2
Limits
2.1 The Idea of Limits
2.2 Definitions of Limits
2.3 Techniques for Computing
Limits
2.4 Infinite Limits
2.5 Limits at Infinity
2.6 Continuity
2.7 Precise Definitions of Limits
"'"'
2.1 The Idea of Limits
Chapter Preview All of calculus is based on the idea of a limit. Not only
are limits important in their own right, but they underlie the two fundamental operations
of calculus: differentiation (calculating derivatives) and integration (evaluating integrals).
Derivatives enable us to talk about the instantaneous rate of change of a function, which,
in turn, leads to concepts such as velocity and acceleration, population growth rates, mar-
ginal cost, and flow rates. Integrals enable us to compute areas under curves, surface
areas, and volumes. Because of the incredible reach of this single idea, it is essential to
develop a solid understanding of l imits. We first present limits intuitively by showing
how they arise in computing instantaneous velocities and finding slopes of tangent lines.
As the chapter progresses, we build more rigor into the definition of the limit, and we
examine the different ways in which limits exist or fai l to exist. The chapter concludes by
introducing the important property called continuity and by giving the fotmal definition of
a limit. By the end of the chapter, you will be ready to use limits when needed throughout
the remainder of the book.
This brief opening section illusu-ates how limits arise in two seemingly unrelated prob-
lems: finding the instantaneous velocity of a moving object and finding the slope of a line
tangent to a curve. These two problems provide important insights into limits, and they
reappear in various forms throughout the book.
Average Velocity
Suppose you want to calculate your average velocity as you travel along a straight highway.
If you pass milepost I 00 at noon and milepost 130 at 12:30 p.m., you travel 30 mi in a half-
hour, so your a verage velocity over this time interval is (30 mi) / (0.5 hr) = 60 mi/ hr.
By contrast, even though your average velocity may be 60 mi / hr, it's almost certain that
your instanta neous velocity, the speed indicated by the speedometer, varies from one
moment to the next.
EXAMPLE 1 Aver age velocity A rock is launched vertically upward from the ground
with a speed of 96 ft j s. Neglecting air resistance, a well-known formula from physics
states that the position of the rock after t seconds is given by the function
s(1) = -161 2 + 961.
37
38 CHAPTER 2 L IMITS

The position s is measured in feet with s = 0 corresponding to the ground. Find the
average velocity of the rock between each pair of times.
a. t = I s and t = 3s b. t = 1 s and t = 2 s
SOLUTION Figure 2. 1 shows the position of the rock on the time interval 0 =::; t =::; 3.
s s(t) = - 16t2 + 961 a. The average velocity of the rock over any time interval [t0, t 1] is the
(3, s(3)) change in position divided by the elapsed time:
s(3) = 144ft ... - 144
s(t1) - s(to)
2 s(2) = 128ft
'-'
-128
Vav =
"0
c
ec.o" s( l)= 80ft - - 80 - --
Therefore. the average velocity over the interval ( I, 3) is
5!
~ Vv = s(3) - s( L) = 144 ft - 80ft = 64ft= 32 ft/s.
i'i a 3-1 3 s - ls 2s
.,
.!:9
:c Here is an important observation: As shown in Figure 2.2a, the average
velocity is simply the slope of the line joining the points ( l , s( 1)) and
0 2 3 (3, s(3) ) on the graph of the position function.
Time (s)
FIGURE 2.1 b. The average velocity of the rock over the interval [ I, 2) is

Vav = s(2) - s( l ) = 128ft - 80ft= 48ft = 48 ft js.

2 - 1 2 s- l s Is
Again, the average velocity is the slope of the line joining the points ( 1, s( 1)) and
(2, s(2)) on the graph of the position function (Figure 2.2b).

~pc=~ = 32fj ~e - ~ =48ftlsl

s s

144

' Change in pos itionl ~1 28

= s(3) - s(! ) s
(I' 80) : L=....64 ft _ ____,
.__ __ .,.,,
_ _ _ _ _ ___ _j _ _ __,_ "e
.,c.o>
..8
80

"'

0 2 3 0 2 3
l ime (s) Tune (s)
FIGURE 2.2 (a) (b)
Refared Exercises 7-14..._

QUICK CHECK 1 In Example 1, what is the average veloc ity between t = 2 and t = 3?

See Section 1. 1 for a discussion of secant A line joining two points on a curve is called a secant line. The slope of the secant
lines. line, denoted msec for the position function in Example 1 on the interval [ t0, t 1] is
s(r 1) - s(t0 )
msec =
,, -to
 2.1 Theldea of Limits 39

Example l demonstrates that the average velocity is the slope of a secant line on the graph
of the position function; that is, Vav =
m 5C(: (Figure 2.3).

Instantaneous Velocity
To compute the average velocity, we use the position of the object at two distinct points
in time. How do we compute the instantaneous velocity at a single point in time? As
illustrated in Example 2, the instantaneous velocity at a point t = to is determined by com-
d
puting average velocities over intervals [ t0 , t that decrease in length. As t 1 approaches
t0 , the average velocities typically approach a unique number, which is the instantaneous
' - - - - - ; Change in time velocity. This single number is called a limit.
I = 11 - 1o
---r~---+--~
0 1 1
o 1 EXAMPLE 2 Instantaneous velocity Estimate the instantaneous velocity of the rock
lime (s) in Example l at the single point t = 1.
FIGURE 2 .3
SOLUTION We are interested in the instantaneous velocity at t = l, so we compute the
average velocity over smaller and smaller time intervals [ 1, 1] using the formula
Table 2.1
s(t)- s(l)
Time Average Vav = 1- 1
interval velocity
Notice that these average velocities are also slopes of secant lines, several of which
[ 1, 2] 48ft/ s
are shown in Table 2. 1. We see that as t approaches l, the average velocities appear to
[ 1, 1.5] 56 ft/ s
approach 64 ft j s. In fact, we could make the average velocity as close to 64 ft/ s as we
[l, 1.1] 62.4ft/ s
like by taking 1 sufficiently close to 1. Therefore, 64 ft/ s is a reasonable estimate of the
(I. 1.0 I] 63.84 ft/ s
instantaneous velocity at t = 1.
( I, 1.001 ] 63.984 ft/ s
Related Exercises 15-20<11(
( I, 1.0001} 63.9984 ft/ s
In language to be introduced in Section 2.2, we say that the limit of vav as t
approaches 1 equals the instantaneous velociry vinst which is 64 ft j s. This statement is
The same instantaneous velocity is wriuen compactly as
obtained as 1 approaches I from the left
. . s(t)-s(l)
(with 1 < I) and as 1 approaches I from vinst = hm v1 ,. = lim = 64 ftj s.
the right (with 1 > I). r-.1 1-+! 1- 1

Figure 2.4 gives a graphical illustration of this limit.

0 2

Position of rock
t at various times )

I= v = s(2)- s( l) = 128- 80 = 48 ftls

k
128ft- 1 2 sec av 2- I I

108ft- 1 = 1.5 sec v., = s(lj~g =~( I) = 108 ~}0 = 56 ftls

86 24 80
86.24 fit - t = 1.1 sec
av
= s(l.l) - s(l) =
1.1 - I
-
0.1
= 62 4 ft/s
;
80ft-1=1sec
~----- - -
l ~se intervals shrink ...
vins = 64 ftls
1 1 = 0 (rock thrown at 96 ftls)
... the average velocities approach 64 ftls-
the instantaneous velocity at 1 = 1.

FIGURE 2.4
40 CHAPTER 2 LIMITS

Slope of the Tangent Line

We defi ne tangem Lines carefully in
Section 3. 1. For the moment, imagine
zooming in on a poinl P on a smooth
curve. A s you zoom in. the curve appears
more and more like a line passing
through P. Th is line is the tangemline
atP.
y
Several important conclusions follow from Examples I and 2. Each average velocity in
Table 2. 1 corresponds to the slope of a secant line on the graph of the position function
(Figure 2.5) . Just as the average velocities approach a limit as t approaches 1, the slopes of
the secant lines approach the same limit as r approaches I. Specifically, as 1 approaches I ,
two things happen:
1. The secant lines approach a unique line called the tangent line.
2. The slopes of the secant lines msec approach the slope of the tangent line m130 at the

p
---- point ( 1, s( I) ). Thus, the slope of the tangent line is also expressed as a limit:

m1an =
.
hm msec
t --> 1
=
. s(t) - s( l )
hm
,_, t - I
= 64.

Th is limit is the same limit that defines the instantaneous velocity. Therefore, the
instantaneous velocity at t = 1 is the slope of the line tangent to the position curve at t = 1.

r--
1 ~~~~~s of the secanl lines approach J
s ~of the tangemline. Ill< = 62.4
~ -- Ill""= 56
The secant Iines approach Ill =48
"c ~angent line.
i5 128
~
~ 108
..8
'"
1:: 80
ell
o;
:I:

0 0.5 I \1.1 1.5 2.0

Time (s)
FIGURE 2.5

QUICK CHECK 2 In Figure 2.5, is m 1an at t = 2 greater than or less than m1an at t = 1?

The parallels between average and instantaneous velocities, on one hand, and between
slopes of secant lines and tangent lines, on the other, illuminate the power behind the idea
of a limit. As t-+ I , slopes of secant Jines approach the slope of a tangent line. And as
t---+ J, average velocities approach an instantaneous velocity. Figure 2.6 summarizes these
two parallel Jjmit processes. These ideas lie at the foundation of what follows in the com-
ing chapters.
 2.1 The Idea of Limits 41

AVERAGE VELOCITY SECANT LINE

s(t) = -16? + 96r s(t) = -16? + 96t ( SkJpe of the sccantiine isl
Average velocity is the
change in position divided s I the change in s divided by I
by the change in time: J the change in r:
J2S - r=2s - - - 128 1 s(1 1)- s(lo) I
v = s(t 1) s(r0).
_~,_-_ro___,1
-
av r,- to l m..., =

80- t=ls -- -- so
111
sec
=I'
av
= 48

0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0

108 - e I = 1.5 S - - - 108

80-t=ls -- - - 80

/IIsee = ~'av = 56

As the time interval rp:; the interval on the

shrinks, the average t-axis shrinks, tbe slope of
0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 1 the secant line approacheJ
velocity approaches
the instantaneous tbe slope of the tangent
velocity at 1 = I. \ line through ( I. 80). _
s

86.24 _ 1 = 1.1 s _ _ __ _ 8~y___ ___

80- r = ls - - - - 80

/IIsee = "v = 62.4

0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0

INSTANTANEOUS VELOCITY TA 1GENT LINE

The instantaneous veloci ty s The slope of the tangent

at 1 = 1 is the limit of the line at (l, 80) is the limit
average velocities as 1 of the slopes of the secant
approaches I. lines as t approaches L.

80- t = Is - - - - 80 -------

= lim s(l) - s(l) = 64 ft/s m

tan
= lim s(t) - s(l) = 64
1- 1
vinsl , .. I I - I 1
_
1

0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0

Instantaneous velocity = 64 ft/s Slope of the tangent line = 64

FIGURE 2.6
 42 CHAPTER 2 Ll~UTS

SECTION 2.1 EXERCISES

Review Questions
1. Supposes(t) is the position of an object moving along a line at 12. Average velocity T he graph gives the position s(1) of an object
time 1 ~ 0. What is the average velocity between the times 1 a = moving along a line at time 1. over a 2.5-second interval. Find the
and 1 = b? average velocity of the object over the following intervals.
2. Suppose s(t) is the positi on of an object moving along a line a. [0.5, 2.5 ] b. [0.5, 2] c. [0.5, 1.5 ] d. [0.5, 1]
at time t ~ 0. Describe a process for finding the instantaneous
s
velocity at 1 = a. s(l)
ISO
136
3. Estimate the slope of the secant line between the points ( a.f( a))
114
and ( b,f( b)) on the graph off?
84
4. Describe a process for finding the slope of the line tangent to tbe
graph off at (a.f(a) ). 46

5. Descri be the parallels between find ing th e instantaneous velocity

of an object at a poi nt in time and finding the slope of the li ne tan- 0.5 1.5 2 2.5
gent to the graph of a function at a point on the graph.
13. Average velocity Consider the position functions( 1) = - 1612 + I OOt
6. Graph the parabola f(x ) = x . Explain why the secant lines
2 representing the position of an object moving along a line. Sketch
between the points (-a.j(-a)) and (a,J(a)) have zero slope. a graph of s with the secant line passing through (0.5. s(0.5)) and
What is the slope of the tangent line at x 0? = (2. s(2) ). Determine the slope of the secant line and explain its
relationship to the moving object.
Basic Skills 14. Aver age velocity Consider the position function s(r) = sin 7rt
7. Average velocity The function s( t) represents the position of an
representing the position of an object moving along a line on the
object at time 1 moving a long a line. Suppose s(2) = 136 and
end of a spring. Sketch a graph of s together with a secant line
s(3) = 156. Find the average velocity of the object over the inter-
passing through (0, s(O)) and (0.5, s(0.5) ). Determine the slope
val of time ( 2. 3 ).
of the secant line and explain its relationship to the moving object.
8. Average velocity The function s(t) represents the position of
15. lnstantancous velocity Consider the position function ~
an object at time 1 moving along a line. Supposes( 1) = 84 and
s( 4) = 144. Find the average velocity of the object over the inter-
s(t) =- 161 2 + 128t (Exercise 9). Complete the following table
with the appropriate average velocities. Then make a conjectu re
va l of time [I, 4 ).
about the value of rhe instantaneous velocity at t = 1.
9. Average velocity The position of an object moving along a line Time
is given by the function s(1) = - 16t2 + 1281. Find the average interval
[I. 2] [ 1, LS] [ J.J.l ] [ 1, 1.01 ] [ 1,1.001 ]
velocity of the object over the following intervals.
Average
a. [ I, 4 ) b. [ I, 3 ) velocity
c. [ 1,2] d. [ 1, 1 + h ],whereh > Oisareal number

10. Average velocity The position of an object moving along a line 16. Instantaneous velocity Consider the position function
is given by the function s(r) = - 4.91 2 + 30t + 20. Find the s(t) = -4.912 + 30t + 20 (Exercise 10). Complete the fo llowi ng
average velocity of the object over the following intervals. tab le with the appropriate average velocities. Then make a conjec-
a. [0, 3] b. (0, 2] rure about the value of the instantaneous velocity at t = 2.
c. [0, 1] d. [0. h], where h > 0 is a real number Time
interval
[2, 3] [2, 2.5 ] [2. 2.1 ] [2, 2.01 ] [2, 2.001 ]
11. Average velocity The tab le gives the position s(1) of an object
movi ng along a (jne at timet, over a two-second interval. Find the Average
average velocity of the object over the following intervals. velocity

a. [0, 2]
17. Instantaneous velocity The following table gives the position
b. [ 0, 1.5]
s(1) of an object moving along a line at time 1. Determine the
c. [0, I)
average velocities over the time intervals [ I. 1.0 I], [ 1. 1.00 I],
d. [ 0, 0.5]
and [ I, 1.000 I]. Then make a conjecture about the value of the
instantaneous velocity at t = 1.
t 0 0.5 I 1.5 2
t I 1.000 1 1.001 1.01
s(t ) 0 30 52 66 72
s(t) 64 64.00479984 64.047984 64.4784
 2.1 The Idea of Limits 43

,.- 18. Instantaneous velocity The following table g ives the position 29. Tangent lines with zero slope
s(t) of an object moving along a line at timet. Determine the a. Graph the function f(x) = x 2 - 4x + 3.
average velocities over the time intervals [2, 2.0 I], [ 2, 2.00 I], b. Identify the point (a,f( a)) at which the fu nction has a tangen t
and [ 2, 2.000 I). Then make a conjecture about the val ue of the line with zero slope .
instantaneous velocity at t = 2. c. Confirm your answer to part (b) by making a table of slopes
of secant Jines to approximate the slope of the tangent line at
t 2 2.0001 2.001 2.01 this point.
s(t) 56 55.99959984 55.995984 55.9584 30. Tangent lines with zero slope
a. Graph the function f(x) = 4 - x 2 .
19. Instantaneous velocity Consider the position function b. Identify the point ( a,f( a)) at which the fu nction has a tangent
s(t) = -16t2 + lOOt. Complete the following table with the line with zero slope.
appropriate average velocities. Then make a conjecture about
c. Consider the point (a.j(a)) found in part (b). Is it tnae that the
the value of the instantaneous velocity at t = 3.
secant line between (a- h,f(a - h)) and (a+ h,j(a +h))
has slope zero for any value of h ~ 0?
Time interval Average velocity
31. Zero velocity A projectile is fi red vertically upward and has a
[2,3 ] position given by s(t) = -16t 2 1 128t + 192, for 0 ~ t :S 9.
[2.9, 3] a. Graph the position function, for 0 ~ t :S 9.
b. From the graph of the position function, identify the time at
[2.99,3 )
wh ich the projectile has an instantaneous velocity of zero ; call
[ 2.999, 3 J this time t == a.
[2.9999, 3) c. Confum your answer to part (b) by making a table of average
velocities to approximate the instantaneous velocity at t = a.
d. For what values oft on the interval [ 0, 9 J is the instantaneous
20. Instantan eous velocity Consider the position function s( t) = 3 sin t
that describes a block bouncing vertically on a spring. Complete velocity positive (the projectile moves upward)?
the fo llowing table with the appropriate average velocities. Then e. For what values of 1 on the interval [ 0, 9] is the instantaneous
make a conjecture about the value of the instantaneous velocity at velocity negative (the projectile moves downwa rd)?
I= 7T j 2. 32. Impact speed A rock is dropped off the edge of a cliff and its
distances (in feet) from the top of the cliff after t seconds is
Time interval Average velocity s(t) = 16t2 Assume the distance from the top of the cliff to the
ground is 96 ft.
[TT/ 2. 7T ]
a. When wi ll the rock strike the ground?
( 7T / 2, 7T / 2+ 0. I ) b. Make a table of average velocities and approximate the veloc-
[7r/ 2,7T/ 2 + 0.01] ity at which the rock stri kes the ground.
[ 7T / 2, 7T / 2 + 0.001 ] 33. Slope of tangent line Given the function f(x) == 1 - cos A and
the points A ( 7T / 2./( 7T /2) ), B( 7T / 2 + 0.05,f(7T / 2 + 0.05) ),
[TT/ 2, TT/ 2 + 0.000 1] C(TT/ 2 + 0.5,j(TT/ 2 + 0.5)), and D(TT,j(TT)) (see figure), find
the slopes of the secant lines through A and D, A and C, and A
Further Explorations and B. Use your calculations to make a conjecture about the slope
21-24. Instantaneous velocity For the following posirionftmctions, of the line tangent to the graph off at x = 7T j 2.
make a table of merage velocities similar to those in Exercises 19- 20 and
make a conjecture about the instamaneous velocity at the indicated time.
21. s(r) = -16t 2 + 80t + 60 att =3
22. s(t) = 20 cost at/ = TT / 2
23. s(t) = 40 sin 2r att =0
24. s(t) = 20/ (t + I) at t =0
25-28. Slopes of tan gent lines For the followingfimctions, make a
table of slopes of secant lines and make a conjecwre about the slope of
the tangent line at the indicated point.

25. f(x) = 2x 2 =2
atx
26. f(x) = 3 cosx at x = TT/ 2 QUICK CHECK ANSWERS
27. f(x) = l / (1 + x 2 ) at x = - 1 1. 16ftj s. 2. Less th an .
28. f(x) = x 3 - x at x = I