BENEDICK A.

GANZO
Structural Engineer
ASAS-Omrania Architecture & Engineering Consultants
Kingdom of Saudi Arabia

Brian Ganzo Publishing Company

Phase 6, V&G, Tacloban City
Philippines
Copyright 2009
by
Brian Ganzo Publishing Company, Inc.

All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced, stored in a

retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic,
mechanical, photocopying, recording, or by any means, without
permission in writing from the publisher.

Printed and distributed

by
B. A. GANZO Printers, Inc.
Tacloban City, Philippines
 iii

Contents

Preface ix

PLANE ANALYTIC GEOMETRY

Chapter 1 Rectangular Coordinates 1
1.1 Analytic Geometry Defined
1.2 Rectangular Coordinates
1.3 Distance Between Two Points
1.4 Division of a Line Segment. Midpoint
1.5 Inclination. Slope
1.6 Slopes of Parallel and Perpendicular Lines
1.7 Angle Between Two Lines. Intersection
1.8 Area by Coordinates

Chapter 2 Polar Coordinates 9

2.1 Polar Coordinates
2.2 Distance Between Two Points
2.3 Relations Between Polar and Rectangular
Coordinates

Chapter 3 Functions and Curves 13

3.1 Functions. Degree of an Algebraic Equation
3.2 Locus of an Equation. Intersection of Two Curves
3.3 Intercepts
3.4 Symmetry
3.5 Asymptotes. Extent of the Curve
3.6 Tracing the Curve of an Algebraic Equation
and a Polar Equation
3.7 Equation of a Given Locus

Chapter 4 The Straight Line 25

4.1 A Line Parallel to a Coordinate Axis
4.2 General Equation of a Line
4.3 Point-Slope Form
4.4 Two-Point Form

4.5 Slope-Intercept Form

4.6 Parallel and Perpendicular Lines
iv CONTENTS
4.7 Concurrence of Three Lines
4.8 Intercept Form
4.9 Normal Form
4.10 Polar Equation of a Straight Line
4.11 Directed Perpendicular Distance of a Line to a Point
and Between Two Parallel Lines
4.12 Two Conditions Determine a Line

Chapter 5 The Circle 33

5.1 Circles
5.2 General Equation of a Circle
5.3 Standard Equation of a Circle
5.4 Radical Axis
5.5 Polar Equation of a Circle
5.6 Three Conditions Determine a Circle

Chapter 6 Special Quadratic

Equations in Two Variables.
Conic Sections 37
6.1 Conic Sections
6.2 Parabolas
6.3 General Equation of a Parabola
6.4 Standard Equation of a Parabola
6.5 Ellipses
6.6 General Equation of an Ellipse
6.7 Standard Equation of an Ellipse
6.8 Hyperbolas
6.9 General Equation of a Hyperbola
6.10 Standard Equation of a Hyperbola
6.11 Asymptotes of a Hyperbola
6.12 Conditions Describing a Conic Section
6.13 Polar Equation of a Given Conic Section
6.14 Tracing a Conic Section

Chapter 7 Transformation of Coordinates.

The General Quadratic in
Two Variables 51
7.1 Translation of Axes in a Plane
7.2 Rotation of Axes in a Plane
7.3 The General Quadratic in Two Variables
7.4 Tracing the Curve of a General Quadratic
7.5 Discriminant of a Conic

Chapter 8 Tangents and Normals

to Conics 55
8.1 Tangents and Normals
 CONTENTS v
8.2 Tangent and Normal Through a Given
Point on the Conic
8.3 Poles and Polars of a Conic
8.4 Tangent to a Conic Through a Given
External Point
8.5 Tangent of Given Slope

Chapter 9 Parametric Equations 61

9.1 Parametric Equations
9.2 A Set of Parametric Equations of
Some Plane Curves
9.3 Tracing a Given Set of Parametric Equations

Chapter 10 Transcendental Functions 63

10.1 Trigonometric Functions
10.2 Congruence and Shifting
10.3 Tracing by Composition of Ordinates
10.4 Exponential Functions
10.5 Hyperbolic Functions
10.6 Logarithms
10.7 Inverse Functions

Chapter 11 Families of Plane Curves.

Curve Fitting 73
11.1 A Family of Curves
11.2 A Family of Curves Through an Intersection
11.3 Curve Fitting
11.4 Line of Best Fit. Method of Least Squares
11.5 Nonlinear Curves of Best Fit

SOLID ANALYTIC GEOMETRY

Chapter 12 Rectangular Coordinates
in Space 79
12.1 Space Rectangular Coordinates
12.2 Distance Between Two Space Points
12.3 Division of a Line Segment in Space. Midpoint
12.4 Direction Angles and Direction Cosines
12.5 Angle Between Two Space Lines
12.6 Parallel and Perpendicular Space Lines
vi CONTENTS

Chapter 13 Cylindrical and Spherical

Coordinates 85
13.1 Cylindrical Coordinates
13.2 Spherical Coordinates
13.3 Relations Between Rectangular, Cylindrical,
and Spherical Coordinates

Chapter 14 Surfaces and Space Curves 89

14.1 Locus of an Equation in Three Variables
14.2 Symmetry of Surfaces
14.3 Intercepts of a Surface. Sections and Traces
14.4 Tracing Surfaces by Parallel Plane Sections
14.5 A Surface of Revolution
14.6 Cylindrical and Conical Surfaces
14.7 Intersection of Two Surfaces
14.8 Projections, Projecting Lines,
and Projecting Cylinders
14.9 Tracing Space Curves by Its
Projecting Cylinders
14.10 Sketching Solids Bounded by Surfaces
14.11 Equation of a Given Surface

Chapter 15 The Plane 99

15.1 A Plane Parallel to a Coordinate Plane
15.2 General Equation of a Plane
15.3 Three-Point form
15.4 Parallel and Perpendicular Planes
15.5 Intercept Form
15.6 Normal Form
15.7 Directed Perpendicular Distance of
a Plane to a Point

15.8 Three Conditions Determine a Plane

Chapter 16 The Straight Line in Space 103

16.1 General Equation of a Line in Space
16.2 A Family of Planes Through a
Given Space Line
16.3 Parametric Equations of a Space Line
16.4 Symmetric Equation of a Line
16.5 Lines Parallel and Perpendicular to a Plane
 CONTENTS vii
Chapter 17 Special Quadratic Equations
in Three Variables. Quadric
Surfaces. Transformation of
Coordinates in Space 107
17.1 Quadric Surfaces
17.2 Ellipsoids. Spheres
17.3 Hyperboloids of One Sheet
17.4 Hyperboloids of Two Sheets
17.5 Elliptic Paraboloids
17.6 Hyperbolic Paraboloids
17.7 Quadric Cylinders
17.8 Elliptic Cones
17.9 Ruled Surfaces
17.10 Translation of Axes in Space
17.11 Rotation of Axes in Space

INTRODUCTORY VECTOR ANALYSIS

Chapter 18 Vector Operations 121
18.1 Vectors
18.2 Equality of Vectors. Negative of a Vector
18.3 Sum of Vectors. Difference
18.4 Product of a Scalar and a Vector.
The Unit Vector
18.5 Dot Product of Two Vectors
18.6 Cross Product of Two Vectors

Chapter 19 Vectors in Cartesian

Coordinates 129
19.1 Cartesian Unit Vectors
19.2 Cartesian Representation of a Vector
19.3 Operations on Two Vectors with
Cartesian Representations
19.4 Products Involving Three Vectors.
The Lagranges Identity

Chapter 20 Vector Analysis of

Planes and Lines 137
20.1 The Equation of a Plane
20.2 The Parametric Equation of a Line
 ix

Preface

It is the hope of the author that this concise book, Analytic

Geometry with Introduction to Vector Analysis, will prove valuable
and handy to students of engineering, science, and mathematics,
taking up analytic geometry as a preparatory course or
simultaneously with calculus. It is expected however, that the
students had already completed courses in algebra and trigonometry.
A working knowledge of elementary geometry and matrices are
important.
Each chapter is organized by presenting immediately the basic
definitions, principles, theorems, and formulas without their proofs
and definitions. The author knows that sometimes students and
practicing engineers are only interested in the immediate formulas
that are needed to solve a particular problem.
This book is divided into three major parts. The first eleven
chapters cover plane analytic geometry. The next six chapters cover
solid analytic geometry, the extension of geometric theorems to the
three-dimensional case. The last three chapters provide an
introduction to vector analysis, with discussions on the application of
the subject to the solution of geometric problems. The author
believes that vector analysis should now be an essential part of the
mathematical background of every engineer, scientist, or
mathematician.
Although every effort has been made to keep the presentation
clear and accurate, the author would be very happy to receive
suggestions or corrections if necessary.
The author gratefully acknowledges his indebtedness to his
colleagues, former students, and former teachers who have extended
help in the preparation of this book. Their names would form a list
that several pages of this book would still be insufficient to contain
them.

Benedick A. Ganzo
Structural Engineer
 1

PLANE ANALYTIC GEOMETRY

Chapter 1
Rectangular Coordinates

1.1 Analytic Geometry Defined

a. Analytic geometry is the branch of mathematics, dealing

with the behavior and properties of configurations involving
points, lines, curves, surfaces, and solids by means of
algebraic methods. If the figures are on a plane, the study is
called plane analytic geometry. Solid analytic
geometry deals with figures in space.

b. Various methods in analytic geometry that are used to prove

directly many theorems of classical Euclidean geometry are
called analytic proofs. See examples 1.10 and 1.11.

1.2 Rectangular Y
Coordinates second quadrant + first quadrant
a P

a. The position of a 3
point on a plane 2 b
1
may be determined O
X - -3 -2 -1 1 2 3
+
X
by its distances from -1
-2
two perpendicular
-3
lines, in what we call
a rectangular (or

third quadrant fourth quadrant

Cartesian) -

coordinate Y
system, Fig. 1.1. Fig. 1.1

b. A rectangular coordinate system is formed by drawing a pair

of perpendicular lines XX and YY, called the coordinate
axes (or the X-axis and the Y-axis respectively),
intersecting at a point called the origin O. Perpendicular
distances measured from the Y-axis to the right (along OX)
and from the X-axis upward (along OY) are positive, while
their opposites, from the Y-axis to the left (along OX) and
from the X-axis downward (along OY) are negative
2 PLANE ANALYTIC GEOMETRY

distances. The plane is divided into four regions called

quadrants.

c. The x-coordinate (or abscissa) of a point is its

perpendicular distance from the Y-axis and the y-coordinate
(or ordinate) of a point is its perpendicular distance from
the X-axis. Together, these rectangular coordinates (the
paired x-coordinate and y-coordinate of a point) determine
the position of a point in a plane. Point P for example, Fig.
1.1, is located at (a, b).

d. The notation P(x, y) where x and y are variables, means that

a point P has an x-coordinate x, and a y-coordinate y in a
rectangular coordinate system. Plotting is the process of
locating (by drawing or placing) a point on a plane when its
coordinates are known.

e. A directed line segment (or directed distance) is a line

segment measured in a definite sense or direction (and it is
either positive or negative), Fig. 1.2. The tail end P1 of the
arrow is called the initial point (or origin), and the head P2
is called the terminal point (or terminus) of the directed
line segment. If the directed line segment joining the point
P1(x1, y1) to P2(x2, y2), in Y
that direction (written as
P2(x2, y2)
P1P2 or d , an arrow is
placed above the letter if
P1P2 or d
only one letter is used to
represent the directed line
P1(x1, y1)
segment), is taken as
positive, then the opposite
of that direction, from P2 to O X
P1 (or the directed line
segment P2P1), is equal to Fig. 1.2
the negative of P1P2. If P1P2
was initially negative, then P2P1 is the positive of P1P2. That
is, directed line segments in opposite directions have
opposite signs, or

P1P2 = - P2P1 (1.1)

f. The distance (or segment) on the other hand, between the

two points P1 and P2 (written as |P1P2|), is always positive
whether measured in the opposite direction |P2P1|. It is the
 RECTANGULAR COORDINATES 3
magnitude or the absolute value of the directed distance, so
that,

|P1P2| = |P2P1| (1.2)

1.3 Distance Between Two Points

a. The distance |d| between two points P1(x1, y1) and P2(x2, y2),
Fig. 1.3, is given by,

d x2 x1
2
y2 y1
2 (1.3)

Y Y
P2(x2, y2)
P2(x2, y2)
P(x, y)
|d|

P1(x1, y1)
P1(x1,y1)

O X X
O

Fig. 1.3 Fig. 1.4

1.4 Division of a Line Segment. Midpoint

a. If P(x, y) is a point on the line segment |P1P2|, joining the

points P1(x1, y1) and P2(x2, y2), such that, the ratio of the
directed distances P1P and P1P2 is k, or

P1 P
k (1.4)
P1P2

then the coordinates (x, y) of P, Fig. 1.4, must be given by,

x x1 k x2 x1
(1.5)
and y y1 k y2 y1
4 PLANE ANALYTIC GEOMETRY

Y P(x, y)

P2(x2, y2)

b. If P lies in the extension P1(x1, y1)

of |P1P2| in either
direction, Fig. 1.5, X
O
equation (1.5) still
applies.
Fig. 1.5
c. If Pm(xm, ym) is the midpoint (or a point that divides a line
segment into two equal parts) of the line segment |P1P2|,
equation (1.5) reduces to,

1
xm x1 x2
2 (1.6)
1
and ym y1 y2
2

Y
1.5 Inclination. Slope L1, line of slope m1
L2, line of slope m2
a. The angle of inclination
(or simply inclination) of a
line, 1 and 2 for the lines
L1 and L2 respectively of Fig. N(xi,yi)
1.6, is the least 1 2
counterclockwise angle the O X
line makes with the positive
X-axis, ranging from 0 < Fig. 1.6
. If the inclination of a line
is taken in a clockwise direction from the X-axis to the line
(sometimes called the declination of the line), it is
considered negative in value.

b. The slope m of a line is the tangent of the angle of

inclination, written as

m = tan (1.7)
 RECTANGULAR COORDINATES 5

where m is positive for 0 < < (or lines inclined to the

2
right), and m is Y
negative for < < P2(x2,y2)
2
(or lines inclined to the
left). When = 0
RP2 =y2 y1
(horizontal lines), m =
P1(x1,y1)
0. When =
2 P1R =x2 x1 R(x2,y1)
(vertical lines), m is

undefined.
X
O
c. If P1(x1, y1) and P2(x2,
y2) are points on a line, Fig. 1.7
the slope m of the line is obtained by,

y2 - y1
m= (1.8)
x2 - x1

RP2 y 2 - y1
since m = tan = = , Fig. 1.7.
P1R x 2 - x1

1.6 Slopes of Parallel and Perpendicular Lines

a. Two lines (with slopes m1 and m2) are parallel if they have
equal slopes. That is,

m1 = m2 (1.9)

b. Two lines are perpendicular if they have slopes in which one

is the negative reciprocal of the other. That is,

1
m1 - (1.10)
m2
6 PLANE ANALYTIC GEOMETRY

1.7 Angle Between Two Lines. Intersection

a. The angle , Fig. 1.6, formed by rotating the line L1 to L2, at

their point of intersection N(xi, yi), is related to the slopes of
each line by the equation,

m2 - m1
arctan (1.11)
1 m 2 m1

This angle is negative if taken in a clockwise direction from L1

to L2.

b. The point of intersection N(xi, yi) of two lines, Fig. 1.6, is

the point whose coordinates satisfy the two equations of the
lines (or it is the point whose coordinates is the solution of
the two equations of the lines, taken simultaneously).

Y
P3(x3,y3)
P1(x1,y1)

1.8 Area By Coordinates

a. The area A of a triangle,

Fig. 1.8, with vertices
P1(x1, y1), P2(x2, y2), and P2(x2,y2)
P3(x3, y3), traced in a X
counterclockwise O
direction, is given by,
Fig. 1.8

x1 y1 1
1
A x2 y2 1
2
x3 y3 1 (1.12)
1 x1 x2 x3 x1
or A
2 y1 y2 y3 y1

x1 x2 x3 x1
where the matrix is defined to have the
y1 y2 y3 y1
value (x 1 y 2 x2y3 x 3 y1 ) (y 1 x 2 y2x3 y 3 x 1 ) . The
area A yields a negative result if the vertices are traced in a
clockwise direction.
 RECTANGULAR COORDINATES 7
b. The area A of a non-overlapping polygon of n vertices is
written in the form,

1 x1 x2 x3 xn x1
A (1.13)
2 y1 y2 y3 yn y1

where the vertices P1(x1, y1), P2(x2, y2), P3(x3, y3), , and
Pn(xn, yn) are traced in a counterclockwise direction. The
x1 x2 x3 xn x1
matrix is defined to have the
y1 y2 y3 yn y1
value (x1y2 x2 y 3 xny1) (y1x2 y2 x 3 ynx1) . The
formula for the area A also yields a negative result if the
vertices are traced in a clockwise direction.
 9
Chapter 2
Polar Coordinates

2.1 Polar Coordinates

a. The position of a point on a plane may also be described by

its distance from a fixed point and its direction from a fixed
line through the fixed point, in another system called the
polar coordinate system, Fig. 2.1.

7 5
2 2 12
12
b. A polar 3 3
3
coordinate 4 4 +

system is 5

6
formed by 11

P
6

drawing a 12
2 3 12
1
reference
O 1 2 3 + X
0
line OX,
23
called the 13
12 12
initial line 7 11

or polar 6
5
6
7
axis, in a 4 4
4 5
horizontal 3 17
3
19 3

direction to 12
2
12

the right, Fig. 2.1

starting from
a fixed point O, called the pole (or origin).

c. The radius vector of a point is its distance from the pole

and the polar angle of the same point is its direction (or
angle) from the polar axis. The polar angle is positive when
measured counterclockwise from the polar axis, and negative
when measured clockwise. The radius vector is positive when
measured from the pole to the terminal side of the
corresponding polar angle, and negative when taken in the
opposite direction. Together, the polar coordinates (the
paired radius vector and polar angle of a point) determine the
position of a point in a plane. Point P for example, Fig. 2.1, is
located at (, ).

d. The notation P(r, ), where r and are variables, means that

a point P has a radius vector r, and a polar angle , in a polar
coordinate system. The same point P(, ), Fig. 2.1, may be
described in a variety of ways using polar coordinates, for
10 PLANE ANALYTIC GEOMETRY

example P(-, ), P(, 2 ), P(-, ), P(, 2 ),

and so on. Generalizing, the point P(, ) may also be written
as,

P(, k ) when k is even

(2.1)
or P(-, k ) when k is odd

2.2 Distance Between Two Points

a. The distance |d| between two points whose polar coordinates

are P1(r1, 1) and P2(r2, 2) is given by,

d r12 r22 2r1r2 cos( 2 1) (2.2)

2.3 Relations Between Polar and

Rectangular Coordinates Y
(x, y)
a. A coordinate system is just x P (r, )

a tool in describing the

position of points and is not r y
inherently present in a
specific geometric problem.

Either polar or rectangular
O X
coordinates is used
whichever appears to
simplify a particular Fig. 2.2
problem.

b. If (x, y) and (r, ) are the rectangular and polar coordinates

describing the same point in a plane, Fig. 2.2, then the
equations relating them have the forms,

x r cos , y r sin (2.3)

and

y (2.4)
r x2 y2 , arctan
x
POLAR COORDINATES 11
where the radical for obtaining r in the last equation follows
the sign of x. If x 0 , it follows the sign of y, and a value of
is immediately assigned to . These conditions are
2
imposed to facilitate a unique conversion from rectangular to
polar coordinates.
 13
Chapter 3
Functions and Curves

3.1 Functions

a. If two variables x and y are related such that, for every x we

obtain one or more real values for y, then y is said to be a
function of x. Since y depends on the value of x, y is the
dependent variable (or the function), while x is the
independent variable. The variable y is a single-valued
function of x if only one value of y corresponds to each value
of x; otherwise it is double-valued, triple valued or multiple-
valued function of x. The set of values of x is called the
domain of the given function and the set of corresponding
values for y, for each x in the domain, is called the range.

b. An equation is a mathematical expression that relates the

independent and the dependent variable. It may be in

explicit form,

y = f(x) for the variables x and y, which is

read as y is a function of x (3.1)
or r = f() for the variables r and , which is
read as r is a function of

implicit form,

f(x, y) = 0 for the variables x and y (3.2)

or f(r, ) = 0 for the variables r and

parametric form (see Ch. 9),

x = f(t), y = g(t) for the variables x

and y, where t is
the parameter (3.3)
or r = f(t), = g(t) for the variables r
and , and t is the
parameter
14 PLANE ANALYTIC GEOMETRY

The equation is the law that defines a curve or locus of a

moving point. It may also be thought of as the analytical
representation of any given curve. An algebraic
equation (or Cartesian or rectangular equation) is a
polynomial equation in x and y describing a curve in a
rectangular coordinate system, while a polar equation
describes a curve in a polar coordinate system. Note that
equations even though involving trigonometric functions
and are not polynomials (see Ch. 10) but uses a
rectangular coordinate system are not polar equations.
Instead, these non-algebraic equations in rectangular
coordinates are called transcendental.

c. The degree of an algebraic equation is the highest power or

sum of powers in any one term of a given algebraic equation.
For example, the equations,

2x 2 y 3x 2 xy 1 0, y 2x 1, and y 2 x 4
x2 3x 2

are of third, first, and fourth degree respectively.

3.2 Locus of an Equation. Intersection of Two Curves

a. The locus (curve or graph) of an equation is a curve

containing those points, and only those points, whose
coordinates satisfy the equation. It may be thought of, on the
other hand, as the geometrical representation of a given
equation (see Sec. 3.1b)

b. To find whether a point satisfies the equation of a given

curve, substitute its coordinates for x and y in the equation of
the curve and note whether the equation holds.

c. The points of intersection of two curves are found by

solving the equations of the curves simultaneously. The
number of intersections of two curves is at most the product
of the degrees of their equations.

3.3 Intercepts

a. The x-intercept and the y-intercept of any given curve are

the directed distances (Sec. 1.2e) from the origin to the point
where the curve intersects the X-axis and the Y-axis
 FUNCTIONS AND CURVES 15
respectively, Fig. 3.1. In other words, the x-intercept a is the
abscissa of the point of intersection P(a, 0) of the curve with
the X-axis, while the y-
intercept b is the Y
ordinate of the point of curve of y = f(x)
intersection Q(0, -b) of
the curve with the Y-axis.
To find the P(a, 0)
O X
x-intercept,
solve for x in the Q(0, -b)
equation y=f(x),
with f(x) in
factored form if Fig. 3.1
possible and y is
set to zero.

y-intercept,
solve for y in the equation y=f(x), with x set to zero.

Y
L, line of symmetry
3.4 Symmetry
P1

a. The center of
symmetry of two points P, center of symmetry
P1 and P2, Fig. 3.2, is the
point P midway between
them. Their axis or line P2
of symmetry is the X
perpendicular bisector L O
of the line joining them.
Fig. 3.2

Y curve symmetric
with Y-axis
P2
b. A curve is symmetric P2

with respect to a P1 P1
P4
coordinate axis if for P3
every point P of the curve
on one side of the axis, O X
there corresponds an
P3 P4
image point P on the
curve symmetric
opposite side of the axis, with X-axis
Fig. 3.3. A curve is
Fig. 3.3
16 PLANE ANALYTIC GEOMETRY

symmetric with respect to the X-axis,

if its equation remains unchanged whether y is
replaced by y.

symmetric with respect to the Y-axis,

if its equation is unchanged even when x is replaced
by x.
Y
c. A curve is symmetric
with respect to a
point, if for every point P1

P of the curve there

corresponds an image O P2
point P directly opposite P2 X
and at an equal distance curve symmetric with
respect to the origin
from the point. A curve P1
that is symmetric with
respect to the origin is
shown in Fig. 3.4. A Fig. 3.4
curve is

symmetric with respect to the origin O,

if its equation is unchanged whether x and y are
replaced simultaneously by x and y respectively.

d. For a polar equation, its curve in polar coordinates is

symmetric with respect to the polar axis OX,

if the polar equation is unchanged when is replaced
by or when and r are simultaneously replaced
by ( ) and r respectively.

symmetric with respect to OY (a line perpendicular to

OX and passing through the pole O, or this line is the Y-
axis equivalent in rectangular coordinates),
if the polar equation is unchanged when is replaced
by ( ) or when and r are simultaneously
replaced by and r respectively.

symmetric with respect to the pole O,

if the polar equation remains unchanged when r is
replaced by r or when is replaced by ( + ).

The converses of these tests for symmetry of a curve in polar

coordinates are not necessarily true.
 FUNCTIONS AND CURVES 17
Y

x=a, vertical asymptote

3.5 Asymptotes. Extent of the
Curve
O
X
a. An asymptote of a curve
is a straight line
approached by the curve P(x, y)
more and more closely but
never actually touching it. Fig. 3.5
The line,

x=a (3.4)

of Fig. 3.5 is a vertical asymptote, if there is a point on the

curve whose ordinate y increases numerically without limit as
the value of its abscissa x approaches a. The line,

y=b (3.5)

of Fig. 3.6 is a horizontal asymptote, if the abscissa x of a

point on the curve Y
increases numerically
without limit as its y=b, horizontal asymptote
ordinate y approaches b.
P(x, y)

b. An asymptote to a curve
O
of nth degree may X
intersect the curve in at
most n 2 points. To
find the vertical and the
horizontal asymptotes of
an algebraic equation, see Fig. 3.6
Sec. 3.6.

c. The extent of the curve in any chosen direction, say for

example from the origin to the right (along OX or in the
direction of the positive X-axis), is the totality of real values
of x which gives real values for y. If the asymptote x a ,
Fig. 3.5, does not intersect the curve in any other point (that
is to say the curve is of degree n 2 in y), then the extent of
that curve in the OX-direction is,

0x<a (3.6)
18 PLANE ANALYTIC GEOMETRY

Similarly, the extent of the curve shown in Fig. 3.6, from the
origin upward (along OY or in the direction of the positive Y-
axis), or in the OY-direction is,

0y<b (3.7)

provided that the asymptote y = b does not intersect the

curve in any other point.

3.6 Tracing the Curve of an Algebraic Equation

a. Algebraic equations of degree n 2 in the dependent variable

yn and containing no product terms (terms containing the
product of the variables, xnyn), fall into four types or forms.

Type 1

y = f(x)
= a 0 x n a1 x n 1
an 1 x an (3.8)
where (n 0)

for n = 0, 1, the curve is a straight line.

n = 2, the curve is a parabola with axis vertical.

Type 2

f (x )
y=
g(x )
(3.9)
a0 x n a1 x n 1
an 1 x an
=
b 0 x m b1 x m 1 bm 1 x bm
where (n 0), (m 1)
The fraction should be in lowest terms; that is
(m n). If m = 0, the curve is of Type 1.

Type 3

y2 = f(x)
= a 0 x n a1 x n 1
an 1 x an (3.10)
where (n 1)
If n = 0, the curve is of Type 1, and it is the horizontal
line y a0 a n , provided that a0 + an > 0.
FUNCTIONS AND CURVES 19
Type 4
f (x )
y2 =
g(x )
a0 x n a1 x n 1
an 1x an (3.11)
=
m m 1
b0x b1 x bm 1x bm
where (n 0), (m 1)
The fraction should be in lowest terms, or (m n).
If m = 0, the curve is of Type 3, provided that
(n 1).

If the algebraic equation is given in implicit form, equation

(3.2), f ( x , y ) 0 , the equation could be solved for y or y2
and expressed in one of types given above.

Types 3 and 4 are symmetric with respect to the X-axis.

Types 2 and 4 only, the rational functions, could possibly
have asymptotes. To find the

vertical asymptotes,
Let y approach by setting to zero the
denominator of the rational function, y n f ( x ) ,
g( x )
where n 2. This is because any number divided
by zero equals .
Solve for x in the resulting equation, g ( x ) 0 ,
with g(x) in factored form if possible. The
solutions x = a, b, c are the vertical asymptotes
x = a, x = b, x = c, etc., of the curve.

horizontal asymptotes,
Let x approach in yn
f(x) , where n 2,
g( x )
after first dividing each term of f(x) and g(x) by
the x-term of highest degree (thereby putting all
x in the denominator of each term and noting
that any number divided by equals zero).
Solve for y. The two solutions y = a, b, are the
two horizontal asymptotes, y = a, and y = b, of
the curve.

Some curves analogous to Type 2, but where

m 1 n (an exception of the condition in equation 3.9,
m n, for an algebraic curve to be classified as a Type 2
curve), may have a slant asymptote. These are the
20 PLANE ANALYTIC GEOMETRY

curves represented by the equation

y
f(x) a0xn a1 x n 1
an 1 x an where the
g(x ) b0xm b1x m 1
bm 1 x bm

degree of the numerator f(x), n, exceeds that of the

denominator g(x), m, by unity. Example 3.17 illustrates
how to find the slant asymptote of a curve.

b. Point-plotting is a way of tracing or drawing the curve of

an equation (whether algebraic or polar), and is done as
follows:

Assign a range of values for x (or or the

independent variable).
Solve for the corresponding value of y (or r or the
dependent variable), for each assigned value of x.
Each pair of x and y (or r and ) is a point on the
curve. The infinitely many possible pairs of x and y,
or r and , that can be found are the coordinates of
all the points on the curve. The values for the
independent variable must be chosen carefully so
that the few points are enough to give a general
description of the entire curve.
Plot the points.
Finally, draw the curve through the plotted points.

c. For a more accurate and effective way to trace the curve of

an algebraic equation, follow these steps.

Analyze the equation.

Express the equation in one of the forms given
(Types 1, 2, 3, or 4).
Test for symmetry, by inspection if possible, with
the X-axis, the Y-axis, and the origin O.
Find the intercepts.
Determine the asymptotes. The horizontal
asymptotes y = a may intersect the curve in at
most (n 2) points, whose coordinates are
(x1, a), (x2, a), , (xn-2, a) where the abscissas
x1, x2, , xn-2 are the solutions of the equation
with y replaced by a. The vertical asymptote will
not intersect the curves of this type (or curves of
degree n 2 in the dependent variable.
Determine the extent of the curve in the
directions of OX and OY (and the opposites of
these directions, OX and OY, if there is no
 FUNCTIONS AND CURVES 21
symmetry with respect to one or both coordinate
axes).
Trace the curve of the equation immediately from the
properties of the curve seen from the analysis.
If necessary, plot a few points (or point-plot) in areas
that would make the curve more accurate.

3.7 Tracing the Curve of a Polar Equation

a. In polar coordinates, a polar equation is traced as follows:

Test for symmetry.

Use point-plotting (See Sec. 3.6b).
Assign values to and solve for r.

Each pair of r and is a point on the curve, in the polar

coordinate system. The range of values of should be
adequate to present a picture of the whole curve if
necessary, or the part of the curve to be used.

b. The following figures are the graphs of some common polar

equations.
circle, circle,
r a cos r a sin (a, )
2

O X
(a, 0) X
O

Fig. 3.7 Fig. 3.8

cardioid, cardioid,
r a(1 cos ) r a(1 cos )

(a, )
(a, ) 2
2
O
(2a, ) X
O X
(2a, 0)

Fig. 3.9 Fig. 3.10

22 PLANE ANALYTIC GEOMETRY

cardioid, cardioid,
r a(1 sin ) r a(1 sin )
(2a, )
2

(a, 0)
X
X O
(a, 0)
O
3
(2a, )
2

Fig. 3.11 Fig. 3.12

limacon, limacon,
r b a cos , (b a) r b a cos , (b a)

(b, )
2
(b, )
2
( b a, 0)
( a b , ) ( b a, 0) X ( a b , ) O X
O

Fig. 3.13 Fig. 3.14

lemniscate, lemniscate,
2 2 2 2
r a cos 2 r a sin 2

(a, )
4

(a, 0) O
X X
O

Fig. 3.15 Fig. 3.16

 FUNCTIONS AND CURVES 23

four-leaved rose, three-leaved rose,

r a sin 2 r a sin 3
3 5
(a, ) (a, )
4 4 (a, ) (a, )
6 6

O
X X
O

5 7
(a, ) (a, )
4 4 3
(a, )
2

Fig. 3.17 Fig. 3.18

four-leaved rose, three-leaved rose,

r a cos 2 r a cos 3

2
(a, )
3

(a, 0) (a, 0)
O X O X

4
(a, )
3

Fig. 3.19 Fig. 3.20

spiral of Archimedes, hyperbolic spiral,

r a r a

O X O
X

Fig. 3.21 Fig. 3.22

24 PLANE ANALYTIC GEOMETRY

trumpet,
2 2
r a

X
O

Fig. 3.23

conchoid of Nicomedes,
r a b csc , (a b)

b
X
O

Fig. 3.24

3.8 Equation of a Given Locus

a. To determine the equation of a given locus (or curve),

Consider a general point on the curve. That is the

point whose coordinates are the variables (x, y) or (r,
), whichever coordinate system is more convenient.
Express the geometric properties of the curve in an
equation relating the variables.

b. The number of points required to find the equation of a curve

is equal to the number of independent constants in the
equation of the curve.
 25
Chapter 4
The Straight Line

4.1 A Line Parallel to a Coordinate Axis

a. The equation of a line parallel to and at a directed distance a,

from the Y-axis, Fig. 4.1, is

x=a (4.1)

b. The equation of a line parallel to and at a directed distance b

from the X-axis, Fig. 4.1, is

y=b (4.2)

Y
x=a

y=b

4.2 General Equation of

a Line
b

a. Every straight line

may be
X
represented by a O a
first-degree
equation in two
Fig. 4.1
variables in the
form,

Ax By C 0 (4.3)

For A = 0, the line is parallel to the X-axis, and for

B = 0, the line is parallel to the Y-axis
26 PLANE ANALYTIC GEOMETRY

line of slope m

4.3 Point-Slope Form

P1(x1, y1)

a. The equation of a line of

slope m and passing
through a point P1(x1, y1),
Fig. 4.2, is written in O X
point-slope form as,
Fig. 4.2

y y1 m(x x1 ) (4.4)

4.4 Two-Point Form

a. If a line is known to pass through two points, P1(x1, y1) and

P2(x2, y2), its slope could be determined by equation 1.8,
y 2 y1
m , and the point-slope form could be modified to
x 2 x1
the two-point form of the equation of a line,

y2 y1
y y1 (x x1 ) (4.5)
x2 x1

or in matrix form, the above equation is written as,

x y 1
(4.6)
x1 y1 1 0
x2 y2 1

Equation 4.6 is derived from the fact that the general (or
moving) point P(x, y) forms with the two fixed points P1(x1,
y1) and P2(x2, y2) a triangle having an area of zero (see
 THE STRAIGHT LINE 27
equation 1.12 of Sec. 1.8) since the three points lie on a
straight line.

4.5 Slope-Intercept Form

a. A given y-intercept b means that the line passes through the

point Q(0, b), Fig. 4.3. It follows therefore that the equation
of a line of slope m Y
and y-intercept b could
also be found using Q(0, b)
the point-slope form
(equation 4.4), and
simplified to give line of slope m
another form of the
equation of a line,
known as the slope-
intercept form, having X
O
the form,

Fig. 4.3

y mx b (4.7)

b. To reduce the general equation (equation 4.3) of a line to the

slope-intercept form,

A C
Solve for y, resulting in y x . The
B B
A
coefficient of x is the slope ( m ), and the
B
C
constant term is the y-intercept ( b ).
B

4.6 Parallel and Perpendicular Lines

a. Two lines represented by the equations,

A1 x B1 y C1 0
(4.8)
and A 2 x B2 y C2 0
28 PLANE ANALYTIC GEOMETRY

are parallel, only if they have equal slopes, such that

A1 A2
or in matrix form,
B1 B2
(4.9)
A1 B1
0
A2 B2

or perpendicular, only if the slope of any one of them is equal

to the negative reciprocal of the other. That is,

A1 B2 (4.10)
or A 1 A 2 B 1B 2 0
B1 A2

4.7 Concurrence of Three Lines

a. Three lines,

A1 x B1 y C1 0,
A2x B2 y C2 0, (4.11)
and A3x B3 y C3 0

are concurrent (which means that the lines intersect at a

common point) if,

A1 B1 C1
A2 B2 C2 0 (4.12)
A3 B3 c3

4.8 Intercept Form Q(0, b)

a. A given x-intercept a, and

y-intercept b, means that
the line passes through
two points, P(a, 0) and P(a, 0)
Q(0, b), Fig. 4.4. The two- O X
point form (equation 4.5)
could be modified to give Fig. 4.4
 THE STRAIGHT LINE 29
another form of the equation of a line called the intercept
form,

x y (4.13)
1
a b

4.9 Normal Form

a. The equation of a line, located at a perpendicular distance

from the origin to a point R on the line, and angle of
inclination defined as shown in Fig. 4.5, is

x cos y sin (4.14)

The line OR whose length Y

line
is is called the normal of
the line. Depending on the
choice of , a line may be
represented by a variety of
O X
equations in the normal R
form.

b. To reduce the general

equation of a line to the
normal form, Fig. 4.5

Divide each term by A2B 2 , depending on the

A
sign of B (and noting that sin and
2
A B2
B
cos ).
2
A B2
Transfer the constant term to the other side of the
equation.
30 PLANE ANALYTIC GEOMETRY

4.10 Polar Equation of a Straight Line

a. The polar equation of a straight line, Fig. 4.6, is

r cos( ) (4.15)

where and are constants defined in the same manner as

in Sec. 4.9a.

Y
line in a polar
coordinate system P(r, )
P1(x1, y1)

d
R(, )
r

X
O

X
O Ax + By + C = 0

Fig. 4.6 Fig. 4.7

4.11 Directed Perpendicular Distance of a Line to a Point and

Between Two Parallel Lines

a. The directed perpendicular distance d of a line given in the

general form (equation 4.3), Ax By C 0 , to a point
P1(x1, y1), Fig. 4.7, is

Ax 1 By 1 C
d (4.16)
A2 B2

where the radical in the denominator takes on the sign of B.

If B 0 , it follows the sign of A. A positive value of the
distance d results if the point lies above the line (or to the
right in case of vertical lines), and negative if the point is
below the line (or to the left in case of vertical lines).
 THE STRAIGHT LINE 31
b. If two lines are parallel, the directed perpendicular distance
d between them is given by,

C1 C2
d (4.17)
2
A B2

Y Ax + By + C2 = 0
where d is positive if the
line with constant term C2 is
d
above the line with constant
term C1, and negative if
below. See Fig. 4.8. Ax + By + C1 = 0

O X

Fig. 4.8

4.12 Two Conditions Determine a Line

a. A set of two independent conditions is required to find the

equation of a line (two points, the slope and a point, the
intercepts, etc.) since equation 4.3 or any of the standard
forms contain two essential constants that could only be
evaluated by two consistent equations.
 33
Chapter 5
The Circle

5.1 Circles

a. A circle is the locus of a point moving in a plane, in such a

way that its distance (called the radius) from a fixed point
(called the center) remains constant.

5.2 General Equation of a Circle

a. The general equation of a circle is a special case of the

general equation of the second degree (equation 7.6) where
A = C and B = 0, having the form,

Ax 2 Ay 2 Dx Ey F 0 (|A|>0) (5.1)

or alternatively, (after dividing the above equation, through

by A),

x2 y2 Gx Hy I 0 (5.2)

Y (x-h)2 + (y-k)2 = a2

C(h, k)
5.3 Standard Equation of a
Circle

O X
a. The standard equation
of a circle of radius a,
and center at the point Fig. 5.1
C(h, k), Fig. 5.1, is

2 2
x h y k a2 (5.3)
34 PLANE ANALYTIC GEOMETRY

b. For a circle whose center is at the origin O(0, 0), the

standard equation reduces to,

x2 y2 a2 (5.4)

c. To reduce the general equation of a circle to the standard

form,

Write the general equation in the form of equation

5.2.
Transpose the constant term to the right.
Complete the squares in x and y.

In reducing to the standard form, if the right side is a 2 0,

2
the graph is a degenerate circle (a point at (h, k)). If a is
negative, a graph is impossible.

Y (G J)x+(H - K)y+(I - L) = 0,
P1 the radical axis
P

C1

x2 + y2 + Gx + Hy + I = 0 P2
C2
O
X
x2 + y2 + Jx + Ky + L = 0

Fig. 5.2

5.4 Radical Axis

a. The radical axis of two non-concentric circles (or circles

having different centers, Fig. 5.2) whose respective equations
are,

x2 y2 Gx Hy I 0
(5.5)
2 2
and x y Jx Ky L 0
 THE CIRCLE 35

is the straight line represented by the equation,

(G J)x (H K )y (I L) 0 (5.6)

b. The properties of the radical axis are:

The radical axis of two circles is perpendicular to

the line connecting their centers.

Each tangent segment, drawn from a common

point on the radical axis of two circles to each of
their points of tangency, have equal lengths. From
Fig. 5.2, PP1 PP2 .

The radical axis contains the common chord of

two circles intersecting at two distinct points.

The radical axis is the common tangent of two

tangent circles (or two circles intersecting at only one
point).

r2 + rc2 - 2rrc cos(c - ) = a2

C(rc, c)
a

rc

5.5 Polar Equation of a Circle c

X
O
a. In polar coordinates, a
circle is represented by Fig. 5.3
the equation,

r2 rc
2
2rrc cos( ) a2 (5.7)
c

where C(rc, c) is the center, and a is the radius of the circle,

Fig. 5.3.
36 PLANE ANALYTIC GEOMETRY

5.6 Three Conditions Determine a Circle

a. A set of three independent conditions is required to

determine the equation of a circle, whether in the standard or
in the general form (the conditions may be three points,
three tangents, two points and the radius of the circle, etc.).
 37
Chapter 6
Special Quadratic Equations in
Two Variables. Conic Sections

6.1 Conic Sections

upper nappe
a. Conic sections or
conics, Figs. 6.1, 6.2, Parabola (Cutting
plane parallel to a
and 6.3, are defined plane tangent to
vertex, V
geometrically as the cone)
sections made by
planes intersecting a
right circular cone. It lower nappe
may be a parabola,
an ellipse (the circle
is a special case), or a
hyperbola, depending Fig. 6.1
on the position of the
cutting plane. The ellipse and the hyperbola are classified as
central conics in contrast to the parabola which has no
center, since it only has one vertex (or only one focus).

Ellipse (Cutting plane not Hyperbola (Cutting

parallel to any plane plane intersects both
tangent to the cone) upper and lower
nappes)

Fig. 6.2 Fig. 6.3

b. Analytically, a conic section is the locus of a point which

moves such that its distance from a fixed point (called the
focus) is in constant ratio with its distance from a fixed line
(called the directrix), Fig. 6.4.
38 PLANE ANALYTIC GEOMETRY

Y axis of conic latus rectum, |AB|

conic section focus, F

A B
focal length, |FV| P(x, y)
vertex, V

L
directrix
X
O

Fig. 6.4

The axis of a conic is the line through the focus,

perpendicular to the directrix. The latus rectum is the chord
through the focus, parallel to the directrix. The vertex is the
point where the axis intersects the conic. The focal length
(or focal distance) is the distance from the focus to the
vertex.

c. The constant ratio mentioned in the preceding section for the

analytical definition of the conic, is called the eccentricity e,
of the conic. From Fig. 6.4, it is given by,

| FP | (6.1)
e
| LP |

The conic sections fall into three classes as follows:

If e 1 , the conic is a parabola;

e 1 , the conic as an ellipse;
e 1 , the conic is a hyperbola.
The circle is a special case of the ellipse. That is, as
e 0 (read as as e approaches zero), the ellipse
approaches a circle as a limiting shape.

d. Degenerate conics (the point-ellipse, two parallel

lines, two coincident lines, and two intersecting lines)
are exceptional conic sections, formed when the cutting plane
passes through the vertex of the right circular cone.
 SPECIAL QUADRATIC EQUATIONS. CONIC SECTIONS 39
6.2 Parabolas

a. A parabola (eccentricity e 1 ) is the locus of a point that

moves such that its distance from the focus and its distance
from the directrix are always equal. That is, from Fig. 6.5,

|FP| |LP| (6.2)

b. The length of the latus rectum is always four times the focal
length, or

AB 4 FV (6.3)

Y directrix Parabola with axis parallel to the

X-axis and opening to the right

O X
L
A P(x, y)

vertex,
V(h, k)
focus,
F

axis of parabola

latus rectum, |AB|

Fig. 6.5

6.3 General Equation of a Parabola

a. The general equation of a parabola, a special case of the

general equation of the second degree (equation 7.6) which
40 PLANE ANALYTIC GEOMETRY

contains no product term (or the xy-term) and only one of

the two squared terms, is written as:

If axis is parallel to the X-axis,

Cy 2 Dx Ey F 0 C 0 (6.4)

or alternatively (after dividing through by the constant of

the squared term, C),

y2 Gx Hy I 0 G 0 (6.5)

If axis is parallel to the Y-axis,

Ax 2 Dx Ey F 0 A 0 (6.6)

or alternatively (after dividing through by A),

x2 Gx Hy I 0 H 0 (6.7)

6.4 Standard Equation of a Parabola

a. The standard equation of a parabola with vertex at V(h, k)

and focal length FV a , is:

If axis is parallel to the X-axis,

2 (6.8)
y k 4a x h

where the right side takes the positive sign if the

parabola opens to the right, and negative if it opens to
the left.
 SPECIAL QUADRATIC EQUATIONS. CONIC SECTIONS 41
If axis is parallel to the Y-axis,

2
x h 4a y k (6.9)

where the sign of the right side is positive if the parabola

opens upward, and negative if it opens downward.

b. For a parabola with vertex at the origin, the standard

equation becomes:

If axis is parallel to the X-axis,

y2 4ax (6.10)

If axis is parallel to the Y-axis,

x2 4ay (6.11)

c. To reduce the general equation of a parabola to the

standard form,

Write the general equation in the alternative forms

(equations 6.5 and 6.7).
Transpose the constant term to the right.
Complete the square in either y or x.

6.5 Ellipses

a. An ellipse (eccentricity e< 1) is the locus of a point that

moves such that the sum of its distances from the two foci
(plural of focus), is a constant. That is, from Fig. 6.6,

PF1 PF2 s (6.12)

where s is a constant.
42 PLANE ANALYTIC GEOMETRY

axis of the ellipse

Y Ellipse with horizontal major axis
(or principal axis)
W1 P(x, y)
minor axis, |W1W2| L1 R1
b
vertex, vertex
D1 V1 center, C(h, k) V2 D2
focus, F1 focus, F2

major axis, |V1V2|

latera recta, |L1L2| and |R1R2|

a a

directrices
X
O
Fig. 6.6

An ellipse is a closed curve with center at a point on the axis

and midway between the foci or between the vertices of the
ellipse. The major axis is a segment on the axis bounded by
the vertices. Its length is equal to the constant sum s in
equation 6.12, or

V1 V2 2a s (6.13)

where a is the length of the semi-major axis. The minor

axis is a segment on the line through the center and
perpendicular to the major axis, bounded by the points of
intersection of this line with the ellipse. Its length is,

W1 W2 2b (6.14)

where b is the length of the semi-minor axis, and is always

less than the length a of the semi-major axis.

b. The length of each latera recta (plural of latus rectum) is,

2b 2 (6.15)
L 1L 2 R 1R 2
a
 SPECIAL QUADRATIC EQUATIONS. CONIC SECTIONS 43
The distance from the center to each directrix is,

a
CD 1 CD 2 (6.16)
e

The distance from the center to each focus is,

CF1 CF2 ae (6.17)

The distance from a focus to one end of the minor axis is,

F1 W1 F1 W2 F2 W1 F2 W2 a (6.18)

6.6 General Equation of an Ellipse

a. The general equation of an ellipse is another special case of

the general equation of the second degree, containing no
product term and B = 0, having the form,

Ax2 Cy2 Dx Ey F 0 A C, A C A C (6.19)

where A C A C means that A and C should have the

same sign. If A = C, the equation becomes the general
equation of a circle.

6.7 Standard Equation of an Ellipse

a. The standard equation of an ellipse with center at C(h, k),

length of semi-major axis a, and length of semi-minor axis b,
is:

For horizontal major axis,

2 2
x h y k (6.20)
1 a b
a2 b2
44 PLANE ANALYTIC GEOMETRY

For vertical major axis,

2 2
y k x h (6.21)
1 a b
a2 b2

b. If the center of the ellipse is at the origin, the standard

equation becomes:

For horizontal major axis (or axis coincident with the

X-axis),

x2 y2
1 a b (6.22)
a2 b2

For vertical major axis (or axis coincident with the Y-

axis),

y2 x2 (6.23)
1 a b
a2 b2

c. To reduce the general equation of an ellipse to the standard

form,

Transpose the constant term to the right.

Complete the squares in x and y.

6.8 Hyperbolas

a. A hyperbola (eccentricity e > 1) is the locus of a point that

moves such that the absolute value of the difference of its
distances from two foci is a constant. That is, from Fig. 6.7,

PF2 PF1 d (6.24)

where d is a constant.
SPECIAL QUADRATIC EQUATIONS. CONIC SECTIONS 45
Hyperbola with horizontal latera recta, |L1L2| and |R1R2|
tranverse axis
a a
Y
L1 R1

W1

X
O axis of
b hyperbola (or
focus vertex center vertex focus principal axis)
F1 V1 C(h, k) V2 F2
D1 D2
transverse axis, |V1V2|
b

P(x, y) conjugate axis, |W1W2|

W2

L2 R2
directrices

asymptotes

Fig. 6.7

A hyperbola is a curve consisting of two open branches with

center also midway between the foci or the vertices of the
hyperbola. The transverse axis is a segment of the axis of
the hyperbola, bounded by the vertices (analogous to the
major axis of an ellipse), with length equal to the constant
difference in equation 6.24, or

V1 V2 2a d (6.25)

where a is the length of the semi-transverse axis. The

conjugate axis is a segment on the line through the center
and perpendicular to the transverse axis, bounded by the
points of intersection of this line with the segments of the
same length and parallel to the transverse axis having
endpoints on each asymptote of the hyperbola. The length of
the conjugate axis is,

W1 W2 2b (6.26)

where b is the length of the semi-conjugate axis and may

be greater than, equal to, or less than that of the transverse