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Artificial Intelligence
ECE 434
 If human beings can think then why not
machines?

If machines If machines
can think, How? can not think, Why?

Can they surpass human And what does this

performance? say about the mind?

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Artificial + Intelligent
 What is artificial intelligence?
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Intelligence (Oxford dictionary ):

Ability to
Learn
Understand and
Think.
 Artificial + Intelligence
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Artificial :
o Fake, not real , man made
Intelligence:
the capacity to learn and solve problems

In particular,

The ability to solve

novel(Strikingly new, unusual, or different.) problems
The ability to act rationally(based on or in accordance
with reason or logic)
The ability to act like humans
 What is involved in INTELLIGENCE
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Ability to interact with the real world
to perceive, understand, and act
e.g., speech recognition

e.g., image understanding

VIDEOS\KISMET ROBOT.mp4

Reasoning and Planning

modeling the external world, given input

solving new problems, planning, and making decisions

ability to deal with unexpected problems, uncertainties

VIDEOS\ASIMO.mp4

Learning and Adaptation

we are continuously learning and adapting

our internal models are always being updated

e.g., a baby learning to categorize and recognize animals

 ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE
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There are no clear agreement on the definition of AI

It is the science and engineering of making intelligent

machines, especially intelligent computer programs.

AI is the study of how to make computers just like

humans. That means how to make computers to do
things that people do better.
 Other possible AI definitions
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AI is a collection of hard problems which can be solved

by humans and other living things, but for which we
dont have good algorithms for solving.
e. g., understanding spoken natural language, medical diagnosis,
chess playing, proving math theories, etc.
AI is a process of making a machine or a program that
Learn and understand like human

Acts like human (Turing test)

Thinks like human (human-like patterns of thinking steps)

Acts or thinks rationally (logically, correctly)

 Cont
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AI is the study and design of intelligent agents

where,

an intelligent agent is a system that interact with its

environment and takes actions that maximize its
chances of success.
 Intelligent Systems in Your Everyday Life
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Post Office
automatic address recognition and sorting of mail

Banks
automatic check readers, signature verification systems
automated loan application classification

Customer Service
automatic voice recognition

The Web
Identifying your age, gender, location, from your Web surfing
Automated fraud detection
Database information

Digital Cameras
Automated face detection and focusing

Computer Games
Intelligent characters/agents
VIDEOS\HUMAN ROBOT.mp4
VIDEOS\Maximum Automation - The End of the Labor System.mp4
Stanley Robot in Stanford Racing Team
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Robot holding the Bulb
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Factory Automation with industrial robots
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 Foundations of AI
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Computer
Science &
Mathematics Engineering Philosophy

Biology
Economics

AI
Linguistics
Psychology

Cognitive
Science
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 History of AI
Psychologists strengthened the idea that human can be considered as
information processing machines.
Mathematician provided tools to manipulate certain or uncertain.
logical statements of certainty .
The birth of AI (1943 1956)
Pitts and McCulloch (1943): simplified mathematical model of
neurons

synapse axon

nucleus

cell body

dendrites
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 Basic Components of Biological Neurons
1.The majority of neurons encode their activations or outputs as a
series of brief electrical pulses (i.e. spikes or action potentials).
2. The neurons cell body (soma) processes the incoming
activations and converts them into output activations.
3. The neurons nucleus contains the genetic material in the form of
DNA. This exists in most types of cells, not just neurons.
4. Dendrites are fibres which emanate from the cell body and
provide the receptive zones that receive activation from other neurons.
5. Axons are fibres acting as transmission lines that send
activation to other neurons.
6. The junctions that allow signal transmission between the axons and
dendrites are called synapses.
The McCulloch-Pitts Perceptron Model
 The Neuron Model

A neuron consist of following:

Inputs(from dendrites)
Weights(importance of incoming value)
Adder(soma/processing)

U is Weighted Sum
M denotes the number of Inputs
Xi are inputs to neuron
Wi are the weights
 Early enthusiasm (1952 1969)
1956 Dartmouth conference
1957,Alan Newell and Herbert Simon (GPS)General Problem
Solver(related to common sense, GPS as a universal problem solver
machine. For Instance: theorems proof, geometric problems
and chess playing);
1958,John McCarthy (Lisp)LISt processing language(logical
programming);

Emphasis on knowledge (1966 1974)

domain specific knowledge is the key to overcome existing
difficulties(Expert system 1970)
AI became an industry (1980 1989)
wide applications in various domains
commercially available tools

Current trends (1985 present)

By 1986,work on simulating human brain.
more realistic goals
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more practical (application oriented)
 Programming languages for AI
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Procedural language: Its based on the concept of procedure calls

eg. C,C++,Pascal

Relational/Declarative language:These are concerned about

what to compute,not how to compute.
eg.PROLOG,LISP

POP 2 IS STACKED BASED LANGUAGE.

POP11 IS EMBEDDED IN AI LANGUAGE.
 Acting Humanly: The Turing Test
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Alan Turing (1912-1954)

Computing Machinery and Intelligence (1950)

Imitation Game
Human

Human Interrogator
AI System
 Turing Test(cont..)
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Two rooms contain a person, a computer, and an

interrogator.
The interrogator can communicate with the other
two by teleprinter.
The interrogator tries to determine which is the
person and which is the machine.
The machine tries to fool the interrogator into
believing that it is the person.
If the machine succeeds, then we conclude that the
machine can think.
 ELIZA
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Passage of ELIZA conversation

> Hello, I am ELIZA

Can you help me ?
> Dont you believe that I can help you?
Yes
> I see
I feel depressed
>How Long you have been feeling depressed?
Since last month
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> That is quite interesting

What is interesting in this?
> Have you asked anyone else?
No
> Are you saying no just to be negative?
No I didnt ask any one
> Why no?
I dont believe other people
>Say do you have any psychological problem
I dont know
> Tell me more
 Categorization of Intelligent systems
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Systems that thinks like humans

Systems that act like humans
Systems that thinks rationally
Systems that act rationally
 Categorization of Intelligent systems
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We should point out that by distinguishing

between human and rational behavior, we are not suggesting that
humans are necessarily ``irrational'' in the sense of ``emotionally
unstable'' or ``insane.'' One merely need note that we often make
mistakes; we are not all chess grandmasters even though we may know
all the rules of chess; and unfortunately, not everyone gets an A on the
exam.

A human-centered approach must be an empirical science, involving

hypothesis and experimental confirmation, A rationalist approach
involves a combination of mathematics and engineering.
 CURRENT TRENDS IN AI(Soft computing)
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1) Hard computing, i.e., conventional computing, requires a precisely stated

analytical model and often a lot of computation time. Soft computingdiffers from
conventional (hard) computing in that, unlike hard computing, it is tolerant of
imprecision, uncertainty, partial truth, and approximation. In effect, the role model for
soft computing is the human mind.
2) Hard computing based on binary logic, crisp systems, numerical analysis and
crisp software but soft computing based on fuzzy logic, neural nets and probabilistic
reasoning.
3) Hard computing requires programs to be written; soft
computing can evolve its own programs
 CURRENT TRENDS IN AI
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NEURAL NETWORK:-Based on functioning of

human mind, predict features in advance based on
previous details.

EVOLUTIONARY TECHNIQUES: -Based on

evolution of life on earth
Genetic algorithm :Based on Darwin's theory of
evolution.
Swarm intelligence: Collective behavior of
decentralized ,self organized system
 CURRENT TRENDS IN AI
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o EXPERT SYSTEM:A Computer program or

software which mimics the human intelligence and
decision making ability to solve real-world problems
which require special human expertise are called ES.

o AGENTS: Agents may be thought of as a computer

systems or programs that are capable of acting
autonomously in a given environment to meet
their objectives
 Sub Areas of AI
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Knowledge representation models

Theorem proving mechanism
Game playing methodologies
Common sense reasoning dealing with uncertainty
and decision making
Learning models, inference techniques, pattern
recognition, search and matching etc.
Logic(fuzzy,temporal,modal)
Planning and scheduling
 Sub Areas of AI
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Natural language understanding, speech recognition

Computer vision
Robotics
Data mining
Expert problem solving
Neural networks, AI tools
Web agents
 Tic Tac Toe
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Three programs are presented :

Series increase
Their complexity

Use of generalization

Clarity of their knowledge

Extensability of their approach

Introductory Problem:
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Tic-Tac-Toe

X X
o
 Introductory Problem: Tic-Tac-Toe(1)
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Program 1:
Data Structures:
Board: 9 element vector representing the board, with 1-9 for each square. An
element contains the value 0 if it is blank, 1 if it is filled by X, or 2 if it is filled
with a O
Move-Table: A large vector of 19,683 elements ( 3^9), each element is 9-
element vector.

Index Current Board New Board Position

Position
0 000000000 000010000

1 000000001 020000001

2 000000010 000000012

3
 Introductory Problem: Tic-Tac-Toe(1)
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Comments:
This program is very inefficient in time.

1. A lot of space to store the Move-Table.

2. A lot of work to specify all the entries in the

Move-Table.
3.Creating move table is highly error prone as data to
be entered is voluminous.
4.Program is not intelligent.
Thus not a good AI Technique
Introductory Problem: Tic-Tac-Toe(2)
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1 2 3
4 5 6
7 8 9
 Introductory Problem: Tic-Tac-Toe(2)
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Program 2:
Data Structure: A nine element vector representing the board.
But instead of using 0,1 and 2 in each element, we store
2 for blank
3 for X
5 for O
Functions:
o Go(n): Makes a move in the square n
o Make_2: helps computer to make two valid moves.
o Posswin(p): Returns 0 if the player p cannot win on his next move;
otherwise it returns the number of the square that constitutes a
winning move.
If the product is 18 (3x3x2), then X can win. If the product is 50
( 5x5x2) then O can win.
 Introductory Problem: Tic-Tac-Toe(2)
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C Plays X , H Plays O

1:Go(5)/ Go(1) 5: {By now both have played two

3: If B[9] is blank, then Go(9) else
{make_2} Go(3)
moves}: If Posswin(X) then {X wins} Go
Posswin(X) else if Posswin(O) {Block
O} then Go(Posswin(O)) else if B[7] is
blank then Go(7) else Go(3)
7 & 9:{By now human playing O has
played 3 chances}. If Posswin(X) then
{X wins} Go Posswin(X) else{Block O}
if (Posswin(O)) then Go Posswin(O) else
Go(anywhere)
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 Introductory Problem:
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Tic-Tac-Toe(2)
Comments:

1. Not efficient in time, as it has to check several

conditions before making each move.

2. Easier to understand the programs strategy.

3. Less memory requirement as compare to Approach
1
Introductory Problem: Tic-Tac-Toe
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(approach 3)

8 1 6
3 5 7
4 9 2
 New appraoch
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All row, column and diagonal sum is 15

Make a list, for each player , of the squares in which he/she has played.
Consider each pair of square owned by that player

Computer difference between 15 and sum of two square.

If square representing the difference is blank, then a player can move in

that block.
New appraoch
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