5 umax

or

umax = 2 u

Turbulent Flow Velocity The velocity profile for turbulent flow is generally depicted as:
Profile

pg 22 of 32
Process Engineering and Technology Principles of Fluid Flow

Mathematically, the velocity

profile obeys the form of
1/7th power law and has the
following form:

1/ 7
ur 2r
= 1-
u0 d

And as with laminar flow, the mean velocity, u, is half the

maximum velocity, so we can manipulate the above equation to
get:

u = 0.82 uo = 0.82 umax

or

umax = 1.22 u

Worked Example Water at 20 C is pumped from a reservoir to a buffer tank in a

fully flooded pipe of internal diameter of 80 mm at a rate of 28.5
m3/h, determine the mean and maximum velocities.

Water density = 1000 kg/m3, viscosity = 1.0050 x 10-3 Pas

Solution Using the Continuity equation we can easily determine the mean
velocity:

Q = uA

Rearranging:

u = Q/A = (28.5/3600) / [(/4) x (80 x 10-3)2]

= 1.58 m/s

In order to determine the maximum velocity, we first need to

determine Reynolds Number:

Re = ud

pg 23 of 32
Process Engineering and Technology Principles of Fluid Flow

= 1000 x
1.58 x 80 x 10-3

1.0050 x 10-3
= 125
771
Friction Factor using the Moody diagram

Turbulent

Therefore using the

equation for maximum flow
under turbulent conditions:

umax = 1.22
u

= 1.22
x 1.58

=
1.92 m/s

When a fluid flows along a pipe there is a drag force () between

Pressure Losses along the fluid and the wall of the pipe.
Straight Lengths of Pipe
and Ducts

If the fluid flows at constant velocity, then the drag force (or wall
shear stress) opposing the flow is exactly balanced by the pressure
drop causing the flow.

A force balance on the liquid leads to the equation:

P1 P2 = 4 Cf . L . u2
D 2

Where Cf is the friction factor and its value varies with RE

This equation is called DARCYs equation and the pressure

drop is measured in Pascals (Pa).

pg 24 of 32
Process Engineering and Technology Principles of Fluid Flow

Note: In order for the

pressure drop to be quoted
as a head pressure drop,
the above equation needs
to be adapted by dividing by
g to get he and is
measured in metres.

There a variety of different

ways to calculate the
friction factor, Cf the most
common way is to use the
Moody diagram (also
know as the Fanning
Friction Factor chart) which
relates the friction factor to
the Reynolds Number and
the internal surface
roughness of the pipe.

It was developed in 1944

and is the most common
chart used. The Moody Surface Roughness
chart s divided into two
distinct regions:

Laminar flow (on the

left)
Turbulent flow (on the
right)

From the diagram below, it

can be seen from the chart
that for LAMINAR flow:

Cf = 16
Re

pg 25 of 32
Process Engineering and Technology Principles of Fluid Flow

The surface (or relative) roughness is defined as:

=e/d

Note that the surface roughness dimensionless.

For TURBULENT flow, we

need to consider the surface
roughness of the pipe in Worked Example
order to be able to calculate
the friction factor.

The surface roughness, Solution

(or sometimes called
relative roughness) is the
ratio of absolute roughness,
e, (the measure of
roughness or size of surface
irregularities created by
machining of pipe) against
the pipe internal diameter,
d.

pg 26 of 32
Process Engineering and Technology Principles of Fluid Flow

Firstly, you need to get all the units to SI units, so converting the
flowrate to m3/h,

Q = 60 hl/hr = 60 x 100 x 1 = 1.67 x 10-3 m3.s-1

1000 x 3600

And using the Continuity equation:

u = Q/A = (1.67 x 10-3) / [(/4) x (50 x 10-3)2]

= 0.85 m/s

Now calculate the Reynolds Number:

Re = ud

Values for Absolute = 1000 x 0.85 x 50 x 10-3
roughness, e (in mm) for 1.0050 x 10-3
some pipes: = 42 288

Drawn tube Since the absolute roughness is not given in this example, we can
0.0015 assume that it is a smooth pipe and thus using the Moody diagram
Commercial steel (see above), do the following:
0.046
Wrought iron Locate the point for the Reynolds Number of the x-axis (note
0.046 that it is a logarithmic scale).
Asphalted cast iron Follow a line parallel to the y-axis until the line intersects the
0.12 curve marked smooth pipes.
Galvanised iron At the intersection, moving left, follow a line parallel to the y-
0.15 axis until it intersects the y-axis.
Cast iron Read this value, which is the friction factor. In this example
0.26 the value is 0.0052.
Stainless steel
0.002 0.0005
Glass
0.0001 0.00005

Once you have calculated

the surface roughness and
the Reynolds Number, you
can calculate the friction
factor. The best way to
understand this method is
to do a worked example.

Calculate the pressure drop

down a 200m length of
50mm ID stainless steel Exercises
tube through which water at
20 C is flowing at a rate of
60 hl/hr.

pg 27 of 32
Process Engineering and Technology Principles of Fluid Flow

What would be the pressure drop if the pipe diameter was

reduced to 35mm ID and the flowrate was maintained the same
as above?

1. Chilled water at 5C flows at a rate of 30 hl/hr through a 200m

length of horizontal straight pipe of 30mm diameter. Calculate
the pressure drop across the pipe if the surface roughness of
the pipe is 0.01. Comment on your answer.

Check for the viscosity of the chilled water on page 5.

2. A CIP main of total length 100m carries a caustic solution at a

flowrate of 10 kg/s. The main is constructed of drawn stainless
steel with an internal diameter of 75mm. Determine the
friction factor using the Moody chart and hence the pressure
drop over the pipe run.

Caustic density = 1200 kg/m3, viscosity = 0.030 x 10-3 Pas

Absolute roughness for drawn Stainless steel = 0.0015 mm

3. A yeast slurry of density 1030 kg/m 3 and viscosity 36 x 10-3

Pas is discharged from a fermenter via a 50mm diameter hose
at a flowrate of 60 hl/hr. Calculate the pressure drop in the
hose if the hose is 20m in length.

4. An air handling unit provides air to the malt pneumatic air

handling system at a flowrate of 210 000 m 3/hr. What would
the diameter of the ducts be if the designed air velocity is 30
m/s and what is the pressure drop over a length of 75m?

Air density = 1.2 kg/m3, viscosity = 1.8 x 10-8 Pas

Use the Moody diagram to calculate the friction factor

assuming that the absolute roughness of the ducts is 0.075
Now you can calculate the
mm.
pressure drop using Darcys
Equation:

P1 P2 = P = 4
C f . L . u2

D 2

P = 4 x
0.0052 x 200 x 1000 x
Pressure Losses through Valves and Fittings
0.852

0.05 2

= 30.06
kPa

pg 28 of 32
Process Engineering and Technology Principles of Fluid Flow

of the system, it is important that the fittings (bends and changes

to pipe diameter etc.) and valves pressure loss is incorporated into
the total pressure loss of the system.

There are two methods to account for these losses:

Equivalent Number of
Velocity Heads Equivalent number of velocity heads
Equivalent length of straight pipe

The flow of fluid through pipe and ductwork fittings general results
in the generation of turbulence and eddies downstream of the
fitting and the conversion of kinetic energy into heat. This process
is reflected in a loss of pressure across the fitting.

The empirical approach we shall use to determine the magnitude

of the pressure drop through the fitting is one involving the
concept of the loss coefficient k. In this we use a series of
experimentally derived multiplying factors (k) which represent the
number of velocity heads which are lost through the fitting i.e,

u2
Fitting head loss k
2g

This is a head loss and is thus measured in metres.

Alternatively if you need a pressure loss, convert by multiplying

through by fluid density and the gravitational constant.

Values for a variety of fitting situations are available from suppliers

of fittings. Here is a list of some of the generic coefficients:

FITTING OR VALVE LOSS COEFFICIENT k

45 elbow (standard) 0.3
90 elbow (long radius) 0.5
T-piece (flow from leg) 1.2
T-piece (flow to leg) 1.8
Globe valve (fully open) 6
Globe valve (half open) 9
Gate valve (fully open) 0.2
Gate valve (half open) 4
Diaphragm valve (fully open) 3
Butterfly valve (fully open) 0.3
Wouldnt the world of
engineering be simple if
everything flowed along
straight pipes with no turns
or valves to add to the Worked Example
pressure loss!!

When selecting pumps to Solution

over come the pressure loss

pg 29 of 32
Process Engineering and Technology Principles of Fluid Flow

From the table above, the loss coefficient for a fully open globe
valve:
k= 6

Therefore the head loss is

he = k . u2
2g

=6x 1.22
2 x 9.81
= 0.43 m

Expressed as a pressure drop if the fluid is water:

P = he. g
Equivalent Length of = 0.43 x 1000 x 9.81
Straight Pipe = 4.2 kPa

The other method of calculating the contribution to the pressure

drop in a system is to convert all the fittings and valves to an
equivalent length of pipe and then applying it to Darcys equation.

In this method we replace the L/d factor in Darcys equation with

an empirically calculated figure and then calculate the pressure
drop or head loss as per normal.

P = 4 Cf . L . u2
D 2

The Equivalent Lengths values for a variety of fitting situations are

available from suppliers of fittings. Here is a list of some of the
generic lengths:

FITTING OR VALVE Number of Equivalent

Lengths
45 elbow (standard) 15
90 elbow (long radius) 25
T-piece (flow from leg) 60
T-piece (flow to leg) 90
Globe valve (fully open) 300
Globe valve (half open) 450
Gate valve (fully open) 10
Gate valve (half open) 200
Diaphragm valve (fully open) 150
Butterfly valve (fully open) 15
What is the pressure drop
across a fully open globe
valve through which a liquid
is flowing at a rate of 1.2 Worked Example
m/s?

pg 30 of 32
Process Engineering and Technology Principles of Fluid Flow

value installed in a pipe 50mm ID, if the friction factor is 0.005 and
the fluid velocity is 1.2 m/s? Assume water is being pumped.
Solution
From the table above the equivalent length of pipe for a fully open
globe valve is 300.

Applying this to Darcys equation:

P = 4 Cf . L . u2
D 2
= 4 x 0.005 x 300 x 1000 x 1.22
2
= 4.3 kPa

Compare this with the value obtained above using the velocity
heads method.
Total Pressure Loss of a
Complex System In order to calculate the total pressure loss (or head loss) for a
complex system i.e. containing both straight pipe and valves and
fittings, it is important to separate the two calculations, using a
pure application of Darcys for the straight pipe and then either the
velocity heads or equivalent length of pipe of the fittings and
valves, and then simple add the two pressure drops (or head
losses) together to get the total pressure drop (or head loss) for
the system.

PTOTAL = Ppipe + Pfittings

Exercises 1. Calculate the head loss due to the following fitments in a pipe
75mm diameter through which beer is passing at a flowrate of
100 hl/hr

8 x 90 elbows (long radius); 2 x T-pieces (flow to leg);

6 x butterfly valves fully open; 3 x globe valves half open

2. The total length of a 40mm diameter pipe connecting two

tanks is 300m. The pressure loss due to fitments in the pipe
work is equivalent to 60 velocity heads.

Calculate the total pressure drop across the pipe work system
if beer of density 1004 kgm-3 and viscosity 1.1 x 10-3 Pas
passes through it at a rate of 50hl/hr. Assume pipe is
smooth.

3. Calculate the total pressure loss (assume C = 0.005) in a

pipe-work system when a fluid flows at a velocity of 1.2 m/s
through a 50mm ID comprising 2m of straight lengths of pipe
and the following fitments:

5 - 90o Standard Elbows; 2 - Tee Junctions (from leg);

2 - Butterfly Valves fully open; 2 - Globe Valves fully open

What is the pressure drop Pressure Drop Calculations Summary

across a fully open globe

pg 31 of 32
Process Engineering and Technology Principles of Fluid Flow

To calculate the pressure loss in a straight length of pipe, we need

to know the following information:

Length of pipe

Diameter of pipe

The surface roughness of the pipe

Density of the fluid

Velocity of the fluid

Viscosity of the fluid

The friction factor.

The friction factor is determined from the friction factor graph by

determining:

Factors Influencing Re no. For flow of fluid

Pressure Drop
Surface roughness

Using Darcys equation and the Continuity equation, it can easily

be shown that by changing certain parameters eg diameter can
easily influence the pressure loss of a system.

The following are considered the most important:

For constant pipe diameter P Q2

For constant flowrate P 1/d5

What does this mean?

pg 32 of 32