Nuclear Power

Dr. Khawar Naveed

8.1 Atomic Structure Mass Defect
An atom consists of a relatively heavy, positively charged nucleus and a number of much lighter
negatively charged electrons that exist in various orbits around the nucleus.
The nucleus, in turn, consists of subparticles, called nucleons.
Nucleons are primarily of two kinds: the neutrons, which are electrically neutral, and the
protons, which are positively charged.
The electric charge on the proton is equal in magnitude but opposite in sign to that on the
electron. As a result, the atom as a whole is electrically neutral
One atom may be transformed into another by losing or acquiring some of the above
subparticles.
Such reactions result in a change in mass m and therefore release (or absorb) large quantities of
energyy E, according to Einsteins law E = m c2
Before proceeding further, we shall study Mass Defect, and Binding Energy, which are
important to understand the concept of nuclear fission
Mass Defect
Careful measurements have shown that the mass of a particular atom is always slightly
less than the sum of the masses of the individual neutrons, protons, and electrons of which
the atom consists.
The difference between the mass of the atom and the sum of the masses of its parts is
called the mass defect (m).
The mass defect can be calculated using Equation
m = [ Z(mp + me) + (A-Z)mn ] matom
Where:
m = mass defect (amu)
Z = Atomic number, i.e. No. of protons
A = Mass Number i.e. sum of No. of proton and neutron
mn = Mass of Neutron = 1.008665 amu
mp = Mass of Proton = 1 .007277 amu
me = Mass of Electron = 0.0005486 amu
The abbreviation amu; for atomic mass unit, is a unit of mass approximately equal to 1.66
x 10-27 kg, or 3.66 x 10-27 lbm.
 In calculating the mass defect it is important to use the full accuracy of mass
measurements because the difference in mass is small compared to the mass of the atom.
Rounding off the masses of atoms and particles to three or four significant digits prior to
the calculation will result in a calculated mass defect of zero.
 The loss in mass, or mass defect, is due to the conversion of mass to binding energy when the
nucleus is formed.
Binding energy is defined as the amount of energy that must be supplied to a nucleus to completely
separate its nuclear particles (nucleons).
It can also be understood as the amount of energy that would be released if the nucleus was formed
from the separate particles.
Binding energy is the energy equivalent of the mass defect.
Since the mass defect was converted to binding energy (BE) when the nucleus was formed, it is
possible to calculate the binding energy using a conversion factor derived by the mass-energy
relationship from Einstein's Theory of Relativity. Einstein's famous equation relating mass and
energy is E = mc2 where c is the velocity of light (c = 2.998 x 108 m/sec).
The energy equivalent of 1 amu can be determined by inserting this quantity of mass into Einstein's
equation and applying conversion factors.

2.3 Chemical and Nuclear Equations

Chemical reactions involve the combination or separation of whole atoms. For example
C+O2 CO2
The only effect is a sharing or exchanging of valence electrons and the nuclei are
unaffected.
In chemical equations there are as many atoms of each participating element in the products
(the right-hand side) as in the reactants (the left hand side).
In nuclear reactions, the reactant nuclei do not show up in the products, instead we may find
either isotopes of the reactants or other nuclei.
In balancing nuclear equations it is necessary to see that the same, or equivalent, nucleons
show up in the products as entered the reaction. For example, if K, L, M, and N were
chemical symbols, the corresponding nuclear equation might look like

In order to balance the equation, instead of balancing atoms/radicals, we balance Atomic

Numbers and Mass Numbers: therefore:
Example:
Common aluminum is bombarded with high-energy alpha () particles (Helium-4 nuclei),
resulting in Si30 (a heavy isotope of silicon whose most abundant isotope has mass number
28). In the reaction, a small particle is emitted. Write the complete reaction and calculate the
change in mass.
Solution,
The nuclear reaction is
 Thus there is a decrease in mass, as m = 30.98159 - 30.98143 = -0.00254 amu.
The corresponding energy is negative; i.e., energy is released or is exothermic.
In nuclear reactions, the results depend on a small difference between large numbers,
which makes it necessary to carry the isotope masses to the fourth or fifth decimal
places
Fission Reaction Energy Release Calculation

On the average the fission of a U235 nucleus yields about 193 MeV
Nuclear Fission
Nuclear fission is a nuclear reaction in which the nucleus of an atom splits into smaller
parts (lighter nuclei).
Fission can be caused by the neutron, which, being electrically neutral, can strike and
fission the positively charged nucleus at high, moderate, or low speeds without being
repulsed.
In the figure, it can be seen that a neutron strikes the nucleus of U-235, and splits into two
nuclides, and three neutrons are released. An energy of 190 MeV will also be released
To maintain this process of fission, the neutrons, will further strike U-235 nucleus and the
process of fission will continue. This is called Chain Reaction
The fission products shown in last slide are not the only fission products, there are
many more
The process of Chain Reaction will continue, until the amount of U-235 reduces to less
than a certain value, called Critical Mass.
For chain reaction neutrons of low energy (Thermal Neutrons) and U-235 are most
suitable. We shall now discuss why???
Fission Reaction
An average of three neutron are released, with two smaller nuclei,
called fission products or fission fragments
which cause the next fission A chain reaction
Fission Chain Reaction
An average of three neutron are released, with two smaller
nuclei, causing the next fission A chain reaction
Radioactivity
Neutron Energies
Because neutrons are essential to the fission process, so knowledge of neutron
interactions is essential.
As any other body, the kinetic energy of a neutron En is given by:
1
En = 2
2
En is commonly expressed in eV or MeV. Since mass of neutron, mn = 1.008665 amu,
then
1 2
= 1.008665
2 0.965 1018
En = 5.227 1019 2 MeV = 5.227 10-13 V2 eV
where V is the centimeters per second.
The newly born fission neutrons have energies ranging between less than 0.075 to about
17 MeV.
When they travel through matter, they collide with nuclei and are decelerated, mainly by
lighter nuclei. This is called scattering
 Neutrons are classified into three categories according to energy:
Fast (greater than 105 eV),
Intermediate, and
slow (less than 1 eV).
Average release of neutron after fission may be categorized in fast range, although many
neutrons possess less energy.
One of the main reactor classifications is the energy range of the neutrons causing fission.
A fast reactor is one dependent primarily on fast neutrons for fission.
A thermal reactor is one utilizing mostly thermal neutrons
Cross Section
The probability of a neutron interacting with a nucleus for a particular reaction is
dependent upon
kind of nucleus involved, AND
energy of the neutron.
Accordingly, the absorption and fission of a thermal neutron in most materials is much
more probable than the absorption of a fast neutron.
Similarly, the probability of interaction will vary depending upon the type of reaction
involved.
The probability of a particular reaction occurring between a neutron and a nucleus is
called the microscopic cross section of the nucleus for the particular reaction.
This cross section will vary with the energy of the neutron.
The microscopic cross section may also be regarded as the effective area the nucleus
presents to the neutron for the particular reaction
 The larger the effective area, the greater the probability for reaction.
Because the microscopic cross section is an area, it is expressed in units of area, or square
centimeters.
A square centimeter is tremendously large in comparison to the effective area of a
nucleus, and it has been suggested that a physicist once referred to the measure of a
square centimeter as being "as big as a barn" when applied to nuclear processes.
The name has persisted and microscopic cross sections are expressed in terms of barns.
The relationship between barns and cm2 is shown below. 1 barn = 10-24 cm
The cross sections, we will deal are absorption cross section, scattering cross section and
fission cross section
A table on the next slide gives the values of x-section
Physics Inside Nuclear Reactor
A neutron inside a nuclear reactor can undergo
Scattering, elastic, with neutrons with high energy and inelastic with low energy s
Absorption which can result is just capture or cause the next fission c + f
Non fission Capture or radiative (non-fission) capture c
Fission i.e. it may cause fission f
The product N is equal to the total cross sections of all the nuclei present in a unit
volume.
It is called the macroscopic cross section and is given the symbol . It has the unit of
length-1, commonly cm-1. Thus
=N
N is number of fissile material (U-235) per cm3
Macroscopic cross sections are also designated according to the reaction they represent.
Thus f = N f for fission, s = N s for scattering a = N a for absorption, etc.
Fission Rate and Reactor Power
If n is neutron density, i.e. No. of neutron falling per unit volume #/cm3
If v is velocity of (single energy) neutrons, cm/s
The neutron flux = = nv (#/cm2 sec) (The number of neutrons falling per unit area
(target) per unit time)
Rate of any reaction involving mono-energetic neutron can be expressed as
For fission reaction, Fission Rate = f Where f = N f
Let the volume of reactor = V cm3
Total fission rate i.e. No. of fission per second = V f
We know that 1 Watt of Power = 3.1 1010 fission per second

Therefore = or = Watts
3.11010 3.11010
V being Volume and N being Number of fission product per unit vol, the product VN is
total number of fission products, necessary to give Power
 Dividing VN by Avogadro Number will give us grams of material required to give us 1
Watt.
P = 8.3 1010 g f (Watts)
Note that the above calculation is based on neutron of single energy available for fission.
BUT
After actual fission neutrons of various energies are released.
Neutrons after release, need to be thermalized through scattering to increase the probability of
fission
The neutrons, are absorbed in fissile material as well as other materials
Neutrons Leak-out and do not participate in fission Wastage
Therefore, a neutron balance is reflected in Diffusion Equation

- Leakage Absorption + Production =


2 + =

For steady state
2 + = 0
Power Reactor Components
1. Fuel.
1. Uranium is the basic fuel. Usually pellets of uranium oxide
(UO2) are arranged in tubes to form fuel rods. The rods are
arranged into fuel assemblies in the reactor core.
2. In a 1000 MWe class PWR there might be 51,000 fuel rods
with over 18 million pellets.
2. Moderator. Material in the core which slows down the neutrons
released from fission so that they cause more fission. It is usually
water, but may be heavy water or graphite.
3. Coolant. A fluid circulating through the core so as to transfer the
heat from it.
1. In light water reactors the water moderator functions also as
primary coolant. Except in BWRs, there is secondary coolant
circuit where the water becomes steam.
2. In heavy water reactors, coolant is also heavy water in a
separate circuit.
4. Control rods. These are made with neutron-absorbing material such as
cadmium, hafnium or boron, and are inserted or withdrawn from the core
to control the rate of reaction, or to halt it
1. In some PWR reactors, special control rods are used to enable the core
to sustain a low level of power efficiently.
2. Secondary control systems involve other neutron absorbers, usually
boron in the coolant its concentration can be adjusted over time as
the fuel burns up
5. Pressure vessel or pressure tubes. Usually a robust steel vessel containing
the reactor core and moderator/coolant, but it may be a series of tubes
holding the fuel and conveying the coolant through the surrounding
moderator.
6. Steam generator. Part of the cooling system of pressurized water reactors (PWR & PHWR)
where the high-pressure primary coolant bringing heat from the reactor is used to make steam
for the turbine, in a secondary circuit. Essentially a heat exchanger like a motor car radiator.
7. Containment. The structure around the reactor and associated steam generators which is
designed to protect it from outside intrusion and to protect those outside from the effects of
radiation in case of any serious malfunction inside. It is typically a metre-thick concrete and
steel structure
Newer reactors install core melt localisation devices or 'core catchers' under the pressure vessel
to catch any melted core material in the event of a major accident.
 Main
Reactor type Number GWe Fuel Coolant Moderator
countries
US, France,
Pressurized water
Japan, Russia, 282 264 enriched UO2 water water
reactor (PWR)
China
Boiling water reactor US, Japan,
78 75 enriched UO2 water water
(BWR) Sweden
Pressurized heavy
Canada, India 49 25 natural UO2 heavy water heavy water
water reactor (PHWR)
Gas-cooled reactor natural U (metal),
UK 14 8 CO2 graphite
(AGR & Magnox) enriched UO2
Light water graphite
reactor (RBMK & Russia 11 + 4 10.2 enriched UO2 water graphite
EGP)
Fast neutron reactor
Russia 3 1.4 PuO2 and UO2 liquid sodium none
(FBR)
TOTAL 441 384
Containment
Under
construction
Barkah NPP
Containment
Under
construction
Barkah NPP
8. Pressurizer
The pressurizer is the component in the reactor coolant system which provides a means of
controlling the system pressure.
Pressure is controlled by the use of electrical heaters, pressurizer spray, power operated relief
valves, and safety valves.
The pressurizer operates with a mixture of steam and water in equilibrium. If pressure starts to
deviate from the desired value, the various components will actuate to bring pressure back to the
normal operating point.
The cause of the pressure deviation is normally associated with a change in the temperature of the
reactor coolant system. If reactor coolant system temperature starts to increase, the density of the
reactor coolant will decrease, and the water will take up more space.
Since the pressurizer is connected to the reactor coolant system via the surge line, the water will
expand up into the pressurizer.
This will cause the steam in the top of the pressurizer to be compressed, and therefore, the pressure
to increase.
Please ALSO see the notes, kept on data server PWR
Thermal Power Reactors
Pressurized Water Reactors
Schematic Diagram of PWR is shown in Figure
PWRs use ordinary water as both coolant and moderator.
The design is distinguished by having a primary cooling circuit which flows through the core of the
reactor under very high pressure, and a secondary circuit in which steam is generated to drive the
turbine.
In Russia these are known as VVER types water-moderated and -cooled.
A typical PWR has fuel assemblies of 200-300 rods each, arranged vertically in the core, and a large
reactor would have about 150-250 fuel assemblies with 80-100 tonnes of uranium.
Water in the reactor core reaches about 325C, hence it must be kept under about 150 bar, 5 MPa
Pressure is maintained by pressure control system assisted by pressurizer as discussed above
In the primary cooling circuit the water is also the moderator, and if any of it turned to steam the fission
reaction would slow down. This negative feedback effect is one of the safety features of the type.
The secondary shutdown system involves adding boron to the primary circuit.
The secondary circuit is under less pressure (about 5 Mpa) and the water here boils in the heat
exchangers which are thus steam generators. The steam drives the turbine to produce electricity, and is
then condensed and returned to the heat exchangers in contact with the primary circuit.
Boiling water reactor (BWR)
This design has many similarities to the PWR, except that there is only a single circuit in
which the water is at lower pressure (about 75 bar) so that it boils in the core at about
285C.
The reactor is designed to operate with 12-15% of the water in the top part of the core as
steam, and hence with less moderating effect and thus efficiency there.
BWR units can operate in load-following mode more readily than PWRs.
The steam passes through drier plates (steam separators) above the core and then directly
to the turbines, which are thus part of the reactor circuit.
Since the water around the core of a reactor is always contaminated with traces of
radionuclides, it means that the turbine must be shielded and radiological protection
provided during maintenance. The cost of this tends to balance the savings due to the
simpler design.
Most of the radioactivity in the water is very short-lived*, so the turbine hall can be
entered soon after the reactor is shut down (mostly N-16, with a 7 second half-life)
A BWR fuel assembly comprises 90-100 fuel rods, and there are up to 750 assemblies in a
reactor core, holding up to 140 tonnes of uranium.
The secondary control system involves restricting water flow through the core so that more
steam in the top part reduces moderation.
Pressurized heavy water reactor (PHWR)
The PHWR reactor design has been developed since the 1950s in Canada as the CANDU, and
from 1980s also in India.
PHWRs generally use natural uranium (0.7% U-235) oxide as fuel, hence needs a more efficient
moderator, in this case heavy water (D2O). (with the CANDU system, the moderator is enriched
(i.e. water) rather than the fuel a cost trade-off.)
he PHWR produces more energy per kilogram of mined uranium than other designs, but also
produces a much larger amount of used fuel per unit output.
The moderator is in a large tank called a calandria, penetrated by several hundred horizontal
pressure tubes which form channels for the fuel, cooled by a flow of heavy water under high
pressure in the primary cooling circuit, reaching 290C.
As in the PWR, the primary coolant generates steam in a secondary circuit to drive the turbines.
The pressure tube design means that the reactor can be refuelled progressively without shutting
down, by isolating individual pressure tubes from the cooling circuit.
It is also less costly to build than designs with a large pressure vessel, but the tubes have not
proved as durable.
 A CANDU fuel assembly consists of a bundle of 37 half meter long fuel rods (ceramic fuel pellets
in zircaloy tubes) plus a support structure, with 12 bundles lying end to end in a fuel channel.
Control rods penetrate the calandria vertically, and a secondary shutdown system involves adding
gadolinium to the moderator.
The heavy water moderator circulating through the body of the calandria vessel also yields some
heat (though this circuit is not shown on the diagram above).
Newer PHWR designs such as the Advanced Candu Reactor (ACR) have light water cooling and
slightly-enriched fuel.
Positive Coefficient of Reactivity
Xenon Poisoning
CANDU reactors can accept a variety of fuels. They may be run on recycled uranium from
reprocessing LWR used fuel, or a blend of this and depleted uranium left over from enrichment
plants. About 4000 MWe of PWR might then fuel 1000 MWe of CANDU capacity, with addition
of depleted uranium. Thorium may also be used in fuel.
Advanced gas-cooled reactor (AGR)
These are the second generation of British gas-cooled reactors, using graphite moderator and
carbon dioxide as primary coolant.
The fuel is uranium oxide pellets, enriched to 2.5-3.5%, in stainless steel tubes.
The carbon dioxide circulates through the core, reaching 650C and then past steam generator
tubes outside it, but still inside the concrete and steel pressure vessel (hence 'integral'
design). Control rods penetrate the moderator and a secondary shutdown system involves injecting
nitrogen to the coolant.
The AGR was developed from the Magnox reactor, also graphite moderated and CO2 cooled, and
one of these is still operating in UK to late 2014. They use natural uranium fuel in metal form.
Secondary coolant is water.
Power rating of a Nuclear Power Plant
Power outputs are quoted in three ways:
Thermal MWt, which depends on the design of the actual reactor itself, and relates to the
quantity and quality of the steam it produces.
Gross electrical MWe indicates the power produced by the attached steam turbine and
generator, and also takes into account the ambient temperature for the condenser circuit
(cooler means more electric power, warmer means less). Rated gross power assumes
certain conditions with both.
Net electrical MWe, which is the power available to be sent out from the plant to the grid,
after deducting the electrical power needed to run the reactor (cooling and feed-water
pumps, etc.) and the rest of the plant.
Evolution of Nuclear Power Plant Safety

CDF= Chances of Core Damage

Generation I
per reactor per year
CDF = 3x10-3
Generation II
CDF = 5x10-5 Generation III
- Early prototypes
CDF = 10-7-10-6
- Shippingport Generation IV
- Redundant and
- Magnox, etc. diverse safety - Passive safety CDF < 10-8
systems systems
Can cope
Design Basis - Branded as LWR, - New fuel designs - Inherent safety
Accidents with PWR, BWR, - Modular systems - Better use of
the help of CANDU, AGR, etc. natural resource
Engineered - EPR, AP 1000,
Can cope with due to high burn-
Safety Features ABWR, ACP1000,
Beyond Design up
(ESF) included etc.
Basis Accidents , - Minimum waste
the plant . when ESF fails Can cope with
to perform its Severe Accidents - Proliferation
intended functions involving the core resistant
meltdown

1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010 2020 2030

 Quantification of risk and our attitude towards it

Risk Perception
(deaths/person/year)

1 in a thousand
Totally unacceptable
(10-3)
Procedures are developed and money is
1 in ten thousand
spent to reduce risk
(10-4) (Typical example: Road accident, Falls)

People willing to undergo some

1 in hundred thousand
inconvenience to avoid risk
(10-5) (Typical example: Fire, Drowning, Poisoning)

Considered an act of God: Some

1 in a million
precautions but no effect on lifestyle
(10-6) (Typical example: Lightening)

Source: Ronald Allen Knief, Nuclear Energy Technology: Theory

and Practice of Commercial Nuclear Power, 1981.

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