SF6 analysis for AIS, GIS and MTS

Condition Assessment

(Draft, 2012-04-1920)

By

CIGR WG B3-25 (AA2)

D Fuchsle, F Meyer, P Sieber, D Kopejtkova, R Kurte, L-

R Janicke, P Glaubitz, P Jannick, T Messinger, T Saida, I
Ring, G Moss, H Okuyama, G Cordioli, N Fujimoto, A
Bosma, G Jiroveanu, U Prucker, E Duggan, N Kane, D
Hongzhi, I Huet, S Northcote, E Dullni, D Mutter, M-C
Lessard

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Contents

1. Scope (eamonn) 7
2. Summary (eAmonn) 7
3. DefinitioNS (Eamonn) 7
3.1.1. Impurities..............................................................................................................7
3.1.2. Contaminants........................................................................................................7
3.1.3. Decomposition Products and By-products............................................................8
3.1.3.1. Decomposition Products.......................................................................................8
3.1.3.2. Decomposition By-products.................................................................................8
3.1.4. Concentration........................................................................................................8
3.1.5. Humidity...............................................................................................................8
3.1.6. Moisture................................................................................................................8
3.1.7. Dew Point and Frost Point....................................................................................8
4. Standards & Guidelines 9
4.1. IEC 60376 - New SF6 gas.....................................................................................9
4.2. IEC 60480 - Used SF6 gas..................................................................................10
4.3. CIGRE SF6 Recycling Guide.............................................................................10
5. origin and CONTROL of contaminants 12
5.1. External Contamination......................................................................................12
5.1.1. Gas Handling.......................................................................................................12
5.1.2. Humidity from Exposure to Air..........................................................................12
5.1.3. Moisture in Insulators.........................................................................................13
5.1.4. Moisture in Adsorber Material............................................................................13
5.1.5. Dust and Metal Particles.....................................................................................13
5.2. Internal contamination........................................................................................13
5.2.1. SF6 Decomposition Products from Electrical Discharges..................................14
5.2.1.1. Burst of Contaminants Produced during Switching Operation...................14
5.2.1.2. Continuous Stream of Contaminants Produced by Corona Discharge.......15
5.2.2. By-product Reactions..........................................................................................15
5.2.3. Detection of SOF2 and SO2................................................................................17
5.2.4. Detection of HF...................................................................................................17
5.2.5. Nozzle Wear and CF4.........................................................................................18
5.2.6. Metal Fluorides...................................................................................................18
5.2.7. Other Contaminants............................................................................................19
5.3. Control of contaminants......................................................................................19
6. Gas Measurement and Analysis 19
6.1. Equipment design impact....................................................................................19
6.1.1. Gas Insulated Switchgear....................................................................................19
6.1.2. Gas Insulated Transformers and Reactors...........................................................20
6.2. Purpose of gas analysis.......................................................................................20
6.2.1. Before Equipment Enters Service.......................................................................20
6.2.2. During Equipment Service..................................................................................20
6.2.2.1. Periodically (part of a maintenance regime).......................................................20
6.2.2.2. Fault Investigation (after an event).....................................................................21
6.2.3. Prior to Disposal of Equipment...........................................................................21
6.3. On-Site Measurement Procedures.......................................................................21
6.3.1. Safety Precautions...............................................................................................21
6.3.2. Measurement Procedure......................................................................................21
6.4. Most Appropriate on Site Measurements............................................................22

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6.4.1. Test Equipment Portable Analysers.................................................................23
6.4.2. Test Equipment - Detector Tubes........................................................................23
6.4.3. General Precaution..............................................................................................24
7. Gas Quality 24
7.1. Identification and Analysis of Abnormal Conditions - Switchgear....................24
7.1.1. Gas compartments not containing switching equipment....................................26
7.1.2. Gas compartments containing switching equipment..........................................26
7.2. Review of the normal levels of gas quality.........................................................26
7.3. Gas insulated transformers and reactors [DISCUSS THIS WITH TOSHI].......27
7.3.1. Identification of Abnormal Condition.................................................................27
8. Review of Utility Gas Sampling Practices 30
8.1. Feedback from utilities........................................................................................30
8.2. Results of CIGRE WG A3-06 HV equipment reliability international survey
[eamonn to review this section]..............................................................................................33
8.2.1. Introduction.........................................................................................................33
................................................................................SF6 quality diagnostics service experience
.................................................................................................................................................33
8.2.2.........................................................................................................................................33
8.2.3. HV equipment dielectric major failures..............................................................35
9. Case studies (Eamonn) 37
10. Conclusion (eamonn) 37
11. References 38
Appendices 39
A. Information to be given by the manufacturers to the users 40
B. equipment categorization 41
B.1. Static components without switching arcs..........................................................41
B.2. Switchgear with low energy arcs........................................................................41
B.3. Switchgear with high energy arcs.......................................................................41
B.4. Purpose of SF6....................................................................................................41
B.5. Loss of tightness..................................................................................................44
B.6. Electrical failures................................................................................................44
B.7. Specific Consideration - Switchgear...................................................................44
B.8. Components where no arc occurs during normal operation...............................44
B.9. GIS Busbars and Connecting Pieces...................................................................44
B.9.1. Function operation..............................................................................................44
B.10. SF6-Gas Isolated Instrument Transformers........................................................45
B.11. GIS Disconnectors..............................................................................................45
B.13. GIS Maintenance Earthing Switches..................................................................45
B.14. GIS Fast Acting Earthing Switches.....................................................................45
B.15. Disconnectors with bus-transfer switching functionality....................................46
B.16. Function operation..............................................................................................46
B.17. Materials used in circuit-breakers.......................................................................46
B.18. Service conditions...............................................................................................47
B.19. Maintenance practices.........................................................................................48
C. Gas Insulated Transformers and Reactors Construction 49
C.1. Introduction.........................................................................................................49
C.2. Structural feature of GIT.....................................................................................49
C.2.1. Insulating and cooling medium...........................................................................50
C.2.2. Gas pressure........................................................................................................50
C.2.3. Core.....................................................................................................................50

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C.2.4. Windings.............................................................................................................50
C.2.5. Conductor insulation...........................................................................................51
C.2.6. Conservator.........................................................................................................51
C.2.7. On load tap changer............................................................................................51
C.2.8. Cooler and gas blower.........................................................................................51
D. Gas Insulated Transformers and Reactors - Impurities 52
D.1. Introduction.........................................................................................................52
D.2. Definition of condition........................................................................................52
D.2.1. Caution level.......................................................................................................52
D.2.2. Abnormal level....................................................................................................52
D.2.3. Ratio of decomposition gas components in abnormal conditions.......................52
D.3. Diagnosis of (CO2/CO) concentration level.......................................................52
D.3.1. (CO2/CO) concentration level WITHOUT absorbers........................................52
D.3.2. Influence and correction of (CO2/CO) density WITH absorbers.......................53
D.3.3. Decomposed components from SF6 gas.............................................................53
D.3.4. Criteria - density of marker gases for SF6 decomposition analysis....................54
D.3.5. Conclusion..........................................................................................................55
E. Circuit-Breaker Design Principles 57
E.1. Circuit-breakers using compressing volumes (also called puffer-type)..........57
E.2. Circuit-breakers using compressing volumes with isolating nozzle design.......57
E.3. Circuit-breakers using compressing volumes with double nozzle design..........58
E.4. Circuit-breakers using heating volumes (also known as self-blast or arc-
assisted) 59
E.5. Switching duties of circuit-breakers...................................................................60
E.6. Capacitive current switching...............................................................................60
E.7. Inductive current switching.................................................................................60
E.8. Behaviour of circuit-breakers during breaking operations.................................61
E.9. DC by-pass switches...........................................................................................62
E.10. DC disconnector switches (Siemens designation).............................................63
E.11. DC commutation switches..................................................................................63
F. Instruments and measurement methodologies (Roland & Peter S, Peter J,
Isabelle) 64
F.1. On site measuring methods and devices.............................................................64
F.1.1. Measuring devices for decomposition products..................................................64
F.2. Moisture measuring devices................................................................................68
F.2.1. Dewpoint mirror (physical measurement principle)...........................................68
F.2.2. Electronic dewpoint hygrometer (capacitive).....................................................68
F.3. Measurement of SF6 content..............................................................................69
F.3.1. Measurement of the sound velocity....................................................................69
F.3.2. Thermal conductivity detector............................................................................69
F.4. Measurement of oxygen content.........................................................................70
F.4.1. Electrochemical-Oxygen Analyzer:....................................................................70
F.4.2. Paramagnetic Oxygen Analyzer..........................................................................71
F.4.3. Polarographic Oxygen Analyzer.........................................................................71
F.4.4. Coulometric Oxygen Sensor Type......................................................................72
F.4.5. Zirconium Oxide Oxygen Analyzer....................................................................72
F.4.6. Future Option......................................................................................................73
F.5. Multiple measuring devices................................................................................73
F.5.1. Gas Chromatograph............................................................................................73
F.6. Laboratory methods [All this is in iec 60480 Annex b]......................................73

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F.6.1. Gas Chromatography original text...................................................................77
F.6.2. Gas chromatography with thermal conductivity detector (GC-TCD)................78
F.6.3. Gas chromatography with flame ionization detector (GC-FID).........................78
F.7. Infrared Absorption (Peter J) all in IEC 60480...................................................78
F.8. Comparison of Methods......................................................................................78
F.9. SF6 Testing Laboratories (Sue)...........................................................................79
F.9.1. Confirming the Required Capability...................................................................80
F.10. Gas Sampling......................................................................................................80
F.11. Transferring Sample to the Instrument...............................................................80
F.12. Separation of Components..................................................................................80
F.13. Calibration...........................................................................................................81
F.14. Confirmation of Capability.................................................................................81
G. Gas Density Measurement 82
H. TRANSPORT AND KINECTICS --- EDGAR WILL ADD ONE COMMON
HEADLINE 91
H.1. Transport of by-products and decomposition products through SF6 gas...........91
H.2. Reaction kinetics of SF6 by-products on wall surfaces......................................92
H.3. Removal of by-products and moisture by molecular sieves...............................93
12. Introduction 3
12.1. Sulfur Hexafluoride...............................................................................................3
12.1.1. Environmental Impact of Sulfur Hexafluoride.....................................................3
12.2. Water.....................................................................................................................3
13. Water as a Contaminant in Sulfur Hexafluoride 4
14. Definitions 5
14.1. Moisture................................................................................................................5
14.2. Humidity...............................................................................................................5
14.3. Hygrometers..........................................................................................................6
14.4. Decomposition Products.......................................................................................6
14.5. Decomposition by-Products..................................................................................6
15. Moisture and Humidity Effects 6
15.1. Humidity in the Air...............................................................................................6
15.2. Effects of Moisture................................................................................................7
15.3. Effects of Humidity during Arcing/Interruption...................................................7
16. Hygrometers 7
16.1. Chilled Mirror Technology...................................................................................7
16.2. Capacitive Humidity Sensors..............................................................................10
16.2.1. Polymer...............................................................................................................10
16.2.2. Aluminum Oxide.................................................................................................11
17. Pressure and Temperature Influences 12
17.1. Pressure Dependence..........................................................................................12
17.2. Temperature Related Pressure Dependence........................................................12
17.3. Temperature Influence........................................................................................12
17.4. IEC SF6Pressure and Temperature Specifications...............................................13
17.5. Water Content in ppmw in various Gas Mixtures................................................13
18. Clarification of Units 14
18.1. Dew or Frost Point..............................................................................................14
18.2. Volume/Weight Ratio vs. Volume/Weight Fraction............................................14
19. Moisture Control15
19.1. Adsorbed and absorbed Moisture.......................................................................15
19.2. External Sources of Water...................................................................................16

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19.3. Compartment Evacuation and drying.................................................................16
19.4. Maintaining Gas Quality.....................................................................................16
20. Calculations & Conversions 17
20.1. Symbols, Units and Values..................................................................................17
20.2. Fundamental Formulas........................................................................................17
20.2.1. Saturation Vapor Pressure with respect to Water................................................17
20.2.2. Saturation Vapor Pressure with respect to Ice.....................................................18
20.2.3. Dew Point Temperature.......................................................................................18
20.2.4. Frost Point Temperature......................................................................................18
20.2.5. Relative Humidity (WMO definition).................................................................19
20.2.6. Relative Humidity (Technical Definition)..........................................................19
20.2.7. Volume Ratio, Parts per Million by Volume.......................................................19
20.2.8. Weight Ratio, Parts per Million by Weight.........................................................20
20.2.9. Volume Fraction, Parts per Million by Volume...................................................21
20.2.10. Weight Fraction, Parts per Million by Volume...................................................21
20.3. Humidity Conversions........................................................................................22
20.3.1. Converting between ppmvandppmw....................................................................22
20.3.2. Frost/Dew Point Pressure Correction..................................................................22
20.3.2.1. Convert Frost Point at Pressure p1 to the equivalent Frost Point at Pressure p2..22
20.3.2.2. Convert ppmv to frost point tf relative to pressure p...........................................23
20.3.2.3. Convert frost point tf relative to pressure p to equivalent ppmv..........................24
21. Tables 25

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1. SCOPE (EAMONN)

Due to an exceptional combination of physical and chemical properties, SF6 has become an
indispensable insulation material for electric power transmission and distribution equipment.
Its functional superiority has resulted in replacing older insulation and switching
technologies to a large extent. In particular, high voltage transmission circuit breakers and
gas insulated substations (GIS) are almost entirely based on SF6 as a switching and
insulation medium.

However in order to ensure that the equipment performs in accordance with its functional
purposes the quality of the gas must be maintained as impurities will negatively impact the
dielectric and arc quenching properties of the gas. It is well know that the gas contains
impurities with these impurities arising from different sources. They may be introduced at
the time of initially filling with gas, may be desorbed from the internal surfaces of the
equipment or may arise as a result of electric activity, either by partial discharges or arcs.
Therefore ensuring that the gas does not contain inappropriate levels of impurities is an
important consideration.

Furthermore it has long been suggested that from an understanding of SF6 decomposition
mechanism, an analysis of the decomposition products present and their respective quantities
(or their evolution over time) it should be possible to estimate the condition of the equipment
and in the case of circuit breakers, the residual life of the arcing/nozzle components. Armed
with this knowledge it should then be possible to judiciously plan maintenance work. This
brochure examines this hypothesis.

While the initial intent was to include gas mixtures, SF6/N2 and SF6/CF4, within the scope
of this work, it was subsequently rejected due to limited knowledge of the topic. However
the basic analysis processes outlined in this technical brochure are valid for the analysis if
gas mixtures. Notes :
The WG decided not to include gas mixtures into this document. The reason is that there is
not enough experience in this respect within WG members. However the basic principles
mentioned in the brochure are also valid for SF6 with N2 or CF4 mixtures.
CIGRE has already published TB on SF6 topics [x], [z], [y]

2. SUMMARY (EAMONN)

to be formulated at the end

3. DEFINITIONS (EAMONN)

3.1.1. Impurities
Small amounts of foreign substances in a technical grade gas originating from the gas
production process.

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3.1.2. Contaminants
Small amounts of foreign substances in a technical grade gas originating from the assembly
and operation of the equipment and from handling of the gas.
3.1.3. Decomposition products Products and By-products

3.1.3.1. Decomposition Products

Substances in a technical grade gas originating from the dissociation of the main gas giving
different fractions of the original gas molecule.

3.1.3.2. Decomposition By-products

Gaseous or solid substances originating from the reaction of decomposition products with
metal vapours or foreign gases.

In practice the terms decomposition products and by-products are used interchangeably.
3.1.4. Concentration
Amounts of substances in a gas measured either as volume or mass fraction of the main gas
and given in % (percent) or ppm (parts per million) related to volume (ppmv) or mass
(ppmw).
3.1.5. Humidity
Water vapour in gaseous form.
3.1.6. Moisture
Water on the surfaces or in the structure of solids.

3.1.7. Dew Point and Frost Point

The temperature at which the water vapour in the gas begins to condense in liquid form or
deposit in solid form. Historically these terms have been confused and are discussed in detail
in appendix Annex (XX).

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4. STANDARDS & GUIDELINES

4.1. IEC 60376 - NEW SF6 GAS

IEC 60376 - Specification of Technical Grade Sulphur Hexafluoride (SF6) for use in
Electrical Equipment defines the permitted levels of impurities for new gas [1]. The
following table is taken from that standard.

Table 54.1 Maximum acceptable impurity levels

Analytical methods (for indication

Content Specification Precision
only, not exhaustive)
Air 2 g/kg [note 1] Infrared absorption method 35 mg/kg

Gas-chromatographic method 3 10 mg/kg

Density method 10 mg/kg

CF4 2400 mg/kg [note 2]
Gas-chromatographic method 9 mg/kg

H2O 25 mg/kg [note 3] Gravimetric method 0,5 mg/kg [note 5]

Electrolytic method 2 15 mg/kg

Dew point method 1 C

Mineral oil 10 mg/kg Photometric method < 2 mg/kg

Gravimetric method 0,5 mg/kg [note 5]

Total acidity 1 mg/kg [note 4]
Titration 0,2 mg/kg
expressed in HF
NOTE 1 2g/kg is equivalent to 1 % vol under ambient conditions (100 kPa and 20 C).
NOTE 2 2400 mg/kg is equivalent to 4 000 l/l under ambient conditions (100 kPa and 20 C).
NOTE 3 25 mg/kg (25 mg/kg) is equivalent to 200 l/l and to a dew point of 36 C, measured at ambient
conditions (100 kPa and 20 C).
NOTE 4 1 mg/kg is equivalent to 7,3 l/l under ambient conditions (100 kPa and 20 C).
NOTE 5 Depending on the sample size.

Note : There is expected an issuing of IEC 60376 revision in 2015.

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4.2. IEC 60480 - USED SF6 GAS

IEC 60480 - Guidelines for the Checking and Treatment of Sulphur Hexafluoride (SF6)
taken from Electrical Equipment and Specification for its Re-use defines the maximum
impurity levels for reused gas [2]. The following table is taken from the standard.

Table 54.2 Maximum acceptable impurity levels

Maximum acceptable levels

Impurity Rated absolute pressure Rated absolute pressure

<200 kPa [note a] >200 kPa [note a]
Air and/or CF4
3 % volume [note b] 3 % volume [note b]

H2O
95 mg/kg [note c,d] 25 mg/kg [note d,e]

Mineral oil 10 mg/kg f

Total reactive gaseous
50 l/l total or 12 l/l for (SO2+SOF2) or 25 l/l HF
decomposition products
[note a] Within the complete range of re-use pressures, covering all possible applications (both HV and MV insulation
systems as well as all circuit-breakers), the low re-use pressure range p < 200 kPa has been defined to highlight low
pressure insulation systems (typically applied in MV distribution).
[note b] In the case of SF6 mixtures, the levels for these gases shall be specified by the equipment manufacturer.
[note c] 95 mg/kg (95 ppmw) is equivalent to 750 ppmv (750 l/l) and to a dew point of 23 C, measured at 100 kPa
and 20 C.
[note d] Converted to ppmv these levels shall also apply to mixtures until a suitable standard becomes available.
[note e] 25 mg/kg (25 ppmw) is equivalent to 200 ppmv (200 l/l) and to a dew point of 36 C, measured at 100 kPa
and 20 C.
[note f] If gas handling equipment (pump, compressor) containing oil is used, it may be necessary to measure the oil
content of the SF6. If all equipment in contact with the SF6 is oil-free, then it is not necessary to measure oil content.

Note : There is expected an issuing of IEC 60480 revision in 2015. This revision will also
cover gas mixtures.

4.3. CIGRE SF6 RECYCLING GUIDE

The CIGRE Brochure 234 SF6 Recycling Guide, Re-use of SF6 Gas in Electrical Power
Equipment and Final Disposal, provides guidance as to the levels of contaminants that can
be permitted in equipment in services without a reduction in performance [3]. The following
table is taken from the brochure.

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Table 8.14.3 SF6 contaminants; main origins, deteriorating effects, maximum tolerable
levels in equipment, proposed maximum tolerable impurity levels for reuse of reclaimed SF6
and practical impurity detection sensitivities.

Practical
Maximum tolerable Proposed maximum
impurity
Contaminant Main origin Deteriorating effects impurity levels in tolerable impurity
detection
equipment levels for reuse
sensitivity
Non-reactive gases: Reduction of
Air switching
Handling performance
3% vol 3% vol total < 1% vol
CF4 Reduction of
Switching insulation
performance
Reactive gases or
vapours:

SF4, WF6 Arcing Toxicity 100 ppmv

SOF4, SO2F2 Partial discharge Surface insulation

by corrosion 2000 ppmv ~ 10 ppmv
50 ppmv total 1)
Follow-up explain these total
SOF2, SO2, HF reactions two different
values
and of what? all
reactive gasses
together?
Sylvio
Moisture pH2O< 150 Pa (Td <
-15 C)
Surface insulation
Desorption from by liquid pH2O<400Pa 2) 750 ppmv for p < 200
< 10 Pa 4)
surfaces and condensation kPa 3)
polymers
200 ppmv for p < 850
kPa 3)
Oil Pumps,
lubrication, Surface insulation
bushings to oil by carbonisation not quantified 10 mg/m3, 5) < 1 mg/m3
insulated
equipment
Dust
Carbon Arcing, partial
discharges
Surface insulation Should be
Assembling, by conducting removed by dust
Not quantified
Dust/particles mechanical wear deposits, gas and filter of pore size
surface insulation < 1 m
Contact erosion
Switching dust: by arcing
CuF2, WOxFy,

1) or, equivalently, 12 ppmv SO2 + SOF2,.

2) Based on IEC 60694 and corresponding to a dew point of Td = -5oC.

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3) Within the complete range of reuse pressures p < 850 kPa, covering all possible
applications (both HV and MV insulation systems as well as all circuit breakers), the low
reuse pressure range p < 200 kPa has been defined to highlight low pressure insulation
systems (typically applied in MV distribution).
4) Corresponding to a dew point Td = 45 oC
5) Corresponding to 0.3 ppmw in pure SF6 at 500 kPa

5. ORIGIN AND CONTROL OF CONTAMINANTS

5.1. EXTERNAL CONTAMINATION

Contaminants, i.e. external foreign substances for instance water vapour, inof SF6 in
particular of water vapour can arise from several sources, namely:

Gas Handling,
Leakage,
Desorption from surfaces and bulk materials
Desorption from adsorbers
External substances permeation via sealing, flanges, enclosures, ...
Leakage of insulation medium from neighbour boundaries (e.g. oil from a bushing)

The levels at which these contaminants are present depend mainly on equipment design,
manufacturing, assembly, gas handling procedures, condition of insulators, gas sealings,
flanges, enclosures, boundaries, cleanliness of surfaces, and handling of adsorber materials.

The presence of water must be avoided as, if it condenses, it will form water droplets or film
on the surface of insulators or enclosure housing resulting in the deterioration of insulation
performance. It also reacts with F- and some decomposition by-products creating
hydrofluoric acid which is corrosive.

While these issues are considered in detail in CIGRE Bbrochure 234 [x], SF6 Recycling
Guide [3x] and IEC TR 62271-303 [x4], some additional comments are given below for
completeness.
5.1.1. Gas Handling [Eamonn to clean up English]
Improper gas handling can cause gas contamination.
Special attention shall be paid to :

the condition of any vacuum pump that includes oil. If the correctly maintained
conditions are not good the oil can penetrate into gas compartment,
the cleanness, dryness, evacuation and tightness of all interconnected pipes and
hoses.

In general, the all new gas bottles of gas shall have abe certificated quality or gas quality
analysis may shall be made on-site. Only Another possibility is to use approved gas handling
carts shall be used for gas filling and all gas line shall be filled with filters to prevent dust or
metallic particles entering the gas compartments..
To avoid penetration of metallic parts the filling valves (on the switchgear) may include
filters.

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5.1.2. Humidity from exposure Exposure to airAir
Water absorbed on the inner surface of a compartment opened to air for a longer time can
only be removed by evacuation and temporarily filling the gas compartment with dry
nitrogen N2 (< 20 ppmv H 2O). The pPossibility of removing water removal by heating up
the walls of the compartment during evacuation is not practical in the field. ThereforeE, the
evacuation times in hours are typical required in order to might have to be elongated to
achieveachieve a low residual pressure inside the compartment and removal of moisture.

Humidity from the ambient air could diffuse during service through organic seals such as
rubber rings and gaskets into the interior. When the rate of diffusion is known, the increase
of partial pressure of water vapour inside the compartment can be calculated as function of
time. Under normal conditions, this effect should not play a roleis negligible.

5.1.3. Moisture in insulatorsInsulators

Water contained in the bulk of insulators may amount to several 0.1% of the mass of the
insulator material depending on its condition. If released into the switchgear compartment, it
can easily amount to several 10 g of water increasing the dew point in a 1 m compartment
above the permitted level. Water in bulk material is difficult to remove before closure of the
compartment, as it diffuses very slowly from the inside interior of the material andto the
surface, where it desorbs into the gas volume. Even proper handling of these components
during manufacture and careful assembly of the equipment cannot prevent this effect. In
order to remove water vapour contained in insulating material, adsorber materials are placed
into the compartments.
5.1.4. Moisture in adsorber Adsorber materialMaterial
Commercial adsorber materials are e.g. molecular sieves type material or activated, alumina
etc. They are available in bags filled witheither pressed cylindrical or spherical pellets of
millimetre size, which are contained in a bag and are placed in every switchgear
compartment. The mass of the adsorber material is calculated by the switchgear
manufacturer based of the switchgear and depends on the amount of expected water
expected to be produced during the life of the equipment. Typically the weight of applied
adsorbers is in the order of 100 g to several kg.

These adsorber pellets are stored in sealed containers or bags before use, which prevent
humidity from the ambient air penetrating into the adsorber material, and they usually have
an expiration expiry dateperiod. If not done like thathandled correctly the adsorber pellets
would be alreadycan become saturated with water vapour and introduce humidity into the
instead of drying it compartment negating the desired effect. would contaminate the
switchgear compartment with water. When installingDuring an installation of new adsorber
bags into a compartment on site (after opening of an compartment), the adsorber bags should
only be taken out of their containers shortly before placement into the compartment.
Subsequent closure and evacuation of the compartment should be done without delay.
5.1.5. Dust and Metal Particles [Eamonn to clean up English]
External dust and metal particles originate either from poor manufacturing or from poor
erection quality. These contaminates may be detected during routine and on-site dielectric

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tests and if discovered shall be removed from the equipment before its
energizingenergization.

5.2. INTERNAL CONTAMINATION

Internal contaminants, i.e. substances generated during the equipment service, can arise from
several sources, namely:

Decomposition of SF6 by electrical discharges and reaction with contact materials,

Secondary reactions of decomposition products at surfaces, e.g. with moisture to give
a variety of by-products,
Mechanical abrasion from the operation of the electric device resulting in production
of dust and metal particles
Ablation of nozzles and contacts.

Decomposition products and by-products may be removed from the volume by appropriate
adsorber materials in the compartment or, some of them, by self-deposition on inner
surfaces.

5.2.1. SF6 Decomposition products Products from electrical Electrical

dischargesDischarges
During normal load or short-circuit current switching, SF6 molecules are ionized by the arc
and while the majority will recombine to form SF6 molecules a number of the disassociated
molecules with react with impurities in the gas to form decomposition products (see Annex
C for details, reference is worng.). Decomposition products also appear, when corona
activity takes place in a gas compartment. A number of radicals, Fluor ions, and neutral
molecules are created depending on the type of excitation and intensity of arc energy
according to [3, 51, 2]

SF6 SFx (6 x ) F
with 0 < x < 6

SF6 reacts decomposition products created in an arc will react with the materials of the
electrical contacts such as Aluminiumaluminium, Coppercopper, and Tungstentungsten. This
reaction generates solid or gaseous metal fluorides. In the presence of carbon, which may
originate from the nozzle material (PTFE), the stable and volatile CF 4 molecule is formed. At
the boundary of the discharge channel or latest after cessation of the arc, most of the atoms,
molecules and ions recombine to form neutral SF6. However, some radicals decomposition
products in particular SF4 are quite stable and eventually reach the walls of the container. SF 4
is very reactive and will create by-products in particular when reacting with water molecules.

5.2.1.1. Burst of contaminants Contaminants produced Produced during switching

Switching operationOperation
The total number of SF6 molecules decomposed and ionised during a switching operation is
proportional to the interrupted current and arcing time. From measurements, a relationship
between arc energy and the decomposition product SOF 2 was derived (see [5, 61, 5]). A
similar production rate can be estimated by simply assuming that all SF6 molecules in the arc
nozzle of a circuit-breaker are dissociated and leave the nozzle with the gas speed. Some

357490521.doc Page 14 of 144

fraction of the dissociated molecules is assumed to end up in decomposition products in
particular SF4, which is then transported through the gas volume and converted to other by-
products. The burst of molecules originating from a switching operation can be calculated
by:

N 0 N L r I U arc tarc n
(1)
Where:
NL number of molecules in one litre at 100 kPa and 21C i.e. 2.462 x 1022/l
r formation rate of decomposition products in relation to the arc energy given in [l/kJ]
I interrupted current in [kA]
Uarc arc voltage typically 200 V for medium voltage switchgear
tarc duration of arc, typically 0.015 s
n number of phases in the interrupter chamber

In IEC 62271-303, the production rate of the decomposition by-product SOF2 resulting
mainly from the SF4 radical - is given by 3.7 x 10-3 l/kJ [43]. Assuming one single phase
interruption at 31.5 kA and a corresponding arc energy of 95 kJ, this would provide a burst
of 0.35 litres of by-product gas or 8.5 x 10 21 molecules. Distributed into a circuit-breaker
volume of 0.3 m filled with 600 kPa of SF6, the concentration of contaminants would be
192 ppmv. For load current switching, the arc current is accordingly smaller, resulting in 2
orders of magnitude smaller bursts of decomposition products. These values can only give an
order of magnitude as explained below.

5.2.1.2. Continuous stream Stream of contaminants Contaminants produced

Produced by Corona dischargeDischarge
The decomposition products generated by a corona discharge are estimated from the corona
current:
I
S
e (2)
With the following parameters:
I Corona current, typically 10 A
e electron charge i.e. 1.6 x 10-19 As
multiplication factor for decomposition products (>1)

This would typicallttypically produce a flux of 6.25 x 10 13 s-1 of charged ions and an
equivalent flux of decomposition products, if =1. From experiments [51], a formation rate
of approximately 50 mole/C is derived with referencered to the emitted charges instead ofto
the discharge energy. This would result in a flux of decomposition products of 3 x 10 14 s-1
assuming a corona current of 10 A. This is consistent with the estimate according to
(Equation 2) proposing that one electron is able to create more than five SF 6 radicals and
associated decomposition products. Because of the high energy of the electrons, this is
reasonable. In a volume of 0.3 m filled with 4 bar of SF 6, a flux of 3 x 1014 s-1 continuing
over one week would give a concentration of 6 ppmv, if no by-products are absorbed and
removed from the volume by adsorber material.

357490521.doc Page 15 of 144

5.2.2. By-product reactionsReactions
The chance of recombination and reaction of SF 4 with H2O or O2 inside the gas volume is
very low, since both reaction partners are minor constituents of the gas and have to meet
each other under the right energy and impulse conservation conditions, which normally
require a third collision partner. Supposing that the main transport process inside the volume
is provided by convection and not by the much slower diffusion, SF 4 reaches the walls of the
container in a relatively short time (typically hours) so that the surface reaction starts fast
after the occurrence of an arc. At metallic walls, H 2O from condensed moisture is readily
available to react with impinging SF4. A lot of experiments recognize little change of by-
product reactions, when the humidity concentration is changed by even an order of
magnitude, which can be explained by the dominance of surface reactions [6, 74, 5]. It has to
be remarked that already 1 ppmv of humidity in a volume of 0.3 m filled at 600 kPa SF 6
contains sufficient water to cover a surface of 3 m by a monolayer of H2O molecules
(surface density for a monolayer is 1.5 x 1019/m). At insulators, oxygen is bound as metal
oxide.

Figure 5.1XX: Schematics of hot plasma reactions (left side) and cold wall reactions (right
side).

Surface reactions produce a variety of decomposition by-products. Figure [5.1x] depicts the
main reaction processes. SF4 as main decomposition product from the electric discharge first
reacts with H2O on the wall surface giving SOF2 and to a much smaller extent SOF4. This
process is called hydrolysis. The resulting HF mostly remains on the surface and rapidly
reacts with the metal oxides comprised in the surface material making it short lived as

357490521.doc Page 16 of 144

compared to other decomposition by-products. The metal fluorides stay as a powder or dust
on the surface. H2O is released in this reaction and therefore available for further reactions
with SF4 or for the much slower conversion of SOF 2 to SO2. Since in this process, H2O is in
fact not consumed, it plays the role of a catalyst [46].

The volume concentration of volatile by-products leaving the wall surface depends on
several processes, one of which is an effective mixing of filling gas and contaminants. The
probability of detection in dependence of the location of the detector and the time after
generation is determined by the following points, which will be discussed in more detail in
Annex B what is the correct reference, Annex H, Transport and Kenitics?:

Formation rate of by-products as function of the arc or discharge energy

Transport speed (diffusion or convection) of decomposition products in the SF6
volume from the arc or discharge location to the walls,
Gas mixing of by-products created at surfaces (diffusion or convection),
Reaction rate of decomposition products at wall surfaces
Absorption rate of by-products in adsorber materials depending on the properties and
the location of the adsorber material
5.2.3. Detection of SOF2 and SO2
The two by-products SOF2 and SO2 are the most abundant substances detected after electric
arcs, sparks or corona discharges. Because of the hydrolysis of SOF2, this gas is converted to
SO2 depending on the availability of water on surfaces and the reaction speed. Typical
reaction times are in the order of 10 to 100 days [56]. Therefore, it is recommended to detect
both substances and evaluate the total concentration [56].

SOF2 and SO2 are very rapidly adsorbed by adsorbents like Zeolite 13X. It was observed
that both substances disappeared within 48h from a small volume of a couple of litres [56],
whereas they stayed in the volume for more than 100 days, when no adsorber material was
present. Therefore, the detect ability of these by-products very much depends on the
presence of adsorbents and the time span between generation and measurement.
5.2.4. Detection of HF
The very reactive contaminant HF is produced in the hydrolytic reaction of SF4 with water
as well as in the subsequent decomposition of SOF2 with water giving SO2 as final stable
by-product. Water is a pre-requisite for this decomposition process, however, practically is
always available on the surfaces (see Clause 4.2.1.3 check reference). However, because of
the rapid reaction of HF with surface oxides like Al2O3, FeO or SiO2, HF is quickly
converted into a solid fluoride and therefore disappears from the volume.

In fact, HF is mainly observed in those cases, where a high concentration of SF4 itself is
detected e.g. shortly after a short-circuit interruption. High concentrations of SF4 (in the
range of 1000 ppmv and higher) may remain in a large compartment for several hours or
even days after a switching event. In-situ gas analysis done during this time, may detect HF
just produced by the hydrolytic reaction of SF4. When As the SF4 is eliminated, so also will
HF disappear.

The relative abundance of HF is difficult to determine, since the reaction speeds or rates of
the three decomposition substances of SF4 i.e. HF, SOF2 and SO2 are very dissimilar.

357490521.doc Page 17 of 144

Although the decomposition of each SF4 into SOF2 and HF should deliver 1 part of SOF2
and 2 parts of HF, the concentration of both parts in the gas will not obey a ration of 1:2.
Since the subsequent reaction of SOF2 with water into SO2 takes much longer than the
subsequent reaction of HF with metal oxides, SOF2 will accumulate in the volume whereas
HF will be diminished. Therefore, the concentration of SOF2 in the gas will be much higher
than that of HF. The amount of HF produced by the conversion of SOF2 into SO2 is even
lower, since the reaction speed of this process is low compared to that of SF4. Similar
reaction is expected for production of contaminants from corona and spark discharges.

One consequence of the high reactivity of HF is that when measuring decomposition

products, HF need not be considered, since it is normally removed from the gas by reaction
on surfaces.

5.2.5. Nozzle Wear and CF4

Most of the SF6 insulated circuit breakers and load switches use nozzles made of PTFE
(polytetrafluoroethylene) for current interruption or breaking. This material is known under
different brand names (e.g. Teflon or Hostaflon) and mainly composed by of the carbon
group [CF2-CF2]-. Its main decomposition product, when in contact with an SF 6 arc, is CF4
(see Ffigure in 5.14.2.2). These nozzles serve to shape the flow of hot arc plasma so as to
effectively cool the arc plasma at current-zero by heat removal and by substitution with cold
gas. With each current interruption ablation of nozzle material occurs with the result that
nozzle performance deteriorates over time. Therefore a method to indicate the degree of
nozzle wear is important. The detection of CF4 might be appropriate for this purpose.

In several publications [57, 68 references not correct] it was shown that the amount of CF4
is proportional to the arc energy. Absolute values, however, depend on the specific nozzle
geometry as well as on the design of the circuit-breaker. Adsorber material placed inside the
device seems not to effect the adsorption of CF4 no matter which adsorbent is used. The
molecular sieve 13X e.g. did not trap CF4 over a period of 47 days [58]. The detected CF4
levels are proportional to the accumulated arc energy. However, because of the dependence
on design, only the manufacturer is able to provide limit values indicating the wear of a
nozzle.

Values of 4378 and 7280 moles of CF4 have been measured after 97 respectively 156 kJ of
arc energy accumulated in a short time during interruption of currents up to 8.3 kA [57].
However, the corresponding formation rate of 45 nmoles/J varies with the interruption
current. This can be explained by the arc diameter in the nozzle increasing with current and
intensifying the contact with the nozzle material the higher the current is and makes it
difficult to provide an unambiguous limit value for CF4. as function of the arc energy. In
[68], concentrations of CF4 of between 300 and 700 ppmv have been detected after frequent
switching of air core reactor currents up to 3.6 kA with an increase to 2000 ppmv in one
phase after a failure.

Another difficulty arises considering the permissible contamination of new gas with CF 4.
According to IEC 60376 [x1], levels of up to 4000 l/l (2400 mg/kg or 830 ppmv at 100
kPa) are permissible, which are high enough to interfere with the CF 4 analysis. Also, CF4
might come from other organic parts inside the switchgear e.g. epoxy insulators after a
surface flashover.

357490521.doc Page 18 of 144

5.2.6. Metal Fluorides
Solid decomposition products (metal fluorides and oxyfluorides) are produced by the
interaction of an arc with the metal electrodes and will be deposited on the inner surfaces as
powder or dust. This white powder is especially obvious after an internal arc with which has
rootedfootpoints on aluminium bars. For spark and corona discharges, metal fluorides are
bharedly observed since the erosion of electrodes is a minor effect. For arcs, footpoints root
points always show heavy erosion with the surface temperature exceeding melting and even
evaporation temperature resulting in large amounts of evaporated material.

Metal fluorides can be formed on almost every electrode material giving AlF3 and CuF2.
Tungsten electrodes or CuW sinter materials produce the gaseous substance WF6, which
subsequently reacts with water on surfaces to produce WO3, which behaves like all other
metal oxides and stays as solid substance on the wall surfaces. The amount of metal fluoride
powder produced by an arc cannot be determined quantitatively, since it is deposited all over
the internal surfaces. For removal, the compartment has to be opened and partly
disassembled and all surfaces cleaned carefully. If not cleaned, powder can be abrased after
closure and dispersed as contaminant in the volume though it cannot be detected by gas
analysis.
5.2.7. Other Contaminants
Abnormal heating of polymeric materials like epoxy insulators or cellulose insulating
material used in instrument transformer windings may produce CO or CO 2. These substances
have been occasionally observed.

5.3. CONTROL OF CONTAMINANTS

An effective method for the control of contaminants is through the use of adsorber materials.
Molecular sieves or activated alumina contain a large surface of up to 600 m/g built from
pores and cavities inside the material. These internal cavities are linked with each other by
channels, the diameter of which is determined by the molecular structure of the adsorber.
The channel diameters are typically available in sizes such as 0.3, 0.4, 0.5 or 1 nm. This is
just sufficient to let all molecules with smaller diameter pass through the channels and be
trapped. Molecules with larger diameter are blocked. Adsorber materials with smaller
channels are generally used for removal of water, while those of larger diameter are effective
for the removal of decomposition by-products as well as water.

Provided the adsorber is not saturated by contaminants or water, it will continue to adsorb
contaminants. Normally the amount of the adsorber material is dimensioned in such a way
that saturation is not reached during the life of the equipment.

Adsorber materials are very effective in removing by-products from the volume. This,
coupled with limited information on the amount of by-products generated, means that the
evaluation of by-product concentration can only be qualitative. This is further explained in
Annex B. The omission of adsorbents, however, is not an alternative for switchgear, since
by-products may react with insulating surfaces and degrade their voltage withstand
capability [1]. Additional details on adsorbers are available in Annex K.

357490521.doc Page 19 of 144

6. GAS MEASUREMENT AND ANALYSIS

6.1. EQUIPMENT DESIGN IMPACT

The type and design of the equipment influences the creation and effects of decomposition
by-products, thus these factors must be considered in the analysis and interpretation of
results.

6.1.1. Gas Insulated Switchgear

In the case of SF6-insulated equipment, compartments can be grouped into three classes

Switchgear, with high energy arc (circuit breakers, load switchers)

Switchgear, with low energy arc (disconnectors and earthing switches)
Static components, without switching arcs (all other equipment not mentioned above)

Further details are available in Annexppendix B.

6.1.2. Gas Insulated Transformers and Reactors
While the use of SF6 in electrical switchgear is well known, it is increasingly utilized in
GITs and GIRs. The demand for GITs has been increasing rapidly, particularly in Japan,
Hong Kong and China, over the last couple of years with more than 10,000 units, up to 330
kV-400 MVA, currently in operation. The first GIT was installed in 1967 and the technology
is now considered mature and proven. Therefore the analysis of SF6 gas used in GITs and
GIRs in included within the scope of this brochure.

Further details on the design of GITs and GIRs are available in Annexppendix C.

6.2. PURPOSE OF GAS ANALYSIS

The SF6 analysis can help at all stages of equipment lifecycle, before equipment is
commissioned, during equipment service and when it is to be decommissioned.

The SF6 analysis thus serves three main purposes:

to ensure that the initial condition of the gas at the time the equipment is
commissioned (or subsequent to any gas handling) is correct,
to identify and diagnose deterioration of equipment when in-service,
to ensure the proper handling of SF6 gas at the time the equipment is removed from
service.

All three are very important however the second purpose is critical when deciding if
remedial measures are required to ensure satisfactory performance of the equipment or
indeed to prevent catastrophic failure. Similarly it can ensure unnecessary opening of
equipment avoiding outages and costs. This aspect is of increasing importance as Utilities
are under pressure to reduce maintenance costs. Condition Based Maintenance (CBM) can
provide optimum solutions and hence is being adopted by many Utilities as their preferred
maintenance strategy.

357490521.doc Page 20 of 144

6.2.1. Before equipment Equipment enters Enters serviceService
At the time of installation of the equipment gas analysis can be used to:

to verify the quality and condition of the gas in the equipment prior to the latter being
put into service; typically SF6 percentage and humidity are measured,
The same measurements may also be made on the gas in each cylinder before filling
the equipment,
to determine if SF6 decomposition by-products are present, though normally the
result should be always be below the permitted levels for reused gas.

The same measurements may also be made on the gas in each cylinder before filling the
equipment.
6.2.2. During equipment Equipment serviceService

6.2.2.1. Periodically (part of a maintenance regime)

During the service life of the equipment SF6 gas analysis may be undertaken as part of a
maintenance regime. Typically SF6 percentage, decomposition by-products and humidity are
measured. Depending on the type of equipment involved (arcing or non-arcing) these tests
can identify potential problems such as:

dielectric activities (partial discharge, corona),

nNozzle wear,
hot spots (high contact resistance),
non-standard switching conditions (heavy duty switching operations),
sealing problems (humidity, air),
improper gas handling (humidity, air, oil).

Where there is a concern that damage could result to sensitive detection equipment, SF6 by-
products analyses may be made by simple detection tubes in the first instance.

6.2.2.2. Fault Investigation (after an event)

Following a fault or suspected fault, analysis of the SF6 gas for decomposition by-products
may be used as part of the investigation process:

to identify the compartment following internal flash over,

to identify the level of decomposition by-products and hence the necessary gas
handling procedures prior to opening a compartment,
to investigate an abnormal behavior highlighted by other factors, i.e. to identify if the
problem is within a gas compartment,
to correlate results obtained from other condition assessment techniques, e. g. partial
discharge measurements.

Initial measurement of the decomposition by-products should be made using simple detector
tubes to prevent damage to sensitive detection equipment.

357490521.doc Page 21 of 144

6.2.3. Prior to Disposal of Equipment
Before evacuating a compartment of SF6, the condition of the gas has to be checked so that
the necessary handling/re-cycling procedures can be identified e.g. whether the removed gas
can be re-used or whether it has to be returned for recycling or even disposed.

6.3. ON-SITE MEASUREMENT PROCEDURES

6.3.1. Safety precautionsPrecautions

Before conducting the measurement, care must be taken to ensure that a gastight connection
has been established between the gas compartment and the measuring device.

Where possible it is recommended that gas sampling is carried out on apparatus that has
been switched out of service. If this is not possible the operating instruction manual from the
equipment manufacturer shall be strictly observed when taking samples from energized
equipment.

Only properly trained personnel should handle SF6.

6.3.2. Measurement Procedure
Each diagnostic measurement instrument shall a have detailed operation instruction manual.
The user shall strictly follow the instructions.

The sampled gas has to be in closed circle, i.e. not vented into atmosphere. Recovery of
sampled gas is now easily achieved either through gas collection devices or bye returned to
the apparatus under test. It is strongly recommended that one or otherthis procedure be
followed to ensure minimal loss of gas.

The following principles and recommendations should be followed:

Note : Some of these principles are already automatically included in modern diagnostic
instruments.

To to avoid corrupting the measurement result, a suitable hose should be selected for
the measurement. Ideally, a PTFE / PFA bend-proof (metal-jacketed) hose should be
used. Rubber hoses should not be used due to their hygroscopic nature and
permeability,.
The the hose used should be flushed with the SF 6 gas to be measured to ensure that
the measuring device measures the gas from the compartment and not the gas from
the hose or an SF6-air mixture. Measuring hoses with self-closing couplings on both
ends are recommended,.
When when connecting the measuring device, it is important to establish whether the
measurement must be started manually, i.e. by opening an internal inlet valve in the
measuring device, or the measuring device works as a "display device" and the SF6
from the compartment flows through the measuring device as soon as the measuring
hose has been connected,.
If if a high concentration of by-products is expected during measurement, this should
be determined before any other measuring devices are used. Electronic moisture
measuring devices equipped with measuring sensors with thin surface layers are

357490521.doc Page 22 of 144

 easily damaged by decomposition by-products. On the other hand, dew point mirror
measuring devices are more robust because their surfaces have a protective coating,.
Each each recorded sample should contain information about the ambient
temperature and the measurement pressure,.
The the measurement results can be documented either electronically or manually. In
this context, it is important to ensure the traceability of the measurement results by
specifying the location (compartment/system), time and date. If the data is stored
electronically, the data must be downloaded from the measuring device and archived
appropriately,.
Depending depending on the measuring device used, either the results are interpreted
automatically (and displayed on the device's screen) or the operator makes a decision
regarding the quality of the SF6. For guidance on the categorization of the gas quality,
please refer to the manufacturer's or operator's instructions or the applicable IEC
standards. For devices with automatic data interpretation, the threshold values for the
individual sensors can be adjusted via the settings menus of the devices,.
It it is important to record the time that measurements are taken with respect to the
event that occurred (such as switching operation, fault, etc.),
After after measurement, particularly after decomposition by-products are identified,
it is recommended to purge all measuring devices either with pure SF 6, air or
nitrogen,.
If if the instrument is to be regularly re-calibrated it is strongly recommended to
follow the manufacturer recommendation for the re-calibration period.

6.4. MOST APPROPRIATE ON SITE MEASUREMENTS

Typical SF6 quality checks are humidity, SF6 percentage and decomposition by-products.
Because of the difficulty of measuring all decomposition by-products, it is recommended
that one or two of them be selected as indicators for the total by-product concentration. The
two by-products SOF2 and SO2 are the most abundant substances detected after electric
discharge activity. Because of the hydrolysis of SOF2 it will degrade over time and the
presence of SO2 without SOF2 would indicate the discharge activity had occurred in the past
but was not present currently.
6.4.1. Test Equipment Portable Analysers
A number of single and multi- measurement devices are available for on-site measurements.
They can typically measure, humidity, percentage SF6 and decomposition by-products.
Some device may also be capable of measuring CF4. The advantage of a multi-measurement
device is that it will be capable of measuring three of four quantities and vastly reduces the
time and effort required. Most modern devices capture the sampled gas, with some injecting
the gas back into the compartment. They generally include a safety feature which shuts down
the measurement in the presence of high levels of decomposition by-products.

The following table gives typical measuring ranges, accuracy, gas quality and required
measurement time for these devices. Further details are provided in Annex F.

SO2 is particularly suited for measurement as it makes up a major fraction of the

contaminants.

357490521.doc Page 23 of 144

 Substance Measuring Accuracy Gas Volume Measuring
to be Range Necessary Time
Detected approx.
Moisture
0 100 % or
less, depending
% SF6* 0,5..1 % < 0,2 l 1-2 min.
on the measuring
principle
SO2 ..... 0..500 ppmVol. <2% < 0,5 l < 10 min.
HF ....
CF4
Table 6.1 Measurement Ranges and Accuracies
6.4.2. Test Equipment - Detector Tubes

Simple easy to use detector tubes are available for the detection of decomposition by-
products. A small amount of gas is taken from a compartment and passed through the tube
with the colour changing in the presence of decomposition by-products. Detector tubes
sensitive to different by-products are available and in a variety of measuring ranges.

The following table gives typical measuring ranges, accuracy, gas quality and required
measurement time for these tubes. Further details are provided in Annex F???.
Test tubes to indicate the presence of the following substances are available:
(Daniel to comment on tube accuracy for measurement in SF6)

Substance to Measuring Accuracy Gas volume Measuremen

be detected range necessary, l t time
approx.
SO2 0,1 3 ppmv. 10 15 % 12 20 min.
0,5 5 ppmv 10 15 % 12 6 min.
1 25 ppmv 10 15 % 12 3 min.
20 200 ppmv 10 15 % 12 3 min
50 500 ppmv 10 15 % 12 3 min.
400 8000 ppmv 10 15 % 12 15 sec.
HF 0,5 - 15 ppmv 20 30 % 12 2 min
10 90 ppmv 20 30 % 12 25 sec.
Oil mist 1 10 mg/m 30 % 12 25 min.

It has to be mentioned that free gaseous HF can only be determined reliably by far-infrared
spectroscopy, whereas the commonly used detection tubes for HF react in the same way on
SOF2 and HF i.e. they might interpret SOF2 and SO2 as HF

357490521.doc Page 24 of 144

6.4.3. General Precaution
Where there is an indication or concern that an arc has occurred in a compartment then
detector tubes should be used in the first instance if the multi-analyzer does not
automatically shut down in the presence of high concentration of decomposition by-
products. It is suggested that a detector tube with sensitivity of 1 25ppmv be used initially
and if the range is exceeded then a tube with a sensitivity of 20 200ppmv be used. This
approach will avoid damaging sensitive electronic sensors.

7. GAS QUALITY

7.1. IDENTIFICATION AND ANALYSIS OF ABNORMAL CONDITIONS -

SWITCHGEAR

When interpreting the results of gas analysis it is important to be cognizant of the function of
the equipment and to distinguish between gas compartments which contain no switching
equipment and which contain equipment where normally different types of arc occurs.

The following flowcharts provide a pictorial view of the analysis and decision making
process.

357490521.doc Page 25 of 144

357490521.doc Page 26 of 144
7.1.1. Gas compartments not containing switching equipment
In gas compartments which contain no load switching equipment, such as busbar and
busduct sections, bushings, maintenance earthing switches and instrument transformers (GIS
or AIS) any level of decomposition products would be a cause for concern independently on
of whether the compartment includes adsorbers or not. Any measured value indicates
deteriorated conditions the higher by-products content the worse.

For some case studies examples see Appendix .....

7.1.2. Gas compartments containing switching equipment

In gas compartments which contain switching equipment, the decision process based on
measured SF6 decomposition by-products content is much more complicated than in
compartment without normal switching activity. In gas compartment which contain
switching equipment, the production of SF6 decomposition by-products may be detected by
measurement. When evaluating the measured SF6 decomposition by-products content it is
necessary to consider the following aspects before any conclusion is made:

a) The presence and type of adsorber material inside the gas compartment. If the
adsorber material traps only water molecules the SF6 decomposition by-products
remain and accumulate in the gas compartment.
b) The loading history, i.e. number and magnitude of switching currents (e.g. currents
during normal switching operations, fault clearance, disconnector busbar transfer
current). The loading history of circuit breaker phases can be different if there is
single-phase auto-reclosing function.
c) Any abnormal operating conditions (e.g. asynchronous switching, lightning strikes,
and any voltages exceeding rated parameters)
d) Whether there are differences in the level of by-products between individual phases
of the equipment or similar equipment. In the case of three-phase encapsulated
equipment, or interconnected gas compartments, this may not be possible.
e) The time delay between the last switching operation and the analysis or gas sampling.
In compartments fitted with adsorbers capable of catching SF6 decomposition by-
products, the level of decomposition by-products will reduce over time. If the level
does not decrease then it might indicate internal partial discharge (PD) activity,
overheating problems, or that the adsorber has ceased to function correctly.
f) The results of other diagnostic measurements, such as PD measurements, main
contacts static resistance measurement, CB contacts dynamic resistance
measurement, CB re-strikes and re-ignitions monitoring.

As the evaluation is a process, it is not possible to identify any general SF6 by-products limit
for indication of concern or dangerous conditions. In any case, where there are doubts it is
always recommended to contact the manufacturer for advice.

357490521.doc Page 27 of 144

7.2. REVIEW OF THE NORMAL LEVELS OF GAS QUALITY

No definitive figures are available with the exception of a figure for humidity of -5oC at
rated vessel pressure. This figure is determined in order to avoid moisture condensing on the
internal surfaces of a compartment and potentially causing a breakdown of the insulation.

The figures in the following table are taken from a variety of sources and are provided for
indicative proposes only. In making any assessment of gas quality or the requirement for
remedial measures several factors need to be considered, the absolute level contamination
being just one.
Some examples of normal levels of gas quality in equipment as identified by different
manufacturers were investigated and are summarised in the following table ..z..
[Work on the table below to give better normal operating levels]

357490521.doc Page 28 of 144

Table z : Examples of normal measurement levels
Type of Permitted content of Note
equipment water [dew frost SF6 [content of SF6 byproducts
point in oC at pure SF6] (acidity or SO2)
20oC and rated
SF6 filling
pressure]
CB 1) <-29 to < -5 oC >95% to >98% <25 to <250 ppmv 5) the older the
CB the
shorter period
AIS IT <-15 to < -10 oC >98% <1 to <5 ppmv 5)
GIS indoor 2) < -5 oC >98% <10 ppmv
GIS outdoor 2) <-15 to < -5 oC >98% <10 ppmv
GIS 500ppmv3) >97% vol Non detection by For GIS gas
tube compartments
with normal
Note Lower arcing
150ppmv4) limitation of For GIS
sensitivity of the tube compartment
SO2: 0.01 vol ppm without
HF: 0.1 vol ppm normal arcing

1)
CB with filters able to catch water as well as SF6 byproducts
2)
GIS Gas compartments without normal arcing (busbars, disconnectors and earthing
switches compartments)
3)
500ppmv corresponds to dew point approx. 12oC at 0.4MPa absolute
4)
150ppmv corresponds to approx. -22oC at 0.4MPa absolute.
5)
Humidity and by-product limits in the table giving minimum and maximum
depending on the type of technology

Table 7.1 : Examples of normal measurement levels

7.3. GAS INSULATED TRANSFORMERS AND REACTORS [DISCUSS THIS

WITH TOSHI]

7.3.1. Identification of Abnormal Condition

Fig 8.4.1 shows the research results of SF6 decomposition analysis on the ETRA technical
report (ETRA: Electric Technology Research Association in Japan [9]). In these results,
electrical discharge and over heat can be identified by using the SF6 decomposition
components pattern map. SOF2 or SO2F2 are good markers of electrical discharge while
much SO2 with less SO2F2/ SOF2 is a good marker of over heat. That is, SOF2>SO2 or
SOsF2> SO2 indicates Discharge and SOF2<SO2 or SOsF2< SO2 indicates Overheat.

357490521.doc Page 29 of 144

Fig 8.4.1 Gas pattern between 'Discharge' and 'Overheat
(ETRA technical report Vol. 54 No.5)

As per ETRA research, the density ratio (SOF2 / SO2F2) is an effective marker for
distinguishing Arc discharge from Partial discharge i.e., (SOF2 / SO2F2) for arc
discharge is more than 10 while partial discharge is less than 10. Therefore,it is possible to
identify arc discharge or partial discharge by using the SF6 decomposition components
pattern map.

Fig.8.4.2 shows the Diagnosis flow. The diagnosis follows the process shown in the
Diagnosis Flow chart, which uses the absolute temperature to diagnose the target
components. Adding to this, density ratio has some features which enable quicker and easier
identification of any internal abnormalties and abnormal conditions that may be present.

357490521.doc Page 30 of 144

357490521.doc Page 31 of 144
Fig 8.4.2 SF6 gas analysis flowchart for GIT (ETRA technical report Vol. 54 -No.5)
Notes
1) HF measured by detector tube
2) In excess of 150 ppmv for high-pressured GIT (0.4 MPa-gauge)
3) Criteria for this case is that the absorbent includes a mass ratio of 2%, and that SF6 gas
temperature is 40. Correction is required if absorbent inclusion ratio or SF6 gas
temperature differs.
4) Identification of abnormal condition and Determination of existence of insulating
materials are not applicable for LTC. (Only HF or F- precautions and abnormality levels are
applicable.)
5) HF generates F- (fluorine ion) with reaction with H2O, and it is easy to detect F- in the
water solution by using ion chromatography analysis.

8. REVIEW OF UTILITY GAS SAMPLING PRACTICES

8.1. FEEDBACK FROM UTILITIES

A number of utilities were surveyed to determine their practices in relation to the sampling
and analysis of SF6 in various types of equipment. The table below summaries the results of
this survey, some of the finer details have been removed to facilitate the tabulation of the
results.

357490521.doc Page 32 of 144

 Commissioning Tests Monthly/ 1 Year 4/6 Year 8/10 Year 20 Years 24/25 Years As Required
(applied to SF6 gas) Continuous

GIS/MTS Measurements of Record gas Dew point Measurements of Change SF6 SF6 gas analysis Special/fault
%SF6, dew point and density values measurements %SF6, dew point and dessiciant in CBs, (as part of major investigation
Company 1 SO2/HF (outdoor GIS) SO2/HF decomposition CB compartments overhaul)
decomposition products
products Gas leak detection
survey (if leak
suspected)

GIS/MTS Measurements of Measurements of Measurements of Special/fault

%SF6, dew point and %SF6, dew point and %SF6, dew point and investigation
Company 2 SO2/HF SO2/HF SO2/HF decomposition
decomposition decomposition products
products products

GIS/MTS Record gas Test SF6 pressure/ Measurements of Testing of SF6 gas SF6 gas analysis
density values density devices %SF6, dew point and monitoring system (as part of plant
Company 3 SO2/HF condition
decomposition Measurements of assessment)
products (outdoor %SF6, dew point and
GIS) SO2/HF decomposition
products

GIS/MTS/CBs Measurements of Measurement of

%SF6, dew point and decomposition
Company 4 decomposition products after a
products short circuit.

GIS/CBs Measurements of Measurements of Measurements of After 2-3 short line

%SF6, dew point and %SF6, dew point and %SF6, dew point and faults -
Company 5 decomposition decomposition decomposition measurements of
products products products %SF6, dew point
and decomposition
products

CT/VTs Measurements of Measurements of Measurements of After 2 3 short

%SF6, dew point and %SF6, dew point and %SF6, dew point and line faults
Company 5 decomposition decomposition products decomposition -measurements of
products products %SF6, dew point
and decomposition
products

GIS/MTS Measurements of Measurements of Measurements of Measurements of Measurements of

%SF6, dew point and %SF6, dew point and %SF6, dew point and %SF6, dew point and %SF6, dew point
Company 6 decomposition decomposition decomposition products decomposition and decomposition

357490521.doc Page 33 of 144

 products products products products

CB CT/VTs Measurements of Measurements of Measurements of Special/fault

%SF6, dew point %SF6, dew point and %SF6, dew point and investigation
Company 6 decomposition products decomposition
products

CBs Measurement of Measurement of Special/fault

%SF6, dew point dedw point investigation
Company 7

CBs Measurement of Special/fault

%SF6, dew point investigation
Company 7

CBs Measurements of %SF6

Company 8

GIS Measurements of
%SF6, dew point and
Company 8 decomposition products
ssing tubes and portable
analyzer

Notes: 4/5 and 8/10 the shorted time intervals apply to critical installations.

357490521.doc Page 34 of 144

8.2. RESULTS OF CIGRE WG A3-06 HV EQUIPMENT RELIABILITY
INTERNATIONAL SURVEY [EAMONN TO REVIEW THIS SECTION]

There might be here only one sentence introducing the following being included in Appendix
W.
8.2.1. Introduction

CIGRE WG A3-06 HV equipment reliability circulated the 3rd GIS international survey
questionnaire in 2003 and collected population and failure data from 2004 to 2007 and data
about different GIS practices. Among these practices, there were also the following two
fields:
In service experience regarding conditions monitoring* (present practice and future
plans, incl. accessories)
In service experience regarding conditions diagnostics* (present practice and future
plans, incl. accessories)
As SF6 gas analysis issue is concerned the above mentioned two items results can contribute
to the discussion as well as an analysis of dielectric major failures of HV GIS part
(supposing that at least a part of these failures could have been foreseen based on SF6
analysis diagnostic results). The WG A3-06 results were published in CIGRE technical
brochures [x] to [z] not published as yet so dont have brochure numbers.

CIGRE B3-25 decided to repeat some of the relevant results.

8.2.2. SF6 quality diagnostics service experience
8.2.3.
A total 16 countries and 34 utilities participated in the survey. The total number of received
cards (some of them referring to more than only one voltage class) was 41 cards (49% from
Europe, 34% from Asia, 15% from Australia and 2% from North America). Analyzing the
number of responses by individual voltage classes there were obtained 80 responses (29%
from Europe, 60% from Asia, 7% from Australia and 4% from North America). These 80
responses show the utilities experience within six voltage classes representing 20% (class 1
for rated voltages 60 U<100 kV), 25% (class 2 for rated voltages 100 U<200 kV), 20 % (class
3 for rated voltages 200 U<300 kV), 21% (class 4 for rated voltages 300 U<500 kV), 14%
(class 5 for rated voltages 500 U<700 kV) and 1% (class 6 for rated voltages 700 kV) of
responses. The contribution of voltage classes is thus quite even (with exception of class 6).

The following relevant questions about diagnostics were asked:

a) Do you specify diagnostic tests for your existing GIS? If yes, which ones?
b) Do you specify diagnostic tests for your future GIS? If yes, which ones?
c) In your opinion, has already the application of diagnostic test avoided an internal
breakdown?
d) How often do you perform SF6 quality check (humidity, by-products, % of SF6
contents)? At period 5 years, >5 and 10 years, >10 years?

357490521.doc Page 35 of 144

and the following results were observed:

Questions a, b and c
The relative results are shown in Table xx where base is the number of all responses received
within individual voltage classes (in the table there are shown only positive responses).

357490521.doc Page 36 of 144

Table xx: Application of diagnostic tests - number of responses within individual voltage classes (in %, only positive
answers)
Voltage class Do you specify diagnostic Do you specify Has the application of
tests for your existing diagnostic tests for your diagnostic tests avoided an
GIS? future GIS? internal breakdown?
% of Yes from answers
% of Yes from all % of Yes from all indicated present application
responses responses of diagnostics
60 U<100 kV 100,0 66,7 26,7
100 U<200 kV 75,0 60,0 30,0
200 U<300 kV 87,5 62,5 12,5
300 U<500 kV 100,0 58,8 47,1
500 U<700 kV 100,0 72,7 27,3
700 kV 100,0 100,0 100,0
Total 91,3 63,8 30,0

In questions a and b, the respondents mentioned what kind of diagnostics they currently
apply or are planning to apply. The following measurements were mentioned: PD (mainly
acoustic), primary resistance, timing, contact movement curve and speed and operation
mechanism (at minimum supply voltage and minimum SF6 pressure incl.) characteristics of
circuit breakers and disconnectors, SF6 gas quality (humidity, SF6 content, by-products
content and density), thermal scan (IR) and X-ray checks of enclosure. In general there was
no significant difference between the referred tests and tests of AIS equipment with
exception of periodical X ray checks of enclosure integrity. There was no difference between
the list of tests currently applied and those planned for the future. The effectiveness of these
methods seems to be quite high. 30% of respondents indicated that they have already
managed to prevent major failures by application them.

Question d :
Question d asked about a time interval for performance of SF6 quality check (humidity, by-
products, % of SF6 contents). There were provided with three options: periods 5 years, >5
and 10 years, >10 years. The question was answered by all respondents. Table yy shows an
overview of responses in % distribution where base is the number of responses received
within individual voltage classes. Figure zz shows the graphical interpretation of the data.

Table yy : SF6 quality checks periodicity responses within individual voltage classes (in %)
Period for SF6 quality checks (% of positive of answers)
GIS voltage class 5 years >5, 10 years >10 years
60U<100 kV 20,0 40,0 40,0
100U<200 kV 10,0 60,0 30,0
200U<300 kV 12,5 56,3 31,3
300U<500 kV 5,9 58,8 35,3
500U<700 kV 18,2 36,4 45,5
700 kV 100,0 0,0 0,0
Total 13,8 51,3 35,0

357490521.doc Page 37 of 144

 Figure zz: SF6 quality measurements

With exception of voltage class 5, the majority of utilities perform SF6 quality checks at
intervals ranging from between 5 to 10 years (50% in total). More frequent quality checks
are performed by about 14% of the responders; longer periods (10 years or more) were
performed by 35% of the responders. In class 5 the longer period is the most frequent (45%
of answers).

8.2.4. HV equipment dielectric major failures

Table xx shows number of collected GIS CB-bays (circuit breaker bays) service experience,
number of HV (high voltage) part dielectric (breakdowns) major failures (MaF) and resulted
GIS HV part dielectric major failures frequency in dependence of different 5 years period of
GIS manufacturing. Fig. vv shows the resulted failure frequencies point estimation values
together with lower and upper limits of their confidence intervals (95% confidence level) in
a line graph.
Notes (definitions):
CB-bay (circuit breaker bay) = A three phase assembly consisting of one circuit
breaker or switch, its associated disconnectors, instrument transformers,
interconnecting busducts up to and including the line disconnect switch (if
applicable), and the section of main busbar (if applicable).
major failure = Failure of a switchgear and control gear which causes the cessation
of one or more of its fundamental functions. A major failure will result in an
immediate change in the system operating conditions, e.g. the backup protective
equipment will be required to remove the fault, or will result in mandatory removal
from service within 30 minutes for unscheduled maintenance.

357490521.doc Page 38 of 144

Table xx : GIS HV parts dielectric major failure data
Number of collected Number of MaF frequency point
GIS CB-bays service collected HV estimation value
experince [CB-bays- parts dielectric [MaF/100 CB-bay-years]
years] MaF [-]
Period of manufacture

before 1979 4391 6 0,14

1979-1983 7314 10 0,14
1984-1988 14407 12 0,08
1989-1993 17610 7 0,04
1994-1998 21778 19 0,09
1999-2003 17644 10 0,06
2004-2007 5804 17 0,29
Total 88948 81 0,09

Fig vv : GIS HV parts dielectric major failure frequencies in dependence on GIS 5years
of manufacturing intervals

The data and the graph show that the dielectric major failure frequency is higher at the
beginning (in the first 3 years) of GIS lives, then it is reduced for more or less constant low
value for the next 15 to 20 years and then it starts to rise again. Supposing that SF6 quality
analysis (mainly the by-products analysis) can disclose at least some of causes that lead to
dielectric breakdowns it seems to be effective to sample the gas periodically but in uneven
intervals. Based on the graph it can be recommended to sample and to analyze the gas
every year in the first 3 years after putting into service, then to prolong the period to 10
years and when the GIS is about 23 years old to reduce the period gain to about 3 to 5
years.

357490521.doc Page 39 of 144

9. CASE STUDIES (EAMONN)

It would be interesting to include some information on gas analysis (without failure) so show
typical values for decomposition by-products in different type of compartments
(disconnectors, CBs GIS and dead-tank types if possible - etc) so that a history of values
can start to be developed. Information from Anne, Lutz, Sue and Ian if possible.

Try to record basic details on each equipment measured so that a better comparison can be
made so as to avoid a simple comparison of absolute figures/result. For example for CB
number of operations, cumulative switching current, typical load/application, major events.

As these will identify failures, is it possible to use only photographs that do not
identify the manufacturer?

Gas analysis following internal faults in order to try to map the level of
decomposition products
Specific gas analysis that has indicated an incipient fault/contamination
Structure
Equipment involved
Circumstances under which measurements were made following a fault,
indication of a problem or routine maintenance
Values measured and time between the fault/indication of a problem and the
measurement
Measurement technique
What other diagnostic methods were applied before course of action was
determination
What action was taken immediate withdrawal from service, planned outage,
next maintenance
Cause of failure/problem and subsequent actions

Case studies to include cases of incorrect indication or interpretation of a problem see seven
case studies in a separate file

10. CONCLUSION (EAMONN)

Recommendation for manufacturers and users

Users
Might be when to use gas analysis/frequency, etc
Manufacturers
Might be the need to develop new type of instrument
Greater clarity in the methods/processes used to develop acceptable/unacceptable
contamination levels

357490521.doc Page 40 of 144

11. REFERENCES

[1] IEC 60376 Specification of technical grade sulphur hexafluoride (SF6) for use in
electrical equipment
[2] IEC 60480 Guidelines for the checking and treatment of sulphur hexafluoride (SF6)
taken from electrical equipment and specification for its re-use
[3] CIGRE Brochure 234, SF6 Recycling Guide Revision 2003
[4] IEC 62271-303, Technical Report Ed. 1.0, 2008, Use and handling of SF6
[5] F. Y. Chu, IEEE Trans. On Electr. Insulation, Vol.21, 1986, SF6 decomposition in
gas-insulated equipment
[6] M. Piemontesi, dissertation ETH Zrich no. 12786, 1998, basic studies on SF6
decomposition
[8] D. Bobok, E. Besedova, Petroleum and Coal, Vol.45, 19-24, 2003, Effective
diffusivities of water vapours and heptane vapours in particles of molecular sieves 4A
and 5A
[9] Yi Hua Ma, C. Mancel, AlChE Journal, Vol.18, 1148-1153, 1972, Diffusion studies
of CO2, NO, NO2, and SO2 on molecular sieve Zeolites by gas chromatography
[10] ETRA technical report Electric Technology Research Association in Japan

CIGRE Brochure 163, Guide for SF6 Gas Mixtures

CIGRE Brochure 276, Guide For the Preparation Of Customised Practical SF6 Handling
Instructions

IEEE Transaction on Electrical Insulation, Vol 26, No 6 December 1991, SF6 Decomposition
under Power Arcs, Physical Aspects, Chemical Aspects

Rapid Communications in Mass Spectrometry, Vol 11, 1643 1648, 1997, Study of
Decomposition of Sulphur Hexaflouride by Gas Chromatography/Mass Spectrometry

Applied Physics 30 (1997) 1356 1369, Production of SO2F2, SOF4 (SOF2 + SF4), S2F10
and S2O2F10 in SF6 and (50 -50) SF6-CF4 Mixtures Exposed to Negative Coronas.

CIGRE Brochure 163, Guide for SF6 Gas Mixtures

CIGRE Brochure 276, Guide For the Preparation Of Customised Practical SF6 Handling
Instructions

IEEE Transaction on Electrical Insulation, Vol 26, No 6 December 1991, SF6 Decomposition
under Power Arcs, Physical Aspects, Chemical Aspects

Rapid Communications in Mass Spectrometry, Vol 11, 1643 1648, 1997, Study of
Decomposition of Sulphur Hexaflouride by Gas Chromatography/Mass Spectrometry

357490521.doc Page 41 of 144

Applied Physics 30 (1997) 1356 1369, Production of SO2F2, SOF4 (SOF2 + SF4), S2F10
and S2O2F10 in SF6 and (50 -50) SF6-CF4 Mixtures Exposed to Negative Coronas.

357490521.doc Page 42 of 144

APPENDICES
A. INFORMATION TO BE GIVEN BY THE MANUFACTURERS TO THE
USERS

In an SF6 gas filled equipment technical specification that is included to the tender and then
to the contract there shall already be input data for the user to know proper SF6 parameters
for SF6 filling, handling and checking. The basic parameters, such as : quality and quantity
of the first SF6 filling, rated filling, 1st and 2nd leakage alarms pressures and their signals
interpretations, rated guaranteed leakage rate, type(s) and design characteristics of used
densostats, indication manometers resp, are obvious and do not cope with a specific topic of
this brochure. However they mustnt be forgotten.

Table xx shows the critical information in relation to the gas, filling pressure and
decomposition by-products that should be requested from the manufacturer at the time of
purchase. This information should be requested for each type of compartment.

Table xx : Example

Parameter Y Offered parameter or

reference to an Enclosure
Max. permissible SF6 humidity after filling (at 20oC and < ..... oC of dew point
rated SF6 pressure)
Max. permissible SF6 humidity during service (at 20oC < ..... (critical -.....) oC of
and rated SF6 pressure) dew point
Min. permissible SF6 content after filling >..... %
Min. permissible SF6 content during service > .....%
Filter characteristics (pore dimensions, etc.)
Principle (type) of filter and quantity
Max permissible contamination by SF6 by-products after SO2 detection tubes
filling indication < ..... ppmv
Total content of gaseous
SF6 byproducts < ..... ppmv
Max permissible contamination by SF6 by-products SO2 detection tubes
during service indication < ..... ppmv
Total content of gaseous
SF6 byproducts < ..... ppmv

As SF6 by-products analysis is intended to be used as a diagnostic method, in the CB there shall be
used such a filter that is able to catch H2O molecules as well as to catch all main SF6 by-products
such as SOF2, SOF4, SO2, SF4, SO2F2, etc. This sentence needs to be clarified based on a
discussion between Dagmar and Anne.

In reality is there a different philosophy between manufacturers in terms of trying to trap just
water or water and decomposition by-products?
B. EQUIPMENT CATEGORIZATION

The origin of contamination in electrical equipment containing SF6 and SF6 admixtures has
been covered extensively in the literature [IEEE Transaction on Electrical Insulation, Vol 26,
No 6 December 1991, SF6 Decomposition under Power Arcs, CIGRE SF6 Recycling Guide
Brochure 234, Rapid Communications in Mass Spectrometry, Vol 11, 1643 1648, 1997,
Study of Decomposition of Sulphur Hexaflouride by Gas Chromatography/Mass
Spectrometry, IEC 60480, etc]. While the reaction processes are complex the decomposition
products are largely determined by the energy of the discharges and any impurities within the
enclosure. Hence the decomposition products normally found in a compartment that does not
contain any switching device are very different to those expected to be found in a circuit
breaker compartment or those found following an internal failure arc. It is therefore possible
to categorise equipment based on the expected decomposition products.

SF6-insulated equipment can be grouped into 3 classes

Static components, without switching arcs
Switchgear, with low energy arc
Switchgear, with high energy arc

B.1. Static components without switching arcs

Static components without switching arcs are

SF6-gas insulated power transformers
SF6-gas insulated instrument transformers (CTs and VTs) in AIS and GIS
technologies
SF6-Gas bushings
Surge arresters in GIS
Cable-End terminations in AIS and GIS technologies
Transformer connections in GIS-Technologies
Tranformer-direct connections in GIS-Technologies
Busbar and busducts

B.2. Switchgear with low energy arcs

Switchgear with low energy arcs are

SF6-insulated GIS disconnectors and switches
SF6-insulated GIS fast-acting grounding switches
SF6-insulated GIS maintenance earthing switches

B.3. Switchgear with high energy arcs

Switchgear with high energy arcs are

SF6-insulated circuit breakers and circuit-switches
In special applications also disconnectors

B.4. Purpose of SF6

SF6 is particularly suitable for application in both high-voltage and medium-high voltage
equipment due to its excellent electrical and thermal behaviour. It is highly electronegative
which means that it has good recombination behaviour after dissociation in the electrical arc
and makes it ideally suited as a medium for isolating and interruption in modern circuit-
breakers. It is inflammable, chemically inactive and non-toxic heavy gas. Changing from
conventional dielectrics to sulphur hexafluoride, results in considerable space and weight
savings, as well as improvements in operational safety.
Gas density / gas volume
The performance of SF6 insulated equipment depends, among other factors, on the density
of the SF6 gas. The required minimum density of this filling is normally defined by the
minimum ambient temperature for which the high voltage equipment is designed (as well as
the rated short circuit value). The minimum gas density can be determined using the SF6 gas
liquefaction graphs, finding the intersection point of the vertical on the temperature axis with
the liquefaction curve.
Figure : SF6 gas density diagram with parameters for -30C

The performance of SF6 insulated equipment must be tested at this minimum gas density in
the relevant type tests. For safety reasons, SF6 insulated equipment installed in substations
will be filled with a higher gas density, in order to allow for a specific margin for alerting (at
alarm level) and tripping of circuit-breaker out of service (at trip level) in case of gas leaks.
The monitoring is performed and signals are initiated by the gas density monitor installed on
the circuit-breaker.

On the other hand the SF6-gas density is a measure for the number of molecules which are
available for the reactions taking place during the arc-quenching, when the gas will be
dissociated by the arc and free electrons will be captured by the gas molecules.
The ratio of weight of by-products to the weight of SF6 depends directly on the amount of
SF6 which is a function of volume and pressure in the equipment. For example the rate of
impurities is lower for a circuit-breaker with dead tank design than for life tank design, even
if the same interrupter unit design and the same switching duties are assumed, because of the
bigger volume of SF6.
Density Measurement
Gas density is a critical factor in the correct functioning of equipment and if the density
drops below the design value the correct operation cannot be guaranteed with potentially
catastrophic results. For this reason the accurate measure of gas density is essential. The
relationship between gas density, temperature and pressure are considered in detail in this
appendix along with a discussion on the types of gas density instruments available.
Adsorbers (filter materials)
There are two approaches adopted by manufacturers in relation to the function of filters.
While most seek to absorb both moisture and decomposition by-products others focus on the
removal of moisture only. The latter approach is adopted where the equipment is required to
operate at very low ambient temperatures.

The effectiveness of these filters will be influenced by the amount of filter material, active
surface of the filter bags, distance between the place of origin of by-products and the filter,
and the time lapse since the last arcing/partial discharge event. The amount of filter material
will be chosen to cover the life-time or a typical maintenance interval of a specific switching
device under normal service conditions.

There are two basis types of adsorber, molecular sieves and activated alumina. Molecular
sieves are microporous solids materials that have the ability to hold molecules. They have a
very regular pore structure that allows molecules of a particular size to enter the pores and be
adsorbed. Typical sieve sizes are 4A, 5A or 13X (pore size of 4, 5 and 10 Angstroms
respectively). The second type of filter material is activated alumina. It is produced from
aluminum hydroxide and is a very porous material. The pore size can be optimized to adsorb
molecules of a particular size. Both types can be regenerated by heating.
Maintenance practices
Maintenance practice is defined and recommended by the manufacturer and can be adjusted
by the user based to his own experience. The intervals for normal maintenance are
recommended by the manufacturers in terms of years or number of specific switching
operations (mechanical switching operation). Additional maintenance could be necessary
after special occurrences such as low gas pressure alarms, high moisture results of the gas
sampling or the excessive amount of by-products.
Service conditions (incl. environmental)
SF6 insulated equipment is designed to operated under most different service conditions,
such as:
Outdoor or indoor
Low- or high temperature requirement
Solar radiation
Wind and ice load requirement
different pollution levels
Seismic areas
Different requirement on mechanical and electrical endurance
Current load condition

These environmental issues might have significant influence on the behaviour of the
equipment and its seals, influencing the tightness, the maintenance intervals and the
humidity inside the equipment.
Types of Failures

B.5. Loss of tightness

Equipment may lose its tightness due to mechanical reasons like particle impacts or earth
quakes, punctures or cracks of external insulation materials or damaged seals and gaskets
including their shrinking in very cold environments. This leads to a leakage of SF6 and
ingress of humidity to the equipment.

B.6. Electrical failures

Equipment may fail during service due to various conditions that include overvoltages and
overloads, or in the case of circuit breakers it may be cumulative interrupted current or
difficult switching duties (such as repetitive switching of reactive or capacitive currents), the
loss of insulating medium by the introduction of particles during manufacturing which lower
the dielectric strength. In these cases an electrical arc is established between two or more
conductive parts of the equipment and may also involve surrounding insulating materials.
Because of parameters such as value of the short circuit current, frequency of current and the
arc duration, the amount of by-products vary depending on the special situation in the system
at the moment of failure,.

Also partial discharge (PD) may occur in equipment affecting the SF6 gas or other insulating
materials. The amount of by-products will vary depending on the character and the intensity
of PD.

B.7. Specific Consideration - Switchgear

B.8. Components where no arc occurs during normal operation

B.9. GIS Busbars and Connecting Pieces

B.9.1. Function operation

The busbars compartments are established by gas-tight insulating barriers which also support
the conductors and, depending on the design, may be partly surrounded by electrical shields.
Assembly, conversion and repair work is assisted by elastic bellows or telescopic joints
between the bays. They are designed to carry the load current under normal operation and
withstand the isolated voltage and the specified short-circuit current under abnormal
condition.

B.10. SF6-Gas Isolated Instrument Transformers

Instrument transformers are transformers used to feed measuring instruments, electricity

meters, protection relays and similar equipment. Their function is to transform high voltages
and currents to values that can be unified or measured safely with low internal losses. With
current transformers, the primary winding carries the load current, while with voltage
transformers, the primary winding is connected to the service voltage. The voltage or the
current of the secondary winding is identical to the value on the primary side in phase and
ratio except for the transformer error. Current transformers operate almost under short-circuit
conditions while voltage transformers operate at no-load. Primary and secondary sides are
nearly always electrically independent and insulated from one another as required by the
service voltage.

GIS CTs, having the cores outside the gas-compartments, can be considered as GIS busbars
or connecting pieces (see 6.3.1.1)
Components where low energy arc occurs during normal operation (Dieter)

B.11. GIS Disconnectors

Disconnectors are mechanical switching devices which provide galvanic isolating distance in
the open position of networks or sections of switchgear installations. They are capable of
opening or closing a circuit if either a negligible current is switched or if there is no
significant change in voltage between the terminals of the poles.

B.12. Function operation

Currents can be carried for specified times under normal operating conditions and under
abnormal conditions (e.g. short circuit 1s, 3s). Currents of negligible quantity have values <
0.5 A; examples are capacitive charging currents for bushings, busbars, connections, very
short lengths of cable and currents of voltage transformers.

B.13. GIS Maintenance Earthing Switches

Earthing switches are mechanical switching devices for earthing and short-circuiting de-
energized station components for safety reason or for measuring purpose.

In modern GIS equipment, earthing switches may be combined with the adjacent
disconnectors to form one unit.

B.14. GIS Fast Acting Earthing Switches

Earthing switches for transmission networks may also be required to make and break
induced currents (capacitive and inductive) under normal circuit conditions (depending on
design, this can also be provided by maintenance earthing switches) as well as to close on
short circuits. Such earthing switches with short circuit making capability in GIS technology
are called fast acting earthing switches. In contrary to a maintenance earthing switch, fast
acting earthing are having a closing spring which provides the energy for a fast closing
operation.
B.14.1.1.1. Function operation
Maintenance earthing switches are capable of carrying currents for a specified time under
abnormal conditions (e.g. short circuit 1s, 3s). They are not required to carry normal
operating currents. For measuring purpose, some earthing switches are equipped with an
isolated design, which enables the user access to the active part of the GIS, e.g for measuring
contact resistance or mechanical operation time of the circuit breaker during maintenance of
a GIS.
B.14.1.1.2. Maintenance practices
While designed to close on to a short circuit, they require maintenance afterwards.
Components where high energy arc occurs during normal operation

B.15. Disconnectors with bus-transfer switching functionality

In standard GIS application, bus-transfer switching is normally an application which does

not happen very often and the arc intensity is not very high. But it has to be noted, that in
very special application, especially for MTS, the bus transfer voltage can increase
significantly up to 300 V at 550 kV. Switching bus transfer currents, normally not exceeding
1600 A, might be even higher depending on the loads of the lines and the substation
configuration. Disconnectors may experience switching times of hundreds of ms at such high
bus-transfer voltages. In such circumstances disconnectors can be considered to switch high-
energy arcs, while under normal switching conditions in GIS they are considered to be low-
energy arc equipment.
Circuit Breaker
Due to the function of circuit-breakers as switching and interrupting devices, arcing of
different intensity is a fact of their daily life. Hence some deterioration of the SF6 gas is to be
expected during the life time of a circuit-breaker. The degree of this deterioration and the
amount of SF6 decomposition products accumulated during this time depend on three main
parameters: the SF6 gas density, the arc energy and the design of the circuit-breaker.

B.16. Function operation

The design of the circuit breaker and the materials used in its manufacture are key
determinants in the amount of decomposition products produced during current interruption.
The details of the various principles of circuit breaker operation are dealt with later in this
appendix.

B.17. Materials used in circuit-breakers

Several materials used in circuit-breakers will be decomposed by direct contact with or

indirect influence by the switching arc.
B.17.1.1.1. Materials used for contacts
Some of the materials used for the contacts of a circuit-breaker are : Silver, copper, copper-
chrome-zirconium, tungsten-copper, aluminum, steel and graphite. These materials are in
direct contact with the arc and will be vaporized and dissociated by it. For a given arc energy
the amount of vaporized material is proportional to their thermal withstand capability. So it
is natural that copper-chrome-zirconium, tungsten-copper and graphite, materials which have
high thermal withstand capability, but also relatively high resistance, are normally used for
the high stressed parts of the arcing contact system. For the main contact system, where only
weak arcing occurs, materials with low resistance, but lower thermal withstand, like silver,
copper and aluminum, are used. The amount of decomposition products released from the
decomposed materials is proportional to the chemical reactivity of their ions.
B.17.1.1.2. Materials used for isolating purposes
The insulating materials in a circuit-breaker are mainly PTFE, in combination with different
fillers, the glaze of porcelains and different kinds of epoxy resins with their fillers and
fabrics. Although both of these last materials are normally not in direct contact with the arc,
there is an interaction of some SF6 decomposition products, e. g. hydrofluoric acid, to these
materials or their components. However in most circuit-breaker designs PTFE is used to
control the arc and the gas flow around them. PTFE is dissociated in many ways (burning,
thermal, ablation, ) and its ions recombine with other ions from SF6 or contact materials.
One important byproduct released by some types of PTFE is CF 4 (Carbon tetra fluoride).
While close in properties with SF6 (in fact it is occasionally used in a mix with SF 6 to lower
the liquefaction point of the insulating gas), CF4 does not have the same arc-quenching
capabilities. In the context of small volumes released by PTFE, it is important as it can be
used through gas sampling as an indicator of the PTFE nozzles deterioration.

The other insulating materials (spacers, support, operating rods, etc) are not normally in
direct contact with the arc and therefore do not suffer any deterioration. Any interactions are
of a secondary nature resulting from the action of the arc by-products (e.g. HF damage to the
glaze on porcelain insulations).

B.17.1.1.3. Additive and other materials used in a circuit-breaker

There are also other materials available in a circuit-breaker which could increase the amount
of impurities. Independent of their working principles all systems use some additives such as
different greases and lubricants in order to ensure normal operation or corrosion protection.
Due to thermal influences by normal current flow or the exhaust during arc extinguishing
these additives may be vaporized and deposited close to the arc affected area, where they can
also be further decomposed and react during the following switching operations.

B.18. Service conditions

Circuit-breakers are designed to work under several system configurations, which differ
mainly in the number of switching operations and the current to switch (arc energy), but also
various environments, which influence the behaviour of a circuit-breaker mainly the ambient
temperature.
B.18.1.1.1. Arc energy
The third parameter affecting the amount of gas decomposition products is the cumulated arc
energy released during switching, which reflects the stress imposed by the different
switching operations, such as making and breaking of load or fault currents. The arc energy
can be estimated by the formula i t , when appropriate measuring equipment is
installed. For normal service purposes this estimation will be simplified to :

m Nr = Number interruptions at rated current Ir

N r ni ki nx = Number of remaining permissible interruptions at breaking current Ix
nx i 1 kx = Weighting factor for breaking current Ix
kx ni = Number of carried out interruptions at breaking current I
ki = Weighting factor for breaking current I
These parameters and also the arcing or pre-arcing time t are specific to the design of each
circuit-breaker and should be given by the manufacturers.

B.19. Maintenance practices

Special consideration must be given to circuit-breakers installed in certain applications, such

as switching of shunt reactors or capacitor banks. Due to their special nature these circuit-
breakers, which are exposed to unusually harsh conditions (interrupting reactive or
capacitive currents) also see much more frequent operations then line feeder circuit-breakers.
It is not unusual for circuit-breakers in such a position to accumulate 3000 operations within
2-3 years.

Many utilities experiences indicate that for such applications the circuit-breakers must be
maintained at 3000 switching operations. During maintenance circuit-breakers are opened
and a visual inspection of the contact system is performed, followed by further procedures of
cleaning and/or exchanging contacts, PTFE nozzles and other parts of the circuit-breaker.
Before reassembly of the circuit-breaker, filters as well as seals and gaskets, will have to be
replaced. The circuit-breaker is evacuated and refilled with gas purified to acceptable
standards.
C. GAS INSULATED TRANSFORMERS AND REACTORS CONSTRUCTION

C.1. Introduction

There has been a rapid increase in the number of gas insulated transformers (GIT) and
reactors (GIR) installed in East Asian countries. Plans to construct underground or indoor
substations accelerate this trend because of the difficulty in acquiring space for substations in
large cities where electric power demand is concentrated. Requirements of security against
fire accidents, compactness and total cost reduction are the key factors for these substations.
Total gas insulated substations combining GIS and GIT meet these needs.

Demand for GIT has been increasing rapidly, particularly in Japan, Hong Kong and China.
More than 10,000 units of GIT, up to 330 kV-400 MVA class, are currently operating in the
field. The first GIT in Japan started its operation in 1967. These transformers finished their
functions satisfactorily in the 1990s. These facts indicate that GIT technology has been well
matured and proven in the world.

C.2. Structural feature of GIT

The large capacity GIT is designed with high gas pressure (0.43MPa- g) to improve
insulation and cooling capacity. However, for GITs with a capacity below 100MVA, low
gas pressure (0.12MPa-g) is used.

Fig A.5.1 and A.5.2 shows an example of high pressure GIT. The structure of the core and
the winding is a simple structure similar to that used in conventional oil immersed
transformers. The windings and the core are cooled and insulated by high pressure SF6 gas.
The SF6 gas, which is taken from the lower side of the tank, cools the winding and the core,
is collected in the upper part of the tank, returned to the radiator, and cooled. The
transformer has a disc type winding and the internal gas flows in a zigzag line by the gas
stop collar. An excellent PET (Polyethylene terephthalate) film, which is relatively heatproof
when compared with insulating paper, is applied to the stranded winding insulation.

Fig.A.5.1 Schematic structure of GIT Fig A.5.2 Winding structure of GIT

There are several types of GIT, but the gas cooled and gas insulated type is the most widely
used type today. The key differences between gas insulated and oil immersed transformers
(OIT) are summarized in Table A.5.1

Table A.5.1 Deference between GIT and OIT

Gas Insulated Transformer Oil Immersed Transformer
Item
(GIT (OIT)
Insulating and Cooling
SF6 Gas * Oil
Medium
Between 0.11 & 0.45MPa (gauge
Gas Pressure N/A
pressure 20 deg C)
PET film, PPS film Oil impregnated insulation
Conductor Insulation
Aramide paper etc paper
Conservator Not Required Necessary
Arcing Switch
On-load Vacuum valve Arcing Contact in Insulating Oil
of the diverter
Tap-changer
Tap-Selector Roller contact Sliding Contact
Note: In liquid cooled type, Perfluorocarbon (PFC) is used for a cooling medium
PET film is Polyethylene Tereohthalate
PPS film is Polyphenylene

C.2.1. Insulating and cooling medium

In most of GIT, SF6 gas is used as an insulating and cooling medium because it has excellent
dielectric strength, thermal stability, chemical stability, and is non-flammable. The dielectric
strength of SF6 is two to three times higher than that of air under the same pressure, and ,the
dielectric strength of SF6 gas is comparable to that of insulation oil under the pressure of
0.1-0.2MPa (gauge pressure, 20oC).

C.2.2. Gas pressure

The insulating and cooling characteristics become better if the gas pressure is higher. On the
other hand, the weight of a tank and coolers become heavier as the gas pressure increases.
Generally, rated gas pressure is chosen between 0.11 and 0.45MPa (gauge pressure, 20oC). It
should be noted that the pressure vessel code of each country affects the tank design.

C.2.3. Core
The core constructions of GIT are the same as OIT. The number of cooling ducts in GIT is
larger than that of OIT due to the difference in cooling characteristics.

C.2.4. Windings
The impulse ratio (a dielectric strength ratio between lightning impulse voltage and AC
voltage) of SF6 gas is smaller than that of insulation oil. The insulation design of windings is
mainly determined by the lightning impulse withstand voltage. Interleaved or internal shield
windings with a high potential distribution are generally used for the windings with the
voltage class of 66kV and higher.
C.2.5. Conductor insulation
Plastic films or aramide papers are used for the conductor insulation instead of insulation
papers as in OIT. This is the reason for the high dielectric strength in gas as well as high
thermal resistant temperature.

The most typical film is polyethylene tereohthalate (PET). This film has high mechanical
strength as well as a dielectric strength, and also has high thermal resistant temperature and
is widely available. PET films can be used at higher temperatures than insulating papers in
OIT. The maximum allowable temperature for PET films is 120 or 130oC, while oil
impregnated insulation paper is 105oC. This allows the temperature rise limit of windings in
GIT to go higher than that of OIT.

C.2.6. Conservator
OIT require conservators to absorb the volume variation of insulating oil due to the
temperature variation. GIT do not require any conservators because SF6 gas can expand and
absorb the temperature variation.

C.2.7. On load tap changer

Vacuum switches are used for arcing contacts of the diverter switch in order to prevent SF6
gas from decomposition. Roller-type contacts are used for movable contacts of the selector
switch in order to prevent wear caused by frequent operations.

C.2.8. Cooler and gas blower

The cooling capability of SF6 gas is lower than that of insulation oil. A large volume of SF6
gas must be circulated to obtain the required cooling performance, and gas blowers are used
for this purpose.

There are several types of coolers in GIT such as gas/air radiators, gas/air unit coolers and
gas/water unit coolers. These are the same as OIT.
D. GAS INSULATED TRANSFORMERS AND REACTORS - IMPURITIES

D.1. Introduction

Gas analysis provides useful information for the identification of internal abnormalities in
GITs. A method has been established to identify abnormal conditions by the ratio of by-
products such as decomposition gas, rather than simply determining if SF6 gas
decomposition gas is present.

D.2. Definition of condition

D.2.1. Caution level

Internal trouble identified by the presence of low level decomposition gas by-products in the
GIT.

D.2.2. Abnormal level

Internal trouble identified by the presence of by-products above defined levels in the GIT.

D.2.3. Ratio of decomposition gas components in abnormal conditions

Ratio of (CO2/CO) components is useful for diagnosis techniques for GIT, which are
generated from cellulose material in GIT.

D.3. Diagnosis of (CO2/CO) concentration level

D.3.1. (CO2/CO) concentration level WITHOUT absorbers

In accordance with some studies, the types and amounts of decomposition by-products can
indicate abnormal conditions such as local overheating or electrical discharge in GIT.
Overheating of insulating materials produces decomposition gases such as CO2, CO,
acetaldehyde and methanol. SO2, SOF2 and CF4 are detected in the case of partial
discharge.

It is known that CO or CO2 generation from cellulose material is tens or hundreds of times
more than that from PET film which is used for the winding insulator of GIT, so that almost
all CO or CO2 in GIT has been generated from cellulose material such as the press-board
near the winding. Criteria of CO density for the caution level on low pressure GIT is set at
300ppmv, which value is the same as the caution level for oil transformers.

The ratio of (CO2/CO) is a useful diagnosis technique to identify overheating of solid

insulators. The amount of CO2 generated with the aging of the solid insulators is more than
that of CO.

The ETRA technical report Vol. 54- No.5 (ETRA: Electric Technology Research Association
in Japan) contains a study done under experimental conditions, showing the relation between
(CO2/CO) generated by heating cellulose to different temperatures without any absorbents.

(1) The higher the temperature, the smaller the ratio of (CO2/CO) generated.
(2) At 150oC, which is the maximum short-time temperature allowed for cellulose
insulators, the ratio of (CO2/CO) is around 6. If the value is under 6, the
temperature shown will be more than 150 deg C.
(3) Therefore, the criteria of the ratio of (CO2/CO) for overheat phenomena in GIT
WITHOUT absorbent is less than 6.

D.3.1.1. Influence of absorb phenomenon into pressboard

The influence of absorption into the press-board should be put into consideration. A number
of experiments have been undertaken to determine the adsorbent characteristics of
pressboards with respect to CO and CO2.

CO2 and CO were not adsorbed into the press-board even after 800 hours in a case where
densities were 500ppmv and 4000ppmv for CO and CO2 respectively.

Absorption occurs at high densities (several %) of CO and CO2, but it hardly occurs at low
densities of CO and CO2, such as several hundred ppmv and several thousand ppmv order.

D.3.2. Influence and correction of (CO2/CO) density WITH absorbers

The ratio of (CO2/CO) without absorbent showing the overheat phenomena at the
temperature of more than 150oC is 6. On the other hand, Zeolite in GIT as an absorbent
absorbs more CO2 but less CO in SF6 gas. Therefore, adequate corrections should be made
to the criteria of the ratio of (CO2/CO), set at 6.
ETRA technical report Vol. 54- No.5 shows the relation between temperature and absorption
ratio of CO2 in SF6 gas
(1) As the temperature increases, the adsorption ratio of CO2 becomes lower.
(2) As the amount of absorbent increases, more CO2 is absorbed. If the amount of
absorbent is 2% of SF6 gas weight and the average gas temperature is 40oC, 35% of
CO2 is absorbed by absorption material and 65% remains in the gas.
In a case where the absorbent inclusion is with a mass ratio of 2% and SF6 gas temperature
is 40, the corrected value is approx. 4 (=6 * 65% (correction coefficient).
Therefore, the criteria of the ratio of (CO2/CO) for overheat phenomena in GIT WITH
absorbent is less than 4.

Note that this criterion is applicable when absorbent inclusion is with a mass ratio of 2% and
SF6 gas temperature is 40. Correction is required if the absorbent inclusion or SF6 gas
temperature differs.

D.3.3. Decomposed components from SF6 gas

Normally, SF6 gas does not disassociate under normal conditions. Sulphur and fluorine
based components should be generated with the disassociating of SF6 gas and therefore,
monitoring the presence of these components or by-products can lead to the identification of
abnormal conditions in GIT. HF and F- are the best components to detect any problems.

D.3.3.1. Caution Level

Only a limited amount of HF and F-are allowed to be contained in industrial SF6 gas (ex.
IEC 60376 and ATSM D2472-92). The caution level of HF is determined as 1ppmv and for
-
F is determined as 0,1 ppmw which are the lowest detection limits.
Note:
The molecule mass of SF6 is 146 and that of HF is 20, i.e., 1 ppmw HF in SF6 gas =
7.3ppmv HF. Therefore, 1ppmv HF corresponds to 1/ 7.3 approx. 0.1ppmw F-.
[Toshi this section needs to be rewritten as it is very confusing]
See the revised explanation (Toshi)

D.3.3.2. Abnormal level

[Toshi again section is confusing and needs work] See the revised explanation (Toshi)
See the revised explanation (Toshi)
The abnormal level of HF is determined as 10 ppmv and abnormal level for F- is determined
for 1 ppmw.

Table A.5.2 Specification and acceptance of new SF6 as per IEC 60376
Maximum permitted
Impurity or group
concentration
of impurities
mass by mass
CF4 0,24%w
Oxygen nitrogen, air 0,2%w
Water 25ppmw
Acidity expressed as HF 1ppmw
Oil content 10ppmw

D.3.3.3. Benefit to use HF as a target gas in GIT/ GIR

In GIS gas analysis, SO2 is usually used as a target gas. Table A.5.3 shows the difference
between SO2 and HF in GIT. HF shall be rapidly formed in GIT in consequence of both
overheat & discharge. And HF detection shows the continuous generation of HF in GIT since
it is quite reactive. In this regards, HF is more adequate as a target gas for GIT diagnosis.

Table A.5.3 Difference between SO2 and HF

Gas Feature Formed when Remarks
SO2 Stable Formed in GIT mainly in
Easy to detect consequence of overheat
HF Reactive Rapidly formed in GIT in Reactive but on the other
Easy to detect consequence of both hand, HF detection shows
overheat & discharge that HF forms
continuously

D.3.4. Criteria - density of marker gases for SF6 decomposition analysis

D.3.4.1. CO density criteria for low pressure GIT

The criterion of CO density in conventional OIT is currently determined as 300ppmv, and
same practice is adopted for the low pressure GIT.

D.3.4.2. CO density criteria for high pressure GIT

As shown before, the criteria of CO density of GIT is set at 300ppmv, which value is the
same as the caution level of oil transformers.
CO is generated from insulation materials. The density of CO depends on the amount of
gases and is proportional to gas pressure. Therefore, corrections of the criteria may be
necessary for various gas pressure conditions.
The correction shall not be based on gauge pressure (MPa), but on absolute pressure (MPa
abs). For example, when the pressure of high pressure transformer is 0.4MPa-gauge (i.e.,
0.24MPa abs), and low pressure transformer is 0.14MPa-gause (i.e., 0.5MPa abs), the
pressure ratio is 2, as shown in the formula below.

(0.4+0.1) / (0.14+0.1) = 2.0

If the criterion of CO for low pressure GIT (@ 0.24MPa abs) is 300ppmv, the value for high
pressure GIT (@ 0.5MPa abs) should be 150ppmv (= 300ppmv / 2.0), so that the CO
quantity (number of molecules) in those two gases generated from the insulation material
under the same pressure are the same.

D.3.4.3. HF density criteria for low pressure GIT and high pressure GIT
The criterion of HF is based on the volume density allowed for new SF6 gas. The same
criteria shall be adopted for both low pressure GIT and high pressure GIT since the allowed
density of HF in SF6 gas is the same.

D.3.4.4. Interposition of insulation materials

The insulation materials resolution in GIT with SF6 gas may generate Fluoride gas such as
CF4, C2F6 and so on. CF4 is determined as a good marker for the resolution of insulation
materials, because it is chemically steady, it is not adsorbed into insulators and absorption
materials, it is not generated with aging, it is analysed easily and so on.

CF4 is allowed to be contained in the new SF6 gas, but the increase tendency of CF4 density
should be used as a marker to determine the caution level.

D.3.5. Conclusion
The results of these discussions are shown in Table A.5.3.

Table A.5.3 Criteria of components

Components applicable for analysis Caution level Abnormal level
HF In excess of 1ppmv In excess of 10ppmv

F- In excess of 0.1ppmw In excess of 1ppmw

Components originating
from decomposition of SF6
SF6 gas decomposition
components If detected -
containing other
S or F
In excess of 300ppmv
Components originating CO (In excess of 150ppmv for high -
from decomposition of pressure GIT)
Insulating materials
CF4 If tendency to increase is noted -
E. CIRCUIT-BREAKER DESIGN PRINCIPLES

The second parameter affecting the amount of gas decomposition products is the circuit-
breaker design, which influences the arcing period in several ways. The main topics of
circuit-breaker design in respect of SF6 gas decay are the working principle as well as the
contact materials and insulating parts which are affected by the arc.

Current circuit-breakers use two different working principles, which vary on the way of how
to provide the gas pressure required for arc extinguishing.

E.1. Circuit-breakers using compressing volumes (also called puffer-type)

In the older generations of circuit-breakers this pressure was built up by reducing the size of
a volume (compressing volume) using the energy from the driving mechanism. Thereby cold
gas is compressed to a pressure of approximately 20 bars. When the current approaches
current zero this gas is directed towards the arc to cool it down and de-ionize the arc so that
the dielectric between the contacts is re-established quickly. This principle is independent of
the value of current to be switched and worked with double nozzle systems as well as the
isolating nozzle system, which differs mainly in the number of contacts sets and the volume
directly affected by an arc.

E.2. Circuit-breakers using compressing volumes with isolating nozzle design

Isolating nozzle systems use two contact systems which are arranged coaxially with the
isolating nozzle in between. The outer contact system is used for carrying the normal current
when the circuit-breaker is in a closed position (main contacts). The inner contact system is
used for arcing during the switching operations (arcing contacts) and is surrounded closely
by the isolating nozzle, which confines the arc in a very small volume and streamlines the
gas around the arc. Due to the direct contact of the arc with the isolating nozzle, significant
portions of the nozzle material are decomposed. Even though a portion of this gas is pressed
back to the compression volume by the thermal effects of the arc, the gas in this volume is
heated up only marginally.

In the main contact system only weak arcing occurs during commutation of current from the
arcing contacts during closing and to the arcing contacts during opening also.
 1 Upper contact support
2 Fixed arcing contact
3 Moving arcing contact
4 Compressing volume
5 Lower contact support
6 Isolating nozzle
7 Fixed main contact
8 Moving main contact
9 Compressing cylinder
10 Refill valve
11 Fixed piston

Open position
Closed position

Figure : Isolating nozzle interrupter systems with compressing volume

E.3. Circuit-breakers using compressing volumes with double nozzle design

Double nozzle systems have only one contact system with a diameter in between both of the
contact systems of an isolating nozzle system. This bigger diameter reduces the influence of
the arc to the isolating materials around, and leads to a bigger volume in the arcing gap which
affects the recombination of the gas byproducts positively.

1 Upper fixed contact tube

2 Blast cylinder
3 Blast lattice
4 Moving contact tube
5 Contact fingers
6 Arc quenching nozzle
7 Arc quenching nozzle
8 Blast piston
9 Lower fixed contact tube

Closed position
Open position

Figure : Double nozzle interrupter systems ( Siemens)

E.4. Circuit-breakers using heating volumes (also known as self-blast or arc-
assisted)

The latest generation of circuit-breakers works with isolating nozzle systems only and, in
addition to the gas compression used in the puffer-type breakers, also uses the energy from the
arc for heating up and compressing the gas in a special volume (heating volume) inside the
interrupter. Inside this volume the pressure rises over 50 bars and the temperature reaches
values over 1000C. This gas contains considerable amounts of decomposed material from the
isolating nozzle and is not cooled by fresh compressed gas. Also, after extinguishing the arc,
this gas maintains its very high temperature. It will eventually be cooled down by mixing with
the remaining gas in the circuit-breaker during gas circulation through the housing. Also,
special coolers which dissipate energy from the exhaust by vaporizing themselves are used.
For lower currents with insufficient heating energy in the arc, only the compressing gas
volume is used.

1 Upper contact support

2 Fixed arcing contact
3 Moving arcing contact
4 Heating volume
5 Compressing volume
6 Refill valve
7 Fixed piston
8 Isolating nozzle
9 Fixed main contact
10 Moving main contact
11 Heating volume valve
12 Compressing cylinder
13 Over pressure relief valve
14 Lower contact support

Closed position Open position

Figure : Isolating nozzle interrupter

systems with heating volume (
ABB)
E.5. Switching duties of circuit-breakers

Switching duties of circuit-breakers can be divided in three groups : No-load operations,

normal load switching and fault switching duties. The first group covers any switching
operation without electrical stress. The second group covers the (daily) intentional switching
of capacitive, inductive or resistive loads under normal conditions with current up to the
normal current of the circuit-breaker. The third group contains any switching operation,
intentional or automatically provoked by a protection relay, under abnormal system
conditions, like switching operations in present of short-circuits or under out-of-phase
conditions.

All three groups contain opening as well as closing operations with different reactions to the
circuit-breaker. It is assumed that a type tested circuit-breaker will operate in service with all
parameters up to its ratings in correct manner. If a circuit-breaker fails during an operation in
service an overstress, an internal damage, a malfunction or another unfavourable situation
should be assumed. Depending on the switching duties different failure modes are possible.
No-load operations

During these switching operations no electrical stress (current or voltage) is applied to the
circuit-breaker. So the interrupter units may only be harmed by mechanical stress like
friction or impact, especially if the interrupter units are electrically pre-stressed. There is no
generation of by-products during these operations, but the SF6 can be polluted with abrasion
or slivers.

Load switching duties

These switching duties are characterised besides relatively low breaking currents (up to and
including the normal current) by the high number of operations. In special applications like
melting furnaces or filter banks several operations per day may be performed. Depending on
the kind of load high electrical stress may occur during making operation.

E.6. Capacitive current switching

During breaking operations the load current is normally lower, than the normal current of the
circuit-breaker, for which reason only minor wear on contact and insulating materials and
also only insignificant amount of by-products are produced.

During making operations the inrush current is defined by the capacitance of the load on one
side of the circuit-breaker, the source on the opposite side and all damping elements in-
between, as reactance of the line or physical damping reactors. In unfavourable arrangements
like capacitor banks or cables in back-to-back constellation, the peak current can reach some
10.000 Amperes and the frequency some 1.000 Hertz. Even though the current is less than
the rated short-circuit current, in combination with the high frequency it may produce
intensive wear on contact and insulating materials.
E.7. Inductive current switching

During breaking operations the load current is normally less than the normal current of the
circuit-breaker, for which reason only minor wear on contact and insulating materials and
also only insignificant amount of by-products are produced.

During making operations the inrush current is defined by the inductance of the load on one
side of the circuit-breaker, the source on the opposite side and all damping elements in-
between, like reactance of the line or physical damping resistors.

The peak current can reach some 1.000 Amperes. Even the current is less than the rated
short-circuit current, in combination with the high frequency it may produce intensive wear
on contact and insulating materials.

Because the inrush current is also a high stress for the reactors or transformers, special
measures for the circuit-breaker to prohibit or damp the inrush like point on wave switching
or closing resistors are requested by the users.

Fault switching duties

These switching duties cover the switching of short-circuits close to the terminals of circuit-
breaker (terminal fault, TF) or on a transmission line in a short distance to the circuit-breaker
(short line fault, SLF) and also the switching under out-of-phase conditions.

The breaking currents which occur under these conditions are defined by the impedance of
the system and are normally higher than the rated current. They can reach the value of the
rated short-circuit breaking current of the circuit-breaker, which normally corresponds with
10 times its rated current. Because the energy in the arc is proportional to the square of the
current, a high wear of contact and insulating materials and also a high generation of by-
products can be expected during these switching operations. Normally higher currents lead
to longer arcing times, by what the wear of contact and insulating materials and also a high
production of by-products is affected in two ways. Especially during interruption of an
asymmetric short-circuit current, where a DC component of up to the half of the short-circuit
breaking current shifts this current from zero line, the energy transfer to the materials in the
interrupter units is very high. Therefore the manufacturers set limits of the number of these
operations in the operating manuals.

During making operations the current can reach higher values than the rated short circuit
current, depending on the moment of initiation of the pre-arc. A making operation close to
the instant of voltage zero leads to an asymmetrical current with a peak of nearly 2,7 times
the rated short circuit current. Thereby the contact distance in the interrupter unit is so small
that the pre-arcing time is reduced, which prevent high wear of the materials in the
interrupter units. Pre-arcs occurring close to the voltage peak leads only to a symmetrical
current in range of the rated short circuit current, but with longer pre-arcing times.

E.8. Behaviour of circuit-breakers during breaking operations

During a breaking operation of a circuit-breaker an arc is established between the arcing

contacts of the interrupter unit at the instant of their separation. This arc extinguishes
autonomously during the zero crossing of the current. In the subsequent period the dielectric
strength of the contact gap, which depends on several parameters like their distance, the
pressure and temperature of SF6 gas in between, determines about a successful interruption
or the sequel of current flow.

If the dielectric strength of the gap is insufficient to withstand the recovery voltage, the arc
re-establishes and the current flows for an additional half period to the next current zero,
where this procedure recurs. In cases of small contact gap distances offering low dielectric
strength this behaviour is normal and doesn't indicates a failure of the interrupter unit, if the
circuit-breaker extinguishes the arc in a subsequent current zero (with a longer arcing time).

In unusual cases, direct after arc extinction, the voltage recovers over the contact gap,
because the dielectric strength is sufficient for this period, but it breaks down after a while.
An arc re-establishes between the contacts of the circuit-breaker and may harm any material
whichever it touches. If the circuit-breaker is unable to extinguish the arc in a later current
zero, it fails this breaking operation. If the circuit-breaker interrupts the current in a later
attempt successfully, it doesn't fail the breaking operation, however it shows a weakness. In
both cases, which may be caused by several effects (see also chapter Electrical failures
above), additional wear (more as expected for a normal breaking operation) on contact and
insulating materials is generated. Hereby also materials which are normally not affected by
the arc may be harmed, especially insulating materials may be tracked or punctured.

AC by-pass switches (for series capacitors installation).

AC by-pass switches are normally modifications of standard AC circuit-breakers, to meet the

special requirements for the usage in series capacitor installations. In case of a short circuit
on the transmission line the high short circuit current endanger the series capacitor and
provoke a very high voltage across its terminals. In order to protect the series capacitor the
by-pass switch will close and short circuit the series capacitor. During this operation the
making current, a combination of the line fault current and the capacitor bank discharge
current, reaches a peak value of up to 100 kA with a frequency in order of 1.000 Hz. To re-
insert the series capacitor the by-pass switch has to commutate a current in the range of its
normal current against a capacitive TRV, which corresponds to a frequency of approximately
100 Hz. The stress on the by-pass switch during operation and the failure modes are similar
to circuit-breakers, if the high values for the by-pass making current and its frequency are
considered.

Switches for use in HVDC-systems

In HVDC-systems modifications of standard AC circuit-breaker are used for several duties :

By-passing of the valve towers, disconnecting transmission lines and cables or commutation
duties in the grounding system of the DC switchyard. During breaking operations these
switches normally work in combination with additional equipment in the substation which
produces the current zeros which the switches need to extinguish the arc. Caused by the
response times of these assistances the arcing times may be longer than for standard AC
circuit-breakers. The breaking current is in a range up to the rated nominal current of the
switch. Caused by the nature of DC installations trapped charges may become more
important as reasons for failures of the switches.
E.9. DC by-pass switches

In cases of failures inside of the thyristor valves DC by-pass switches short-circuit the failed
valve tower and the associated one in the opposite station in order to enable a mono polar
service using the transmission line of the failed polarity as metal return. During a
closing/making operation normally the DC system is inoperative and the DC by-pass switch
closes nearly without any electrical stress. During opening/breaking operation the thyristors
are fired again with a setting for a reduced load flow and the current commutates from the
DC by-pass switch to the thyristors. Due to the low currents during both switching
operations the wear of the contact and insulating materials is only minor.

E.10. DC disconnector switches (Siemens designation)

DC disconnector switches are used for disconnecting/connecting the transmission lines in

cases of failures or service activities, respectively. During closing/making operation the
inrush current can reach peak values of 100 kA with frequencies of some 1000 Hz,
depending on the kind of the transmission line, overhead line or cable. These parameters are
higher than during by-pass making operations of a by-pass switch and much higher than for
capacitive current back-to-back making duty of circuit-breakers. So the wear should be in the
same scale as for these switching duties. During opening/breaking operation the thyristors
are normally switched off and the DC disconnect switch will operate nearly without any
electrical stress. Due to the low currents during this switching operation the wear of contact
and insulating materials is only less.

E.11. DC commutation switches

DC commutation switches are used in the earth path of a DC switchyard to change between
different return paths or earth connections. During these commutation operations the current,
limited to the overload current of the DC system, commutates in another branch. Because the
used modifications of AC circuit-breakers need still a current zero to extinguish the arc,
oscillation circuits are installed in parallel to these switches. The current in the oscillation
circuit is triggered by the voltage drop of the arc in the commutation switch and build up
until it reaches the same peak value as the current in the commutation switch, which gets a
current zero at this instant. Depending on the design of the oscillating circuits the arcing time
in the commutation switch can reach some 10 ms. The wear of contact and insulating
materials is comparable to normal load switching duties of standard AC circuit-breakers.
Interpretation of switching duties
Normally the wear of contact and insulating materials or the contents of by-products in the
SF6 gas, which occurs during service, has no influence on the switching performance of the
equipment. This is proved during type tests where the circuit-breaker have to interrupt the
full rated short circuit current during terminal fault test duties T100a (at least four times with
full asymmetry) or T100s (at least five times symmetrically), within less than one hour. On
the other hand the amount of by-products generated during one switching operation will
easily be able to mask the generation of by-products by other failures in the circuit-breaker.
So it is absolutely necessary to know the history of each circuit-breaker pole to interpret the
contents of by-products in a circuit-breaker.
F. INSTRUMENTS AND MEASUREMENT METHODOLOGIES (ROLAND &
PETER S, PETER J, ISABELLE)

IEC 60480 standard p33 2 tables: on site and on laboratory [The following is basically a
repetrepeat of IEC 60480 Annex B]

Include a summary table in each sub-section that identifies the key parameters
Substance to be measured
Principle
Measurement range + units
Accuracy
SF6 volume spent
Calibration
Cross sensitivity of sensors
Analysis time
Special consideration power supply.

F.1. On site measuring methods and devices

[See IEC 60480, Clause 9.2] The impurities identified during inspection, such as moisture,
air, oil and decomposition products (e.g. SO2), are part of the normal aging process of the gas
and are caused as a result of operation. The operator can analyse these impurities on site with
different methods described in this chapter. [Question are on-site measurements simply
meant to be screening tests to determine what treatment, if any, needs to be applied to the
gas. Or can some of the results be applied for condition assessment?]

F.1.1. Measuring devices for decomposition products

F.1.1.1. Test tubes for measuring device

These measuring devices make use of the

chemical reaction in a special test tube to
cause a change of colour. Such test tubes are
available for different gases. A defined
quantity of measuring medium is fed
through the test tube within a set period of
time. The discolouration of the test tube
scale indicates the gaseous decomposition
product of the SF6 to be measured in
quantitative terms.

Tubes are calibrated for SO2 but are also

sensitive to other decomposition by products
like SOF2 which can influence the reaction
time to SO2.

Furthermore, the measuring gas has to be collected after flowing through the test tube. The
gas quantity is to be measured or limited at the same time. For this purpose, collecting
vessels or flexible plastic bags are available which can be emptied again by using discharge
gas collection units.

In most cases the quantity needed is about 1 - 2 l. No calibration is required but the expiry
date of the test tubes must be observed.

For example the following chemical reaction causes a colour change in an SO 2 gas detector
tube:

SO2 + I2 + 2H2O H2SO4 + 2 HI

The following reaction takes place in an HF gas detector tube (by Drger, Germany):

HF + Zr(OH)4/chinalizarine [ZrF6]2- + chinalizarine

Test tubes to measure the following substances are available:

Substance to Measuring Accuracy Gas volume Measuremen

be detected range necessary t time
approx.
SO2 0,1 3 ppm Vol. 10 15 % 12l 20 min.
0,5 5 ppm Vol. 10 15 % 12 6 min.
1 25 ppm Vol. 10 15 % 12 3 min.
20 200 ppm Vol. 10 15 % 12 3 min
50 500 ppm Vol. 10 15 % 12 3 min.
400 8000 ppm 10 15 % 12 15 sec.
Vol.

HF 0,5 - 15 ppm Vol. 20 30 % 12 2 min

10 90 ppm Vol. 20 30 % 12 25 sec.
Oil mist 1 10 mg/m 30 % 12 25 min.
Water vapor 0,1 - 1 mg/l 15 20 % 12 1,5 min.
1 40 mg/l 10 15 % 12 2 min.

Test tubes are cross sensitive to other by-products and therefore any measurement is an
estimate of the decomposition by-product. This issue is considered in more detail in CIGRE
SF6 Recycling Guide [234].

F.1.1.2. Measuring devices with electrochemical measuring cell

The chemical reaction in the measuring cell is used. In this case an electrical measuring
signal is produced which refers to a quantitative relation to the measuring medium. The
electrical signal is processed in a measuring amplifier and the result is indicated digitally.
The accuracy is at a low percentage of the final value which can be measured and is
therefore higher than that of the test tubes.
F.1.1.2.1. Electrochemical sensors (SO2 and HF)
An electrochemical sensor is based on an electrode system and an electrolyte calibrated to
detect the substance being measured.
SO2 sensor
The SF6 is diffused into the SO2 sensor, where it reacts with the measuring electrode in an
oxidation process according to the following equation:

Equation 1: Measurement process

Sulphur dioxide (SO2): SO2 + 2H2O = H2SO4 + 2H+ + 2e-

The counter-electrode attempts to equalise the reaction at the measuring electrode by

reducing the oxygen, which causes water to be produced.

Equation 2: Equalising reaction:

Oxygen reduction: O2 + 2H+ + 2e- = H2O

Two reactions reflect the entire measurement cell reaction as follows:

SO2 + O2 + H2O = H2SO4

If SO2 is present in the SF6 being measured, Equation 1 changes its electrochemical
potential, with the result that electrons are given off. As a result, a voltage change is
detected. This is converted into a concentration value (ppmv values) by means of an
electronic evaluation mechanism.

HF sensor
In an HF sensor, HF reacts with the electrolyte in the form of an electrocatalytic reduction
that produces a pH change in the electrolyte. This change results in a potential change at the
sensor's electrodes, which is converted into a concentration value (ppm v values) by means of
an electronic evaluation mechanism.

Instruments are available to measure the following substances - (Roland to complete table,
copied from section on test tubes)

Substance to Measuring Accuracy Gas volume Cross Measuremen

be detected range necessary sensitivities t time
approx.
SO2 0,1 3 ppm Vol. 10 15 % 12l 20 min.
HF 0,5 - 15 ppm Vol. 20 30 % 12 2 min

F.1.1.2.2. Ion mobility spectrometry (IMS)

IMS works by measuring the speed at which charged gas molecules (ions) move (drift) in an
electric field at atmospheric pressure. The ions are separated according to the different drift
speeds, which will depend on the mass, charge and geometric structure of the ions.

Once they have drifted through the electric field, the ions reach a detector and return a time-
dependent signal. By comparing the ion mobility spectrum of a pure SF 6 gas (minimum
quality 3.0) with that of an impure SF6 gas, it is possible to detect a deterioration in the SF6
gas mixture. The shift in the peak position is interpreted as a signal. The example in the
graphic clearly shows the peak position of the gas under analysis (originating from
switchgear, for example), and its distance from the main peak of a comparison spectrum of
pure SF6.

Peak shift
*)
u.
a.
/
al
n
g
Si

(> 1000 ppm By-products)

Drifttime [ms]

The visible peak shift toward longer drift times corresponds to the production of different
by-products. The peak shift results from the formation of ions with different mobilities,
while a widening of the peak indicates a wide variety of ions resulting from impurities in the
gas. Comparison measurements using an infra-red spectrometer were used as the basis for
identifying a correlation between the total concentration of by-products ( SO2, HF, SOF2,
SOF4, SO2F2, S2F10, SiF4) and the maximum peak shift. Based on this correlation, it is
possible to determine the quality of the SF6 and quantify the level of impurity.

Instruments are available to measure the following substances - (Roland to complete table,
copied from section on test tubes)

Substance to Measuring Accuracy Gas volume Cross Measuremen

be detected range necessary sensitivities t time
approx.
SO2 0,1 3 ppm Vol. 10 15 % 12l 20 min.
HF 0,5 - 15 ppm Vol. 20 30 % 12 2 min
F.2. Moisture measuring devices

F.2.1. Dewpoint mirror (physical measurement principle)

In chilled-mirror dewpoint hygrometers, the SF6 to be analysed is passed over a mirror that is
cooled down to the dewpoint temperature of the SF 6 gas by means of a Peltier element.
Dewpoint hygrometers use an optoelectronic mechanism to detect the condensation on the
basis of the reduction in intensity of the light reflected by the mirror. The electronic control
mechanism modulates the power supply to the Peltier element so that the cooling of the
mirror is directly dependent on the optically detected condensation, and controls the
temperature of the mirror to maintain a dynamic equilibrium between evaporation and
condensation on the mirror. In this continuously regulated state defined as the dewpoint
temperature of a gas, an embedded temperature sensor measures the temperature on the
surface of the mirror.

The accuracy of such devices is the highest in the moisture measuring technique with the
tolerance for measurements in SF6 being about 0,2 - 0.5 C dew point. Furthermore, there is
no drifting problem in the course of time and the resistance to decomposition products is
higher than that of devices with sensors. The required gas quantity is lower than that of
devices with electronic sensors.

Until recently, manually operated dew mirrors were available on the market. The mirror was
cooled with dry ice or similar and observed. Then the dew point was determined with the
measured temperature during the formation and disappearance of the condensation on the
mirror (dew). The measurement is time consuming and requires certain experience and does
not obtain the accuracy of the automatic dew mirror.

F.2.2. Electronic dewpoint hygrometer (capacitive)

An electronic dewpoint hygrometer measures the absorption of water molecules by a
substance such as ceramic, aluminium oxide or polymer. Tiny quantities of water vapour
accumulate in the substance, which functions as a dielectric in a condenser, and change the
capacity of the condenser. This change is detected by an electronic evaluation mechanism
and forwarded to a central processor, which converts it into a moisture value and outputs it.

Cover
electrode
Contact spot
(Cover electrode connection area wire)

Ground electrode
+ Contact area

Base

Source: CS Instruments
The sensors are to be checked and re-calibrated if necessary once a year as for the electronic
moisture sensors a certain drift has to be expected. The accuracy is about 2 - 3 C dew point.
The required gas quantity per measurement is between 3 and 10 l, depending on the moisture
content. The devices are simple to operate. As they are only connected and purged for a short
time the measuring result is to be read after slowing down of the indication. Some devices
allow measurements with and without pressure. As, different dew points are measured at
different measuring pressures they must be converted for direct comparison. Moisture
indications in ppm-volume or ppm-mass are usual.
The measuring values can either be converted by using tables of diagrams or by means of the
integrated process control.

Instruments are available to measure the following substances - (Roland to complete table)

Substance to Measuring Accuracy Gas volume Cross Measuremen

be detected range necessary sensitivities t time
approx.
SO2 0,1 3 ppm Vol. 10 15 % 12l 20 min.
HF 0,5 - 15 ppm Vol. 20 30 % 12 2 min

F.3. Measurement of SF6 content

There are different measuring principles. The measurement of the velocity of sound and the
thermal conductivity in the measuring medium are usual. But recently there have been
devices which are operated by measurement of condensation points. The measuring results
are mostly indicated digitally.

F.3.1. Measurement of the sound velocity

This measurement principle works by evaluating the different sound velocities of gases. The
sound velocity in nitrogen is normally around 337 m/s and for SF6 is around 130 m/s. The
sound velocity measured in the measurement cell is temperature-compensated and is
converted into the percentage SF6 volume assuming that the mixture is composed only of
SF6 and nitrogen. Since the velocity of sound in oxygen is similar to that in nitrogen the
results are applicable for an SF6/air mixture. The accuracy of such devices is 1 % SF6
content.

It is also possible to calibrate the instrument for a mixture of SF6 and CF4. In case of heavy
contamination by decomposition products or mixtures with individual gases no measurement
is possible and there is the risk of damaging the devices.
* One point to note is that when using sound velocity technique, SF6 gas measurements will overstate the
quantity of SF6 gas in the presence of decomposition by-products since the decomposition by-products have
similar density properties as SF6.

F.3.2. Thermal conductivity detector

Thermal conductivity detectors (TCDs) continually measure the thermal conductivity of the
SF6 using the heated-filament method. The accuracy of TCDs is typically lower than on the
previously mentioned type. Need more detail on this technique (Roland/Neil)
Instruments are available to measure the following substances - (Roland to complete table)

Substance to Measuring Accuracy Gas volume Cross Measuremen

be detected range necessary sensitivities t time
approx.
SO2 0,1 3 ppm Vol. 10 15 % 12l 20 min.
HF 0,5 - 15 ppm Vol. 20 30 % 12 2 min

F.4. Measurement of oxygen content

[Question can all the instruments identified below be used on site Section 8.1 deals with
Site Measurements?]

Oxygen is a reactive gas that reacts along with moisture to form HF, SO2 & SOF2 and
without its presence the levels of Arc Breakdown Products would be reduced. Measuring
oxygen gives a good indication of the amount of air contamination there has occurred whilst
in service.

The effects of Partial Pressure on leaking GIS can lead to air and water contamination within
the switchgear or plant. Also, air contamination of gas filling hoses etc. can also be another
source of air contamination. Measuring Nitrogen alone (as 71% of Air) will not give the
amount of air contamination as the GIS are usually flooded with nitrogen during
manufacture to dispel the air.

Today's oxygen analyzers use one of a several types of oxygen sensors. As industrial process
applications call for improved measurement accuracy and repeatability, users of oxygen
analyzers are also demanding oxygen analyzers that require a minimum of maintenance and
calibration. To this end, users of oxygen analyzers are encouraged to evaluate the merits of a
particular oxygen sensor type in context to the application for which it is intended. There is
no one universal oxygen analyzer type.

The synoptic review of the various gas phase oxygen sensors provided below should be used
in conjunction with information gathered from manufacturers of oxygen analyzers. This
combination will help to ensure the selection of the right sensor type for the application
under consideration.

F.4.1. Electrochemical-Oxygen Analyzer:

The ambient temperature electrochemical sensor, often referred to as a galvanic sensor, is
typically a small, partially sealed, cylindrical device (1-1/4 diameter by 0.75 height)
[Metric dimensions?] that contains two dissimilar electrodes immersed in an aqueous
electrolyte, commonly potassium hydroxide. As oxygen molecules diffuse through a semi-
permeable membrane installed on one side of the sensor, the oxygen molecules are reduced
at the cathode to form a positively charge hydroxyl ion. The hydroxyl ion migrates to the
sensor anode where an oxidation reaction takes place. The resultant reduction/oxidation
reaction generates an electrical current proportional to the oxygen concentration in the
sample gas. The current generated is both measured and conditioned with external
electronics and displayed on a digital panel meter either in percent or parts per million
concentrations. With the advance in mechanical designs, refinements in electrode materials,
and enhanced electrolyte formulations, the galvanic oxygen sensor provides extended life
over earlier versions, and is recognized for its accuracy in both the percent and traces oxygen
ranges. Response times have also been improved.

A major limitation of ambient temperature electrochemical sensors is their susceptibility to

damage when used with samples containing acid gas species such as hydrogen sulfide,
hydrogen chloride, sulphur dioxide, etc. Unless the offending gas constituents are scrubbed
prior to analysis, their presence will greatly shorten the life of the sensor. The galvanic
sensor is also susceptible to over pressurization. For oxygen analyzer applications where the
sample pressure is > 5 psig, [Metric values?] a pressure regulator or control valve is
normally recommended. This type of sensor has been commonly utilised for SF6
applications and is very effective but users must ensure that measures are taken to alleviate
the potential contamination issues mentioned above, including purging the sensor prior to
and after SF6 analysis.

F.4.2. Paramagnetic Oxygen Analyzer

Within this category, the magnetodynamic or `dumbbell' type of design is the predominant
sensor type. Oxygen has a relatively high magnetic susceptibility as compared to other gases
such as nitrogen, helium, argon, etc. and displays a paramagnetic behaviour. The
paramagnetic oxygen sensor consists of a cylindrical shaped container inside of which is
placed a small glass dumbbell. The dumbbell is filled with an inert gas such as nitrogen and
suspended on a taut platinum wire within a non-uniform magnetic field. The dumbbell is
designed to move freely as it is suspended from the wire. When a sample gas containing
oxygen is processed through the sensor, the oxygen molecules are attracted to the stronger of
the two magnetic fields. This causes a displacement of the dumbbell which results in the
dumbbell rotating. A precision optical system consisting of a light source, photodiode, and
amplifier circuit is used to measure the degree of rotation of the dumbbell. In some
paramagnetic oxygen sensor designs, an opposing current is applied to restore the dumbbell
to its normal position. The current required to maintain the dumbbell in its normal state is
directly proportional to the partial pressure of oxygen and is represented electronically in
percent oxygen.

Other types of sensors have been developed that use the susceptibility of oxygen to a
magnetic field which include the thermomagnetic or `magnetic wind' type and the
magnetopneumatic sensor. In general, paramagnetic oxygen sensors offer very good
response time characteristics and use no consumable parts, making sensor life, under normal
conditions, quite good. It also offers excellent precision over a range of 1% to 100% oxygen.
The magnetodynamic sensor is quite delicate and is sensitive to vibration and/or position.
Due to the loss in measurement sensitivity, in general, the paramagnetic oxygen sensor is not
recommended for trace oxygen measurements. Other gases that exhibit a magnetic
susceptibility can produce sizeable measurement errors. Manufacturers of the paramagnetic
oxygen analyzer should provide details on these interfering gases.

F.4.3. Polarographic Oxygen Analyzer

The oxygen analyzer that features a polarographic oxygen sensor is often referred to as a
Clark Cell [J. L. Clark (1822- 1898)]. In this type of sensor, both the anode (typically silver)
and cathode (typically gold) are immersed in an aqueous electrolyte of potassium chloride.
The electrodes are separated from the sample by a semi-permeable membrane that provides
the mechanism to diffuse oxygen into the sensor. The silver anode is typically held at a
potential of 0.8V (polarizing voltage) with respect to the gold cathode. Molecular oxygen is
consumed electrochemically with an accompanying flow of electrical current directly
proportional to the oxygen concentration based on Faraday's law. The current output
generated from the sensor is measured and amplified electronically to provide a percent
oxygen measurement. One of the advantages of the polarographic oxygen sensor is that
while inoperative, there is no consumption of the electrode (anode). Storage times are almost
indefinite. Similar to the galvanic oxygen sensor, they are not position sensitive. Because of
the unique design of the polarographic oxygen sensor, it is the sensor of choice for dissolved
oxygen measurements in liquids. For gas phase oxygen measurements, the polarographic
oxygen analyzer type is suitable for percent level oxygen measurements only which means
that this detector type is not suitable for SF6 Oxygen measurement . The relatively high
sensor replacement frequency is another potential drawback, as is the issue of maintaining
the sensor membrane and electrolyte.

F.4.4. Coulometric Oxygen Sensor Type

A variant to the polarographic Oxygen Analyzer is what some manufacturers refer to as an
oxygen analyzer that uses a non-depleting coulometric sensor where two similar electrodes
are immersed in an electrolyte consisting of potassium hydroxide. Typically, an external
EMF of 1.3 VDC is applied across both electrodes which acts as the driving mechanism for
reduction/oxidation reaction. The electrical current resulting from this reaction is directly
proportional to the oxygen concentration in the sample gas. As is the case with other sensor
types, the signal derived from the sensor is amplified and conditioned prior to displaying.
Unlike the conventional polarographic oxygen sensor, this type of sensor can be used for
both percent and trace oxygen measurements. However, unlike the zirconium oxide, one
sensor cannot be used to measure both high percentage levels as well as trace concentrations
of oxygen. One major advantage of this sensor type is its ability to measure parts per billion
levels of oxygen. The sensors are position sensitive and replacement costs are quite
expensive, in some cases, paralleling that of an entire oxygen analyzer of another sensor
type. They are not recommended for applications where oxygen concentrations exceed 25%
and can also be perceived as too expensive for SF6 trace oxygen measurement applications.

F.4.5. Zirconium Oxide Oxygen Analyzer

The type of oxygen analyzer that uses this type of oxygen sensor is occasionally referred to
as the high temperature electrochemical sensor and is based on the Nernst principle [W. H.
Nernst (1864-1941)]. Zirconium oxide sensors use a solid state electrolyte typically
fabricated from zirconium oxide stabilized with yttrium oxide. The zirconium oxide probe is
plated on opposing sides with platinum which serves as the sensor electrodes. For a
zirconium oxide sensor to operate properly, it must be heated to approximately 650 degrees
Centigrade. At this temperature, on a molecular basis, the zirconium lattice becomes porous,
allowing the movement of oxygen ions from a higher concentration of oxygen to a lower
one, based on the partial pressure of oxygen. To create this partial pressure differential, one
electrode is usually exposed to air (20.9% oxygen) while the other electrode is exposed to
the sample gas. The movement of oxygen ions across the zirconium oxide produces a
voltage between the two electrodes, the magnitude of which is based on the oxygen partial
pressure differential created by the reference gas and sample gas. The zirconium oxide
oxygen sensor exhibits excellent response time characteristics. Another virtue is that the
same sensor can be used to measure 100% oxygen, as well as parts per billion
concentrations. Due to the high temperatures of operation, the life of the sensor can be
shortened by on/off operation. The coefficients of expansions associated with the materials
of construction are such that the constant heating and cooling often causes sensor fatigue.
A major limitation of the zirconium oxide oxygen analyzer is their unsuitability for trace
oxygen measurements when reducing gases (hydrocarbons of any species, hydrogen, and
carbon monoxide) are present in the sample gas. At operating temperatures of 650 degrees
Centigrade, the reducing gases will react with the oxygen, consuming it prior to
measurement thus producing a lower than actual oxygen reading. The magnitude of the error
is proportional to the concentration of reducing gas. The zirconium oxide oxygen analyzer is
the defacto standard for in-situ combustion control applications.

F.4.6. Future Option

Other types of oxygen analyzer types under development and in some cases being used for
specific applications. They include, but are not limited to, luminescence polarization, opto-
chemical sensors, laser gas sensors, et al. As these techniques are further developed and
improved, they may represent viable alternatives to the existing technologies used in today's
oxygen analyzer.

In summary, the most common sensor type suited to SF6 measurements in a trace oxygen
environment continue to be the electrochemical sensor type due to ease of use, reliability,
robustness and cost.

F.5. Multiple measuring devices

[This section needs to be re-written]

A number of test instruments are available which allow the simultaneous measurement of
several parameters of the gas. Typically the parameters measured are SF6 content, oxygen
content, humidity, hydrogen fluoride and sulphur dioxide. They have the advantage that only
a single instrument is required, they reduce the quantity of gas needed and the time required
to complete the measurements.

[Questions what about the accuracy levels, is there a risk of damage when the gas contains
high levels of HF, is there a need for screening of the gas?]

F.5.1. Gas Chromatograph

It is possible to use on site a portable Gas Chromatography having a TCD (thermal
conductivity detector) with a high level of precision in order to determine precisely the level
of Air, CF4, SO2, SOF2 and SO2F2 in SF6 matrix. However high levels of skills are
required to operate these instruments and therefore they do not offer a practicable option.

F.6. Laboratory methods [All this is in iec 60480 Annex b]

Laboratory methods New section from Marie-Claude to be revised by Roland/Marie-

Claude and Peter Sieber

Gas Chromatography coupled with a thermal conductivity detector (GC-TCD)

The used of two different columns (Molecular sieve: N2/O2) and (Hayesep Q: others)
allowed the analyze of the integrity of the gas insulation (SF6, N2, CF4 mixture) and the
detection and the quantification of the major potential contaminant and by-product (O2,
COS, CF4, SO2F2, SOF2 and SO2).

Eammon : do you need detailed conditions of the methods? It is not published yet but it is
not a problem for me. I

Gas chromatography, typical instrument

Analysis of SF6 and CF4 used as an insulation gas mixture

Analysis of N2 as a contaminant in air (O2 and N2) and as an insulation gas mixture

Analysis of the major by-products

10.4.6.2. Gas sampling`

Stainless steel cylinders are required. An enough amount of gas is required with a minimal
pressure to be able to do the analyze and also to be able to do replica. The type of device
allows the user to be sure that the cylinder is still on vacuum when the time to use it comes
and assure also the integrity of the sample before the analysis (no leaks). This system allows
the sampling of almost all insulated compartment without taking to much gas. So the typical
pressure will be between 3.5 10 bar (between 52 psi and 147 psi). This kind of sampling
device can keep a vacuum for several months (3 at list). It can also keep the pressure (the gas
sample) but the users must take into account the stability of the by-products so it is
recommended to do the analysis as soon as possible (not much than 48 hrs if possible).
Figure X: Stainless steel cylinder silanised (ideally). of 500 mL ,

10.4.6.3a) Transferring sample to the instrument

Samples can be transferred automatically in the GC-TCD by the use of an injection valve.
Figure X shows the used of a 16 ports valve connected to 16 stainless steel 500 ml cylinder
ready for gas analysis.
Page 85: do no forget the presence of COS which can be related to the degradation of
organic insulation coating.

F.6.1. Gas Chromatography original text

The gas chromatography is a common type of chromatography used on a gas mixture for
separating and analyzing compounds that can be vaporized without decomposition. It is
composed of a mobile phase (moving phase) a carrier gas, usually an inert gas such as
Helium and of a stationary phase which is a microscopic layer of an inert solid support called
a column. It is possible to have 2 or more columns in order to analyze different type of
compounds. Each different compound requires a different time to traverse the column. The
result is a chromatogram. The area of the peaks is proportional to the quantity of the
component.

In order to achieve a high degree of precision the instruments must be calibrated before use.

With this method permit it is possible to determine the Air, CF4, SO2, SOF2, SO2F2 and oil
content. It cannot be used to determine the content of H2O or HF.

Two different technologies of chromatography are available.

F.6.2. Gas chromatography with thermal conductivity detector (GC-TCD).
For example for the SF6 analysis, it is possible to use two columns (a poraplot and an OV1)
to first determine the air, CF4 and SO2 content and secondly the SOF2 and SO2F2 content
with a high level of accuracy.

Coupled with a spectrometer, it is possible to determine oil content.

F.6.3. Gas chromatography with flame ionization detector (GC-FID)

Extract from IEC 60480: the oil content in SF6 may be measured with the following
method, which is applicable to the analysis of C10 to C50 petroleum hydrocarbons. The oil
may be obtained from a filter placed in a transfer line, or directly from a reservoir, by
washing with cyclohexane.

F.7. Infrared Absorption (Peter J) all in IEC 60480

F.8. Comparison of Methods

The table X below compares the various laboratory methods available for analyzing SF6.

All compounds can be analyze using a gas sample except for the water content. IEC 60480
extract: The water content of a sample in a cylinder taken from a reservoir is not
representative of water content in the reservoir because water absorbs on all surfaces.
Therefore, the water analysis should away be carried out directly on the reservoir on site.
 Analytical method accuracy Level of simplicity Calibration Volume Time required
repeatability need of gas
required

Air : O2 Gas ppmV High Yes Yes Few L <3min

and N2 Chromatographic (<0,4%)
method (GC-TCD)
Infra red IEC
absorption method 60376 ?
Density method 10ppm 0.06L

CF4 Gas ppmV High Yes Yes Few L <3min

Chromatographic
method
Infra red IEC
absorption method 60480 ?

H20 Gravimetric
method
Electrolitic method
Dew point method 1C High Yes No 10L

Mineral Photometric IEC

Oil method 60376 ?
Gravimetric IEC
method 60376 ?
Gas ppmV High Yes Yes Few L
Chromatographic
method
Infra red IEC
absorption 60 480 ?
SF6 by Gas ppmV High Yes Yes Few L <3min
products Chromatographic
method for SO2,
SOF2 and SO2F2
Titration for the 5L for
acidity expressed polluted-
in HF 35L for
new

When it is possible, it is preferable to do the measurement in the liquid phase [can this be
explained?]

F.9. SF6 Testing Laboratories (Sue)

Analytical chemists are usually able to analyse any specified product or contaminant by
following documented methods of analysis. However, in practical terms, unless the analysis
requires a generic technique, most laboratories will specialise in specific analyses,
purchasing specialist equipment and becoming experts in the field.

In the case of insulating fluid analysis this is the case and even though many testing
laboratories will have gas chromatographs for example, without specific adaptations they
will not be suitable for dissolved gas analysis (in the case of oils), or for the analysis of
sulphur hexafluoride (SF6). So the dilemma facing electrical engineers who wish to have
SF6 gas tested for breakdown products is how to be sure that the testing laboratory is
competent to do so.

F.9.1. Confirming the Required Capability

One method to confirm that a laboratory has the required expertise is to pose a series of
questions. If we consider the steps necessary to perform analysis accurately it should be
possible for an engineer to ask questions which should reveal the competency of the
laboratory.

F.10. Gas Sampling

The procedure requires that a sample of the gas must be taken from the equipment without
compromising the integrity. The sample must be transported to the laboratory without
deterioration. Many compounds of sulphur and fluorine are reactive and it is important that
the interior surfaces of the sampling vessel are sufficiently inert so as to maintain the
integrity of the sample between sampling and testing. For reliable and accurate
determination of gas concentrations the minimum sample pressure is ~5 psig but the desired
pressure is 80 psig. [Metric values]

Questions
How will the sample be collected
Will the laboratory provide the sampling vessels
For how long is the gas stable inside the sample vessel
What will be the pressure of the sample

F.11. Transferring Sample to the Instrument

As the sample is a permanent gas, the technique used by the laboratory must introduce a gas
sample without compromising the integrity of the sample or introducing contaminants. For
gas chromatography this would normally be via a gas sampling loop of a specified volume
so that the amount of sample introduced is consistent; the loop would normally be flushed
with the sample for analysis to eliminate air and ensure the loop is completely filled. For
infra red analysis this would be via a gas tight cell with a specific path length. For each
technique it is important that the sample loop and manifold is flushed with ~ 10 times the
internal volume.
Question
How will the sample be introduced from the sample vessel into the analytical
instrumentation

F.12. Separation of Components

The SF6 sample will be a mixture of the original SF6 gas (possibly including manufacturing
contaminants such as CF4), contaminants from the process of filling the equipment (oil,
moisture, air), contaminants from leaking equipment and topping up processes (air,
moisture) and degradation products from abnormal activity or contact with other materials.
In order to analyse mixtures properly it is necessary to separate out the various components
and to have a means of detecting them. The response of the detector must be proportional to
the concentration of the contaminant. Typical degradation products and gaseous
contaminants which can be present in SF6 gas are:
 Sulphur hexafluoride - SF6
Sulphur dioxide - SO2
Sulphur tetrafluoride - SF4
Thionyl fluoride - SOF2
Sulphuryl fluoride - SO2F2
Thionyl tetrafluoride - SOF4
Tungsten hexafluoride- WF6
Carbon tetrafluoride - CF4
Carbon dioxide - CO2
Air - N2 & O2

Question
What components will be detected and quantified

F.13. Calibration

Once the contaminants have been separated and detected they can only be quantified by
comparing the detector response for the contaminant with that of a known concentration of
the contaminant. The laboratory should have a standard, either as a gas mixture or
individual gas, of known concentrations of each contaminant available for calibration of the
detector response. If the detector is not calibrated for a particular component it cannot be
used to quantify that component. The laboratory should calibrate the instrumentation before
each analytical run to confirm that the instrumentation is operating properly and that all of
the contaminants can be detected.
Question
How will the instrument be calibrated
At what frequency is calibration performed

F.14. Confirmation of Capability

If the responses to the questions are as expected then the engineer should be reasonably
satisfied that the laboratory will perform an accurate analysis.
G. GAS DENSITY MEASUREMENT

General Introduction

Sulphur hexafluoride was discovered by Henri Moissan and Paul Lebeau in 1901. It is
known for its high dielectric strength and has a primary application of SF6 worldwide as an
insulating and arc quenching media in electrical switchgear. However, it is also non-
flammable, non- reactive chemically, colorless, odorless and non-toxic. Nevertheless, with
its Molar Mass of 146.06 grams/mole it is a relatively heavy gas and may replace air in low
grounds causing an asphyxiation hazard (e.g. in maintenance tunnels) if SF6 appears in high
concentrations in enclosed areas.

SF6 Gas Has Complex Properties

The true behavior of SF6 gas in the 3-dimensions of pressure, density, and temperature is not
directly proportional. This requires real gas equations to get an accurate picture of the
behavior. Simplification using ideal gas equations, while convenient, would leave out
crucial factors and would not accurately represent a complete picture of SF6s behavior.

For mechanical instruments, it is necessary to

take a single 2-dimensional plane (pressure
and temperature, with the density or
temperature-compensated pressure remaining
constant) out of the 3-dimensional function for
calibration purposes. On this plane, the direct
relationship between pressure and temperature
at a single density is described. This is the
reason why temperature compensation is
necessary. At this density (or temperature-
compensated pressure) the accuracy will be
slightly higher than at other points, since other
density levels intersect the 3-dimensional
curve slightly differently. This is why for field
applications an alarm or lockout level is Figure 1: SF6 Properties - pressure/
typically chosen by the customer for the temperature,
calibration pressure (for accurate tank filling, a Gas Density Indicator with optimal
accuracy at the filling pressure can also be selected). In either case, the mechanical
instrument represents SF6 gas on the defined pressure/temperature section with remarkable
precision.

For electronic instruments, the entire 3-dimensional function of the SF6 gas is taken into
account, allowing complete compensation not depending on the density level. With the
electronic compensation technology, high accuracy levels are possible.

SF6s Primary Job: Protecting Switchgear

Most electrical switchgear requires the use of SF6 gas as an insulating and arc-quenching
medium, particularly at higher voltage levels. SF6 is the substance with the ideal properties
for both of these functions. If certain calculated SF6 gas pressures are undershot, the
insulating properties might be to low so that safe operations of the switchgear cannot be
guaranteed. The switchgear should then be shut down till the next maintenance.
Instrumentation manufacturers have specifically developed density monitoring instruments
for this application that are both temperature-compensated and hermetically sealed, taking
away all influences that could affect the readout, including ambient influences (e.g. for
installations at high elevations).

Applications include:

High Voltage: Gas Insulated Substations, Live Tank Breakers, Dead Tank Breakers
Medium Voltage: Ring Main Units, Pad Mount Switchgear

Normal pressure gauges are not suitable for this monitoring operation. With the same gas
density, the tank pressure is dependent on different factors like ambient temperature, altitude,
or weather. All of these factors combined can exceed 20% of the filling pressure of a tank
and represent the introduction of significant error. Consequently, gas density instruments
with temperature compensation and hermetically sealed cases should be used in electric
switchgear applications.

SF6 Gas Density Instruments vs. Pressure Gauges

Pressure and temperature changes are possible over different durations, like 24-hour or 12-
month periods. If this is not compensated directly in the instrument, it must be calculated
externally in order to get an accurate reading of the density. This means time consuming
manual measurement of the pressure and the temperature and evaluation of the measurement
date via e.g. pressure-temperature charts.

General Principle of Temperature Compensation

To complicate matters, most P/T charts are only measurable in increments of 5 or 10 degrees,
making precise compensation very laborious or even impossible. This is one important
argument, why it is best to compensate directly in the instrument.

Figure 2: Comparison Pressure and Density Measurement

The horizontal black line on the diagram shows the current density in a SF6 tank. The
diagonal blue line indicates the measured pressure by a standard pressure gauge (notice the
direct relationship between temperature and pressure). In order to accurately read the density,
temperature compensation (diagonal red line) is needed inside of the instrument. The result
is the yellow horizontal line of temperature compensated pressure, which shows the
density of SF6 gas in the tank allowing an easy go/no go decision to be made. Ideal
measurement is calibrated on the basis of 20C.

Figure 3: Gas density monitor & transmitter combination

Compensation Methods

Available Temperature Compensation Methods are:

Bimetal (Gas Density Monitors/Indicators)

A individually calculated bimetal in the measuring system expands and contracts with
temperature changes so that when the SF6 gas pressure inside the tank changes due to
temperature, the density displayed on the dial remains constant.

Electronic Sensor (Gas Density Transmitters)

Electronic compensation via a modified piezo-resistive pressure sensor combined with an
electronic temperature sensor.

Bellow (Gas Density Monitors with External Tank Temperature Sensor)

Temperature measurement via an external capillary enables compensation of the temperature
at the tank with display away from the tank.

Reference Chamber (Gas Density Switches)

Measuring SF6 gas density by comparing two different tanks - the one on the switchgear and
a second reference chamber (with maximum possible volume) from the instrument.

Quality Criteria for SF6 Gas Density Instrumentation

Electric switchgear is installed outdoors in the harshest conditions with lifetimes measured in
decades. In order to perform optimally, SF6 gas instrumentation must be engineered
accordingly with the ability to maintain reliability and accuracy year after year in the
harshest environments. The SF6 Instrument has to work reliably and be maintenance and
calibration- free for a time period up to 30 years. Therefore, longevity has to be the focus of
the instrumentation manufacturer.

Quality Criteria for SF6 Gas Indicators are:

Temperature compensation no pointer movement due to temperature fluctuations

Hermetically-sealed case - no water/humidity condensation on the window ,without
error and ambient influences (height level influence)
Measuring system made of stainless steel and Helium leak tested (to < 110-8 mbar l /
s) - Measuring system is leak-free and without corrosion
High level Accuracy (depending on application and filling pressure)

Quality in the production process is crucial. Factors are:

Semi-automated, computer-aided calibration, individual calculated bi- metal

Wetted parts and case, hermetically sealed cases and laser welded contacts
100 % quality testings, min. 5-Sigma quality level

Density Instrumentation Maintenance

High Quality Density Instrumentation should be constructed to be maintenance and

calibration free for a time period of up to 30 years.

Depending on the legal regulations of the installation region of the instruments, the
maintenance of the gauges has to be considered. Particularly in some Asian countries, annual
recalibration is mandatory. In these cases, the measurement instruments should be installed
on special maintenance-friendly valves and couplings, which save time and trouble of time
removal and re-assembly. Generally a self-sealing valve should be used between the tank and
the measuring instruments to ensure easy and fast maintenance. For Installations without
valves, any unplanned maintenance or needed changes to the measuring gauge require the
tank to be evacuated, prolonging maintenance time considerably.

The accuracy category for gauges is generally specified as a percentage of the maximum
measurement difference of the scale maximum. Detailed definitions can be found in EN 837.
Concerning gas density measurement, the temperature is a second variable in addition to the
pressure. The accuracy class is based on measurements at 20C. A Typical accuracy class for
gas density measurement gauges is 1.0 and for measurements from -20C till +50C a
maximum difference of class 2.5. The accuracy class of pressure measurement gauges
defines the highest possible tolerance in percentage of the display scale end value.
Application Example

Figure 4: Gas Density Monitor with Valve for re-calibration

Figure 5: Gas density monitor application

Electronic SF6 Gas Density Measurement

Electric Pressure Measurement at a glance

Gas Density Transmitters are technically based on pressure measurement constructions.

Common instrument types are pressure transmitters, level probes, pressure switches or
process transmitters. These electronic pressure measuring instruments consist of a pressure
connection, a pressure sensor, electronics, an electrical connection and the case.

The sensor is required to detect the pressure and/or its change, and to convert it into an
electrical signal utilising a physical operating principle. The electrical signal is then a
measure of the magnitude of the applied pressure or change in pressure. The principle of
resistive pressure measurement is based on the measurement of the change in resistance of
electric conductors caused by a pressure-dependent deflection. If a tensile force is applied to
the conductor, its length increases and its cross-sectional area decreases. Since the resistivity
of a metallic conductor is a (temperature-dependent) constant for a particular material and,
therefore, independent of the geometry, the electrical resistance increases as a result of the
elongation.

In addition to the gauges mentioned above, there are also simpler instrument types known as
pressure sensor modules; often consisting of no more than a pressure sensor and mechanical
and electrical interfaces. These types are particularly suitable for complete integration into
users systems.

Gas Density Transmitter Principle

A pressure transmitter has standardised interfaces, both on the process side and on the
electrical output signal side. It converts the physical pressure to a standard industrial signal.
Gas Density Transmitters often use piezo resistive pressure sensors. Piezo- resistive pressure
sensors have a measurement membrane on a silicon basis. The function is based on the so
called piezo- resistive effect that describes the change of the electrical conductivity in
semiconductors. The change of the electrical resistance results out of the smaller agility of
electrons at the influence of mechanical pressure. The measuring gauge transforms the
pressure to a defined signal.

The pressure connection is used to lead the pressure directly onto the sensor. It has a
(standardised) thread and an integrated sealing system to enable easy connection of the
pressure transmitter by screwing it in at the relevant measuring point. A suitable case
protects the sensor and the electronics against environmental influences. The electronics
transform a weak sensor signal into a standardised temperature-compensated signal; e.g. the
common signal of 4 20 mA. The output signal is transmitted via a plug or cable for
subsequent signal evaluation.
Figure 6: GD-10 Gas Density Transmitter Setup

Gas Density Transmitters are based on standard pressure transmitters. They have an
additional temperature sensor for temperature
compensation purpose. The Density output signal
is generated based on both the pressure and
temperature that is measured locally inside the
transmitter.

Based on knowledge about the real gas behavior

of SF6, the internally-generated pressure signal is
individually adjusted by means of the
temperature, so the output signal of the transmitter
becomes density linear. Therefore, an individual
resistor has to be determined based on
measurement at different pressures and
temperature levels. As a result, the individual Figure 7: GDT
resistor adjusts the output signal nearly to the real
gas characteristics. This design allows a good cost benefit ratio and long time reliability.

The transmitter generates a signal that follows the gas density inside the monitored
compartment.

As very common output signal in the T&D- industry is a density proportional analogue
signal from 4 20 mA. Current output is independent on the distance between the sensor and
the receiver while a voltage output would have a voltage loss depending on the distance.
Two wire current signals are common in the T&D industry today.
Figure 8: Gas Density Transmitter Sensor Setup

The electrical components and the connections have to be protected against the influence of
dust and water to guarantee long time functionality. Different protection levels are defined in
the DIN EN 60529 standard. The first digit defines the level of protection against foreign
substances, the second the protection level against water. The usage of gauges outdoors has
extremely high requirements. A common protection level to guarantee long term stability for
gas density transmitters in outdoor installations is IP 67 protection. Furthermore a sealing-
less and stainless steel housing construction has good long term protection properties.

Future Developments - SF6 Gas Management Systems

Proactive monitoring is possible using

electronic transmitters as a part of SF6 Gas
Management Systems (GMS). Options here
include everything from displaying a
transmitter signal remotely to emission
trending. Gas Management is state of- the-
art and is continually evolving to meet the
needs of the Smart Grid.

SF6 Gas Management is the new industry

best practice for monitoring SF6 levels in
switchgear tanks. It is a true advancement as
SF6 levels are not only sent to remote
locations, but density signals are filtered and
analyzed.
Figure 1: SF6 Gas Density Monitoring
This happens through the MCA Principle: Measure, Communicate, then Analyze the SF6
density information: The MCA principle enables sound SF6 gas density information to
quickly get into the hands of decision makers so that informed, proactive decisions can be
made.

What Does a Gas Management System Allow makes possible?

Measure low level leak rates and show clear emission levels of specific breakers
Detect leaks early and prove commitment / emission rates
 Improve tank filling
Issue emission certificate for breakers
Introduce emission trading
Lay a foundation for nation-wide emission reporting
H. TRANSPORT AND KINECTICS --- EDGAR WILL ADD ONE COMMON
HEADLINE

H.1. Transport of by-products and decomposition products through SF6 gas

After a gaseous substance is produced at a particular location in a compartment e.g. at the

opening contacts of a circuit-breaker or at an insulator junction exposed to a high electric
field, it will effuse into the whole compartment. The time it takes to be detected elsewhere
depends on the conditions inside the compartment and the location of the detector. If the gas
is totally at rest, only gas diffusion is active, which is a rather slow transportation process.
Due to the high pressure of SF 6, the random walking path of the substance is very short
namely in the range of 10 nm. Consequently, the effusion of the substance may take hours or
even days in typical switchgear compartments.

Diffusion is determined by concentration or pressure gradients in proportion to the diffusion

coefficient D, which is linked to the mean free walking path and mean thermal speed v th of
the gas, which can finally be expressed as function of gas pressure and temperature:
3
( RT ) 2
D 0.376
p (1)

Where:

D diffusion coefficient in m/s

R universal gas constant of 8314.4 J/K/kmole
T Temperature in K
p background gas pressure in N/m
effective collision cross-section of the substance in SF6
effective mass number of the substance calculated from MA=MB/(MA+MB).

The collision cross-section can be determined from the diameter of the molecules, which is
0.6 nm for SF6 and approximately 0.3 nm for SO 2. Other by-products have similar
diameters. From these values, a diffusion coefficient of D = 0.018 cm/s results, which has
been confirmed by measurements of the diffusion of SOF2 in 4 bar of SF6. In [1], a value of
0.02 cm/s is given. The diffusion of gases in air at 1 bar pressure is almost one order of
magnitude faster. A useful measure is the time t needed for a particle to cross a distance L. If
the diameter of the compartment is e.g. 0.3 m, the resulting diffusion time would be 11
hours.

L2
t
4D (2)
On the other hand, it is likely that some convection of the gas is present e.g. due to
temperature differences between inner conductor and outer walls or due to the switching
process itself. Even speeds very much lower than the thermal speed of gas mix the
substances very rapidly. It can be assumed that a homogeneous distribution is achieved
within a short time (typically one hour).
H.2. Reaction kinetics of SF6 by-products on wall surfaces

The kinetics of wall reactions is determined by the balance of impinging molecules, their
sticking probability, their momentary concentration on the surface and the concentration of
reactants on the surface [1]. When the maximum surface coverage of impinging molecules is
reached, which is usually one complete monolayer of molecules, the sticking probability
goes to zero and no more molecules find a free place on the surface. At the beginning,
however, every molecule finds a partner. The two extremes of this process are therefore
called the unsaturated and the saturated surface limit [1].

Unsaturated surface limit

The molecules impinging on the wall surface immediately find an empty site on the surface
and a reaction partner. The surface density N* of the reacting molecules is then proportional
to the flux density of arriving molecules.

dN * (t ) 1
kunsat Aads v n s n Aads
dt 4 (3)

With the designations:

n: density of by-products in front of the surface in m-3
Aads: Area of adsorbent in m (external surface area)
v: Speed of by-products impinging onto the surface
: Sticking probability of by-products on the surface (0 1)
s: unsaturated surface decomposition coefficient [1]

The total number N* of reactant molecules available in the volume V is given by the ratio of
N* and V. The combination then gives:

1 dn(t ) A
s ads
n dt V (4)
This equation has a solution with an exponential decay time constant of:
1
A
s s ads
V (5)
In specially prepared stainless steel containers, the exponential decay of the volume density
could be proven for SF4 and SOF4 with unsaturated surface decomposition coefficients of >
5.10-5 m/s and <10-6 m/s, respectively. The decay to half the maximum is achieved within
less than 5 hours for a not specially prepared surface, whereas the time increases
considerably for dried surfaces, which proves the importance of hydrolysis at the wall
surface for these decomposition products. Volume reaction normally does not play a role
even at high water vapour concentrations.

Saturated surface limit

In the other extreme, the surface reaction is the slowest process, since the impinging
molecules have difficulties in finding a free site and a free reaction partner. Therefore, the
rate of reaction is independent of the density of molecules in front of the surface [1]:
dN * (t )
k sat N sat
*
Aads Cdec Aads
dt
(6)
Inserting the density of molecules in the volume, the following equation results, which gives
a linear decay of the density respectively by-product concentration:

dn(t ) A
Cdec ads (7)
dt V
Again in [1], the decay of by-products in specially prepared stainless steel containers was
measured giving a linear decay for SOF 2 with a saturated surface decomposition coefficient
of < 3.1013 m-2/s. The decay to half the maximum occurs now in the order of 1000 h. When
taking glass containers almost no decrease of the density was observed even with a back-
ground moisture concentration of 2000 ppmv, which is equivalent to a dew point of -16C.
These experiments also showed the increase of volatile gases like SO 2 and SO2F2 coming
from surface reactions with H2O as expected for hydrolysis as a secondary reaction. HF is
seldom detected, since it rapidly reacts with metallic oxides and therefore is bound on
surfaces.

It is interesting to estimate the density of by-product molecules corresponding to one

complete monolayer of molecules adsorbed on the inner surface of a GIS compartment.
Knowing that the maximum number of molecules per m is 1.1 x 10 19 and assuming an inner
surface area of 2.5 m, one could adsorb a total number of 2.75 x 10 19 in one monolayer,
which equals to a concentration of 1 ppmv at 4bar of SF6. Therefore, the surface of the
housing should be immediately saturated with by-products after a switching operation. In
order to keep the number of by-products low in the long term in spite of the high bursts of
decomposition products generated during switching, adsorber material is absolutely
necessary.

H.3. Removal of by-products and moisture by molecular sieves

For switchgear in service with some continuous current flow and in particular for circuit-
breaker compartments, one can assume that there is always some convection so that the
distribution of by-products inside the compartment takes a short time as already noticed
above. Therefore, all wall reactions between decomposition products and e.g. moisture take
place almost immediately after a burst of decomposition products from the arc. Therefore the
SF4 and HF radicals from the arc and the by-products from the wall such as SOF 2 or SOF4
are in fact detected simultaneously [2]. SO2 normally occurs much later, since the
corresponding reaction process is much slower. However, diffusion in SF 6 gas probably has
to be considered for the interaction with the adsorber material, when it is positioned in niches
of the compartment e.g. inside enforcing profiles. These locations are shielded from
convection flows and the substances reach them only by random walk i.e. diffusion. The
penetration of by-products from the surface of the adsorber to the inside of the molecular
sieve might also take a longer time determined by the diffusion of gas molecules in the
adsorber pores and channels.

Piemontesi [1] has used an approach depicted in the Figure below. The adsorber material is
positioned in a separate channel providing an entrance area A. Assuming that the density n of
by-products is uniform in the volume up to this entrance and that the sorption of by-products
by the adsorber is fast compared with the diffusion times, the flux of by-products entering
the channel can be calculated applying the diffusion equation in one dimension with the
length L of the channel:

n n
jx D D A
x L (8)

The temporal development of the density of molecules in the large gas volume i.e. the loss
due to absorption can be determined considering the particular kind of source S of by-
products.

dn(t ) A
S D n
dt L V (9)

With the abbreviations:

V: inner gas volume of GIS in m
n: density of by-products in the compartment in m-3
D: diffusion coefficient of the molecule in gas in m/s
S: Flux from source of by-products in s-1
A: Area of entrance of channel in m
L: Length of channel to adsorber in m

This equation can be solved analytically under the following two different initial conditions
and the assumption that the molecular sieve has a very low loading (coverage) due to by-
products:
The source is a short burst of by-products e.g. generated by one switching operation
The source is a steady, continuous stream of molecules e.g. generated by a corona
discharge
Burst of by-products
The general solution of equation (9) is obtained with S = 0, which then is a homogeneous
linear differential equation of first order. The parameter is defined as:

1 A
D
L V (10)
Knowing the total number of by-products N 0 released in one switching operation, the
differential equation has the solution:

N0 t
n(t ) exp
V (11)
This solution describes the exponential decrease of the initial density of by-products with a
time constant determined by equation (10). If the sorption capability for the adsorbent is
unlimited and if there is no other source of by-products inside the GIS besides the original
burst, the by-product density should decay to zero after some time. Inserting typical values
(D= 2.10-6 m/s, L= 0.1 m, A=20 cm, V = 0.2 m), a time constant of 1400 h or 58 days
results. This seems to be rather long and probably is an indication that convection instead of
pure diffusion is effective. The concentration of by-products produced by a switching
operation would be reduced to 36% of its original value after this time. Taking the example
for a 31kA current interruption, this would amount to a concentration of 70 ppmv after this
time.
Continuous stream of by-products
When the source term S is a continuous stream of decomposition products, it has to be
retained in equation (9). The differential equation then has a particular solution, which is
calculated from the general solution by applying the concept of variation of coefficients. For
a zero initial by-product density, the solution is:

S t
n(t ) 1 exp
V (12)

Now the density of by-products increases up to a saturation density ns, which is given by:

S I L
ns
V eD A (13)

With typical values like D= 2.10-6 m/s, L= 0.1 m, A=20 cm, V = 0.2 m, and a corona
current of 10 A, a saturation density of by-products of 7.8 x 10 21 m-3 results assuming =5.
This is equivalent to a saturation concentration of 78 ppmv at 4 bar SF6 filling pressure.
Again, the time constant is in the range of 1400h and seems to be too long.

These simple examples show that the sole detection of a concentration of by-products e.g. on
the occasion of a scheduled maintenance does not give information about its origin, since
irrespective of the kind of source, the same concentration may result after some time.
Therefore, to be analytic, the switching history and temporal development of concentration
has to be taken into account.

Saturation of molecular sieves

For long times, there will be an equilibrium between the molecules contained in an adsorber
i.e. molecular sieve or alumina and the free molecules in a closed volume under the
assumption that there is no other source of these molecules in the compartment. The degree
of saturation of the adsorber material and the resulting partial pressure above the adsorber is
determined by the flow of absorbed and the flow of desorbed molecules and the kinetics
inside the adsorber. All processes are dependent on temperature. The functionality of the
partial pressure p against the degree of saturation is called an isotherm and is described by
the following equation:

d(t )
k abs p N (1 ) k des N
dt (14)

Where:
kabs: absorption coefficient
kdes: desorption coefficient
p: partial pressure of molecules in the volume in m-3
N: number of available absorption sites
: saturation degree of the adsorber material

The isotherms mostly are applied to the equilibrium of moisture in the gas volume and
moisture in the adsorber, however, are in principle also valid for any other gas. The
isotherms have a linear fraction at low adsorber saturation and low partial pressure and a
non-linear fraction, where the adsorber comes into saturation. For a new and fresh adsorber,
the absorption capability is in principle indefinitely high. Every impinging water vapour or
by-product molecule is immediately absorbed. This is no longer true, when the adsorber is
more and more loaded by molecules. Then the diffusion speed into the interior of the
adsorber plays a role and also desorption of already bound molecules.

For the behaviour of molecular sieves, its history is very important. If e.g. the adsorber
material is already heavily loaded with moisture due to improper handling during placement
into GIS, the partial pressure of water vapour inside the closed compartment can even
increase instead of decrease as expected. The behaviour of partly saturated adsorber material
during a change of the ambient temperature can also be explained by the isotherms as well as
the degassing and regeneration of loaded adsorbers at high temperatures. E.g. it is
recommended to degas Zeolite e.g. at an elevated temperature of 300 to 400C for several
hours. The absorption of SF6 by-products is dependent on the loading of the adsorber with
other gases like water vapour. Thus the moisture absorption is very important for the
function of adsorber material.

1. Bibliography

[1] M. Piemontesi, dissertation ETH Zrich no. 12786, 1998, basic studies on SF6
decomposition
[2] B. Belmadani, J. Casanovas, A.M. Casanovas, R. Grob, J. Mathieu, IEEE Trans. On
Electr.
I. FILTER MATERIALS CHARACTERISTICS

There are two approaches adopted by manufacturers to adsorb moisture mainly released
from insulators and by-products generated by arcs. While most seek to adsorb both moisture
and decomposition by-products, others focus on the removal of moisture only. The latter
approach is adopted where the equipment is required to operate at very low ambient
temperatures where the adsorption of SF6 in some adsorbers might reduce the filling pressure
considerably.

There are two basic types of adsorber materials: molecular sieves and activated alumina.
Molecular sieves are microporous solid materials that have the ability to trap molecules.
They have a very regular pore structure that allows molecules of a particular size to enter the
pores and be adsorbed. Typical designations are 3A, 4A, 5A or 13X (pore size of 3, 4, 5 and
10 Angstroms, respectively). The second type of filter material is activated alumina i.e.
Al2O3. It is produced from aluminum hydroxide and is a very porous material. Its pore size is
distributed over a larger range than for molecular sieves and may extend from 0.4 to 2.2 nm.

Molecular sieves are called Zeolithes and are in principle composed from different oxides
according to the general formula:

M x / n ( AlO2 ) x ( SiO2 ) y z H 2O

M is a cation (e.g. Na+) and determines some of the properties of the Zeolithe. The
corresponding anion is part of the oxide lattice structure comparable to a salt. The pores and
openings are composed by the lattice structure and form multi-dimensional straight or zig-
zag like channels. The ratio of the number of Al- and Si-oxides determines whether a
Zeolithe behaves hydrophilic or hydrophobic. Zeolithes are found as natural minerals, but
most often are produced synthetically, which allows chosing the size of pores and channels.
Hundreds of Zeolithes with different properties are known and used in numerous
applications.

Figure I.1: Lattice structure of Faujasite [1]

Molecular sieves contain an extraordinary large inner surface of up to 600 m/g, which
results from the surface of all pores and cavities in the bulk material. The diameter of the
channels can be adjusted in a very narrow range just to let all molecules with smaller
diameter pass through the channels and being trapped. Molecules with larger diameter are
blocked. These kind of molecular sieves are e.g. used for the purification or separation of
mixed gases.

Water, which has a molecule diameter of 0.27 nm, can enter a molecular sieve with 0.3 nm
channel size i.e. 3A-Zeolithe. SF6 molecules have a diameter of 0.55 nm and will not enter a
molecular sieve with 0.3 or 0.5 nm channel dimension, but those with 1 nm i.e. 13X-
Zeolithe. Therefore, the smaller size molecular sieves are chosen, when a reduction of the
SF6 gas density at very low ambient temperatures shall be avoided. The by-product SO 2,
which has a molecule diameter of 0.36 nm, may not enter a 3A-Zeolithe, but would be
adsorbed in every Zeolithe having a pore size of larger than 0.4 nm. CF4 on the other hand is
a gas, which is hardly adsorbed in 5A-Zeolithe or larger sieves, though its diameter of 0.47
nm would fit well.

Alumina and Zeolithes not only adsorb water molecules and SF 6, but also the by-products
created by the arc. According to the equations given in chapter 4.2.1.3, substances such as
SF4, SOF2 and HF are chemisorbed i.e. react irreversibly with the adsorber material, whereas
other substances such as H20, SF6, CF4 and SO2 are physisorbed i.e. are bound to the pore
surfaces only by polar forces and can be removed afterwards. Chemisorption is always
accompanied by a strong exothermic reaction, which might even heat up the adsorbent
considerably.

Inside the adsorber material, the adsorbed molecules are transported by surface diffusion, the
speed of which depends on the ratio of pore to molecule diameter and on the residence time
of a molecule on the pore surface. The residence time is inversely proportional to an
exponential Boltzmann factor determined by the ratio of adsorption energy and adsorbent
temperature. The transport time of a substance into the bulk adsorber material can be
estimated from measured diffusion rates in molecular sieves. The effective diffusivity of H 2O
in 4A-Zeolite was determined to 4 - 7.55 10-11 m/s at a temperature of 30C [2]. This results
in a transport time of almost 3 hours for a pellet size of 1 mm and correspondingly longer for
larger pellets. On the other hand, the effective diffusivity of SO 2 in 4A-Zeolite was
determined to 3.85 10-7 m/s [3], which would result in a very short transport time of only 2s.
The difference originates from the strong polar forces acting on water molecules, which
obviously increase the residence time by orders of magnitude. Chemisorbed substances stay,
where they have reacted with the surface. Further filling of the adsorber can only be
achieved, when the gaseous molecules penetrate into the interior of the adsorber, where they
can react with fresh adsorber material.

For new adsorber material, it can be assumed that humidity and SF 6 by-products are rapidly
removed from the gas volume, since every substance arriving at the surface of the adsorbent
is trapped. This describes the situation of an unsaturated adsorber. When on the other hand
the surface is already covered by molecules, newly arriving molecules will not find a free
place and might be reflected. This behaviour can be described by a sticking coefficient
depending on the surface coverage. The balance of flux of molecules arriving at the surface -
being proportional to the partial pressure of molecules in the gas volume - and the coverage
of the surface is in the simplest case determined by the Langmuir isotherm [4]:

d(t )
k abs p N (1 ) k des N
dt (1)
Where:
kabs: absorption coefficient comprising the sticking coefficient
kdes: desorption coefficient
p: partial pressure of molecules in the volume in m-3
N: maximum number of available absorption sites (normally 1.5 x 1019 m-2)
: relative surface coverage

In equilibrium, the time derivative is equated to zero and gives the Langmuir isotherm:

Kp
(2)
1 Kp

with K=kads/kdes. Such isotherms mostly are applied to the equilibrium of humidity in the gas
volume and moisture in the adsorbent, but are also valid for any other gas. The isotherms
show a linearly increasing coverage or adsorber content at low partial pressure and the
saturation of coverage or adsorber content at high partial pressures. Surely, such an
equilibrium can only be established, when there is no permanent source of these molecules
in the compartment. In that case, equation (1) has to be extended by an equation for the
partial pressure p including a source term due to by-product generation and a loss term due
to adsorption. Also, the simple Langmuir isotherm is only applicable in those cases, where
only one monolayer of molecules can form on a surface. In much more cases and also for
molecular sieves, several layers may form on top of each other at higher pressures with
either reaching another saturation level or no limit is reached, when the gas starts to liquefy
in pores. Adsorption isotherms for H2O and SO2 have been measured for Zeolithe 13X and
activated Al2O3 [5].

Figure K2: Adsorption isotherms measured at room temperature for molecular sieve 13X and
activated alumina for H2O and SO2 [5]

It is noticed that for 13X-Zeolithe the saturation of the adsorber is already obtained at a
steady-state partial pressure of H2O of less than 100 Pa, which is equivalent to a water
content in the volume of 250 ppmv with a filling pressure of 400 kPa of SF 6. The isotherms
change with temperature, since the adsorption and desorption processes are dependent on
temperature. In general, the adsorption capability is reduced with higher temperature for all
physisorbed gases. One consequence is that a saturated adsorber releases gas at higher
temperatures. This is utilized in order to remove adsorbed water and drying an adsorbent at
300 to 400C. It was shown that the pre-loading of 13X-Zeolithe or alumina by handling in
humid air before posing it into a switchgear compartment might easily reach 2.2 mol/kg and
1.2 mol/kg, respectively [5], which is equivalent to approximately 20% of saturation by
weight. A negative consequence of this effect is that for a saturated adsorbernt water might
be released into a compartment during summer and adsorbed during winter.
The absorption capability for decomposition by-products like SO2 depends on the sorption of
other substances in the same adsorber material. If e.g. a molecular sieve is already heavily
loaded with moisture due to improper handling during closure of a gas insulated
compartment, the adsorption capability for SO 2 might be decreased by 25 to 40% [5].
Whereas the parallel adsorption of SF6 does hardly degrade the performance of Zeolithes and
activated alumina, the chemisorption of considerable amounts of SF4 or SOF2 reduces the
capability drastically by 50 to 70% [5]. Therefore, it is essential to position sufficient
adsorber material into a compartment so that the adsorbed quantities of moisture and by-
products are well below the saturation limit of the adsorber material. Normally the mass of
the adsorber material in gas insulated equipment is dimensioned in such a way that this limit
is not reached during the life of the equipment.

[1] Database of International Zeolithe Association

[2] D. Bobok, E. Besedova, Petroleum and Coal, Vol.45, 19-24, 2003, Effective
diffusivities of water vapours and heptane vapours in particles of molecular sieves 4A
and 5A
[3] Yi Hua Ma, C. Mancel, AlChE Journal, Vol.18, 1148-1153, 1972, Diffusion studies
of CO2, NO, NO2, and SO2 on molecular sieve Zeolites by gas chromatography
[4] P.W.Atkins, Physical Chemistry 4th edition, Oxford Univ. Press, 1990, chapter 29
[5] M. Piemontesi, L. Niemeyer, Sorption of SF6 and SF6 decomposition products by
activated alumina and moelecular sieve 13X, IEEE int. symposium on electrical
insulation, Montreal, Canada, 1996, pp. 828-838
357490521.doc
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J. WATER IN SULFUR HEXAFLUORIDE

357490521.doc
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Table of Contents
Introduction 1
Sulfur Hexafluoride 1
Water 1
Water as a Contaminant in Sulfur Hexafluoride 1
Definitions 1
Moisture 1
Humidity 1
Hygrometers 1
Decomposition Products 1
Decomposition by-Products 1
Moisture and Humidity Effects 1
Humidity in the Air 1
Effects of Moisture 1
Effects of Humidity during Arcing/Interruption 1
Hygrometers 1
Chilled Mirror Technology 1
Capacitive Humidity Sensors 1
Pressure and Temperature Influences 1
Pressure Dependence 1
Temperature Related Pressure Dependence 1
Temperature Influence 1
IEC SF6 Pressure and Temperature Specifications 1
Water Content in ppmw in various Gas Mixtures 1
Clarification of Units 1
Dew or Frost Point 1
Volume/Weight Ratio vs. Volume/Weight Fraction 1
Moisture Control 1
Adsorbed and absorbed Moisture 1
External Sources of Water 1
Compartment Evacuation and drying 1
Maintaining Gas Quality 1
Calculations & Conversions 1
Symbols, Units and Values 1
Fundamental Formulas 1
Humidity Conversions 1
Tables 1

Tables
TABLE 1: Volume Ratio by Weight for various gases............................................................................1

TABLE 2: Volume Ratio........................................................................................................................1

TABLE 3: Weight Ratio.........................................................................................................................1

357490521.doc
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TABLE 4: Properties of Water................................................................................................................1

TABLE 5: Properties of SF6...................................................................................................................1

TABLE 6: Saturation Vapor Pressure over Ice........................................................................................1

TABLE 7: Saturation Vapor Pressure over Water...................................................................................1

TABLE 8: Max. water content in ppmv vs. frost point............................................................................1

TABLE 9: Vapor pressure vs. water content ppm v..................................................................................1

TABLE 10: Frost point vs. water content ppmv......................................................................................1

Figures

FIGURE 1: Dew Point Mirror................................................................................................................1

FIGURE 2: Structure of a Polymer Sensor.............................................................................................1

FIGURE 3: Structure of an Aluminum Oxide Sensor.............................................................................1

357490521.doc
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12. INTRODUCTION

Water is everywhere on Earth. It is the only substance which exists on our planet in all three
phases (liquid, solid and gas) under natural temperature and pressure conditions. While water
is essential to life, in many technical applications its presence has negative effects. In these
applications it is considered a contaminant and is typically one of the most difficult to
prevent.
The aim of this document is to give the reader a basic understanding of the physics of water
and its effects as a contaminant within high voltage switchgear using SF 6 as an insulation
medium.

12.1. SULFUR HEXAFLUORIDE

Sulfur Hexafluoride is a substance with the chemical formula SF 6. A Sulfur Hexafluoride

molecule contains one Sulfur and six Fluorine atoms. It has very unique properties making it
an ideal gas for electrical insulation applications. SF6 is colorless, odorless, nontoxic and
about 5 times heavier than air. It is a synthetic man made substance andis not found in
nature.
12.1.1. Environmental Impact of Sulfur Hexafluoride
Sulfur Hexafluoride is considered the most potent greenhouse gas.It has a global warming
potential (GWP) in excess of 22,000. As a comparison, the most prevalent greenhouse gas,
CO2, has a GWP of 1. Therefore, only one kilogram of SF6 released into the atmosphere has
an effect equivalent to more than 22 tons of CO2. In addition, its estimated atmospheric
lifetime is as high as 3200 years. While it was previously common practice to release SF 6into
the atmosphere while taking measurements, this is no longer an acceptable practice.
Therefore, SF6 capture and recovery methods must be used.

12.2. WATER

Water is a substance with the chemical formula H 2O. A water molecule contains one oxygen
and two hydrogen atoms. The term Water, as commonly used, refers to H2O in liquid
phase, but chemically its solid state ice, as well its gaseous state vapor are also water.
Dihydrogen monoxide is the scientific term for water, though it is almost never used. It is
actually the most effective greenhouse gas of all, but without it, we would not have the
livable environment on our planet as we know it.

357490521.doc
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13. WATER AS A CONTAMINANT IN SULFUR HEXAFLUORIDE

Humidity measurement and moisture control are necessary in any effective maintenance
program for SF6 insulated equipment. There are two separate and distinct issues relating to
humidity within these systems.
Humidity in switching gas compartments in combination with arcing energy can
result in the formation of hydrogen fluoride (HF), sulfur dioxide (SO 2) and other
substances. These undesirable decomposition by-products are the direct result of
the reactions between the sulfur and fluorine of the SF6 molecules with the hydrogen
and oxygen of the H2O molecules dissociated in the high energy arc. These
decomposition by-products cause corrosion and degradation of the insulators and
other internal components within the SF 6 insulated equipment, eventually resulting in
failure.
High levels of humidity can result in condensation of water into its liquid phase on
inner surfaces of the equipment. This adversely affects the electrical insulating
properties (dielectric withstand strength) within the equipment and significantly
increases the possibility of flash-over. Therefore, humidity in the SF 6 should be
maintained at a level at which water vapor does not condense in the form of liquid
water over the entire range of the expected operating temperatures. This is ensured
by keeping the maximum frost point temperature of the gas below 5 C at the gas
compartment pressure. Therefore, if condensation (deposition) occurs, it will be in
the solid form of ice rather than liquid water. Ice has a much higher dielectric
withstand strength than liquid water, and is less likely to be a cause of flash-over.
Historically this 5 C frost point temperature was chosen as a maximum upper limit
when no other lower value was specified.

In an effort to prevent these two potential problems, most users periodically measure the
humidity in their SF6 insulated equipment. However, utility engineers have experienced
difficulties in carrying out humidity measurements and in the interpretation of the results.
Compounding the problem of humidity measurement in SF6 is the fact that water inside the
SF6 insulated equipment can exist in the vapor phase in the SF 6 gas, adsorbed on the surface
of the enclosure, and absorbed within the polymeric materials such as epoxy insulators. The
humidity measurement itself detects only the amount of water vapor in the SF 6 gas and
cannot determine the total water content within the system. Adsorption/desorption and
absorption/desorption are temperature dependent effects which influence the distribution of
water molecules within the compartment filled with SF 6, resulting in variations of the
humidity measurements. Humidity measurements taken in the cool of winter tend to be
lower than humidity measurements taken in the heat of summer. At higher temperatures,
moisture on the surfaces and within the bulk material is released as water vapor into the SF 6
gas. A proper understanding of the sources of water, and their migration phenomena, are
important factors in any effective humidity measurement and moisture control program.

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14. DEFINITIONS

14.1. MOISTURE

Moisture is water in its molecular form bound on the surface or within the structure of solids.
Adsorbed moisture is water in molecular form that adheres to and accumulates
on the surfaces of solids.
Absorbed moisture is water in molecular form that permeates into materials. The
degree to which water permeates is dependent on the structure and type of the
material.

14.2. HUMIDITY

Humidity is water in the gas phase (water vapor), within a gas mixture. Various terms are
used to express Humidity.
Water vapor partial pressure is the pressure that water vapor contributes to the
total pressure, or the partial pressure exerted by the water vapor alone, generally
expressed in Pascal (Pa).
Saturation vapor pressure with respect to water is the maximum water vapor
partial pressure that can exist at a given temperature with respect to liquid water.
Any attempt to increase the water vapor partial pressure beyond the saturation
vapor pressure results in condensation of liquid water. Saturation vapor pressure is
generally expressed in Pascal (Pa).
Saturation vapor pressure with respect to ice is the maximum water vapor partial
pressure that can exist at a given temperature with respect to ice. Any attempt to
increase the water vapor partial pressure beyond the saturation vapor pressure
results in deposition (condensation in solid form) of ice. Saturation vapor pressure is
generally expressed in Pascal (Pa).
Dew point is the temperature to which a gas must be cooled to start condensing
water vapor in liquid form. Dew point is pressure dependent and must be stated with
its associated pressure. While not technically correct, it has been common practice
to use dew point below 0 Calthough frost point is the correct term. Dew point can
exist below 0 C in the form of liquid super-cooled water and is different in value
from the equivalent frost point temperature. For the same vapor pressure, the super-
cooled dew point is approximately 10% of reading below the corresponding frost
point value (when expressed in C). For example, a vapor pressure of 38 Pa
corresponds toa dew point of 33 C and a frost point of 30 C. It is important to
properly distinguish between the two.
Frost point is the temperature to which a gas must be cooled to start depositionof
water vapor in the form of ice. Frost point is pressure dependent and must be stated
with its associated pressure. Frost point exists only below 0 C. While not technically
correct, it has been common practice to use dew point below 0 C although frost
point is the correct term. Dew point can exist below 0 C in the form of super-cooled
water and is different in value from the equivalent frost point temperature. For the
same vapor pressure, the frost point is approximately 10% of reading above the
corresponding dew point value (when expressed in C). For example, a vapor

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 pressure of 38 Pa corresponds to a frost point of 30 C and a dew point of 33 C.
It is important to properly distinguish between the two.
Relative humidity is the ratio between the water vapor partial pressure and the
saturation vapor pressure at a given temperature, expressed in %RH.
Volume ratio is the ratio of the water vapor volume to the total volume of the humid
gas, generally expressed in parts per million by volume, ppm v or its numerically
equivalent value l/l. Once determined, ppmv has no further pressure dependence. It
is also independent of the gas type or mixture.
Weight ratio is the ratio of the mass of water vapor to the total mass of the humid
gas, generally expressed in parts per million by weight, ppm w or its numerically
equivalent value mg/kg. Once determined, ppmw has no further pressure
dependence, but depends on the gas type and mixture through the molecular weight
of the constituents.
Volume fraction is the fraction of the water vapor volume to the volume of the dry
gas, generally expressed in parts per million by volume, ppm v or its numerically
equivalent value l/l. Once determined, ppmv has no further pressure dependence. It
is also independent of the gas type or mixture.
Weight fraction is the fraction of the mass of water vapor to the mass of the dry
gas, generally expressed in parts per million by weight, ppm w or its numerically
equivalent value mg/kg. Once determined, ppmw has no further pressure
dependence, but depends on the gas type and mixture through the molecular weight
of the constituents
Molecular weight is the mass of one mole of a specific substance. It is expressed in
g/mol.

14.3. HYGROMETERS

Hygrometers are instruments used to measure the water vapor content (humidity) in a gas.

14.4. DECOMPOSITION PRODUCTS

Decomposition products are substances arising from the dissociation of SF6 in the high
energy arc into its constituent components and their various combinations, such as SF 2 and
SF4.

14.5. DECOMPOSITION BY-PRODUCTS

Decomposition by-products are gases or solid substances arising from the reaction of
decomposition products of SF6 with other gases such as hydrogen and oxygen from water
(H2O) or with solids such as metals and polymers.

15. MOISTURE AND HUMIDITY EFFECTS

15.1. HUMIDITY IN THE AIR

Humidity is an integral part of air. Depending on weather and climatic conditions the amount
of water vapor present in the air varies. Relative humidity in the range of 50 to 70 % is

357490521.doc
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considered to be the comfort level for human beings. During manufacturing and storage it is
impossible to completely avoid the exposure of the parts of the SF 6 equipment to humid
ambient air. By taking precautions, the amount of adsorbed andabsorbed humidity prior to
assembly can be minimized.

15.2. EFFECTS OF MOISTURE

In order to assess the effects of moisture on the dielectric strength of materials, the location
and nature of the moisture contained inside the SF6 filled compartment needs to be
understood. Epoxy insulators and rods are the source of most of the moisture which is
originally introduced during assembly. The inner walls of the enclosure and other surfaces
contain far less moisture, and the humidity introduced with the SF6 filling is generally
insignificant in relation to the total water content. In time, the moisture in the polymer, on
the surfaces of solids and the water vapor in the SF 6 will equilibrate. This redistribution of
water molecules not only affects the dielectric strength, but also the humidity measurement
results. High initial moisture content in epoxy insulators and rods will eventually result in
higher humidity in the SF6.

15.3. EFFECTS OF HUMIDITY DURING ARCING/INTERRUPTION

SF6 is a very stable molecule. In a high-energy arc, SF 6 dissociates into its atomic
constituents. In ideal circumstances, following the discharge, these constituents recombine to
form SF6.
SF6 S + 6F
However, in the presence of water vapor, SF6decomposition products (e.g. SF4 and SF2)react
with the hydrogen and oxygen fromdissociated water molecules to form decomposition by-
products such asSulfur Dioxide (SO2) andHydrogen Fluoride (HF). These decomposition by-
products in combination with water formhighly corrosive acids.
Some example reactions are:
SF6 + H2O SOF2 + 2HF + 2F
SOF2 + H2O SO2 + 2HF
SF6 + 2H2O 2F + SO2 + 4HF

16. HYGROMETERS

Various instruments are available for routine measurement of humidity. Most of the
instruments used to measure humidity in SF6 operate one of the two basic measurement
principles; chilled mirrortechnology or capacitive humidity sensors.
Instruments are equipped with an inlet for connection to the gas compartment via a sampling
tube. Since release of SF6 to the atmosphere during testing is not an acceptable practice,
instruments have a gas outlet for connection to a gas collection system. Advanced
instruments feature built-in gas recovery systems.

16.1. CHILLED MIRROR TECHNOLOGY

Chilled mirror hygrometers measure the dew or frost point of a gas using the following
principles. Light shines onto a polished mirror surface, the temperature of which is
controlled by a thermoelectric heat-pump known as a Peltier element. A light-sensitive
receiver measures the intensity of the direct reflection. When the mirror is clean and dry, the

357490521.doc
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intensity of the reflected light is at its maximum. Conversely, a cold mirror with water vapor
condensed on its surface scatters the light, resulting in less directly reflected light and in
reduced signal intensity. Using this received light signal as feedback in a closed loop control
system, the mirror is cooled to the temperature at which the thickness of the condensed layer,
detected through the intensity of the received light, remains constant. A condensate layer of
constant thickness, with no further net increase or decrease in condensation, is in dynamic
equilibrium with the gas flowing over the mirror surface. In this equilibrium condition, the
dew or frost point temperature of the gas is determined by measuring the temperature of the
mirror. This mirror temperature is physically linked to the corresponding vapor pressure via
the saturation vapor pressure functions.

FIGURE1: Dew Point Mirror

357490521.doc
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If the condensate is known to be in liquid form, even for temperatures below freezing, then
the measured mirror temperature is taken as the dew point. If the condensate is known to be
in a solid form as ice, then the measured mirror temperature is taken as the frost point. The
measuring range of a chilled mirror in this application is limited by the condensation point of
SF6 which is about 65 C at 100 kPa. This does not present a problem since the lowest
expected frost point in a gas-filled compartment is generally above 60 C frost point at 100
kPa, equivalent to about 10 ppmv. If measurements are taken at system pressures, the SF 6
condensation point is higher and can become a limiting factor in the measurement of the
frost point temperature with a chilled mirror. Advanced instruments take these factors into
account, ensuring correct indications. When measuring new SF 6 directly from a cylinder it is
likely that the water content is below this limit and the measurement result of the chilled
mirror may be a quality indication ( <65 C FP meaning dryer than 65 C frost point)
rather than an absolute number.
Historically, chilled mirror hygrometers, when operating at mirror temperatures below 0 C,
encountered problems due to their inability to differentiate between dew and frost. Advanced
chilled mirror hygrometers have the capability to properly distinguish between dew and frost
by forcing all super-cooled water condensation into a solid state in the form of ice or frost.
Once in this state, the condensed layer remains in a solid form and frost point temperature is
accurately measured.

Advantages of the chilled mirror hygrometer typically include:

High accuracy (0.1 to 0.5 C)
Wide measurement range (60 C to +20 C frost/dew point)
Wide input pressure range (100 to 1000 kPa)
No frequent calibration required
Not adversely affected by decomposition by-products
Mirror is easily cleaned of contamination
Measurements can be taken at atmospheric or system pressure
No measurement hysteresis or temperature sensitivity

Disadvantages of the chilled mirror hygrometer are:

High initial acquisition cost
Potentially long sampling times for very dry gas in high ambient temperatures
Possible deviation from correct value if contaminated mirrors are not cleaned

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9
16.2. CAPACITIVE HUMIDITY SENSORS

16.2.1. Polymer
These sensors use a hygroscopic polymer film which changes the capacitance of the sensor
depending on the relative humidity. Instruments using Capacitive Polymer sensors are the
most commonly used hygrometers. These hygrometers usually measure the humidity at
atmospheric pressure, with the inlet connected to the gas compartment being sampled.
Depending on the instrument design, flow rates are maintained either automatically or by
manual adjustment of a needle valve. When a measurement is started, polymer sensors begin
with a high indication and dry down during measurement. As they dry down below some
desired threshold limit, the measurement can be terminated and no additional time is
required waiting for a stable indication.

FIGURE2: Structure of a Polymer Sensor

Polymer sensors measure relative humidity (RH) and recalculate to other units for indication.
Because the conversion from RH to frost/dew point or ppm is a very non-linear function,
there is a significant loss of resolution at low humidity. In addition, because of its
temperature dependence, the RH value decreasesif the temperature increases at stable
absolute humidity (constant vapor pressure andconstant frost/dew point). High temperatures
and low humidities compoundthe resolution problem of RH measurement. The typical
specified measuring range of a polymer sensor is limited by a maximum temperature
difference(T) of 80 K between the frost/dew point and the temperature. This results in a
lower limit of 60 C frost point (10 ppmv) at 20 C and 40 C frostpoint (129 ppmv) at
40 C at 100 kPa standard absolute pressure.
Advantages include:
Low acquisition cost
Fast response time
Not adversely affected by high humidity values
Simple construction
Lightweight and easy to use in the field

Disadvantages include:
Frost/dew point accuracy 2 C (for 40 C to +20 C) and 4 C (for < 40 C)
Measurement hysteresis
Temperature sensitivity
Requires frequent calibration

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 High concentrations of decomposition by-products can damage the sensor
Low resolution at low humidity

16.2.2. Aluminum Oxide

Aluminum Oxide sensors work on a principle similar to the Capacitive Polymer type. The
sensor uses an oxide layer (Al2O3) allowing water molecules to migrate in and out of the
porous structure changing the capacitance with water vapor content. Flow rates are
maintained until the indicated reading stabilizes. Typical indications are in frost/dew point.
Most Aluminum Oxide sensors are maintained dry within a desiccant chamber between
measurements, and when not in use. This means that these instruments start with a dry
indication and rise during the measurement process to a higher value.

FIGURE3: Structure of an Aluminum Oxide Sensor

Since the aim is to remain below a specified threshold limit, it is difficult to determine when
the instrument has reached its final stable value. Some Aluminum Oxide sensor instruments
indicate dew point below 0 C although frost point is the correct term.

Advantages include:
Wide measuring range
Simple construction
Lightweight and easy to use in the field

Disadvantages include:
Slow response time
Sensor subject to drift
Frost/dew point accuracy 2 C (for 40 C to +20 C) and 4 C (for < 40 C)
Measurement hysteresis
Temperature sensitivity
Requires frequent calibration
Decomposition by-products can damage the sensor

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17. PRESSURE AND TEMPERATURE INFLUENCES

17.1. PRESSURE DEPENDENCE

Frost/dew point is pressure dependent and can be converted from frost/dew point at one
pressure to the equivalent frost/dew point at another pressure. In order to obtain correct
results, the following should be observed.
Frost/dew point temperature without a corresponding pressure is incomplete. Generally the
frost/dew point is with respect to either gas compartment pressure or atmospheric/standard
pressure (100 kPa). Hygrometers without a pressure sensor, but with ppm v or ppmw
indication, are generally converting the frost/dew point to ppm under the assumption that
measurements are carried out at 100 kPa absolute standard pressure. Atmospheric pressure,
due to its dependence on altitude and weather related variability, is not necessarily 100 kPa.
Historically, due to lack of computational capability, dew point was used as the direct
measurement and de-facto standard for reporting humidity data in SF 6 filled equipment.
However, newer technology with built-in computing capability provides automatic
conversion of pressure-dependent frost/dew point to pressure-independent ppm.
Consideration should be given to the use of ppm rather than frost/dew point for data
reporting to avoid pressure dependent variation of the humidity values.
Various pressure units are used in the field of SF6 due to geographical and historical reasons.
Non SI units like bar and psi are still in use. Some pressure measurements are referenced to
relative (gauge) pressure. The SI unit for pressure is Pascal (Pa = 1 N/m 3). The pressure unit
kilo Pascal (kPa) absolute is the standard unit in high voltage applications and is
recommended to be used to ensure equivalence of pressure and pressure dependent humidity
measuring results.

17.2. TEMPERATURE RELATED PRESSURE DEPENDENCE

Although frost/dew point is not temperature dependent by definition, the total pressure and
the water vapor partial pressure within a closed vessel are temperature related. As
temperature increases or decreases, the total pressure and water vapor partial pressure
increase or decrease proportionately, resulting in a change of frost/dew point only due to the
pressure variation. This effect only applies to frost/dew point measurements made at
compartment pressure. However, this effect is negligible compared to temperature related
adsorption, absorption and desorption effects.

17.3. TEMPERATURE INFLUENCE

If the temperature of a gas compartment changes, the humidity changes as well. Moisture is
adsorbed on all solid surfaces in the system or absorbed in the solid insulator material.
Equilibrium is established between this adsorbed/absorbed moisture and the humidity
present in the gas. As the system temperature increases, more water molecules are driven
from the surfaces and bulk materials into the gas phase. Conversely, as the system
temperature decreases, water molecules from the gas phase are adsorbed on the surfaces and
absorbed into the solid epoxy materials.
The humidity measurement techniques discussed determine only the water vapor content in
the SF6 rather than the adsorbed and absorbed moisture. Therefore, the results show only a
portion of the total water content in the system. When humidity measurements are taken in

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winter the results are always lower than insummer. This seasonal variation can create the
impression of erratic measurements which can be confusing to utility engineers. If not well
understood, this variability of the recorded values could lead to loss of confidence in the
overall humidity measurement program. The influence of temperature also implies that
measurements should be carried out in the summer months in order to establish the
maximum humidity values in the system. This is a common practice among utilities since
attempts to normalize all data to 20 C, as recommended in other documents, proves
difficult. Temperature dependent change of humidity in gas compartments is not a function
of the gas properties in terms of water vapor but rather an effect of moisture
adsorption/absorption and desorption from the materials within the gas compartment. There
have been attempts to quantify this effect in order to derive empirical functions to normalize
humidity data to 20 C. However, this also proves to be complex and controversial since
these empirical functions are highly dependent on the design, construction materials and
condition of individual gas compartments making a universal normalization function
difficult to define.

17.4. IEC SF6PRESSURE AND TEMPERATURE SPECIFICATIONS

In the Standards IEC 60376 (for new SF 6) and IEC 60480 (for used SF6), maximum
acceptable impurity levels are defined. These maximum levels for humidity are referenced to
a pressure of 100 kPa and temperature of 20 C. With the referenced pressure, the pressure
dependence of frost/dew point is properly accounted for. However, the specification of 20 C
is often misunderstood as a requirement to normalize data to that temperature. While
normalization to 20 C has been implemented by some switchgear manufacturers and utility
companies, no universal method is defined.

17.5. WATER CONTENT IN PPMW IN VARIOUS GAS MIXTURES

Humidity values expressed in ppmw depend on the molecular weight of the carrier gas. Parts
per million by weight are usually used with respect to binary mixtures with water vapor in a
specific gas or gas mixture. If the carrier gas mixture changesthe different molecular weight
needs to be taken into account. Not all gas-insulated installations are filled with pure SF 6.
For example in Gas Insulated Lines (GIL) SF 6 is typically mixed with 50 to 90% Nitrogen
(N2). Inlow temperature applications SF6 is mixed with up to 20% CF 4 (Fluor Methane) to
avoid gas liquefaction when the compartment is at very low temperatures. Nitrogen or dry
air is used to purge gas compartments. In these examples,the measured ppm wwith respect to
the molecular weight of the carrier gas would be drastically different to the ppm w in pure
SF6.
Table 1 indicates the ppmw valuesof different gases and gas mixtures when the correct
molecular weight is applied.It is recommended to always use ppm vrather than ppmwfor all
data reporting.

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TABLE1: VOLUME RATIO BY WEIGHT FOR VARIOUS GASES
Frost Point
Gas Composition mol. weight C at 100 ppmv ppmw
kPa
100% SF6 146.05 42 100 12.34
95% SF6 and 5% Air 140.18 42 100 12.86
50% SF6 and 50% 100 20.71
Nitrogen 87.02 42
10% SF6 and 90% 100 45.28
Nitrogen 39.80 42
90% SF6 and 10% CF4 140.25 42 100 12.85
100% Air 28.97 42 100 62.21
100% Nitrogen 28.01 42 100 64.33
100% CF4 88.01 42 100 20.48

18. CLARIFICATION OF UNITS

18.1. DEW OR FROST POINT

Historically, no distinction was made between dew and frost point. Dew pointhas beenused
for values below 0 C although frost pointis the correct term. Therefore, dew point values
below 0 C defined in standards and guidelines (IEC CIGR IEEE) should always be
interpreted as frost point. The use of the correct term is highly recommended in order to
avoid ambiguities.

18.2. VOLUME/WEIGHT RATIO VS. VOLUME/WEIGHT FRACTION

Very often it is unclear whether the expressionsppmv and ppmwshould be based on a

volume/mass ratio referred to as the dry expression, or on a volume/mass fraction referred to
as the wet expression. In the volume/mass fraction, the total volume is used as the divisor
rather than the volume that would remain from the dry gas in that volume if the water vapor
was removed. Although there are two competing methods for computing this value, the
numeric difference is negligible in the range of interest for SF 6 as indicated in Tables 2 and
3.

Volume Ratio
TABLE2: Volume Ratio
Volume Ratio Volume Fraction
Frost/Dew Point
C at 100 kPa
ppmv ppmv
10000 9900 6.8
1000 999.0 20
100 99.99 42
10 9.999 60

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Weight Ratio
TABLE3: Weight Ratio
Weight Ratio Weight Fraction
Frost/Dew Point
C at 100 kPa
ppmw ppmw
1000 999.0 3.7
100 99.99 23
10 9.999 44
1 0.9999 62

19. MOISTURE CONTROL

In order to formulate an effective moisture control program, it is necessary to understand the

dynamics of water molecules within the SF6 filled equipment. Measurement and control
techniques can then be applied to keep the water content at an acceptable level. Since the gas
compartment is completely sealed, the major sources of water are surface adsorption and
bulk absorption (introduced during initial assembly), and permeation through seals.

19.1. ADSORBED AND ABSORBED MOISTURE

Adsorbed moisture is water in molecular form that adheres to all surfaces on all parts in the
gas compartments.
Absorbed moisture is water in molecular form that permeates into organic materials such as
epoxy insulators in the gas compartment. When these parts are exposed to humid ambient
air, water molecules permeate into the solid structure of the polymeric material.
Although the diffusion rate of water molecules into the epoxy solid is slow, a significant
amount of water can be absorbed by the insulators during manufacturing and commissioning
due to their large mass. An effective way to reduce the water content in a gas compartment is
to limit exposure of the insulators to humidityin the first place. Storing the insulators in a dry
environment before installation can minimize the amount of moisture absorption. Prior to
final assembly, protective packaging with desiccants provides a good storage solution.
Because the rate of desorption is related to temperature, the combination of heating and
applying vacuum to the compartment (evacuating) is an effective drying technique.
However, heating a full size gas compartment may prove impractical in some circumstances
and evacuation is often the only viable technique to remove moisture.

19.2. EXTERNAL SOURCES OF WATER

Once in service, the main source of additional water is permeation through seals. This
process is driven by the difference between the low water vapor pressure in the gas
compartment and the high water vapor pressure of the surrounding ambient air. This effect is
independent of the opposing total pressures of the SF6 compartment and atmosphere.
In a well-designed and assembled system, the amount of additional water that permeates into
the gas compartment is small compared to the moisture desorbed from insulators and internal
surfaces.

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19.3. COMPARTMENT EVACUATION AND DRYING

To achieve the required SF6 purity in the gas compartment, air must first be removed by
evacuation to a defined residual pressure (vacuum).
Evacuation is also an effective way of removing surface adsorbed moisture. When the
vacuum level is reached, effective surface desorption can be achieved in a matter of hours. It
is important to note that when solids such as insulators are present in a gas compartment,
desorption of absorbed moisture will take much longer.
The time required for absorbed moisture in the insulators to diffuse is on the order of weeks.
Thus, a relatively short evacuation time of 24 hours or less is insufficient to remove absorbed
moisture from the bulk material. The vacuum needs to be applied for weeks to achieve this.
Purging the compartment with a flow ofdry gas is an alternative method of removing
absorbed moisture. It can be vented to atmosphere (in the case of air or nitrogen) or passed
through a dryer if SF6 is used.
Once the SF6 compartment is filled and sealed, the humidity in the gas and moisture of the
bulk materials will reach equilibrium after a certain time. A final check of the humidity and
SF6 purity should be performed and the values recorded.

19.4. MAINTAINING GAS QUALITY

Over time, humidity in gas compartments will increase due to permeation and ongoing
desorption. Increasing humidity values will cause increased concentrations of unwanted
decomposition by-products. To extend the life of SF 6equipment and prevent
failures,periodic checks of the gas compartment must be incorporated within maintenance
schedules to ensure humidity and SF6 purity are at correct levels. Periodicity of checks
depends on the criticality of the equipment, its design and age.

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20. CALCULATIONS & CONVERSIONS

There are a range of measuring instruments available giving a variety of different

parameters. In addition, manufacturers specify their acceptable limits in differing units.
Formulas and conversion between these varying units and values are presented to ensure
equivalency between measured and reported parameters.

20.1. SYMBOLS, UNITS AND VALUES

Description Symbol Units Value

Total Pressure p Pa, kPa
Standard Pressure p kPa 100
Temperature t, T C, K
Water Vapor Partial Pressure e Pa
Saturation Vapor Pressure with respect to Water ew Pa
Saturation Vapor Pressure with respect to Ice ei Pa
Dew Point Temperature td C
Frost Point Temperature tf C
Relative Humidity RH %
Volume Ratio, Parts per Million by Volume ppmv l/l
Weight Ratio, Parts per Million by Weight ppmw mg/kg
Molecular Weight of Carrier Gas (SF6) Mg g/mol 145.06
Molecular Weight of Water Vapor (H2O) Mv g/mol 18.02

20.2. FUNDAMENTAL FORMULAS

20.2.1. Saturation Vapor Pressure with respect to Water

There are many different empirical equations to express the saturation vapor pressure with
respect to water at a specific temperature. These equations have varying degrees of
complexity. Some have large numbers of parameters and are not analytically reversible. For
most technical applications, a less complex approximation formula is given by Magnus. This
formula provides saturation vapor pressure with respect to water as a function of temperature
and can be reversed to provide dew point temperature as a function of vapor pressure. This
formula is valid with respect to water and super-cooled water in the range 45+50 C.

(1)

where e is the saturation vapor pressure with respect to water in Pa

w
t is the temperature in C

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20.2.2. Saturation Vapor Pressure with respect to Ice
There are many different empirical equations to express the saturation vapor pressure with
respect to ice at a specific temperature. These equations have varying degrees of complexity.
Some have large numbers of parameters and are not analytically reversible. For most
technical applications, a less complex approximation formula is given by Magnus. This
formula provides saturation vapor pressure with respect to ice as a function of temperature
and can be reversed to provide frost point temperature as a function of vapor pressure. This
formula is valid with respect to ice in the range 65+0 C.
(2)

where e is the saturation vapor pressure with respect to ice in Pa

i
t is the temperature in C

20.2.3. Dew Point Temperature

The Magnus formula for saturation vapor pressure with respect to water, equation 1, may be
reversed to calculate dew point temperature given a known vapor pressure. The equation
takes the following form which is valid over the temperature range of 45+50 C.

(3)

where e is the vapor pressure in Pa

t is the dew point temperature in C
d

To calculate the vapor pressure e from dew point temperature td equation 1 is used
substituting the temperature t with the dew point temperature td.
(4)

20.2.4. Frost Point Temperature

The Magnus formula for saturation vapor pressure with respect to ice, equation 2, may be
reversed to calculate frost point temperature given a known vapor pressure. The equation
takes the following form which is valid over the temperature range 650 C.

(5)

where e is the vapor pressure in Pa

tf is the frost point temperature in C

To calculate the vapor pressure e from frost point temperature tf equation 2 is used
substituting the temperature t with the frost point temperature tf.

(6)

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20.2.5. Relative Humidity (WMO definition)
Relative humidity, as defined by the World Meteorological Organization (WMO) is defined
as the ratio of the vapor pressure that exists to the maximum vapor pressure with respect to
water that could exist at a given temperature (saturation vapor pressure), even at
temperatures below 0 C. The equation is given as:
(7)

where e is the vapor pressure in Pa

e is the saturation vapor pressure with respect to water at the given
w temperature t

The inverse equation to calculate the vapor pressure e from RH is:

(8)

20.2.6. Relative Humidity (Technical Definition)

Relative humidity is defined as the ratio of the vapor pressure that exists to the maximum
vapor pressure that could exist at a given temperature (saturation vapor pressure). When the
temperature is above 0 C, there is no difference between the technical and WMO
definitions. Contrary to the WMO, for temperatures below 0 C, saturation vapor pressure
with respect to ice is used in the denominator. The equation is given as:
(9)

(10)

where e is the vapor pressure in Pa

e is the saturation vapor pressure with respect to water at
w temperature t above 0 C
ei is the saturation vapor pressure with respect to ice for a given
temperature t below 0 C

The inverse equation to calculate the vapor pressure e from RH is:

(11)

where ew,i is ew for temperature above 0 C and ei for temperature below 0 C

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20.2.7. Volume Ratio, Parts per Million by Volume
Volume ratio is defined as the ratio of the number of water molecules to the number of
molecules of the carrier gas (SF6). It is most often expressed as parts per million by volume,
ppmv, and given by the equation:
(12)

where e is the vapor pressure in Pa

p is the total pressure at which the vapor pressure e is measured

The inverse equation for calculating the vapor pressure e from ppmv and total pressure p is:

(13)

20.2.8. Weight Ratio, Parts per Million by Weight

Weight ratio is defined as the ratio of the mass of water to the mass of the carrier gas (SF 6). It
is most often expressed as parts per million by weight, ppmw, and given by the equation:

(14)

where e is the vapor pressure in Pa

p is the total pressure at which the vapor pressure e is measured
M is the molecular weight of water (H2O), 18.02
v
M is the molecular weight of Sulfur Hexafluoride (SF6), 146.05
g

Using the molecular weights for water vapor and SF6 the equation reduces to

(15)

The inverse equation for calculating the vapor pressure e from ppmw and total pressure p is

(16)

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20.2.9. Volume Fraction, Parts per Million by Volume
Volume fraction is defined as the ratio of the number of water molecules to the total number
of molecules. It is most often expressed as parts per million by volume, ppm v, and given by
the equation:

(17)

where e is the vapor pressure in Pa

p is the total pressure at which the vapor pressure e is measured

The inverse equation for calculating the vapor pressure e from ppmv and total pressure p is:

(18)

20.2.10. Weight Fraction, Parts per Million by Volume

Weight fraction is defined as the ratio of the mass of water to the mass of the total gas. It is
most often expressed as parts per million by weight, ppmw, and given by the equation:

(19)

where e is the vapor pressure in Pa

p is the total pressure at which the vapor pressure e is measured
M is the molecular weight of water (H2O), 18.02
v
M is the molecular weight of Sulfur Hexafluoride (SF6), 146.05
g

Using the molecular weights for water vapor and SF6 the equation reduces to

(20)

The inverse equation for calculating the vapor pressure e from ppmw and total pressure p is

(21)

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20.3. HUMIDITY CONVERSIONS

20.3.1. Converting between ppmvandppmw

The simplest of conversions is between ppmv and ppmw. These conversions are done with the
following relationships if water content is measured in pure SF6 with a molecular weight of
146.05 g/mol.

(22)

(23)

20.3.2. Frost/Dew Point Pressure Correction

Frost/dew point is a pressure dependent quantity and is usually measured at standard
pressure (100 kPa) or system pressure (for example 450 kPa). To convert the frost/dew point
from one pressure to another, use the following procedure.

20.3.2.1. Convert Frost Point at Pressure p 1 to the equivalent Frost Point at

Pressure p2.
With equation 6, use frost point temperature t1 to calculate vapor pressure e1 with respect to
total pressure p1.
(24)

Convert vapor pressure e1 to vapor pressure e2 relative to total pressure p2

(25)

With equation 5 and vapor pressure e2, calculate frost point temperature t2 relative to
pressure p2.

(26)

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Following this procedure, convert 20 C frost point measured at 100 kPa to the equivalent
frost point with respect to a system pressure of 450 kPa.
t1= -20 C
p1= 100 kPa
p2= 450 kPa

(27)

(28)

(29)

The frost point relative to system pressure p2 of 450 kPa is 3.3 C.

20.3.2.2. Convert ppmv to frost point tf relative to pressure p.

With equation 13, use the ppmv to calculate vapor pressure ei with respect to total pressure p.
(30)

With equation 5 and vapor pressure ei, calculate frost point temperature tf relative to pressure
p.

(31)

Following this procedure, convert 150 ppmv to the equivalent frost point with respect to a
standard pressure p of 100 kPa.
ppmv= 150
p = 100 kPa = 100000 Pa

(32)

(33)

The frost point relative to standard pressure p of 100 kPa at 150 ppmv is 38.6 C.

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 20.3.2.3. Convert frost point tf relative to pressure p to equivalent ppmv.
With equation 6, use frost point temperature tf to calculate vapor pressure e with respect to
measurement pressure p.

(34)

With equation 12, use vapor pressure e and measurement pressure p to calculate ppmv.

(35)

Following this procedure, convert a frost point of -40 C measured at standard pressure p of
100 kPa to the equivalent volume ratio inppmv.
tf = 40 C
p = 100 kPa = 100000 Pa

(36)

(37)

The equivalent volume ratio to a frost point of 40 C measured at a pressure of 100 kPa is
128.5ppmv.

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21. TABLES
TABLE 4: Properties of Water
Water

Name Dihydrogen Monoxide

Molecular Formula H2O
CAS number 7789-20-0
Molar mass 18.02 g mol-1
Density 1.000 kgm3 at 3.98 C:
Triple point 0.01 C
Critical Point 373.946 C at 22.064 MPa

TABLE 5: Properties of SF6

Sulfur Hexafluoride

Name Sulfur Hexafluoride

Molecular Formula SF6
CAS number 2551-62-4
Molar mass 146.06 g mol-1
Density 6.17g/l
Triple point -49.565 C at 0.2314 MPa
Critical Point 45.573C at 3.755MPa

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 TABLE 6: Saturation VaporPressureoverIce

Saturation Vapor Pressure Over Ice

VaporPressure Temperature [C]

overIce (ei)
0.0 -0.1 -0.2 -0.3 -0.4 -0.5 -0.6 -0.7 -0.8 -0.9
[Pa]
0 611.2 606.2 601.2 596.3 591.4 586.5 581.7 576.9 572.1 567.4
-1 562.7 558.0 553.4 548.8 544.3 539.8 535.3 530.9 526.4 522.1
-2 517.7 513.4 509.1 504.9 500.7 496.5 492.3 488.2 484.1 480.1
-3 476.0 472.1 468.1 464.2 460.3 456.4 452.5 448.7 444.9 441.2
-4 437.5 433.8 430.1 426.4 422.8 419.2 415.7 412.2 408.7 405.2
-5 401.7 398.3 394.9 391.6 388.2 384.9 381.6 378.3 375.1 371.9
-6 368.7 365.5 362.4 359.3 356.2 353.1 350.1 347.1 344.1 341.1
-7 338.2 335.2 332.3 329.5 326.6 323.8 321.0 318.2 315.4 312.7
-8 310.0 307.3 304.6 301.9 299.3 296.7 294.1 291.5 288.9 286.4
-9 283.9 281.4 278.9 276.5 274.1 271.6 269.3 266.9 264.5 262.2
-10 259.9 257.6 255.3 253.0 250.8 248.6 246.4 244.2 242.0 239.9
-11 237.7 235.6 233.5 231.4 229.3 227.3 225.3 223.2 221.2 219.3
-12 217.3 215.3 213.4 211.5 209.6 207.7 205.8 204.0 202.1 200.3
-13 198.5 196.7 194.9 193.2 191.4 189.7 187.9 186.2 184.5 182.9
-14 181.2 179.5 177.9 176.3 174.7 173.1 171.5 169.9 168.4 166.8
-15 165.3 163.8 162.3 160.8 159.3 157.8 156.4 154.9 153.5 152.1
-16 150.7 149.3 147.9 146.5 145.2 143.8 142.5 141.1 139.8 138.5
-17 137.2 136.0 134.7 133.4 132.2 130.9 129.7 128.5 127.3 126.1
Temperature [C]

-18 124.9 123.7 122.6 121.4 120.3 119.1 118.0 116.9 115.8 114.7
-19 113.6 112.5 111.5 110.4 109.4 108.3 107.3 106.3 105.3 104.3
-20 103.3 102.3 101.3 100.3 99.37 98.41 97.47 96.54 95.61 94.69
-21 93.78 92.88 91.98 91.09 90.21 89.34 88.48 87.62 86.77 85.93
-22 85.10 84.27 83.46 82.64 81.84 81.04 80.25 79.47 78.70 77.93
-23 77.17 76.41 75.66 74.92 74.19 73.46 72.74 72.02 71.31 70.61
-24 69.92 69.23 68.54 67.87 67.20 66.53 65.87 65.22 64.57 63.93
-25 63.30 62.67 62.04 61.43 60.81 60.21 59.61 59.01 58.42 57.84
-26 57.26 56.68 56.12 55.55 54.99 54.44 53.89 53.35 52.81 52.28
-27 51.75 51.23 50.71 50.20 49.69 49.19 48.69 48.19 47.70 47.22
-28 46.74 46.26 45.79 45.32 44.86 44.40 43.95 43.50 43.05 42.61
-29 42.18 41.74 41.31 40.89 40.47 40.05 39.64 39.23 38.82 38.42
-30 38.02 37.63 37.24 36.86 36.47 36.09 35.72 35.35 34.98 34.61
-31 34.25 33.90 33.54 33.19 32.84 32.50 32.16 31.82 31.49 31.16
-32 30.83 30.51 30.18 29.87 29.55 29.24 28.93 28.62 28.32 28.02
-33 27.72 27.43 27.14 26.85 26.56 26.28 26.00 25.72 25.45 25.18
-34 24.91 24.64 24.38 24.12 23.86 23.60 23.35 23.10 22.85 22.60
-35 22.36 22.12 21.88 21.64 21.41 21.18 20.95 20.72 20.49 20.27
-36 20.05 19.83 19.62 19.40 19.19 18.98 18.77 18.57 18.37 18.17
-37 17.97 17.77 17.57 17.38 17.19 17.00 16.81 16.63 16.44 16.26
-38 16.08 15.90 15.73 15.55 15.38 15.21 15.04 14.87 14.71 14.54
-39 14.38 14.22 14.06 13.91 13.75 13.60 13.44 13.29 13.14 13.00
-40 12.85 12.71 12.56 12.42 12.28 12.14 12.00 11.87 11.73 11.60

357490521.doc
26
 Saturation Vapor Pressure Over Ice
(continued)
VaporPressure Temperature [C]
overIce (ei)
[kPa] 0.0 -0.1 -0.2 -0.3 -0.4 -0.5 -0.6 -0.7 -0.8 -0.9

-40 12.85 12.71 12.56 12.42 12.28 12.14 12.00 11.87 11.73 11.60
-41 11.47 11.34 11.21 11.08 10.96 10.83 10.71 10.59 10.47 10.35
-42 10.23 10.11 9.994 9.880 9.766 9.654 9.543 9.433 9.324 9.217
-43 9.111 9.005 8.901 8.798 8.696 8.596 8.496 8.397 8.300 8.203
-44 8.108 8.013 7.920 7.827 7.736 7.645 7.556 7.467 7.380 7.293
-45 7.208 7.123 7.039 6.956 6.874 6.793 6.713 6.634 6.555 6.478
-46 6.401 6.325 6.250 6.176 6.102 6.030 5.958 5.887 5.817 5.747
-47 5.678 5.610 5.543 5.477 5.411 5.346 5.282 5.219 5.156 5.094
-48 5.032 4.971 4.911 4.852 4.793 4.735 4.678 4.621 4.565 4.510
-49 4.455 4.400 4.347 4.294 4.241 4.190 4.138 4.088 4.038 3.988
-50 3.939 3.891 3.843 3.796 3.749 3.703 3.657 3.612 3.567 3.523
-51 3.479 3.436 3.394 3.351 3.310 3.269 3.228 3.188 3.148 3.109
-52 3.070 3.031 2.993 2.956 2.919 2.882 2.846 2.810 2.775 2.740
-53 2.705 2.671 2.637 2.604 2.571 2.539 2.506 2.475 2.443 2.412
-54 2.381 2.351 2.321 2.292 2.262 2.233 2.205 2.177 2.149 2.121
-55 2.094 2.067 2.040 2.014 1.988 1.963 1.937 1.912 1.887 1.863
Temperature [C]

-56 1.839 1.815 1.791 1.768 1.745 1.722 1.700 1.678 1.656 1.634
-57 1.613 1.592 1.571 1.550 1.530 1.510 1.490 1.470 1.451 1.432
-58 1.413 1.394 1.376 1.358 1.340 1.322 1.304 1.287 1.270 1.253
-59 1.236 1.220 1.204 1.188 1.172 1.156 1.140 1.125 1.110 1.095
-60 1.080 1.066 1.052 1.037 1.023 1.010 0.996 0.982 0.969 0.956
-61 0.943 0.930 0.918 0.905 0.893 0.881 0.868 0.857 0.845 0.833
-62 0.822 0.811 0.800 0.789 0.778 0.767 0.756 0.746 0.736 0.726
-63 0.715 0.706 0.696 0.686 0.677 0.667 0.658 0.649 0.640 0.631
-64 0.622 0.613 0.605 0.596 0.588 0.580 0.572 0.563 0.556 0.548
-65 0.540 0.532 0.525 0.517 0.510 0.503 0.496 0.489 0.482 0.475
-66 0.468 0.462 0.455 0.448 0.442 0.436 0.429 0.423 0.417 0.411
-67 0.405 0.400 0.394 0.388 0.382 0.377 0.372 0.366 0.361 0.356
-68 0.350 0.345 0.340 0.335 0.330 0.326 0.321 0.316 0.312 0.307
-69 0.303 0.298 0.294 0.289 0.285 0.281 0.277 0.273 0.269 0.265
-70 0.261 0.257 0.253 0.249 0.246 0.242 0.238 0.235 0.231 0.228
-71 0.225 0.221 0.218 0.215 0.211 0.208 0.205 0.202 0.199 0.196
-72 0.193 0.190 0.187 0.184 0.182 0.179 0.176 0.173 0.171 0.168
-73 0.166 0.163 0.161 0.158 0.156 0.153 0.151 0.149 0.146 0.144
-74 0.142 0.140 0.138 0.135 0.133 0.131 0.129 0.127 0.125 0.123
-75 0.121 0.120 0.118 0.116 0.114 0.112 0.110 0.109 0.107 0.105

357490521.doc
27
TABLE7: Saturation Vapor Pressure over Water

Saturation Vapor Pressure over Water

Vapor Pressure
Temperature [C]
over Water
(ew) 0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9
[Pa]
35 5658 5689 5721 5753 5785 5817 5849 5882 5914 5947
34 5351 5381 5411 5442 5472 5503 5533 5564 5595 5627
33 5059 5087 5116 5145 5174 5203 5233 5262 5292 5321
32 4781 4808 4835 4863 4890 4918 4946 4974 5002 5030
31 4516 4542 4568 4594 4620 4647 4673 4700 4727 4754
30 4264 4289 4313 4338 4363 4388 4414 4439 4464 4490
29 4024 4048 4071 4095 4119 4143 4167 4191 4215 4239
28 3797 3819 3841 3864 3886 3909 3932 3955 3978 4001
27 3580 3601 3623 3644 3665 3687 3709 3731 3752 3774
26 3375 3395 3415 3435 3456 3476 3497 3517 3538 3559
25 3180 3199 3218 3237 3256 3276 3295 3315 3335 3355
24 2994 3012 3031 3049 3067 3086 3104 3123 3142 3161
23 2819 2836 2853 2870 2888 2905 2923 2941 2958 2976
22 2652 2668 2685 2701 2718 2734 2751 2768 2785 2802
21 2494 2510 2525 2541 2556 2572 2588 2604 2620 2636
Temperature [C]

20 2345 2359 2374 2389 2403 2418 2433 2448 2464 2479
19 2203 2217 2231 2245 2259 2273 2287 2301 2316 2330
18 2069 2082 2095 2108 2122 2135 2148 2162 2175 2189
17 1942 1954 1967 1979 1992 2004 2017 2030 2043 2056
16 1822 1834 1845 1857 1869 1881 1893 1905 1917 1930
15 1708 1720 1731 1742 1753 1764 1776 1787 1799 1810
14 1601 1612 1622 1633 1643 1654 1665 1676 1687 1697
13 1500 1510 1520 1530 1540 1550 1560 1570 1581 1591
12 1405 1414 1423 1433 1442 1452 1461 1471 1481 1490
11 1314 1323 1332 1341 1350 1359 1368 1377 1386 1395
10 1229 1238 1246 1254 1263 1271 1280 1288 1297 1306
9 1149 1157 1165 1173 1181 1189 1197 1205 1213 1221
8 1074 1081 1089 1096 1103 1111 1119 1126 1134 1142
7 1003 1010 1017 1024 1031 1038 1045 1052 1059 1067
6 935.9 942.4 949.0 955.5 962.2 968.8 975.5 982.3 989.1 995.9
5 873.0 879.1 885.3 891.5 897.7 904.0 910.3 916.6 923.0 929.4
4 813.9 819.6 825.4 831.2 837.1 843.0 848.9 854.9 860.9 866.9
3 758.3 763.7 769.1 774.6 780.1 785.6 791.2 796.8 802.5 808.1
2 706.1 711.2 716.3 721.4 726.6 731.8 737.0 742.3 747.6 752.9
1 657.1 661.9 666.7 671.5 676.4 681.2 686.2 691.1 696.1 701.1
0 611.2 615.7 620.2 624.7 629.2 633.8 638.4 643.0 647.7 652.4

357490521.doc
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 Saturation Vapor Pressure over Water
(continued)

Vapor Pressure
Temperature [C]
over Water
(ew) 0.0 -0.1 -0.2 -0.3 -0.4 -0.5 -0.6 -0.7 -0.8 -0.9
[Pa]
Temperature [C]

0 611.2 606.8 602.4 598.0 593.6 589.3 585.0 580.8 576.5 572.3
-1 568.1 564.0 559.8 555.7 551.7 547.6 543.6 539.6 535.6 531.7
-2 527.8 523.9 520.0 516.2 512.4 508.6 504.8 501.1 497.3 493.6
-3 490.0 486.3 482.7 479.1 475.5 472.0 468.5 465.0 461.5 458.0
-4 454.6 451.2 447.8 444.5 441.1 437.8 434.5 431.2 428.0 424.7
-5 421.5 418.3 415.2 412.0 408.9 405.8 402.7 399.7 396.6 393.6
-6 390.6 387.6 384.7 381.7 378.8 375.9 373.0 370.2 367.3 364.5
-7 361.7 358.9 356.2 353.4 350.7 348.0 345.3 342.6 340.0 337.3
-8 334.7 332.1 329.6 327.0 324.5 321.9 319.4 316.9 314.5 312.0
-9 309.6 307.1 304.7 302.4 300.0 297.6 295.3 293.0 290.7 288.4
-10 286.1 283.8 281.6 279.4 277.2 275.0 272.8 270.6 268.5 266.3
-11 264.2 262.1 260.0 258.0 255.9 253.9 251.8 249.8 247.8 245.8
-12 243.9 241.9 240.0 238.0 236.1 234.2 232.3 230.5 228.6 226.7
-13 224.9 223.1 221.3 219.5 217.7 215.9 214.2 212.4 210.7 209.0
-14 207.3 205.6 203.9 202.2 200.6 198.9 197.3 195.7 194.1 192.5
-15 190.9 189.3 187.8 186.2 184.7 183.1 181.6 180.1 178.6 177.1
-16 175.7 174.2 172.8 171.3 169.9 168.5 167.1 165.7 164.3 162.9
-17 161.6 160.2 158.9 157.5 156.2 154.9 153.6 152.3 151.0 149.7
-18 148.5 147.2 146.0 144.7 143.5 142.3 141.1 139.9 138.7 137.5
-19 136.3 135.2 134.0 132.9 131.7 130.6 129.5 128.4 127.3 126.2
-20 125.1 124.0 122.9 121.9 120.8 119.8 118.7 117.7 116.7 115.7
-21 114.7 113.7 112.7 111.7 110.7 109.8 108.8 107.9 106.9 106.0
-22 105.0 104.1 103.2 102.3 101.4 100.5 99.62 98.75 97.87 97.01
-23 96.15 95.30 94.46 93.62 92.79 91.96 91.15 90.34 89.53 88.73
-24 87.94 87.16 86.38 85.60 84.84 84.08 83.32 82.57 81.83 81.10
-25 80.37 79.64 78.92 78.21 77.50 76.80 76.11 75.42 74.73 74.05
-26 73.38 72.71 72.05 71.40 70.74 70.10 69.46 68.82 68.19 67.57
-27 66.95 66.33 65.72 65.12 64.52 63.93 63.34 62.75 62.17 61.60
-28 61.03 60.46 59.90 59.34 58.79 58.25 57.70 57.17 56.63 56.10
-29 55.58 55.06 54.54 54.03 53.53 53.02 52.53 52.03 51.54 51.06
-30 50.57 50.10 49.62 49.15 48.69 48.23 47.77 47.32 46.87 46.42
-31 45.98 45.54 45.11 44.68 44.25 43.82 43.41 42.99 42.58 42.17
-32 41.76 41.36 40.96 40.57 40.18 39.79 39.40 39.02 38.64 38.27
-33 37.90 37.53 37.17 36.80 36.45 36.09 35.74 35.39 35.04 34.70
-34 34.36 34.02 33.69 33.36 33.03 32.70 32.38 32.06 31.75 31.43
-35 31.12 30.81 30.51 30.21 29.91 29.61 29.31 29.02 28.73 28.45
-36 28.16 27.88 27.60 27.33 27.05 26.78 26.51 26.24 25.98 25.72
-37 25.46 25.20 24.95 24.70 24.45 24.20 23.95 23.71 23.47 23.23
-38 22.99 22.76 22.53 22.30 22.07 21.84 21.62 21.40 21.18 20.96
-39 20.74 20.53 20.32 20.11 19.90 19.70 19.49 19.29 19.09 18.89

357490521.doc
29
 -40 18.70 18.50 18.31 18.12 17.93 17.74 17.56 17.38 17.19 17.01
TABLE 8: Max. water content in ppmv vs. frost point

Maximum water content in ppmv at a frost point of -5 C

and rated filling pressures
SF6rated Maximum SF6rated Maximum SF6rated Maximum
filling water filling water filling water
pressure content pressure content pressure content
[kPa] [ppmv] [kPa] [ppmv] [kPa] [ppmv]
100 4034 350 1149 600 670.0
110 3666 360 1117 610 659.0
120 3359 370 1087 620 648.4
130 3100 380 1058 630 638.1
140 2878 390 1031 640 628.1
150 2685 400 1005 650 618.4
160 2517 410 980.8 660 609.1
170 2369 420 957.4 670 600.0
180 2237 430 935.1 680 591.1
190 2119 440 913.9 690 582.6
200 2013 450 893.5 700 574.2
210 1917 460 874.1 710 566.1
220 1829 470 855.5 720 558.3
230 1750 480 837.7 730 550.6
240 1677 490 820.5 740 543.2
250 1610 500 804.1 750 535.9
260 1548 510 788.3 760 528.9
270 1490 520 773.2 770 522.0
280 1437 530 758.6 780 515.3
290 1387 540 744.5 790 508.8
300 1341 550 731.0 800 502.4
310 1298 560 717.9 810 496.2
320 1257 570 705.3 820 490.2
330 1219 580 693.1 830 484.3
340 1183 590 681.4 840 478.5
350 1149 600 670.0 850 472.9

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TABLE 9: Vaporpressure vs. watercontentppmv

Vapor Pressure vs. water content ppmv at rated filling pressure

Water SF6 rated filling pressure [kPa]

Content
[ppmv] 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450 500
Water Vapor Partial Pressure [Pa]

1 10.0 6.7 5.0 4.0 3.3 2.9 2.5 2.2 2.0

2 20.0 13.3 10.0 8.0 6.7 5.7 5.0 4.4 4.0
3 30.0 20.0 15.0 12.0 10.0 8.6 7.5 6.7 6.0
4 40.0 26.7 20.0 16.0 13.3 11.4 10.0 8.9 8.0
5 50.0 33.3 25.0 20.0 16.7 14.3 12.5 11.1 10.0
6 60.0 40.0 30.0 24.0 20.0 17.1 15.0 13.3 12.0
7 70.0 46.7 35.0 28.0 23.3 20.0 17.5 15.6 14.0
8 80.0 53.3 40.0 32.0 26.7 22.9 20.0 17.8 16.0
9 90.0 60.0 45.0 36.0 30.0 25.7 22.5 20.0 18.0
10 100.0 66.7 50.0 40.0 33.3 28.6 25.0 22.2 20.0
15 150.0 100.0 75.0 60.0 50.0 42.9 37.5 33.3 30.0
20 200.0 133.4 100.0 80.0 66.7 57.1 50.0 44.4 40.0
25 250.1 166.7 125.0 100.0 83.3 71.4 62.5 55.6 50.0
30 300.1 200.0 150.0 120.0 100.0 85.7 75.0 66.7 60.0
35 350.1 233.4 175.0 140.0 116.7 100.0 87.5 77.8 70.0
40 400.2 266.7 200.0 160.0 133.4 114.3 100.0 88.9 80.0
45 450.2 300.1 225.1 180.0 150.0 128.6 112.5 100.0 90.0
50 500.3 333.4 250.1 200.0 166.7 142.9 125.0 111.1 100.0
60 600.4 400.2 300.1 240.1 200.0 171.5 150.0 133.4 120.0
70 700.5 466.9 350.1 280.1 233.4 200.0 175.0 155.6 140.0
80 800.6 533.6 400.2 320.1 266.7 228.6 200.0 177.8 160.0
90 900.8 600.4 450.2 360.1 300.1 257.2 225.1 200.0 180.0
100 1001.0 667.1 500.3 400.2 333.4 285.8 250.1 222.3 200.0
150 1502.3 1001.0 750.6 600.4 500.3 428.8 375.1 333.4 300.1
200 2004.0 1335.1 1001.0 800.6 667.1 571.8 500.3 444.6 400.2
250 2506.3 1669.4 1251.6 1001.0 834.0 714.8 625.4 555.9 500.3
300 3009.0 2004.0 1502.3 1201.4 1001.0 857.9 750.6 667.1 600.4
350 3512.3 2338.8 1753.1 1402.0 1168.0 1001.0 875.8 778.4 700.5
400 4016.1 2673.8 2004.0 1602.6 1335.1 1144.2 1001.0 889.7 800.6
450 4520.3 3009.0 2255.1 1803.2 1502.3 1287.4 1126.3 1001.0 900.8
500 5025.1 3344.5 2506.3 2004.0 1669.4 1430.6 1251.6 1112.3 1001.0
550 5530.4 3680.2 2757.6 2204.9 1836.7 1573.9 1376.9 1223.7 1101.2
600 6036.2 4016.1 3009.0 2405.8 2004.0 1717.2 1502.3 1335.1 1201.4
650 6542.5 4352.2 3260.6 2606.8 2171.4 1860.6 1627.6 1446.5 1301.7
700 7049.3 4688.5 3512.3 2807.9 2338.8 2004.0 1753.1 1558.0 1402.0
750 7556.7 5025.1 3764.1 3009.0 2506.3 2147.5 1878.5 1669.4 1502.3
800 8064.5 5361.9 4016.1 3210.3 2673.8 2291.0 2004.0 1780.9 1602.6
850 8572.9 5699.0 4268.1 3411.6 2841.4 2434.5 2129.5 1892.5 1702.9

357490521.doc
31
 900 9081.7 6036.2 4520.3 3613.0 3009.0 2578.1 2255.1 2004.0 1803.2
950 9591.1 6373.7 4772.7 3814.5 3176.7 2721.7 2380.7 2115.6 1903.6
1000 10101.0 6711.4 5025.1 4016.1 3344.5 2865.3 2506.3 2227.2 2004.0

Vapor pressure vs. water content ppmv at rated filling pressure

(continued)

Water SF6 rated filling pressure [kPa]

Content
[ppmv] 500 550 600 650 700 750 800 850 900

1 2.0 1.8 1.7 1.5 1.4 1.3 1.3 1.2 1.1

2 4.0 3.6 3.3 3.1 2.9 2.7 2.5 2.4 2.2
3 6.0 5.5 5.0 4.6 4.3 4.0 3.8 3.5 3.3
4 8.0 7.3 6.7 6.2 5.7 5.3 5.0 4.7 4.4
5 10.0 9.1 8.3 7.7 7.1 6.7 6.3 5.9 5.6
6 12.0 10.9 10.0 9.2 8.6 8.0 7.5 7.1 6.7
7 14.0 12.7 11.7 10.8 10.0 9.3 8.8 8.2 7.8
8 16.0 14.5 13.3 12.3 11.4 10.7 10.0 9.4 8.9
9 18.0 16.4 15.0 13.8 12.9 12.0 11.3 10.6 10.0
10 20.0 18.2 16.7 15.4 14.3 13.3 12.5 11.8 11.1
15 30.0 27.3 25.0 23.1 21.4 20.0 18.8 17.6 16.7
20 40.0 36.4 33.3 30.8 28.6 26.7 25.0 23.5 22.2
25 50.0 45.5 41.7 38.5 35.7 33.3 31.3 29.4 27.8
Water Vapor Partial Pressure [Pa]

30 60.0 54.5 50.0 46.2 42.9 40.0 37.5 35.3 33.3

35 70.0 63.6 58.3 53.8 50.0 46.7 43.8 41.2 38.9
40 80.0 72.7 66.7 61.5 57.1 53.3 50.0 47.1 44.4
45 90.0 81.8 75.0 69.2 64.3 60.0 56.3 52.9 50.0
50 100.0 90.9 83.3 76.9 71.4 66.7 62.5 58.8 55.6
60 120.0 109.1 100.0 92.3 85.7 80.0 75.0 70.6 66.7
70 140.0 127.3 116.7 107.7 100.0 93.3 87.5 82.4 77.8
80 160.0 145.5 133.4 123.1 114.3 106.7 100.0 94.1 88.9
90 180.0 163.7 150.0 138.5 128.6 120.0 112.5 105.9 100.0
100 200.0 181.9 166.7 153.9 142.9 133.4 125.0 117.7 111.1
150 300.1 272.8 250.1 230.8 214.3 200.0 187.5 176.5 166.7
200 400.2 363.8 333.4 307.8 285.8 266.7 250.1 235.3 222.3
250 500.3 454.8 416.8 384.8 357.3 333.4 312.6 294.2 277.9
300 600.4 545.8 500.3 461.8 428.8 400.2 375.1 353.1 333.4
350 700.5 636.8 583.7 538.8 500.3 466.9 437.7 411.9 389.0
400 800.6 727.8 667.1 615.8 571.8 533.6 500.3 470.8 444.6
450 900.8 818.9 750.6 692.8 643.3 600.4 562.8 529.7 500.3
500 1001.0 909.9 834.0 769.8 714.8 667.1 625.4 588.6 555.9
550 1101.2 1001.0 917.5 846.9 786.3 733.9 688.0 647.5 611.5
600 1201.4 1092.1 1001.0 923.9 857.9 800.6 750.6 706.4 667.1
650 1301.7 1183.2 1084.5 1001.0 929.4 867.4 813.2 765.3 722.7
700 1402.0 1274.3 1168.0 1078.1 1001.0 934.2 875.8 824.2 778.4
750 1502.3 1365.5 1251.6 1155.2 1072.6 1001.0 938.4 883.1 834.0
800 1602.6 1456.7 1335.1 1232.3 1144.2 1067.8 1001.0 942.1 889.7

357490521.doc
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 850 1702.9 1547.8 1418.7 1309.4 1215.8 1134.6 1063.6 1001.0 945.3
900 1803.2 1639.0 1502.3 1386.5 1287.4 1201.4 1126.3 1059.9 1001.0
950 1903.6 1730.3 1585.8 1463.7 1359.0 1268.3 1188.9 1118.9 1056.7
1000 2004.0 1821.5 1669.4 1540.8 1430.6 1335.1 1251.6 1177.9 1112.3
TABLE 10: Frost point vs. water content ppmv

Frost Point vs. Water Content ppmv at Rated Filling Pressure

Water SF6 rated filling pressure [kPa]

Content
[ppmv] 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450 500
Frost Point [C]

0 6150 4091 3065 2451 2041 1749 1530 1360 1224

-1 5659 3765 2821 2256 1879 1610 1409 1252 1127
-2 5204 3463 2595 2075 1729 1481 1296 1152 1037
-3 4783 3184 2386 1908 1589 1362 1192 1059 953.0
-4 4394 2925 2192 1753 1460 1251 1095 973.1 875.7
-5 4034 2685 2013 1610 1341 1149 1005 893.5 804.1
-6 3701 2464 1847 1477 1231 1055 922.6 820.0 737.9
-7 3393 2260 1694 1354 1128 967.1 846.1 752.0 676.8
-8 3109 2071 1552 1241 1034 886.4 775.5 689.3 620.3
-9 2847 1896 1422 1137 947.2 811.8 710.3 631.3 568.1
-10 2606 1735 1301 1041 867.0 743.0 650.1 577.8 520.0
-11 2383 1587 1190 951.8 793.0 679.7 594.6 528.5 475.7
-12 2178 1451 1088 870.0 724.9 621.2 543.5 483.1 434.8
-13 1989 1325 993.5 794.6 662.1 567.5 496.5 441.3 397.2
-14 1815 1209 906.8 725.3 604.4 518.0 453.2 402.8 362.5
-15 1656 1103 827.1 661.6 551.3 472.5 413.4 367.4 330.7
-16 1509 1005 753.9 603.0 502.5 430.7 376.8 334.9 301.4
-17 1374 915.8 686.7 549.3 457.7 392.3 343.2 305.1 274.6
-18 1251 833.5 625.0 499.9 416.6 357.0 312.4 277.7 249.9
-19 1137 758.0 568.4 454.7 378.9 324.7 284.1 252.5 227.3
-20 1034 688.9 516.6 413.2 344.3 295.1 258.2 229.5 206.6
-21 938.7 625.6 469.1 375.3 312.7 268.0 234.5 208.4 187.6
-22 851.7 567.7 425.7 340.5 283.7 243.2 212.8 189.1 170.2
-23 772.3 514.7 386.0 308.8 257.3 220.5 193.0 171.5 154.4
-24 699.7 466.3 349.7 279.7 233.1 199.8 174.8 155.4 139.9
-25 633.4 422.2 316.6 253.3 211.0 180.9 158.3 140.7 126.6
-26 572.9 381.9 286.4 229.1 190.9 163.6 143.2 127.3 114.5
-27 517.8 345.1 258.8 207.1 172.5 147.9 129.4 115.0 103.5
-28 467.6 311.7 233.7 187.0 155.8 133.6 116.9 103.9 93.49
-29 421.9 281.2 210.9 168.7 140.6 120.5 105.4 93.73 84.36
-30 380.4 253.6 190.2 152.1 126.8 108.7 95.07 84.51 76.06
-31 342.7 228.4 171.3 137.0 114.2 97.88 85.64 76.12 68.51

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 -32 308.4 205.6 154.2 123.3 102.8 88.09 77.08 68.51 61.66
-33 277.3 184.9 138.6 110.9 92.42 79.22 69.31 61.61 55.45
-34 249.1 166.1 124.6 99.64 83.03 71.17 62.27 55.35 49.82
-35 223.6 149.1 111.8 89.44 74.53 63.89 55.90 49.69 44.72

Frost Point vs. Water Content ppmv at Rated Filling Pressure

(continued)

Water SF6 rated filling pressure [kPa]

Content
[ppmv] 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450 500
Frost Point [C]

-35 224 149 112 89.4 74.5 63.9 55.9 49.7 44.7
-36 201 134 100 80.2 66.8 57.3 50.1 44.6 40.1
-37 180 120 89.8 71.9 59.9 51.3 44.9 39.93 35.93
-38 161 107 80.4 64.3 53.6 46.0 40.2 35.74 32.2
-39 144 95.9 71.9 57.5 47.9 41.1 36.0 32.0 28.8
-40 129 85.7 64.3 51.4 42.8 36.7 32.1 28.6 25.7
-41 115 76.5 57.4 45.9 38.2 32.8 28.7 25.5 22.9
-42 102 68.2 51.1 40.9 34.1 29.2 25.6 22.7 20.5
-43 91.1 60.7 45.6 36.4 30.4 26.0 22.8 20.2 18.2
-44 81.1 54.1 40.5 32.4 27.0 23.2 20.3 18.0 16.2
-45 72.1 48.1 36.0 28.8 24.0 20.6 18.0 16.0 14.4
-46 64.0 42.7 32.0 25.6 21.3 18.3 16.0 14.2 12.8
-47 56.8 37.9 28.4 22.7 18.9 16.2 14.2 12.6 11.4
-48 50.3 33.5 25.2 20.1 16.8 14.4 12.6 11.2 10.1
-49 44.5 29.7 22.3 17.8 14.8 12.7 11.1 9.90 8.91
-50 39.4 26.3 19.7 15.8 13.1 11.3 9.85 8.75 7.88
-51 34.8 23.2 17.4 13.9 11.6 9.94 8.70 7.73 6.96
-52 30.7 20.5 15.3 12.3 10.2 8.77 7.67 6.82 6.14
-53 27.1 18.0 13.5 10.8 9.02 7.73 6.76 6.01 5.41
-54 23.8 15.9 11.9 9.53 7.94 6.80 5.95 5.29 4.76
-55 20.9 14.0 10.5 8.38 6.98 5.98 5.23 4.65 4.19
-56 18.4 12.3 9.19 7.36 6.13 5.25 4.60 4.09 3.68
-57 16.1 10.8 8.06 6.45 5.38 4.61 4.03 3.58 3.23
-58 14.1 9.42 7.07 5.65 4.71 4.04 3.53 3.14 2.83
-59 12.4 8.24 6.18 4.95 4.12 3.53 3.09 2.75 2.47
-60 10.8 7.20 5.40 4.32 3.60 3.09 2.70 2.40 2.16
-61 9.43 6.29 4.71 3.77 3.14 2.69 2.36 2.10 1.89
-62 8.22 5.48 4.11 3.29 2.74 2.35 2.05 1.83 1.64
-63 7.15 4.77 3.58 2.86 2.38 2.04 1.79 1.59 1.43

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 -64 6.22 4.15 3.11 2.49 2.07 1.78 1.56 1.38 1.24
-65 5.40 3.60 2.70 2.16 1.80 1.54 1.35 1.20 1.08

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 Frost Point vs. Water Content ppmv at Rated Filling Pressure
(continued)

Water SF6 rated filling pressure [kPa]

Content
[ppmv] 500 550 600 650 700 750 800 850 900
Frost Point [C]

0 1224 1113 1020 941.2 873.9 815.6 764.6 719.6 679.6

-1 1127 1024 938.7 866.4 804.5 750.8 703.9 662.4 625.6
-2 1037 942.2 863.6 797.1 740.1 690.8 647.6 609.5 575.6
-3 953.0 866.3 794.0 732.9 680.5 635.1 595.4 560.4 529.2
-4 875.7 796.0 729.6 673.5 625.3 583.6 547.1 514.9 486.3
-5 804.1 731.0 670.0 618.4 574.2 535.9 502.4 472.9 446.6
-6 737.9 670.8 614.9 567.6 527.0 491.8 461.1 434.0 409.8
-7 676.8 615.2 563.9 520.5 483.3 451.1 422.9 398.0 375.9
-8 620.3 563.9 516.9 477.1 443.0 413.4 387.6 364.8 344.5
-9 568.1 516.5 473.4 437.0 405.7 378.7 355.0 334.1 315.5
-10 520.0 472.7 433.3 400.0 371.4 346.6 324.9 305.8 288.8
-11 475.7 432.4 396.4 365.9 339.7 317.1 297.2 279.7 264.2
-12 434.8 395.2 362.3 334.4 310.5 289.8 271.7 255.7 241.5
-13 397.2 361.0 330.9 305.5 283.6 264.7 248.2 233.6 220.6
-14 362.5 329.6 302.1 278.8 258.9 241.7 226.5 213.2 201.4
-15 330.7 300.6 275.6 254.4 236.2 220.4 206.7 194.5 183.7
-16 301.4 274.0 251.2 231.8 215.3 200.9 188.4 177.3 167.4
-17 274.6 249.6 228.8 211.2 196.1 183.0 171.6 161.5 152.5
-18 249.9 227.2 208.2 192.2 178.5 166.6 156.2 147.0 138.8
-19 227.3 206.6 189.4 174.8 162.3 151.5 142.0 133.7 126.3
-20 206.6 187.8 172.1 158.9 147.5 137.7 129.1 121.5 114.7
-21 187.6 170.5 156.3 144.3 134.0 125.1 117.2 110.3 104.2
-22 170.2 154.8 141.9 130.9 121.6 113.5 106.4 100.1 94.6
-23 154.4 140.3 128.6 118.7 110.2 102.9 96.47 90.79 85.75
-24 139.9 127.1 116.5 107.6 99.89 93.23 87.40 82.26 77.69
-25 126.6 115.1 105.5 97.39 90.43 84.40 79.13 74.47 70.33
-26 114.5 104.1 95.44 88.10 81.80 76.35 71.58 67.37 63.62
-27 103.5 94.11 86.26 79.63 73.94 69.01 64.70 60.89 57.51
-28 93.49 84.99 77.90 71.91 66.77 62.32 58.43 54.99 51.93
-29 84.36 76.69 70.30 64.89 60.25 56.24 52.72 49.62 46.86
-30 76.06 69.14 63.38 58.50 54.32 50.70 47.53 44.74 42.25
-31 68.51 62.28 57.09 52.70 48.94 45.67 42.82 40.30 38.06
-32 61.66 56.06 51.39 47.43 44.04 41.11 38.54 36.27 34.26
-33 55.45 50.41 46.21 42.65 39.61 36.97 34.66 32.62 30.80

357490521.doc
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 -34 49.82 45.29 41.52 38.32 35.58 33.21 31.14 29.30 27.68
-35 44.72 40.65 37.27 34.40 31.94 29.81 27.95 26.30 24.84

Frost Point vs. Water Content ppmv at Rated Filling Pressure

(continued)

Water SF6 rated filling pressure [kPa]

Content
[ppmv] 500 550 600 650 700 750 800 850 900
Frost Point [C]

-35 44.7 40.7 37.3 34.4 31.9 29.8 27.9 26.3 24.8
-36 40.1 36.5 33.4 30.8 28.6 26.7 25.1 23.6 22.3
-37 35.9 32.7 29.9 27.6 25.7 24.0 22.5 21.1 20.0
-38 32.2 29.2 26.8 24.7 23.0 21.4 20.1 18.9 17.9
-39 28.8 26.2 24.0 22.1 20.5 19.2 18.0 16.9 16.0
-40 25.7 23.4 21.4 19.8 18.4 17.1 16.1 15.1 14.3
-41 22.9 20.9 19.1 17.6 16.4 15.3 14.3 13.5 12.7
-42 20.5 18.6 17.0 15.7 14.6 13.6 12.8 12.0 11.4
-43 18.2 16.6 15.2 14.0 13.0 12.1 11.4 10.7 10.1
-44 16.2 14.7 13.5 12.5 11.6 10.8 10.13 9.54 9.01
-45 14.4 13.1 12.0 11.1 10.3 9.61 9.01 8.48 8.01
-46 12.8 11.6 10.7 9.85 9.14 8.53 8.00 7.53 7.11
-47 11.4 10.3 9.46 8.74 8.11 7.57 7.10 6.68 6.31
-48 10.1 9.15 8.39 7.74 7.19 6.71 6.29 5.92 5.59
-49 8.91 8.10 7.42 6.85 6.36 5.94 5.57 5.24 4.95
-50 7.88 7.16 6.57 6.06 5.63 5.25 4.92 4.63 4.38
-51 6.96 6.33 5.80 5.35 4.97 4.64 4.35 4.09 3.87
-52 6.14 5.58 5.12 4.72 4.39 4.09 3.84 3.61 3.41
-53 5.41 4.92 4.51 4.16 3.86 3.61 3.38 3.18 3.01
-54 4.76 4.33 3.97 3.66 3.40 3.18 2.98 2.80 2.65
-55 4.19 3.81 3.49 3.22 2.99 2.79 2.62 2.46 2.33
-56 3.68 3.34 3.06 2.83 2.63 2.45 2.30 2.16 2.04
-57 3.23 2.93 2.69 2.48 2.30 2.15 2.02 1.90 1.79
-58 2.83 2.57 2.36 2.17 2.02 1.88 1.77 1.66 1.57
-59 2.47 2.25 2.06 1.90 1.77 1.65 1.55 1.45 1.37
-60 2.16 1.96 1.80 1.66 1.54 1.44 1.35 1.27 1.20
-61 1.89 1.71 1.57 1.45 1.35 1.26 1.18 1.11 1.05
-62 1.64 1.49 1.37 1.26 1.17 1.10 1.03 0.97 0.91
-63 1.43 1.30 1.19 1.10 1.02 0.95 0.89 0.84 0.79
-64 1.24 1.13 1.04 0.96 0.89 0.83 0.78 0.73 0.69

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 -65 1.08 0.98 0.90 0.83 0.77 0.72 0.68 0.64 0.60

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