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Flight Controls
Introduction
This chapter focuses on the ight control systems a pilot uses
to control the forces of ight, and the aircrafts direction and
attitude. It should be noted that ight control systems and
characteristics can vary greatly depending on the type of
aircraft own. The most basic ight control system designs
are mechanical and date back to early aircraft. They operate
with a collection of mechanical parts such as rods, cables,
pulleys, and sometimes chains to transmit the forces of the
ight deck controls to the control surfaces. Mechanical ight
control systems are still used today in small general and
sport category aircraft where the aerodynamic forces are not
excessive. [Figure 5-1]
5-1
of this project is to develop an adaptive neural network-based
Control stick ight control system. Applied directly to ight control system
Elevator feedback errors, IFCS provides adjustments to improve
aircraft performance in normal ight as well as with system
Pulleys failures. With IFCS, a pilot is able to maintain control and
safely land an aircraft that has suffered a failure to a control
surface or damage to the airframe. It also improves mission
capability, increases the reliability and safety of ight, and
eases the pilot workload.
Cy
clic clic
Cy
Neutral
e
Control stick (AFTNose up) ectiv
Coll
LEGEND
Hydraulic pressure
Hydraulic return
Pivot point
Anti-torque pedals Collective lever
Elevator (UP) Control valves Control cables
Neutral
For additional information on ight control systems, refer
to the appropriate handbook for information related to the
Power disconnect linkage Neutral Power cylinder ight control systems and characteristics of specic types
of aircraft.
Figure 5-2. Hydromechanical flight control system.
Flight Control Systems
As aircraft became more sophisticated, the control surfaces Flight Controls
were actuated by electric motors, digital computers, or ber Aircraft flight control systems consist of primary and
optic cables. Called y-by-wire, this ight control system secondary systems. The ailerons, elevator (or stabilator), and
replaces the physical connection between pilot controls and rudder constitute the primary control system and are required to
the ight control surfaces with an electrical interface. In control an aircraft safely during ight. Wing aps, leading edge
addition, in some large and fast aircraft, controls are boosted devices, spoilers, and trim systems constitute the secondary
by hydraulically or electrically actuated systems. In both control system and improve the performance characteristics of
the y-by-wire and boosted controls, the feel of the control the airplane or relieve the pilot of excessive control forces.
reaction is fed back to the pilot by simulated means.
Primary Flight Controls
Current research at the National Aeronautics and Space Aircraft control systems are carefully designed to provide
Administration (NASA) Dryden Flight Research Center adequate responsiveness to control inputs while allowing a
involves Intelligent Flight Control Systems (IFCS). The goal
5-2
natural feel. At low airspeeds, the controls usually feel soft Ailerons
and sluggish, and the aircraft responds slowly to control Ailerons control roll about the longitudinal axis. The ailerons
applications. At higher airspeeds, the controls become are attached to the outboard trailing edge of each wing and
increasingly rm and aircraft response is more rapid. move in the opposite direction from each other. Ailerons are
connected by cables, bellcranks, pulleys and/or push-pull tubes
Movement of any of the three primary ight control surfaces to a control wheel or control stick.
(ailerons, elevator or stabilator, or rudder), changes the airow
and pressure distribution over and around the airfoil. These Moving the control wheel or control stick to the right causes
changes affect the lift and drag produced by the airfoil/control the right aileron to deect upward and the left aileron to deect
surface combination, and allow a pilot to control the aircraft downward. The upward deection of the right aileron decreases
about its three axes of rotation. the camber resulting in decreased lift on the right wing. The
corresponding downward deection of the left aileron increases
Design features limit the amount of deection of ight control the camber resulting in increased lift on the left wing. Thus,
surfaces. For example, control-stop mechanisms may be the increased lift on the left wing and the decreased lift on the
incorporated into the ight control linkages, or movement right wing causes the airplane to roll to the right.
of the control column and/or rudder pedals may be limited.
The purpose of these design limits is to prevent the pilot from Adverse Yaw
inadvertently overcontrolling and overstressing the aircraft Since the downward deected aileron produces more lift as
during normal maneuvers. evidenced by the wing raising, it also produces more drag. This
added drag causes the wing to slow down slightly. This results
A properly designed airplane is stable and easily controlled in the aircraft yawing toward the wing which had experienced
during normal maneuvering. Control surface inputs cause an increase in lift (and drag). From the pilots perspective, the
movement about the three axes of rotation. The types of yaw is opposite the direction of the bank. The adverse yaw
stability an airplane exhibits also relate to the three axes of is a result of differential drag and the slight difference in the
rotation. [Figure 5-4] velocity of the left and right wings. [Figure 5-5]
El RudderYaw
ev
at
La or Vertical axis
(lo tera Pit
Lift
(directional
sta gi ax ch
n l stability)
bil tud is Roll
ity ina on Drag
) l Ailer al
itudin
Long(lateral
axis ity)
stabil
A
Lift
g
Dra
dv
e r s e yaw
Primary
Control Airplane Axes of Type of Figure 5-5. Adverse yaw is caused by higher drag on the outside
Surface Movement Rotation Stability
wing,
Figurewhich
5-2. is producing
Adverse yaw ismore lift.by higher drag on the outside
caused
Aileron Roll Longitudinal Lateral wing, which is producing more lift.
Elevator/ Adverse yaw becomes more pronounced at low airspeeds.
Pitch Lateral Longitudinal
Stabilator At these slower airspeeds aerodynamic pressure on control
Rudder Yaw Vertical Directional surfaces are low and larger control inputs are required to
effectively maneuver the airplane. As a result, the increase in
Figure 5-1. Airplane controls, movement, axes of rotation, and aileron deection causes an increase in adverse yaw. The yaw
Figure 5-4. Airplane controls, movement, axes of rotation, and
type of stability. is especially evident in aircraft with long wing spans.
type of stability.
5-3
Application of rudder is used to counteract adverse yaw. The
amount of rudder control required is greatest at low airspeeds,
Aileron deflected up
high angles of attack, and with large aileron deections. Like
all control surfaces at lower airspeeds, the vertical stabilizer/
rudder becomes less effective, and magnies the control
problems associated with adverse yaw.
Differential aileron
Differential Ailerons
With differential ailerons, one aileron is raised a greater
distance than the other aileron is lowered for a given
movement of the control wheel or control stick. This produces Figure ailerons.
Figure 5-7. Frise-type 5-4. Frise-type ailerons.
an increase in drag on the descending wing. The greater drag
results from deecting the up aileron on the descending wing angles of attack. Frise-type ailerons may also be designed
to a greater angle than the down aileron on the rising wing. to function differentially. Like the differential aileron, the
While adverse yaw is reduced, it is not eliminated completely. frise-type aileron does not eliminate adverse yaw entirely.
[Figure 5-6] Coordinated rudder application is still needed wherever
ailerons are applied.
Frise-Type Ailerons
With a frise-type aileron, when pressure is applied to the Coupled Ailerons and Rudder
control wheel or control stick, the aileron that is being raised Coupled ailerons and rudder are linked controls. This is
pivots on an offset hinge. This projects the leading edge of accomplished with rudder-aileron interconnect springs, which
the aileron into the airow and creates drag. It helps equalize help correct for aileron drag by automatically deecting
the drag created by the lowered aileron on the opposite wing the rudder at the same time the ailerons are deected. For
and reduces adverse yaw. [Figure 5-7] example, when the control wheel or control stick is moved
to produce a left roll, the interconnect cable and spring pulls
The frise-type aileron also forms a slot so air ows smoothly forward on the left rudder pedal just enough to prevent the
over the lowered aileron, making it more effective at high nose of the aircraft from yawing to the right. The force applied
5-4
Rudder deflects with ailerons
Figure 5-8. Coupled ailerons and rudder. As mentioned earlier in the coverage on stability, power,
Figure 5-5. Coupled ailerons and rudder.
to the rudder by the springs can be overridden if it becomes thrustline, and the position of the horizontal tail surfaces
necessary to slip the aircraft. [Figure 5-8] on the empennage are factors in elevator effectiveness
controlling pitch. For example, the horizontal tail surfaces
Flaperons may be attached near the lower part of the vertical stabilizer,
at the midpoint, or at the high point, as in the T-tail design.
Flaperons combine both aspects of aps and ailerons. In
addition to controlling the bank angle of an aircraft like
conventional ailerons, aperons can be lowered together
to function much the same as a dedicated set of aps. The
pilot retains separate controls for ailerons and aps. A mixer
is used to combine the separate pilot inputs into this single Control column
Aft
Tail down
set of control surfaces called aperons. Many designs that
Up elevator
Nose up
Elevator
Downward
The elevator controls pitch about the lateral axis. Like the aerodynamic force
ailerons on small aircraft, the elevator is connected to the
control column in the ight deck by a series of mechanical
linkages. Aft movement of the control column deects
the trailing edge of the elevator surface up. This is usually Figure5-10.
Figure elevator isisthe
5-6. The elevator theprimary
primarycontrol
controlfor
forchanging
changingthe
the
referred to as up elevator. [Figure 5-10] pitch attitude
pitch attitudeof
ofan
anairplane.
airplane.
5-5
T-Tail
In a T-tail conguration, the elevator is above most of the
effects of downwash from the propeller as well as airow
around the fuselage and/or wings during normal flight
conditions. Operation of the elevators in this undisturbed air
allows control movements that are consistent throughout most
ight regimes. T-tail designs have become popular on many CG
light and large aircraft, especially those with aft fuselage-
mounted engines because the T-tail conguration removes
the tail from the exhaust blast of the engines. Seaplanes and
amphibians often have T-tails in order to keep the horizontal
surfaces as far from the water as possible. An additional
benet is reduced vibration and noise inside the aircraft.
Since ight at a high AOA with a low airspeed and an aft Stabilator
CG position can be dangerous, many aircraft have systems As mentioned in Chapter 2, Aircraft Structure, a stabilator
to compensate for this situation. The systems range from is essentially a one-piece horizontal stabilizer that pivots
5-6
Antiservo tab
Down spring
Stabilator
Pivot points
Elevator Balance weight Pivot point
Bell crank
Figure
Figure5-13. The stabilator
5-9. One is a one-piece
piece horizontal horizontal
tail surface tail up
that pivots surface
and
that
down pivots
aboutupaand down
central about
hinge a central hinge point.
point.
Figure 5-12. When the aerodynamic efficiency of the horizontal
Figure 5-8. isWhen
tail surface the aerodynamic
inadequate efficiency
due to an aft of the horizontal
CG condition, an elevator design, and the other with a surface of the same approximate
tail
down surface
springis inadequate
may be useddue
to to an afta center
supply of gravity
mechanical loadcondition,
to lower size and airfoil of the aft-mounted wing known as a tandem
an elevator down spring may be used to supply a mechanical load
the nose. wing conguration. Theoretically, the canard is considered
to lower the nose. more efcient because using the horizontal surface to help
from a central hinge point. When the control column is lift the weight of the aircraft should result in less drag for a
pulled back, it raises the stabilators trailing edge, pulling given amount of lift.
the airplanes nose up. Pushing the control column forward
lowers the trailing edge of the stabilator and pitches the nose Rudder
of the airplane down.
The rudder controls movement of the aircraft about its vertical
axis. This motion is called yaw. Like the other primary control
Because stabilators pivot around a central hinge point, they
surfaces, the rudder is a movable surface hinged to a xed
are extremely sensitive to control inputs and aerodynamic
surface, in this case to the vertical stabilizer, or n. Moving
loads. Antiservo tabs are incorporated on the trailing edge to
the left or right rudder pedal controls the rudder.
decrease sensitivity. They deect in the same direction as the
stabilator. This results in an increase in the force required to
When the rudder is deected into the airow, a horizontal
move the stabilator, thus making it less prone to pilot-induced
force is exerted in the opposite direction. [Figure 5-15] By
overcontrolling. In addition, a balance weight is usually
pushing the left pedal, the rudder moves left. This alters the
incorporated in front of the main spar. The balance weight
airow around the vertical stabilizer/rudder, and creates a
may project into the empennage or may be incorporated on
the forward portion of the stabilator tips. [Figure 5-13]
Canard
The canard design utilizes the concept of two lifting surfaces,
the canard functioning as a horizontal stabilizer located in
front of the main wings. In effect, the canard is an airfoil
similar to the horizontal surface on a conventional aft-tail
design. The difference is that the canard actually creates lift
and holds the nose up, as opposed to the aft-tail design which
exerts downward force on the tail to prevent the nose from
rotating downward. [Figure 5-14]
newer aircraft. Canard designs include two typesone with a design, which provides longitudinal stability about the lateral
horizontal surface of about the same size as a normal aft-tail axis.
5-7
sideward lift that moves the tail to the right and yaws the nose When both rudder and elevator controls are moved by the
of the airplane to the left. Rudder effectiveness increases with pilot, a control mixing mechanism moves each surface the
speed; therefore, large deections at low speeds and small appropriate amount. The control system for the V-tail is
deections at high speeds may be required to provide the more complex than that required for a conventional tail. In
desired reaction. In propeller-driven aircraft, any slipstream addition, the V-tail design is more susceptible to Dutch roll
owing over the rudder increases its effectiveness. tendencies than a conventional tail, and total reduction in
drag is minimal.
Yaw
Secondary Flight Controls
Secondary ight control systems may consist of wing aps,
leading edge devices, spoilers, and trim systems.
Left rudder
Ae
rod The plain ap is the simplest of the four types. It increases
ynamic force
the airfoil camber, resulting in a signicant increase in the
coefcient of lift (CL) at a given AOA. At the same time,
Figure5-15.
Figure 5-11.The
Theeffect
effectofofleft
leftrudder
rudderpressure.
pressure.
it greatly increases drag and moves the center of pressure
(CP) aft on the airfoil, resulting in a nose-down pitching
V-Tail moment.
The V-tail design utilizes two slanted tail surfaces to perform
the same functions as the surfaces of a conventional elevator The split ap is deected from the lower surface of the airfoil
and rudder conguration. The xed surfaces act as both and produces a slightly greater increase in lift than the plain
horizontal and vertical stabilizers. [Figure 5-16] ap. More drag is created because of the turbulent air pattern
produced behind the airfoil. When fully extended, both plain
and split aps produce high drag with little additional lift.
5-8
Basic section Leading Edge Devices
High-lift devices also can be applied to the leading edge of
the airfoil. The most common types are xed slots, movable
slats, leading edge aps, and cuffs. [Figure 5-18]
Fixed slot
Plain flap
Movable slot
Split flap
Fowler flap
Fixed slots direct airow to the upper wing surface and delay
airow separation at higher angles of attack. The slot does
Figure 5-17. Five common types of flaps. not increase the wing camber, but allows a higher maximum
CL because the stall is delayed until the wing reaches a
Fowler aps are a type of slotted ap. This ap design not greater AOA.
only changes the camber of the wing, it also increases the
wing area. Instead of rotating down on a hinge, it slides Movable slats consist of leading edge segments, which move
backwards on tracks. In the rst portion of its extension, it on tracks. At low angles of attack, each slat is held ush
increases the drag very little, but increases the lift a great deal against the wings leading edge by the high pressure that forms
as it increases both the area and camber. As the extension at the wings leading edge. As the AOA increases, the high-
continues, the ap deects downward. During the last portion pressure area moves aft below the lower surface of the wing,
of its travel, the ap increases the drag with little additional allowing the slats to move forward. Some slats, however, are
increase in lift.
5-9
pilot operated and can be deployed at any AOA. Opening a
slat allows the air below the wing to ow over the wings
upper surface, delaying airow separation.
Leading edge cuffs, like leading edge aps and trailing edge
Figure 5-19. Spoilers reduce lift and increase drag during descent
aps are used to increase both CL-MAX and the camber of
and landing.
the wings. Unlike leading edge aps and trailing edge aps,
leading edge cuffs are xed aerodynamic devices. In most tabs, balance tabs, antiservo tabs, ground adjustable tabs, and
cases leading edge cuffs extend the leading edge down and an adjustable stabilizer.
forward. This causes the airow to attach better to the upper
surface of the wing at higher angles of attack, thus lowering Trim Tabs
an aircrafts stall speed. The xed nature of leading edge
The most common installation on small aircraft is a single
cuffs extracts a penalty in maximum cruise airspeed, but
trim tab attached to the trailing edge of the elevator. Most trim
recent advances in design and technology have reduced this
tabs are manually operated by a small, vertically mounted
penalty.
control wheel. However, a trim crank may be found in some
aircraft. The ight deck control includes a trim tab position
Spoilers
indicator. Placing the trim control in the full nose-down
Found on many gliders and some aircraft, high drag devices position moves the trim tab to its full up position. With
called spoilers are deployed from the wings to spoil the smooth the trim tab up and into the airstream, the airow over the
airow, reducing lift and increasing drag. On gliders, spoilers horizontal tail surface tends to force the trailing edge of the
are most often used to control rate of descent for accurate elevator down. This causes the tail of the airplane to move
landings. On other aircraft, spoilers are often used for roll up, and the nose to move down. [Figure 5-20]
control, an advantage of which is the elimination of adverse
yaw. To turn right, for example, the spoiler on the right wing If the trim tab is set to the full nose-up position, the tab moves
is raised, destroying some of the lift and creating more drag on to its full down position. In this case, the air owing under
the right. The right wing drops, and the aircraft banks and yaws the horizontal tail surface hits the tab and forces the trailing
to the right. Deploying spoilers on both wings at the same time edge of the elevator up, reducing the elevators AOA. This
allows the aircraft to descend without gaining speed. Spoilers causes the tail of the airplane to move down, and the nose
are also deployed to help reduce ground roll after landing. By to move up.
destroying lift, they transfer weight to the wheels, improving
braking effectiveness. [Figure 5-19] In spite of the opposing directional movement of the trim
tab and the elevator, control of trim is natural to a pilot. If
Trim Systems the pilot needs to exert constant back pressure on a control
Although an aircraft can be operated throughout a wide range column, the need for nose-up trim is indicated. The normal
of attitudes, airspeeds, and power settings, it can be designed trim procedure is to continue trimming until the aircraft is
to y hands-off within only a very limited combination of balanced and the nose-heavy condition is no longer apparent.
these variables. Trim systems are used to relieve the pilot of Pilots normally establish the desired power, pitch attitude,
the need to maintain constant pressure on the ight controls, and conguration rst, and then trim the aircraft to relieve
and usually consist of ight deck controls and small hinged control pressures that may exist for that ight condition.
devices attached to the trailing edge of one or more of the Any time power, pitch attitude, or conguration is changed,
primary ight control surfaces. Designed to help minimize expect that retrimming will be necessary to relieve the control
a pilots workload, trim systems aerodynamically assist pressures for the new ight condition.
movement and position of the ight control surface to which
they are attached. Common types of trim systems include trim
5-10
Nose-down trim stabilator moves up, the linkage forces the trailing edge of the
tab up. When the stabilator moves down, the tab also moves
down. Conversely, trim tabs on elevators move opposite of
Elevator
the control surface. [Figure 5-21]
Trim tab
Nose-up trim
Elevator Stabilator
Trim tab
Pivot point
Antiservo tab
Tab downelevator up
If the linkage between the balance tab and the xed surface is
adjustable from the ight deck, the tab acts as a combination
trim and balance tab that can be adjusted to any desired
deection.
Antiservo Tabs
Antiservo tabs work in the same manner as balance tabs
except, instead of moving in the opposite direction, they move
in the same direction as the trailing edge of the stabilator.
In addition to decreasing the sensitivity of the stabilator, an
antiservo tab also functions as a trim device to relieve control
pressure and maintain the stabilator in the desired position. Figure 5-22. A ground adjustable tab is used on the rudder of many
The xed end of the linkage is on the opposite side of the small airplanes to correct for a tendency to fly with the fuselage
surface from the horn on the tab; when the trailing edge of the slightly misaligned with the relative wind.
5-11
Adjustable Stabilizer
Rather than using a movable tab on the trailing edge of the
elevator, some aircraft have an adjustable stabilizer. With this
arrangement, linkages pivot the horizontal stabilizer about its
rear spar. This is accomplished by use of a jackscrew mounted
on the leading edge of the stabilator. [Figure 5-23]
Adjustable stabilizer
Nose down
Nose up Jackscrew
Pivot
Figure 5-24. Basic autopilot system integrated into the flight
control system.
Trim motor or trim cable The autopilot system also incorporates a disconnect safety
feature to disengage the system automatically or manually.
Figure
Figure 5-19.
5-23. Some
Some airplanes,
airplanes, including
including most
most jet transports,
jet transports, use an These autopilots work with inertial navigation systems,
use an adjustable
adjustable stabilizerstabilizer
to providetothe
provide the required
required pitch trimpitch trim
forces. global positioning systems (GPS), and ight computers to
forces.
control the aircraft. In y-by-wire systems, the autopilot is
On small aircraft, the jackscrew is cable operated with a trim an integrated component.
wheel or crank. On larger aircraft, it is motor driven. The
trimming effect and ight deck indications for an adjustable Additionally, autopilots can be manually overridden. Because
stabilizer are similar to those of a trim tab. autopilot systems differ widely in their operation, refer to the
autopilot operating instructions in the Airplane Flight Manual
Autopilot (AFM) or the Pilots Operating Handbook (POH).
Autopilot is an automatic ight control system that keeps an
Chapter Summary
aircraft in level ight or on a set course. It can be directed by
the pilot, or it may be coupled to a radio navigation signal. Because ight control systems and aerodynamic characteristics
Autopilot reduces the physical and mental demands on a pilot vary greatly between aircraft, it is essential that a pilot
and increases safety. The common features available on an become familiar with the primary and secondary flight
autopilot are altitude and heading hold. control systems of the aircraft being own. The primary
source of this information is the AFM or the POH. Various
The simplest systems use gyroscopic attitude indicators and manufacturer and owner group websites can also be a
magnetic compasses to control servos connected to the ight valuable source of additional information.
control system. [Figure 5-24] The number and location of
these servos depends on the complexity of the system. For
example, a single-axis autopilot controls the aircraft about the
longitudinal axis and a servo actuates the ailerons. A three-
axis autopilot controls the aircraft about the longitudinal,
lateral, and vertical axes. Three different servos actuate
ailerons, elevator, and rudder. More advanced systems often
include a vertical speed and/or indicated airspeed hold mode.
Advanced autopilot systems are coupled to navigational aids
through a ight director.
5-12