Hotmix PDF

Hot-Mix Asphalt
Fundamentals
CONTENTS
Part 1 Materials and Mixes...........................................................page 1

What is Petroleum Asphalt?..............................................page 1
Mineral Aggregates...........................................................page 5
Asphalt Mixtures..............................................................page 8
Asphalt Base and Surface Courses...................................page 10
Penetration or Bituminous Macadam..............................page 12
Road Mix Base and Surface Courses...............................page 13
Construction of Dense-Graded Road Mix......................page 14
Construction of Open-Graded Road Mix.......................page 15
Plant Mix Asphalt...........................................................page 15
Part 2 Hot-Mix Asphalt Construction........................................page 17
Compaction of Hot-Mix Asphalt...................................page 20
Breakdown Rolling.........................................................page 21
Intermediate Rolling.......................................................page 22
Finish Rolling.................................................................page 22
Rolling Procedures..........................................................page 23
Part 3 Equipment Selection........................................................page 25
Steel Wheel Rollers.........................................................page 25
Pneumatic Tire Rollers...................................................page 26
Vibratory Rollers............................................................page 27
Vibratory Roller Application..........................................page 28
Plant Production vs. Roller Coverage.............................page 36
Roller Coverage..............................................................page 37
Glossary........................................................................................page 45
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Hot-Mix Asphalt
Fundamentals
LIST OF FIGURES
A.P.I. gravity crude chart..................................................................page 2

Penetration test illustration..............................................................page 4
Penetration grades paving uses chart..............................................page 5
Aggregate particle grading table........................................................page 6
Paving mix designation table............................................................page 8
Seal coat aggregate grading requirements table................................page 11
Batch plant schematic illustration...................................................page 15
Paver tractor, hopper and screed illustration....................................page 17
Automatic screed controls illustration.............................................page 18
Conventional rolling train passes to compact illustration.............page 20
Pinching longitudinal joint illustration...........................................page 24
Roller coverage pattern for supported edges....................................page 24
HYPAC C350D steel wheel compactor..........................................page 25
Pneumatic roller tire contact pressure chart.....................................page 26
Center articulated pneumatic roller steering illustration..................page 27
Wagon tongue pneumatic roller steering illustration.......................page 28
BOMAG BW11RH pneumatic compactor....................................page 28
BOMAG BW161ADF-4 tandem vibratory roller...........................page 30
HYPAC C784 double vibratory compactor..................................page 31
Vibration impact spacing chart.......................................................page 32
Speed versus impact spacing illustration.........................................page 33
Density versus rolling speed graph..................................................page 33
Panel width versus roller width chart..............................................page 34
Asphalt tonnage versus surface area chart........................................page 36
78 inch roller on 12 foot panel illustration......................................page 38
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Hot-Mix Asphalt
Fundamentals
Part 1
Materials and Mixes
WHAT IS PETROLEUM ASPHALT?

Asphalt is referred to as a modern cementing agent, but it was discovered
several thousand years ago. The Pharaohs and the Babylonians used
asphalt in their structures. In early times, native pits of asphalt tars were
discovered. With this readily accessible material, the ancients were able to
surface streets, community baths and municipal water supply ditches.
Asphalt was also used, in crude form, for roofing and as a cementing agent
for stone and masonry construction. By the mid 1800s, asphalt had
become a fairly common ingredient in roofing materials and sheet-asphalt
pavements. Only after todays petroleum industry developed, however,
were petroleum asphalts refined and produced to meet the high quality
standards required in the manufacture of asphaltic concretes for highway
construction.
Asphalt is a strong cement, readily adhesive, highly waterproof and
durable. It is a plastic substance which imparts controllable flexibility to
mixtures of mineral aggregates with which it is combined. It is, moreover,
highly resistant to the action of most acids, alkalies and salts. Asphalt is in
a semi-solid state at normal temperatures, but may easily be liquified by
the application of heat, by dissolving it in petroleum solvents or through
emulsification.
Asphalt is a natural constituent of most petroleums. When petroleum
crude is refined to separate its various fractions, asphalt is often recovered.
Similar processes, occurring in nature, have formed natural deposits of
asphalts. Natural deposits, in which asphalt occurs within a porous rock
structure, are known as rock asphalts.
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Hot-Mix Asphalt
Fundamentals
The amount of asphalt that a petroleum crude oil may contain varies the
world over, and is based on the American Petroleum Institutes (API) rated
gravity of the crude. The lower the gravity, the higher the asphalt content.
For example, a 10 API gravity crude oil will produce 78 percent asphalt
and 22 percent lighter petroleum products such as gasoline. A 30 API
gravity crude oil, however, will produce only 20 percent asphalt and 80
percent gasoline, oil and lighter fractions. The API Gravity Crude chart
illustrated below identifies the API gravity in relation to the percentage of
100 penetration asphalt.
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Hot-Mix Asphalt
Fundamentals
Cutback asphalts are a direct combination of asphalt and one of the lighter
fractions such as naphtha, gasoline or kerosene. These cutback asphalts
are classified in three groups: Rapid Curing, Medium Curing and Slow
Curing. The first two letters of a specific asphalt designate the type. The
suffix numeral shows grade or fluidity. Numbers 0 through 5 designate
progressively thicker or higher viscosity asphalts as the numbers increase.
These numbers also indicate a definite fluidity of the asphalt regardless of
the type of cutback.
Rapid Curing (RC) asphalt contains a specific amount of solvent which will
evaporate rapidly after being exposed to the elements. In RC asphalt the
solvent or diluent is naphtha or gasoline, with as high as 45 percent solvent
in the mixture for grade 0 and as low as 15 percent solvent for grade 5.
Medium Curing (MC) asphalts use an intermediate boiling point solvent
such as kerosene. This range of cutback asphalts requires a much longer
period for curing and evaporation of the cutback agent. The relationship
between grade and viscosity remains the same as for rapid curing asphalts.
Slow Curing (SC) cutback asphalts contain a high boiling point cutback
agent, such as light oil, or are controlled by the flow and temperature of
the crude during the first cycle of refining. In most instances, SC asphalts
contain solvents or are processed in a manner which doesnt allow the
asphalt to completely cure. This means that, even after many years of use,
the pavement will remain in a semi-plastic condition.
Viscosity is the broad, general term used to describe the consistency of
asphalt. It is nothing more than a measurement of the resistance to flow.
The lower the viscosity, the more rapidly the asphalt will flow. The higher
the viscosity, the more nearly asphalt approaches its semisolid or solid state.
Furol Viscosity is a specific test used to measure viscosity of liquid asphalt.
It is the number of seconds required for 60 cubic centimeters of material
at a specific temperature to flow through an orifice of a given size.
The flash point of an asphaIt indicates the temperature at which the
asphaltic concrete may be mixed without danger of instantaneous flash. It
is measured by the Cleveland Open Cup flash point test, specified as
AASHTO method T 48; ASTM method D 92. A brass cup is partly filled
with asphalt and heated at a prescribed rate. A small flame is played over
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Hot-Mix Asphalt
Fundamentals
the surface of the heated material. The flash point is that temperature of
the heated asphalt that produces an instantaneous flash.
Penetration is the most common test used to determine the cementing
quality or power of an asphalt. The illustration below shows a penetration
test (AASHTO method T 49).
A block of semi-solid asphalt is heated to 77 degrees F (approximately

room temperature). A 100 gram load, on a needle of specific dimensions,
is allowed to sink into the asphalt block for a time of five seconds. The
distance that the needle penetrates into the asphalt sample is measured in
units of tenths of a millimeter (0.1 mm).
With a 50 penetration asphalt, the needle will penetrate 5 millimeters,
indicating a hard asphalt. For a 100 penetration asphalt, the needle will
penetrate 10 millimeters. A grade of 200-300 indicates that, under those
specific conditions of the penetration test, the standard needle sinks
between 200 to 300 millimeters into the sample, indicating a soft
asphalt. All asphalts are separated into penetration grades. Harder asphalts
have lowest penetration; softer asphalts permit higher penetration. The
chart on page 5 shows the range of grades of penetration asphalts under
this system of evaluation.
Many other tests and evaluations measure asphalt but have little bearing on
the compactability of hot-mix asphaltic concrete.
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Hot-Mix Asphalt
Fundamentals
CLIMATE
PAVING USES HOT HOT
ARID HUMID MODERATE COLD
Airfields
Runways .................................. 60-70 85-100 85-100 120-150
Taxiways .................................. 60-70 60-70 85-100 85-100
Parking Aprons ........................ 60-70 60-70 60-70 85-100
Highways
Heavy Traffic and
Very Heavy Traffic.................... 60-70 60-70 85-100 85-100
Medium to Light Traffic ............ 85-100 85-100 85-100 120-150
Streets
Heavy Traffic and
Very Heavy Traffic.................... 60-70 60-70 85-100* 85-100*
Medium to Light Traffic ............ 85-100 85-100 85-100 85-100
Driveways
Industrial .................................. 60-70 60-70 85-100 85-100
Service Station ........................ 60-70 60-70 85-100 85-100
Residential ............................... 85-100 85-100 85-100 85-100
Parking Lots
Industrial .................................. 60-70 60-70 85-100 85-100
Commercial ............................. 60-70 60-70 85-100 85-100
Recreational
Tennis Courts .......................... 85-100 85-100 85-100 85-100
Playgrounds............................. 85-100 85-100 85-100 85-100
Curbing ......................................... 60-70 60-70 60-70 85-100
* 60-70 penetration normally used for sheet asphalt.
MINERAL AGGREGATES
As mineral aggregates influence the ability of hot-mix asphaltic concrete to
be compacted or to resist being compacted, certain specifications and
requirements for these aggregates must be established to assure a strong,
durable pavement. Suitability of an aggregate is determined by: grading;
resistance to abrasion; soundness; cleanliness and purity; internal friction;
surface properties and specific gravity.
Grading refers to the distribution (or percentage of sizes) of an aggregate,
and is performed by passing the aggregate through a series of screens or
sieves and weighing the material retained on each. Larger particle sizes are
measured in inches, from 2.5 inches to 0.375 inches. The table on page 6
shows how aggregate particle sizes are most likely to be incorporated into
asphaltic concrete mix design specifications.
Coarse aggregate is all material retained on the No. 8 sieve; fine aggregate
is all material passing the No. 8 sieve. Mineral filler is very fine grained
material which will pass through the 200 mesh sieve. All asphaltic concrete
mix specifications call for a certain proportion of each of these gradations.
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Hot-Mix Asphalt
Fundamentals
SPECIFIED SIEVE OPENING
SIEVE
NUMBER INCHES MILLIMETERS
4 0.187 4.76
* 8 0.0937 2.38
10 0.0787 2.00
12 0.0661 1.68
* 16 0.0469 1.19
20 0.0331 0.84
* 30 0.0232 0.59
40 0.0165 0.42
* 50 0.0117 0.297
80 0.0070 0.177
* 100 0.0059 0.149
* 200 0.0029 0.074
* Sieve openings recommended by the Asphalt Institute and by ASTM.
Resistance to wear or abrasion is measured by the Los Angeles Abrasion

Test (AASHTO method T 96). For this test, a sample of rock is broken
into one of a number of specified gradings. A sample weighing 5000
grams is placed into a cylinder with 12 steel balls (each weighing between
390 and 445 grams and 1.875 inches in diameter).
Depending on the materials gradation, either 500 or 1000 revolutions (at
the rate of 32 or 33 RPM) are specified. As the drum rotates, material is
carried to the top by a baffle plate and dropped. All rock is then removed
and graded on a No. 12 screen; material passing the screen is discarded.
The loss percentage is calculated by comparing the weight of the material
remaining on the screen with the total original material weight.
Testing facilities are available in almost every large city to aid a contractor
or engineer in determining the feasibility of utilizing the mesh type roller
method. Material with less than 20% loss usually cannot be handled
or processed in place. Material having greater than 20% abrasion loss is
most economically crushed and stabilized.
Soundness is a term applying to rock that will not weather when subjected
to the elements. Shale, sandstone and caliche are unsound because they
absorb water. The AASHTO test T I04 measures the resistance of an
aggregate to disintegration in saturated solutions of either sodium sulphate
or magnesium sulphate, by alternately soaking and drying containers of
the fractions. After a given number of cycles, the material is then graded
and the percent of loss is determined.
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Hot-Mix Asphalt
Fundamentals
Cleanliness and purity is very necessary so that an aggregate might produce

a high quality asphaltic concrete. The sand equivalent test detects any
excess clay in aggregates. This test provides a quick separation of the finer
clay-like particles from the coarser grains or sand sizes. Proportions of clay
and mineral aggregates are compared on a volume basis by a procedure
which magnifies the volume of clay in proportion to its detrimental effects.
Internal friction determines the resistance to movement of the particles
past one another, under a given load. Resistance is formed by interlocking
of the particles and the surfaces between the adjacent stones. Rounded
river gravels do not have as much surface contact as crushed or angular
aggregates. This means that the internal friction of river run rock is not as
high as the internal friction of crusher run rock.
Surface properties of aggregates vary considerably in their ability to adhere
to asphalt. Aggregates which have a high affinity for asphalt are basalt,
limerock and dolomite. An aggregate which is difficult to coat with
asphalt is siliceous rock such as quartzite.
The specific gravity of an aggregate is the measured ratio between the
weight of a specific volume of aggregate and the weight of an equal volume
of water. The specific gravity value is essential to permit calculation of
voids in compacted asphalt paving mixes. Specific gravity is also used to
adjust quantities of aggregate components within the paving mix.
The effective specific gravity of an aggregate in an asphalt concrete mixture
depends upon the extent to which asphalt penetrates water-permeable
voids. Since asphalt is more viscous than water; it will not penetrate the
voids as much as water. Effective specific gravity is commonly used to
reflect the degree to which an aggregate is permeable to the specific asphalt
in the mixture.
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Hot-Mix Asphalt
Fundamentals
ASPHALT MIXTURES
Hot-mix asphaltic concrete (HMAC) materials are generally used to surface
primary highways. HMAC is prepared in a stationary mixing plant and
hauled to a job site for laydown while still hot. The plant mix method
allows closer control of moisture content, more precise mixing temperature
and mixing composition, plus produces better uniformity in the product.
Plant mix is a combination of coarse-graded, fine-graded and mineral filler
aggregates, theoretically graded to progressively fill the voids, then mixed
with asphalt to achieve and maintain maximum stability.
Asphaltic concrete requires a very high quality of mineral aggregate under
close grading control. The aggregate used in dense-graded mix should be
graded so that at least 10 percent of the total will pass the No. 4 sieve and
will be retained on the No. 10 sieve. The percent of wear should not
exceed 50 (AASHTO T 96) and preferably should be in the 20 to 40
range. The Plasticity Index (PI) of the portion of the material passing the
No. 40 sieve should not exceed 6. Ordinarily, the asphalt used is one of
the following penetration grades: 60-70, 70-85, 85-100 or 100-120.
The Asphalt Institute classifies hot-mix asphaltic concrete paving materials
by mix type. This mix designation is based on relative amounts of coarse
aggregate, fine aggregate and mineral dust. General limits of each mix
type, along with paving mix designation and maximum size aggregate, are
shown in the table below.
PAVING MIX MAXIMUM SIZE AGGREGATE

DESIGNATION NORMALLY USED
SURFACE AND BASE, BINDER
LEVELING AND LEVELING
TYPE DESCRIPTION MIXES MIXES
I Macadam 21/2"
II Open Graded 3/8"3/4" 3/4"1-1/2"
III Coarse Graded 1/2"3/4" 3/4"1-1/2"
IV Dense Graded 1/2"1" 1"1-1/2"
V Fine Graded 1/2"3/4" 3/4"
VI Stone Sheet 1/2"3/4" 3/4"
VII Sand Sheet 3/8" 3/8"
VIII Fine Sheet No. 4
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Hot-Mix Asphalt
Fundamentals
Percent of theoretical density, or percent density, refers to the volume of

solids and determines the volume of air voids. The range of theoretical
percent density desirable in asphaltic concrete is between 94 to 98 percent,
(indicating between 2 to 6 percent air voids). Too low a percentage of
voids contributes to reduced pavement flexibility or flushing of the binder
from the pavement. Too high a percentage of voids contributes to raveling
and pavement instability.
For any aggregate and grading, the percent density is a function of the
asphalt content of the mix and the degree of compaction to which the
pavement is subjected. The asphalt content in the pavement is logically
maintained within whatever values will result in 94 percent to 98 percent
pavement density following ultimate compaction (AASHTO T 180).
Exactly 98 percent density or 2 percent air voids would be desirable. A
pavement designed to this density is impractical to construct because of the
precise control required in mix manufacturing, laydown and compaction.
Most pavement is designed for compaction to 96 to 97.5 percent density,
to provide some margin for variances during production and placement.
The total of the pavement voids percentage plus the percentage volume
occupied by asphalt is the VMA, which designates the voids in mineral
aggregates. Uniformly sized or poorly-graded aggregates have a high VMA.
Well graded aggregates have a VMA below 20 percent. It is rarely desirable
to reduce the VMA below 10 percent. Well-graded mineral aggregate
without an excess of dust (or minus 200 mesh material) will possess a
VMA of about 15 percent in the compacted specimen.
Optimum asphalt content is greater for mixes containing a small top-size
aggregate than for mixes containing a large top-size aggregate. This is
because the amount of asphalt required to produce a given percentage of
voids in the mix is a function of the aggregate surface area per unit weight,
which is, in turn, a function of the aggregate particle size.
If all of the steps are followed in the design procedures for hot-mix
asphaltic concrete mixtures, a well-graded, strong and durable asphaltic
concrete pavement will be produced. The pavement will be long lasting,
smooth, extremely pleasant and quiet to drive on. This is possible only if
proper compaction procedures are followed in the laydown of the mix.
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Hot-Mix Asphalt
Fundamentals
ASPHALT BASE AND SURFACE COURSES

There are many uses for asphalt cements other than for the manufacture of
hot-mix asphaltic concrete. Nearly all of these uses, in combination with
aggregates or soils, require some degree of compaction in order to fully
develop proper material load bearing characteristics and requirements.
However, the construction procedures for the combination of aggregates or
soils differ widely depending on location, traffic requirements and the ele-
ments.
Prime, Tack and Seal Coats
Nearly all base courses require a prime, tack, or seal coat of penetration
grade or cutback asphalt before the laydown of hot-mix asphaltic concrete,
or even prior to the placing of Portland cement concrete. The purpose
of this asphalt is to prime or seal the surface to provide a better bond
between the overlying surface courses and the base course underneath.
The asphalt prevents undue loss of moisture, the loss of mineral filler dust
and helps to fill the voids in the extreme top portion of the base course. It
also prevents the pumping of excess moisture, caused by heavy traffic, from
the foundation into the pavement structure.
Before application of the prime or Type 1 seal coat, the base course should
be thoroughly compacted and shaped to the desired degree with as smooth
a surface as possible. Sometimes, the addition of mineral dust or small
particle mineral filler into an open-graded base mix is necessary prior to
the application of the asphalt cement. The asphalt cement is then applied
in sufficient quantity to penetrate into the extreme top portion of the base
material and to thoroughly seal it against moisture loss or the inclusion of
surface moisture. If sufficient penetration of the prime coat or Type l seal
coat is not achieved, it may be necessary to blade mix the top inch or so of
the base course and follow with another very light application of asphalt.
The following types of penetration grade asphalts and cutback asphalts are
commonly used for prime coats and Type 1 seal coats: Slow Curing
asphalts SC 1 and SC 2; Medium Curing asphalts MC 1 and MC 2; Tars
RT 1, RT 2 and RT 3. The following types of asphalt are commonly used
for tack coats to bind one lift of asphaltic concrete to another: Cutback
asphalts RC 2, RC 3 and RC 4; emulsified asphalts; asphalt penetration
grade 150-200.
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Hot-Mix Asphalt
Fundamentals
Seal coat is commonly referred to by many contractors and construction

agencies as being in one of two general categories. The first category of seal
coat involves the application of any type asphalt to any base course which
requires a seal to prevent erosion, raveling, oxidation, abrasion or moisture
loss, or to provide a bonding of the top portion of the mineral aggregates.
The second category of seal coat involves the application of high viscosity
asphalt, enhanced by the addition of a small sized mineral aggregate, to
form a non-skid, more visible wearing surface for flexible pavements and
for secondary, low traffic volume, farm-to-market and county roads.
There are generally four types of seal coats. Type 1 does not require the use
of any mineral aggregate, as it serves strictly as the sealer for an existing
base or foundation. Type 1 seal coat generally requires from 0.1 gallons to
0.2 gallons of asphalt per square yard for coverage. RC 0 or RC 1 cutback
asphalt is used for this application and should be left undisturbed for a
period of approximately 24 hours in order to allow for penetration and set.
No compaction is required in this instance, as the base or foundation upon
which the seal coat is applied should have been thoroughly compacted
prior to the application of the asphalt.
Types 2, 3 and 4 seal coats require from 0.15 gallons to 0.35 gallons of
asphalt per square yard of coverage, with the addition of a small particle
size mineral aggregate to enhance seal coat performance. Although the
grading may vary from a uniformly sized aggregate to a well-graded coarse
aggregate to a fine aggregate, it should not include any mineral dust. The
maximum size for the aggregate should generally not exceed one-half inch.
The table below lists the grading requirements for seal coat aggregates.
PERCENTAGE BY WEIGHT
PASSING SQUARE MESH SIEVES
TYPE 2 TYPE 3 TYPE 4
SIEVE
DESIGNATION COVER AGGREGATE
COVER BASE COVER
AGGREGATE GRADING GRADING CHOKE AGGRE-
A B AGG. GATE
1/2 inch................ 100 100

3/8 inch................ 100 100 90 - 100 100 90 - 100
No. 4 .................... 85 - 100 75 -100 10 - 30 75 -100 10 - 30
No. 8 .................... 0 - 35 0 - 10 0- 8 0 - 10 0- 8
No. 200 ................ 0- 5 0- 2 0- 2 0- 2 0- 2
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Hot-Mix Asphalt
Fundamentals
Cover aggregate should be spread immediately after application of the

asphalt for Types 2, 3 and 4. The surface should then be alternately rolled
and broomed until all particles are thoroughly rearranged and bonded
to the underlying mat. Pneumatic tire rollers developing high contact
pressures are very advantageous in rolling this type of seal coat, as they
rearrange the particles into closer contact. Using pneumatic compactors
also eliminates bridging within the material and minimizes crushing of the
individual cover aggregate particles. Pneumatic tire rollers have proved
extremely successful by effectively seating all the mineral particles into the
mat, significantly reducing subsequent aggregate loss.
PENETRATION OR BITUMINOUS MACADAM

Penetration macadam or bituminous macadam is used as a surface course
for medium traffic to fairly heavy traffic roads and is extensively used as a
base course for the highest traffic highways. It is constructed by placing
and compacting a base layer of coarse mineral aggregate, followed by the
application of bitumen and smaller sized aggregate until all of the voids are
filled and bonded together. Stability of the material is obtained by the
interlocking of the various particle sizes, with the bitumen serving both as
a binder and as a waterproofing agent. Penetration macadam may consist
of several courses, spread sequentially. The aggregate for each spreading is
usually of uniform size, rather than being a well-graded material, with each
succeeding application consisting of smaller sized aggregates.
Coarse aggregate is spread onto a properly compacted foundation, usually
in a layer no thicker than the diameter of the largest aggregate particle.
Thorough compaction of the coarse aggregate is essential, as this layer of
the finished product provides the load-carrying characteristics of the final
roadway. As is true for any bituminous application, the asphalt is usually
of penetration grades 85-100, 100-120 or 120-150. More viscous grades
of asphalt should be used when the surface voids, after spreading of the
aggregate, are relatively large. More fluid, lower viscosity penetration
asphalt grades can be used after the larger size aggregates have been choked
or keyed with smaller material.
After thoroughly compacting the coarse aggregate, the bitumen is spread at
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Hot-Mix Asphalt
Fundamentals
the rate prescribed for that particular aggregate size. The key or choker
aggregate should be spread immediately, rolled into the coarse aggregate
before the bitumen has had a chance to set. Before the application of any
additional asphalt, each aggregate layer should be properly compacted to
provide a reduced air void content between aggregate particles.
Penetration macadam is easily rolled with pneumatic tire rollers which are
able to develop high ground contact pressures. The tires manipulate and
rearrange both smaller and larger particles into closer contact. The rubber
tired compactors combination of oscillating wheels and pneumatic tires
prevents bridging within the various aggregates and will help to indicate
deficiencies in the base or surface. The higher the degree of compaction
without crushing the individual particles, the greater the stability and skid
resistance characteristics the roadway will provide for the motoring public.
Steel wheel rollers should not be applied on penetration or bituminous
macadam, as the steel rolls tend to crush or fracture aggregate particles,
resulting in poorer stability under the demands of traffic and weather.
ROAD MIX BASE AND SURFACE COURSES

Road mix base and surface courses are usually categorized into two classes
of construction, depending upon the use of either dense-graded or open-
graded aggregates in the design. Dense-graded road mix aggregate should
be graded so at least 10% of the total will pass the No. 4 sieve and be
retained on the No. 10 sieve. The percentage of wear from the aggregate
portion retained on the No. 4 sieve should not exceed 50 in the AASHTO
T 96 Los Angeles Abrasion test, and the Plasticity Index of the remaining
portion should not exceed 6. Asphalt cement, usually a Medium Curing
type, should be applied at the rate of between 3.5 percent to 7 percent of
the total weight of the dry aggregate.
Open-graded aggregate requires mixing the asphalt and aggregate with
either a motor grader or travel-mix plant. The foundation upon which the
base or surface course is to be placed should be properly compacted and
primed or sealed with an application of high viscosity cutback asphalt. A
larger size aggregate is used in open-graded road mix base courses; a Rapid
Curing cutback type asphalt is typically used as the cement.
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Hot-Mix Asphalt
Fundamentals
CONSTRUCTION OF DENSE-GRADED ROAD MIX

Construction methods differ for dense and open-graded road mix asphaltic
concretes. For a dense-graded mix, the aggregate particle size usually does
not exceed one inch. All of the material is windrowed, volume determined
and the amount of asphalt needed is calculated. Moisture content of the
aggregate should not exceed 2% prior to the application of the asphalt.
If travel plant mixing is performed, the correct automatic proportioning of
the asphalt will be done at the time the windrow machine picks up and
pugmill mixes the aggregate. After thoroughly blending the aggregate and
bitumen, the material is discharged into approximately the same size
windrow from which it was picked up. Following this operation, the
windrow is spread uniformly over the embankment or base to be surfaced.
Travel plant mixing gives closer control of the actual mixing operations,
resulting in greater uniformity of end product and providing more evenly
proportioned asphalt distribution, usually directly from a tanker truck.
When mixing is to be performed directly on the road bed, motor graders
are utilized to manipulate the windrowed material until it has been spread
evenly over the bed. The asphalt is then sprayed over the aggregate in
approximately three equal portions. After the third application of asphalt,
the entire mix should be alternately bladed from one side of the road to the
other until it has a uniform color. The processed aggregate/asphalt mix
should then be evenly spread by the motor grader over the road bed prior
to compaction.
Uniformity of asphalt quantity and the gradation of the aggregate are both
very important considerations for the construction of dense-graded road
mixes. The asphalt binder should be applied in successive portions with
the total asphalt applied prior to final mixing operations.
To assure mix stability, the motor grader blade should never penetrate any
deeper than the thickness of the material to be mixed. Preferably, a heavy
seal coat, or mixing table should be prepared upon the foundation or base
before blending of the road mix. The blade of the motor grader should be
set so that a rolling action of the material is obtained.
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Hot-Mix Asphalt
Fundamentals
CONSTRUCTION OF OPEN-GRADED ROAD MIX

Construction of open-graded road mix base courses and surface courses
requires the placing and mixing of the coarse aggregate prior to the key and
choker aggregate being placed. Uniformly sized aggregate is placed, mixed
with bitumen and then properly compacted. If key aggregate is used, only
sufficient material to fill the voids between the larger particles in the open-
graded base should be spread. With choker aggregate, the first application
of approximately 5 pounds per square yard should be spread uniformly
over the road mix before the base aggregate and asphalt has set.
PLANT MIX ASPHALT

Hot-mix asphaltic concrete is the most commonly used asphalt/aggregate
mixture. The following illustration depicts a general schematic of a batch
plant, commonly used to mix asphalt and aggregate. Modern plants are
usually highly automated and capable of consistent, high quality mixtures
of aggregate and penetration grade asphalt used for new construction or
overlay projects.
Screening
Asphalt plants vary in size and complexity, depending on the type and
quantity of hot-mix asphaltic concrete being produced. Various gradations
of rock and sand are loaded into controlled discharge hoppers from which
these materials are fed into a drum dryer. The dryer removes moisture
from the aggregate and heats the rock to approximately 350 degrees F (175
degrees C).
15
Hot-Mix Asphalt
Fundamentals
The hot aggregate is then sent through a screening unit which separates the
various sized particles into hot storage bins. Hot, graded aggregate is then
measured out by weight and discharged into a pug mill. Asphalt (heated
separately) is metered into the pug mill and the materials are thoroughly
mixed.
Following blending, the mixture (having temperatures ranging from 300-

350 degrees F(150-175 degrees C), is discharged into hauling vehicles and
is ready for laying down by an asphalt finisher.
16
Hot-Mix Asphalt
Fundamentals
Part 2
Hot-Mix Asphalt
Construction
SPREADING HOT-MIX ASPHALT

Modern self-propelled pavers are designed with two basic components: a
power or tractor unit and a screed unit. The tractor unit provides moving
power for the paver wheels or tracks and for all powered machinery on the
paver. In operation, the tractor unit power plant propels the paver and
pulls the screed unit, plus provides power to the other components
through transmissions. The tractor unit provides moving power to push
trucks as they unload into the hopper. Hot-mix asphaltic concrete is
deposited into the hopper, from which it is carried by the feed conveyor
through the flow control gates to lateral distributing augers and screed (as
shown in the illustration below).
The screed unit has two major functions. It strikes off the mix to meet the
thickness and smoothness specifications; it provides initial compaction to
the mix. A typical screed usually consists of leveling or screed arms, a
screed plate, a heating unit, a compacting device and thickness controls.
17
Hot-Mix Asphalt
Fundamentals
The screed unit is connected to the tractor unit by pivoting screed pull
arms so that the entire screed is permitted to float. Thickness control is
achieved by changing the tilt of the screed plate, thereby distributing the
material in thinner or thicker lifts, as the operator desires.
Pavers usually have some type of initial compacting device. Some pavers
use tamping bars ahead of the screed bar to impart some compaction to the
material before strike off. Other pavers employ a vibratory attachment for
the screed bar, which provides preliminary compaction. The compaction
devices on a paving machine assure uniform spreading with approximately
the same degree of air voids within the pavement layer. The relative degree
of compaction achieved is not sufficient to withstand contemporary traffic
loads nor to meet contracting agency specifications.
Paver screed controls which can be adjusted for manual, semi-automatic or
automatic operation are available for almost every major make of asphalt
paver. Automatic screed controls have several main components: sensor
with controller, pendulum, transverse beam, leveling arms and hydraulic
rams (or cylinders) to change the screed tilt.
18
Hot-Mix Asphalt
Fundamentals
Once the paver screed has been set for the desired depth of spread, the
automatic system takes over to produce a smooth mat. The slope control
panel and slope sensor feed electrical impulses into the control box which
activates the rams to change the screed tilt, automatically compensating for
road surface irregularities. Automatic grade control gets its input from a
sensing device riding on a string line that has been set as a grade reference,
or from a ski riding on an adjacent lane, curb or gutter. The other side of
the paver can be adjusted manually, through thickness control screws, or
by a second grade controller.
The automatic screed controls and screed must be carefully monitored,
especially when the flow of material to the laydown machine has been
interrupted. Sometimes an automatic control system will start up in a
slightly erratic fashion until the machine has progressed for a few feet.
Once the machine has traveled a short distance and the sensing device has
picked up all the irregularities, it will continue to operate normally.
However, the start-up period is critical, as unexpected modulations and
irregularities can result from poor adjustment in the controls, settlement of
the screed, lack of operator monitoring or other factors.
The quality of a completed pavement depends upon complementing and
balancing all of these interacting functions. For example, the leveling and
compacting function of the screed provides the best results when:
1. Forward speed of the machine does not vary.
2. Supply of material to the hopper is adequate and constant.
3. Distribution of material across the front of the screed is uniform
and at consistent thickness.
4. Variables which affect screed leveling are kept under control.
5. Compacting forces at the screed are maintained at a constant level.
19
Hot-Mix Asphalt
Fundamentals
COMPACTION OF HOT-MIX ASPHALT

The primary objectives of roller compaction are two-fold:
1. Obtain desired density for maximum strength and durability.
2. Provide a smooth, sealed, impermeable riding surface.
Most asphalt mixtures compact quite readily if spread and rolled at
temperatures that assure proper asphalt viscosity. Rolling should start as
soon as possible after the material has been spread by the paver. Rolling
should be done with care to assure proper surface finish and smoothness.
Compaction of hot-mix asphaltic concrete is usually accomplished in three
steps: breakdown, intermediate and finish rolling. Breakdown rolling
takes place just behind the paver; intermediate rolling follows. Finish
rolling then smooths out any rutting or deformation on the surface caused
by previous rolling steps. As many rollers as needed to provide specified
pavement density and smoothness should be utilized to accomplish the
compaction process. When the required degree of density has not been
achieved during compaction, subsequent vehicular traffic is able to further
consolidate the pavement, causing wheel path depressions or ruts.
Almost every job requires a varied rolling procedure. The ability of a mix
to be compacted will be affected by aggregate gradation, type of aggregate
and asphalt, ambient temperature, moisture content and condition of the
foundation. To determine the correct rolling procedure, it is frequently
necessary to roll test strips with varying hot-mix temperatures, number of
machine passes and rolling speed. Proper machine application in asphaltic
20
Hot-Mix Asphalt
Fundamentals
concrete compaction will result in fewer passes per lift with a much more
uniform density throughout the mix. This will also result in increased
pavement quality and savings to everyone concerned.
BREAKDOWN ROLLING
Breakdown rolling can be accomplished using static steel wheel rollers,
pneumatic tire rollers and tandem vibratory rollers. The breakdown
rolling phase is performed to increase material density, thereby enabling
the pavement to support the traffic loads for which it has been designed.
Each type of compactor will impart a degree of compaction to the mix; it
appears, however, that the most significant density increase is achieved
using the dynamic forces produced by vibratory compaction equipment.
For breakdown rolling, except when rolling with single drum vibratory
compactors, the compactors driven drum, roll or tires should be oriented
toward the paver. This pulls or tucks the hot-mix material under the
drum, roll or tires, reducing excessive shoving or displacement. Shoving
may occur if the non-driven roll or tires of the compactor are positioned
closest to the paver. This displaced material may then require additional
rolling passes to achieve compaction.
Shoving can also produce minute transverse cracks in the surface of the
pavement, which increases pavement permeability and reduces density and
strength. Any surface imperfections which are created during breakdown
rolling must be removed or healed by subsequent rolling.
The mat temperatures at which breakdown rolling should be initiated are
controlled by the mix design. Breakdown rolling should always commence
at the highest possible temperature, which will support the weight of the
compactor, without causing excessive material displacement. Depending
on mix design and laydown procedures, this temperature could be as high
as 300 degrees F (150 degrees C). At these higher mix temperatures, the
viscosity of the bitumen in the asphaltic concrete is extremely low, thereby
permitting easier particle reorientation to produce a denser mat.
After the material has started to cool, the viscosity of the asphalt within the
mix increases dramatically. It becomes less fluid and develops the cohesive,
21
Hot-Mix Asphalt
Fundamentals
aggregate binding property which it is intended to contribute. At lower

mix temperatures, it is difficult to break the cementing bond between the
coated aggregate particles and to achieve the desired degree of compaction
needed to support the traffic loads for which the pavement has been
designed. Once the pavement cools, it is also difficult to decrease surface
permeability.
INTERMEDIATE ROLLING
When using the historic three roller train, intermediate rolling occurred
immediately following breakdown rolling. Intermediate rolling was often
performed using pneumatic rollers; the manipulative action of the tires on
hot-mix effectively sealing the pavement surface to reduce permeability.
More recently, because of advances in technology and the development of
the modern tandem vibratory roller, paving contractors have begun to use
the vibratory compactor to perform breakdown and intermediate rolling.
The dynamic forces generated by a vibrating drum give superior hot-mix
particle reorientation, so that permeability of the pavement is significantly
reduced following vibratory rolling.
The intermediate rolling phase is the final step in reaching design density
and the initial step in smoothing the surface. Regardless of the type of
roller used for this operation, the objective of intermediate rolling is to
reduce pavement permeability.
FINISH ROLLING
Finish rolling improves the pavement's surface smoothness and rideability
characteristics. Finish rolling may be accomplished using either tandem
static steel-wheeled rollers or vibratory compactors, while the material is
still warm enough to permit removal of roller marks. Continued rolling,
beyond the point of specified density and smoothness, is wasteful and can
even be detrimental to pavement finish, in some cases.
22
Hot-Mix Asphalt
Fundamentals
ROLLING PROCEDURES
Rolling procedures may vary from one area to another depending upon the
hot-mix plant production rate and location, capacity and number of haul-
ing vehicles, speed of the laydown machine and the size and type of com-
paction equipment being used. The importance of working directly
behind the laydown machine while the asphalt is still hot cannot be
overemphasized. Fewer rolling passes are needed to achieve density on hot
asphalt, regardless of the rolling equipment being used.
During compaction, rollers should move at a moderate but uniform speed

with the driven roll or tires oriented toward the paver. Excessive travel
speed is detrimental during rolling, regardless of the compactor being used.
Rollers should be maintained in good mechanical condition; rollers with
mechanical transmissions should be capable of reversing direction without
backlash.
The line of rolling should not be changed suddenly, nor the direction of
rolling suddenly reversed; the mat may be excessively displaced or marked
by these actions. Any maneuvering of a roller should be done on stable
material. If rolling causes material displacement, it is imperative that the
affected areas be loosened at once and restored to the original grade with
new material before being rerolled. Do not permit any heavy equipment,
including rollers, to stand on the finished surface before it has thoroughly
cooled or set.
Regardless of whether a static steel wheel, pneumatic or vibratory roller is

used for the initial phases of compaction, close attention must be paid to
rolling the longitudinal joints. As a rule of thumb, when rolling with a
steel wheel or pneumatic roller, the longitudinal joint should be rolled with
most of the weight of the roller on the cold surface. This provides a cold
anvil to support the rollers weight on one side and a hot anvil to work
against on the other side. Rolling the longitudinal joint with a vibratory
compactor dictates that most of the roller width cover the hot surface, to
prevent vibratory forces from damaging the previously compacted panel.
Either procedure crowds the flexible hot-mix material into voids on the
adjacent cold mat, while producing a level connection between the cold
mat and the hot mat. The illustration on the following page depicts this
application.
23
Hot-Mix Asphalt
Fundamentals
Rollers should always be operated in a straight back and forth (shuttling)

motion, except for the last few feet of the run, closest to the paver. As the
roller approaches the rear of the laydown machine, the operator should
smoothly steer left or right at a slight angle to the paver. In addition, side-
by-side passes should be staggered. This prevents formation of a transverse
ridge in the pavement which might be felt by traffic. This technique also
enables erasure of dents or marks that may have been pressed into the mat
during stopping, start-up or reversing actions of the compactor.
The sketch below illustrates a general roller coverage pattern for the lay
being compacted. For simplicity of illustration, it does not show the slight
angling of the roller as it finishes each pass toward the paver. This pattern
is based on a panel with supported edges.
1 8
2
3
7 4
5
6
24
Hot-Mix Asphalt
Fundamentals
Part 3
Equipment Selection
STEEL WHEEL ROLLERS

Since controlled compaction was developed, the static steel wheel roller has
been the standard for rolling asphalt. Increasing traffic demands on high
volume pavements, however, require greater compaction force than a steel
wheel roller alone can provide. Steel wheel rollers lack the capability, in
general, to singularly compact deep strength or full depth flexible pavement
layers. In addition, steel wheel rollers are not able to seek out and compact
soft spots due to their inherent bridging effect.
Steel wheel rollers (as shown below) are still used extensively for some
phases of compaction, especially finish rolling. Tandem steel wheel rollers
are used to finish roll asphalt after other rolling has been completed. Their
ironing effect smooths and eliminates marks created by the breakdown and
intermediate rolling phases. It is imperative that finish rolling be done
while the material is still flexible enough to allow a slight movement of the
surface particles to erase irregularities.
25
Hot-Mix Asphalt
Fundamentals
PNEUMATIC TIRE ROLLERS

Rolling with pneumatic compactors can increase pavements density over
that achieved by steel wheel or vibratory compactors when temperatures
are above 175 degrees F; it produces a closer textured pavement surface, as
well, which exhibits decreased permeability. Pavement distortion under
heavy traffic loads is also lessened, due to the increased stability produced.
Rubber tires produce a kneading action as well as developing high ground

contact pressure. The chart below lists contact pressure values at varying
tire inflation pressures for a popular size pneumatic roller tire.
WHEEL TIRE INFLATION PRESSURE FOR 12 (*14) PLY TIRES
LOAD 35 PSI 50 PSI 70 PSI 90 PSI 110 PSI 130 PSI
1500 pounds 42 49 56 65 70 *80
2300 pounds 48 55 63 72 77 *88
2800 pounds 52 59 67 76 81 *92
The kneading effect produced by the multiple wheel pneumatic tire roller
manipulates the hot-mix asphalt pavement beneath and between its tires
(in a confining manner). This helps reorient the mix particles into a more
stable, compacted and less permeable pavement.
The contemporary concept of compaction with a pneumatic tire roller is
one which promotes that the proper ratio between individual wheel load
and tire inflation pressure should be maintained. This ratio is important
to provide sufficiently high ground contact pressure to exert the necessary
compaction forces needed to achieve material density. Some contracting
agencies specify the total weight of the pneumatic roller to be employed;
however, this has little or no bearing on any rollers ability to compact.
Evaluations of individual wheel loading, gross vehicle weight, or weight
per linear dimension of rolling width alone are not sufficient to accurately
evaluate the compaction capability of any pneumatic tire roller.
Tire inflation pressure is, however, very important to performance.
Increasing the total gross weight carried by an individual tire without
changing the tire inflation pressure only increases tire contact area. The
net result is only a marginal increase in unit contact pressure. Inflation
pressure has a greater effect on contact pressure than on individual wheel
load. When tires are inflated to higher pressures, their ground contact area
actually becomes smaller, resulting in a higher unit pressure. This pressure
26
Hot-Mix Asphalt
Fundamentals
increase helps increase manipulation and compaction of the hot-mix

asphalt.
Generally speaking, a tire inflation pressure which will provide the most
satisfactory compaction results will be selected for rolling a particular
asphalt mix. In theory, varying tire inflation pressure on-the-run should
allow a pneumatic roller to provide optimum compaction performance as
the stability of the pavement changes during rolling. In practice, however,
it is best to select the highest inflation pressure possible to get optimum
compaction throughout the lift. Since most projects involve progressive
rolling situations, the first pass over one area may be the second, third or
fourth pass over another area. If lower inflation pressures are used at first,
the top of the mat will be densified first, making it more difficult to
achieve uniform compaction throughout the full depth of the mat.
Tire overlap is another important feature in rolling hot-mix asphalt. A
pneumatic rollers ability to roll curves while maintaining tire overlap for
full compaction coverage is highly advantageous. This saves rolling passes
and time. It also maintains uniform compaction effort across the entire
asphalt mat width, eliminating re-rolling passes to compact missed areas
on the mat surface. This advantage can only be realized when using a
machine having center point (articulated) steering (as illustrated below).
27
Hot-Mix Asphalt
Fundamentals
Rigid frame pneumatic rollers with wagon tongue steering often suffer
from scuffing in turns. Turning also leaves behind uncompacted areas
missed by the tires (as shown in the sketch below). This occurs because the
drive axles tires do not track between the gaps of the steering axle tires in
turns.
The pneumatic tire compactor, capable of developing contact pressures

equal to or higher than those developed by normal highway traffic, is a
good choice for todays pavement construction applications. However, too
much ground contact pressure can be detrimental. Excessive pressure will
tend to cause hot-mix shoving rather than compaction, creating ruts which
are difficult to remove by subsequent finish rolling operations.
28
Hot-Mix Asphalt
Fundamentals
VIBRATORY ROLLERS
The higher axle loads and increased traffic volumes being imposed on
highways today require utilization of higher stability mixes, made with
crushed aggregate and relatively low asphalt content. The compaction
equipment employed must deliver higher compactive effort without undue
shoving or displacement.
Vibratory rollers are capable of accomplishing all phases of asphalt rolling:
breakdown, intermediate and finish. The compactive forces of a vibratory
roller exceed the compactive effort delivered by the three wheel or tandem
static breakdown roller. Therefore, fewer coverages are needed to achieve
specified density.
Vibratory action compacts the fines around the coarse particles with a
wedge effect, to uniformly decrease permeability throughout the pavement
layer as well as provide an anti-skid surface to minimize hydroplaning. In
comparison, a pneumatic compactor only seals the surface of a pavement.
Permeability is reduced, but not throughout the entire layer.
Contemporary vibratory compaction equipment offers a wide range of
force settings from velvet touch tappings to forge hammer blows. Even
with higher dynamic force, however, most vibratory rollers are designed
from a rolling platform having relatively low static linear load to prevent
excessive shoving or lateral displacement. Vibratory rollers are capable of
compacting deeper lifts in fewer passes, making them more efficient than
static steel wheeled rollers or pneumatic tire rollers. Tests have shown that
a single deep lift of asphaltic concrete has substantially higher load bearing
capacity than multiple thinner lifts giving the same total thickness. Only
vibratory compaction enables this construction technique.
However, a greater number of variables must be considered when planning
to compact using vibration. The special variables which must be taken
into account when rolling with vibratory compactors include attention to
those particular qualities of the material being compacted: aggregate size
and shape, percent and grade of asphalt, temperature and thickness of the
lift. Variables inherent to the rollers design include: frame weight, static
lineal load and drum design. Variables related to the compactors actual
performance include: generated centrifugal or dynamic force, nominal
amplitude vibration frequency and rolling speed.
29
Hot-Mix Asphalt
Fundamentals
VIBRATORY ROLLER APPLICATION

The quality of a finished pavement depends on a number of variables,
including the experience, skill and judgement of the roller operator. As a
rule-of-thumb, a vibratory roller should roll in the highest temperature
zone available, following the paver as closely as possible. A rolling pattern
should be established. Rolling speed, number of passes, vibrating drum
selection, nominal amplitude and vibration frequency appropriate for the
specific roller being used must be determined, after taking into account the
pavement thickness, temperature and design of the mix.
As is true with any roller type, rolling direction and speed changes must be
made smoothly with a vibratory roller. Practicing the rolling technique of
angling the roller slightly toward the end of each forward pass is prudent.
This assures that subsequent passes, whether vibrating or static, will roll
out any transverse marks left by the roller. The rolling pattern oriented
toward the laydown machine should be in a staggered pattern to eliminate
transverse rutting, duplication of roller marks, or other pavement surface
deficiencies related to roller application.
The use of a vibratory compactor is more complex than a static steel wheel
or pneumatic roller because of additional operating systems incorporated
into the machine. Vibratory rollers designed for main line production are
equipped with an automatic control which turns vibration on and off, tied
to rolling speed. This feature assures the roller operator that the vibrator
stops producing dynamic compaction forces prior to the end of a run.
Automatic vibration control prevents the formation of depressions in the
hot-mix pavement surface caused by vibrating in place.
30
Hot-Mix Asphalt
Fundamentals
As a rule of thumb, vibration should not be engaged when compacting

thin overlays. To avoid fracturing aggregates, a vibratory roller should not
vibrate on any lift that is thinner than two or two and one-half times the
diameter of the largest aggregate particle in the hot-mix. This practically
limits the use of vibration to pavement layers of at least 1 1/2 inches (40
millimeters) thickness, when the mix contains aggregates which are 3/8
inch to 1/2 inch (10 millimeters to 13 millimeters) in size.
When using single drum vibratory rollers fitted with smooth pneumatic
tires, the tires should always be inflated at low tire inflation pressures. A
vibratory roller equipped with wide flotation-type drive tires developing no
more than 20 PSI ground contact pressure is desirable. With low ground
pressure, less deformation of the mat is evidenced during compaction.
Small and narrow tires develop higher ground contact pressures, in excess
of 70 or 80 PSI). At these higher ground contact pressures, it is difficult
for the vibratory drum to eliminate marks placed in the mat by the tires.
When rolling hot-mix with either single drum or double drum vibratory
rollers, it is important to keep the drum or drums wet to avoid asphalt
pick-up. The water tank should always be filled with clean water; the
water pump(s) and spray nozzles should be in perfect working condition.
Contemporary vibratory compactors are fitted with non-corrosive
polyethylene water tanks and adequate filtration to prevent water spray
nozzle plugging from rust or sediment.
Variable amplitude controls, with appropriate frequency ranges, increase
the capability of a vibratory roller to meet the compaction requirements of
31
Hot-Mix Asphalt
Fundamentals
difficult-to-compact mix designs, deeper layer thicknesses and changing

ambient conditions. The variable amplitude systems on contemporary
vibratory compactors provide an operator with the flexibility to optimize
the compactive forces generated by his roller in order to achieve specified
densities in fewest coverages.
On thinner lifts of hot-mix, 1 inch to 3 inches (25 to 75 millimeters) in
thickness, amplitude should be in a low setting, but selecting the highest
available vibration frequency. This lower amplitude reduces dynamic force
to prevent fracturing of aggregate and damage to the pavement surface.
The high frequency gives close drum impact spacing for rapid compaction.
Flexible pavement lifts thicker than 3 inches (75 millimeters) usually
require higher forces to achieve proper densification. Therefore, a higher
amplitude setting should be chosen. Again, the highest available vibration
frequency should be selected to optimize vibrating drum impact spacing
and to achieve density in the possible fewest coverages.
INCHES BETWEEN VIBRATORY COMPACTOR IMPACTS
ROLLING SPEED
FREQUENCY
2.5 mph 3 mph 3.5 mph 4 mph 4.5 mph 5 mph
VPM (220 fpm) (264 fpm) (308 fpm) (352 fpm) (396 fpm) (440 fpm)
2400 1.1 1.3 1.5 1.8 2.0 2
2520 1.0 1.3 1.5 1.7 1.9 2
2700 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2
3000 0.9 1.1 1.2 1.4 1.6 2
3100 0.9 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.5 2
3200 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.3 1.5 2
3300 0.8 1.0 1.1 1.3 1.4 2
3600 0.7 0.9 1.0 1.2 1.3 1
3960 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.1 1.2 1
The vibratory drum impacts produced by all vibratory rollers create small
depressions in the pavement surface. If widely spaced, these depressions
can be noticeable to highway traffic and negatively affect rideability of the
pavement surface. However, when proper spacing between drum impacts
is maintained and excessive dynamic forces have been avoided during the
compaction process, rideability of a pavement compacted using vibratory
rollers is comparable to a surface compacted using conventional static or
pneumatic compactors. Highway research indicates that surface rippling
is not detrimental to traffic so long as ripples are spaced no further than 1
32
Hot-Mix Asphalt
Fundamentals
to 1-1/4 inches (25 to 30 millimeters) apart. This impact spacing insures

acceptable rideability.
1 MPH 2 MPH 3 MPH
Consider the relationship between impact spacing and rolling speed to

roller productivity. At 500 feet per minute rolling speed, required density
may be reached after five vibratory passes. When rolling speed of the same
compactor is reduced to 300 feet per minute, the same or higher density
may be achieved after only two vibratory passes. As the graph below
depicts, the more efficient speed is actually the slower rolling speed.
300 fpm 500 fpm
Proper impact spacing is maintained by adjusting rolling speed relative to

vibration frequency. Optimum rolling speed can easily be calculated, or
the relationship of vibrations per minute (frequency) to travel speed can be
selected using the chart, on page 32, which illustrates the relationship
between vibration frequency, rolling speed and distance between impacts.
Although this chart lists rolling speeds as fast as 5 MPH, there are limiting
factors in asphaltic concrete compaction applications which prohibit high
speeds for vibratory compactors. Even when using rollers with very high
frequencies in the range from 3600 vpm to 3960 vpm, rolling speed with
vibration engaged should be limited to under 4 miles per hour on most
applications. However, rolling speed, amplitude, frequency and number of
passes will not be the same for all jobs. Different mix designs, laydown
thicknesses and temperatures may require varying application techniques.
33
Hot-Mix Asphalt
Fundamentals
The best way to select amplitude, vibration frequency, rolling speed and
number of coverages to achieve density is to run a test strip on the job.
Varying amplitude and frequency as well as rolling speed can be evaluated
on a test strip laid with the same hot-mix planned for production laydown
to find the best performance combination. A nuclear density testing
device is very practical in obtaining rapid density results on the test strip.
As an estimate, to achieve specified density in a hot-mix asphaltic concrete
pavement, a vibratory compactor will require one complete coverage for
every one inch of laydown thickness. The number of passes side-by-side
to completely cover any laydown panel depends upon rolling width and
overlap between passes. Overlap between adjacent passes is dependent
upon the operators skill and his visibility off the roller to the pavement
panel. The following chart shows the number of side-by-side passes
required to completely cover panel of various width. The average overlap
between passes in these calculations is 6 inches. Compactors featuring
unobstructed visibility of drum edges may provide superior performance.
SIDE-BY-SIDE PASSES REQUIRED FOR ONE COVERAGE OF PAVED PANEL

PAVING WIDTH COMPACTOR DRUM WIDTH
(ft) (47 in) (54 in) (59 in) (66 in) (78 in) (84 in)
8 3 2 2 2 2 2
9 3 3 3 2 2 2
10 3 3 3 2 2 2
11 4 3 3 3 2 2
12 4 3 3 3 2 2
13 4 4 3 3 3 2
14 5 4 4 3 3 3
15 5 4 4 3 3 3
16 5 4 4 4 3 3
17 5 5 4 4 3 3
18 6 5 5 4 3 3
19 6 5 5 4 4 3
20 6 5 5 4 4 4
21 7 6 5 5 4 4
22 7 6 5 5 4 4
23 7 6 6 5 4 4
24 8 6 6 5 4 4
[passes equals paving width divided by drum width less 6 inches]
34
Hot-Mix Asphalt
Fundamentals
Remember, the number of roller coverages to achieve density will vary with
different lift thicknesses and mix designs. The number of coverages times
the number of passes to completely cover the panel equals the number of
roller movements on each lay. Each surface or wearing course lift may also
require some number of finishing static passes, (that is, with the vibratory
mechanism disengaged), to eliminate roller marks.
35
Hot-Mix Asphalt
Fundamentals
PLANT PRODUCTION vs. ROLLER COVERAGE

Plant production and roller coverage will vary widely from mix to mix and
from job to job. The figures presented in the following examples are averages
and should be used merely as guidelines. These guidelines can, however, give
you a basic understanding of production and coverage rates. You may be
able to use values typical to your region to develop your own equipment
selection techniques.
A paving contractor attempts to balance his plant output with his hauling,
laydown and compaction to maximize utilization of all of his equipment
and manpower. Compactor selection is vitally important to his success.
Sufficient compaction equipment must be on the job to roll an equal

amount of area, per hour, as the paver lays down. Knowing the thickness
of the asphalt mat and the amount of asphalt being produced (hot-mix
plant production), we can calculate the number of square yards of surface
area which the compaction equipment must cover per hour. The graph
below depicts this relationship.
6" 5" 4" 3" 2"

500 1 1 /2 "
400
1"
PRODUCTION
300
Tons/Hr.
200
100
0 400 800 1200 1600 2000 2400 2800 3200 3600 4000 4400 4800 5200 5600 6000
Sq. Yds./Hr.
AREA
For example, take an asphalt plant that produces 200 tons/hour. If you lay
1-1/2 inch lifts, the total area required for compaction coverage is 2400
square yards/hour. A plant output of 300 tons/hour and 3 inch lift will
produce approximately 1800 square yards/hour on the job.
Depending on the mix design and aggregate, production and coverages

will vary. For most estimating purposes, the average values given in the
table will give acceptable data.
36
Hot-Mix Asphalt
Fundamentals
ROLLER COVERAGE
To calculate coverage of any compactor, you must consider three factors:
1. Rolling speed
2. Effective drum width
3. Laydown panel width
To determine the coverage for a compactor in square yards/hour, use the
following formula:
speed (ft/min) x 60 min/hr x drum width (ft) x efficiency = sq yd/hr
sq ft/sq yd
ROLLING SPEED: As a quick estimate of the maximum rolling speed for

any vibratory roller, divide vibration frequency by the number 10. The
product is the rolling speed, in feet per minute, which gives 10 vibratory
impacts of the drum each linear foot of distance traveled. At this rolling
speed, surface smoothness (for rideability) and density achievement (for
productivity) are optimized.
Example A:
Vibratory compactor A, rolling 270 feet per minute (3 miles per hour),
with a drum width of 7 feet (84 inches), working at 75% efficiency (45
minutes per hour) will cover 9450 square yards surface in one hour.
Example B:
Vibratory compactor B, rolling 320 feet per minute (3.6 miles per hour),
with a drum width of 6.5 feet (78 inches), working at 75% efficiency (45
minutes per hour) will cover 10,400 square yards per hour.
These calculations give you the square yards per hour surface coverage rate
based on one coverage of the roller, allowing no drum overlap between side-by-
side passes. It is almost certain, however, that specified densities cannot be
reached with only one coverage of any vibratory compactor, no matter how
powerful its compaction forces.
EFFECTIVE DRUM WIDTH: Effective drum width is the measure of
actual drum coverage, when width losses for edge overhang, for pinching
of longitudinal joints and for the overlap between side-by-side passes are
considered. To maintain rolling speed, most operators will allow an edge
overhang of approximately 3 inches for medium to large sized double
drum vibratory compactors.
37
Hot-Mix Asphalt
Fundamentals
The illustration below shows the ideal coverage of a 12 foot wide

panel using a roller with 78 inch drum width. As you can see, this rolling
width permits complete coverage of the panel in two side-by-side passes,
allowing 3 inches edge overhang and 6 inches overlap between adjacent
passes.
PANEL WIDTH 12 FEET (144 INCHES)
6 inches overlap
78 inches
rolling width 78 inches
rolling width
second pass
first pass
Pinching of longitudinal joints, as illustrated on page 24, normally requires

approximately 6 inches of the drum to ride on the previously compacted
panel, with the remaining drum width on the hot panel. Most roller
operators will also allow overlap of approximately 6 inches between
side-by-side passes. Therefore, the effective drum width of a 66 inch wide
drum will be 60 inches; for a 78 inch wide drum will be 72 inches; for an
84 inch wide drum will be 78 inches.
Using effective drum widths in the productivity formula, we can calculate
the surface coverage of the two compactors in examples A and B:
Example A:
Vibratory compactor A, rolling 270 feet per minute (3 miles per hour),
38
Hot-Mix Asphalt
Fundamentals
with an effective drum width of 6.5 feet (78 inches), at 75% efficiency (45
minutes per hour) will cover 8775 square yards surface in one hour.
Example B:
Vibratory compactor B, rolling 320 feet per minute (3.6 miles per hour),
with an effective drum width of 6 feet (72 inches), at 75% efficiency (45
minutes per hour) will cover 9600 square yards per hour.
PANEL WIDTH:
Determining the coverage of the roller is not the only production factor in
equipment selection. Panel width is also a key factor. For example, as
6 inches overlap
84 inches
rolling width
second pass
first pass
illustrated here, a compactor with 84 inch wide drums is able to complete

one coverage (with minimum 6 inches overlap) on a 13 feet wide panel in
two side-by-side passes. Any rolling width narrower than 84 inches will
require three passes side-by-side for coverage of the panel.
On panels 11 feet or 12 feet wide, a 66 inch rolling width compactor will
leave some portion of the panel width uncovered. With edge overhang of
approximately 3 inches and side-by-side pass overlap of approximately 6
39
Hot-Mix Asphalt
Fundamentals
6 inches overlap
66 inches
rolling width
second pass
first pass
9 inches
uncompacted
6 inches overlap
66 inches
rolling width
second pass
first pass
21 inches
uncompacted
40
Hot-Mix Asphalt
Fundamentals
6 inches overlap
6 inches overlap
66 inches
third pass rolling width
second pass
first pass
24 inches
excess width
inches, the panel width which remains uncompacted varies from 9 inches
to 21 inches wide. Rollers with drums wider than 66 inches will be more
efficient for covering 11 foot or 12 foot panel widths.
Rollers with 78 inch or 84 inch wide drums require two passes for full
panel coverage. The difference in performance between 78 inch and 84
inch drum widths is seen only on panel widths wider than 13 feet.
However, panels between 14 feet and 18 feet wide require three passes for
both 78 inch and 84 inch wide drum compactors.
41
Hot-Mix Asphalt
Fundamentals
PUTTING IT ALL TOGETHER

Now, lets go through the exercise of recommending a compactor for a job.
The paving contractor advises you of the following:
Plant production is 400 tons per hour.
Lift thickness being laid by the paver is 2 inches.
Panel width being laid is 12 feet.
What rolling width compactor would you recommend? Your choices
are a roller with 66 inch drums, one with 78 inch drums or one with 84
inch drums.
Step 1: Surface coverage

Using the chart on page 36, you see that 400 tons/hour, laid in a 2 inch
lift thickness, will produce a surface coverage of about 3600 square yards
per hour. To determine which compactor will provide adequate coverage,
use the production formula on page 37.
Compactor A with 66 inch drum width: Since drum overlap is required for
pinching joints and overlapping edges, the 66 inch drum will have to make
three passes to cover a 12 foot panel width. As a consequence, the effective
drum width of a 66 inch drum roller is only 4 feet. Vibration frequency
of this particular compactor is 2700 vibrations per minute, so rolling speed
is 270 feet per minute or 3 miles per hour (to provide 10 impacts per foot
traveled). Efficiency for this particular application will be figured as 85%.
270 fpm x 60 min/hr x 4 ft x 0.85 = 6120 square yards per hour
9 sq ft/sq yd
Compactor B with 78 inch drum width: Only two passes are required for
one complete coverage of a 12 foot wide panel, with edge overhang of 3
inches and side-by-side pass overlap of 6 inches. Effective drum width is
6 feet. Vibration frequency of this compactor is 3200 vpm, permitting
320 feet per minute rolling speed. Efficiency is 85%.
320 fpm x 60 min/hr x 6 ft x 0.85 = 10,880 square yards per hour

9 sq ft/sq yd
Compactor C with 84 inch drum width: Only 2 passes are necessary for this
drum width compactor to cover the 12 foot panel. Effective drum width
42
Hot-Mix Asphalt
Fundamentals
is still, however, only 6 feet. Since vibration frequency of this compactor

is only 2700 vpm, rolling speed is restricted to 270 feet per minute.
Operating efficiency is also 85%.
270 fpm x 60 min/hr x 6 ft x 0.85 = 9180 square yards per hour
9 sq ft/sq yd
Step 2: Passes to achieve density

Step 1 calculations gave us the surface coverage rate of three different
rolling width compactors based on one coverage. To achieve the required
density on a 2 inch layer thickness will, no doubt, require two vibrating
coverages. Therefore, it is necessary to divide the square yards by two.
Compactor A: 6120 square yards = 3060 square yards per hour

2
Compactor B: 10,880 square yards = 5440 square yards per hour

2
Compactor C: 9180 square yards = 4590 square yards per hour

2
Step 3: Conversion to tons per hour

Based on a compacted density of 97% of a 50 blow Marshall, the asphaltic
concrete mix being used by our contractor has a density of 145 pounds per
cubic foot. Going back to our calculations in step 2, note that Compactor
A with its 66 inch drum width covered 3060 square yards per hour, which
converts to about 335 tons per hour on a 2 inch lift (refer to the chart on
page 36), not enough to keep up with the plant production of 400 tons per
hour. Compactor B, with a 78 inch rolling width, covered 5440 square
yards per hour. This equates to approximately 600 tons per hour, more
than enough to keep pace with the plant production. The 84 inch drum
unit, compactor C, covers 4590 square yards per hour, which is just over
500 tons per hour, exceeding plant production capacity.
We should, therefore, recommend either the 78 inch or the 84 inch drum
width compactor. The choice between the two units is practical, perhaps
based on the product available from our new inventory or rental fleet.
43
Hot-Mix Asphalt
Fundamentals
Compaction, which is the process of increasing the density or the unit

weight of a material, is the simplest and most economical method of
improving the load bearing capacity of asphaltic concrete pavements.
Compaction can be accomplished by rolling, kneading, vibration or other
techniques or combinations of forces to gain benefits like:
1. Greater load bearing strength for supporting heavier wheel loads.
2. Reduced material settlement or consolidation.
3. Reduced permeability for limiting water flow through material.
This Hot-Mix Asphalt Fundamentals handbook has been prepared to help
you learn about and understand the basics. Part 1 describes the materials
and mixes used in the construction of flexible pavements. Part 2 describes
hot-mix asphalt pavement construction, including paving and compaction
techniques. Part 3 deals with equipment selection plus presents expanded
information on roller application. Rolling procedures and productivity
calculations and charts are also included to enhance your understanding of
this information.
No matter what your level of experience, BOMAG Americas Hot-Mix
Asphalt Fundamentals handbook will provide you with valuable information
about the basics and advanced techniques employed by federal, state or
local governmental agencies, contractors, consulting engineers or others
involved in the flexible pavement industry.
The glossary provides definitions of the many terms which are unique to
this industry. By learning these terms, you will enhance your understanding
of this business. Greater success will surely follow.
A companion handbook entitled Soil Mechanics is also available from

BOMAG Americas. It contains detailed information about soils, soil
properties and characteristics, soil classification and related subjects. This
handbook may be obtained by contacting BOMAG Americas, Inc. at 2000
Kentville Road, Kewanee, Illinois 61443.
44
Hot-Mix Asphalt
Fundamentals
GLOSSARY
AASHTO: American Association of State Highway and Transportation

Officials.
AASHTO T 96: Los Angeles Abrasion Test. A method used to determine
the hardness of rock.
Abrasion: Wear by rubbing of coarse, hard or sharp materials.
Aggregate: Crushed gravel or rock screened to size for use in road surfaces,
Portland cement concrete or bituminous concrete mixes.
Air-On-The-Go: A mechanical system on pneumatic tire rollers to change
or maintain identical air pressures in all tires, while in operation.
Amplitude, Double: Total peak to peak vertical movement, per complete
vibrating cycle, of a drum in a freely suspended condition. Note that this
term is not recommended for specifications.
Amplitude, Nominal Single: One half of the total peak to peak vertical
movement of a vibrating drum, calculated by formula.
Amplitude, Variable: A feature of vibratory rollers that permits amplitude
change without changing frequency, normally accomplished by varying the
eccentric moment of the vibrating mechanism.
Asphalt: A dark brown to black, solid to liquid, cementitious material in
which the predominating constituents are bitumens which occur in nature
or are obtained in petroleum processing.
Asphalt, Medium Curing (MC): Cutback asphalt composed of asphalt
cement and a kerosene-type diluent of medium volatility.
Asphalt, Rapid Curing (RC): Cutback asphalt composed of asphalt cement
and a naphtha or gasoline-type diluent of high volatility.
Asphalt, Slow Curing (SC:): Cutback asphalt composed of asphalt cement
and oils of low volatility.
Asphalt Cement: A fluxed or unfluxed asphalt, specially prepared as to
quality and consistency, for direct use in asphalt pavements.
Ballast: Weight (mass) that is not a permanent part of the compactor.
Base: A foundation course consisting of mineral aggregates.
Base Course: The layer of material immediately beneath the surface or
intermediate course. It may be composed of crushed stone, crushed slag,
crushed or uncrushed gravel and sand, or combinations of these materials.
It may also be bound with asphalt.
45
Hot-Mix Asphalt
Fundamentals
Batch Plant: A manufacturing facility for producing asphaltic concrete

paving mixtures that proportions the aggregate constituents into the mix
by weighed batches and adds asphalt material by either weight or volume.
Bearing Capacity: That unit pressure on a surface, greater than which will
result in progressive settlement, which then leads to structural failure.
Bearing Resistance: That property of a material which controls its ability to
withstand imposed loads.
Binder: Fines which hold gravel or other aggregates together when dry.
Binder Course: An intermediate course, between the base course and the
surface course, usually an open-graded asphaltic concrete.
Bitumen: A class of black or dark-colored (solid, semisolid or viscous)
cementitious substances, natural or manufactured, composed primarily of
high molecular weight hydrocarbons, of which asphalts, tars, pitches and
asphaltites are typical.
Bituminous Surface Treatment: A relatively thin, bituminous treated
wearing surface, often less than one inch in thickness.
Penetration Type: An application of bituminous material followed
by a spread of covering aggregate.
Road-Mix Type: A mixture consisting of an open-graded aggregate
and liquid bituminous materials, which are mixed on the roadbed by
use of a motor grader, multiple blade drag or similar tool.
Centrifugal (Dynamic) Force: The force generated by the compactors
vibration inducing mechanism at a stated frequency. Centrifugal force is
calculated by formula.
Channels (Ruts): Grooves that develop in the wheel tracks of a pavement,
resulting from consolidation or lateral displacement under traffic, in one
or more layers in the asphalt pavement. These may develop under traffic
in new pavements that had too little compaction during construction or
from plastic movement in a mix that does not have sufficient stability to
support the traffic load to which it is subjected.
Compacted Yards: Measurement of material area or volume after it has been
placed and compacted.
Compaction: The act of compressing a given volume of material into a
smaller volume. Insufficient compaction of an asphalt pavement may
result in channeling on the pavement surface. Compaction is usually
accomplished by rolling with steel wheel, pneumatic tire, vibratory, or
combination rollers.
46
Hot-Mix Asphalt
Fundamentals
Compactor: A self-propelled or towed vehicle used specifically to densify

materials through the application of static pressure, or through dynamic
force combined with static pressure.
Continuous Mix Plant: A manufacturing facility for producing asphalt
paving mixtures that proportions those aggregate and asphalt constituents
into the mix using a continuous volumetric proportioning system, without
any definite batch intervals.
Crown: The elevation of a road center above its shoulders.
Cutback Asphalt: Asphalt cement which has been liquified by blending
with petroleum solvents (diluents) to make it more workable.
Dense-Graded Aggregate: Material which is uniformly graded, from the
maximum size to the minimum size, so that the compacted specimen is
without voids.
Density: The weight of a unit volume of material, usually expressed in the
terms pounds per cubic foot.
Densification: The act of increasing the density of a mixture during the
compaction process.
Drum: A rotating cylindrical member used to transmit compaction forces
to material surfaces.
Durability: The property of an asphalt paving mixture that describes its
ability to resist disintegration by weathering and traffic.
Dynamic Force Applied: The vectorial resolution of all the generated forces
and the static forces at the interface of the drum and the material being
compacted. Note this term is not recommended for specifications.
Eccentric Moment: The product of the unbalanced weight (mass) times the
distance from the center of gravity of the unbalanced weight (mass) to the
bearing center.
Fine Aggregate: Aggregate of a particle size which passes the No. 8 sieve.
Flexibility: The ability of asphalt pavement to conform to settlement of
the foundation, generally enhanced by high asphalt content.
Frequency: The number of complete cycles of the vibrating mechanism per
minute.
Full-Depth Asphalt Pavement: The Asphalt Institute patented term which
certifies that the pavement is one in which asphalt mixtures are employed
for all courses above the subgrade or improved subgrade.
Grade: Usually the elevation of a real or planned surface or structure. A
surface slope expressed as the rise or fall in elevation per unit length.
47
Hot-Mix Asphalt
Fundamentals
Gradient: The slope along a specific route, as followed, of a road surface,

channel or pipe.
Gradation: The distribution or percentage of sizes of an aggregate.
Granite: A very hard, natural, igneous rock of visible crystalline structure,
composed essentially of quartz and feldspar.
Gravel: A cohesionless aggregate of rounded, sub-angular and angular
fragments of rock, with a particle size ranging from 3.0 to .08 inches.
Igneous Rock: The classification of rock formed from the molten elements
within the earths core known as magma:
Intrusive Rock: Igneous rock that is formed as magma forces its way
into other rock.
Extrusive Rock: Igneous rock that is formed as magma forces its way
to the earths surface.
Impervious: Resistant to movement of water.
Leveling Course: An asphaltic concrete course which is placed to eliminate
irregularities in profile or thickness of underlying pavement layers.
Limestone: A rock consisting chiefly of calcium carbonate, usually formed
from an accumulation of organic remains, such as shells.
Metamorphic Rock: The class of rock formed as a result of drastic natural
changes in igneous or sedimentary rock. Forces such as heat, pressure and
chemical action are necessary for formation.
Mineral: A substance having a definite chemical composition; as a rule, a
crystalline structure.
Mineral Dust: A finely divided mineral product, all of which will pass the
number 200 sieve.
Mineral Filler: A finely divided mineral product, 65 percent of which will
pass the number 200 sieve.
Open-Graded Aggregate: An aggregate containing little or no mineral filler,
resulting in a relatively large void content.
Operating Weight: A machines gross vehicle weight, with full mechanical
operating systems, plus a full tank of fuel, one-half tank of water (if so
equipped,) plus a 175 pound operator. If this weight includes ballast, the
location, type(s), and weight of the ballast should be so designated.
Pass: A working one way trip of a roller over a surface. A round trip is two
passes.
Penetration: The consistency of any bituminous material expressed as the
distance, in tenths of a millimeter, that a standard test needle penetrates
48
Hot-Mix Asphalt
Fundamentals
vertically into a sample of asphalt material, under specified conditions of

loading, time and temperature.
Permeability: That property of a material which permits water to flow
through it.
Pneumatic Tire Roller: A roller which has, as its surface engaging means,
smooth rubber tires.
Prime Coat: An application of low viscosity liquid asphalt to an absorbent
surface, preparatory to any super-imposed treatment or construction.
Profile: A charted line indicating grades and distances, and usually depth
of cut and height of fill for excavation and grading work, commonly taken
along the centerline.
Road Oil: A heavy grade of SC asphalt.
Sand: A cohesionless aggregate consisting of rounded, sub-angular and
angular fragments of rock, with particle size between 2.0 and 0.005 mm.
SC, Liquid Asphalt: Asphalt fluxed with a non-volatile oil which provides
a slow curing mixture that will remain liquid for considerable time.
Seal Coat: A very thin, single surface treatment of bituminous material
covered with a fine aggregate or sand, applied to prevent the entrance of
moisture and air into the course on which it is placed.
Sieve Analysis: A mechanical separation process for determining fractional
amounts of various grain size materials contained in a material sample.
Slag: Refuse from steel-making.
Specific Gravity: A number which represents the relationship of volume of
a substance compared to an equal volume of water.
Static Force: The force exerted on the ground by the static weight at the
drum.
Static Weight: That portion of the operating weight exerted on the ground
at the drum(s), roll(s) or tires.
Sub-base: A thoroughly compacted portion of the embankment or special
material directly under the base.
Surfacing Course: The top course of a pavement; also called wearing
course.
Tack Coat: An application of bituminous material to the surface of a base
course or existing pavement preparatory to placing a bituminous mat upon
it. The purpose of tack is to insure a thorough bond between courses.
Total Applied Force: The sum of the dynamic force plus the force exerted
on the ground by the static weight.
49
Hot-Mix Asphalt
Fundamentals
Unsprung Weight: The mass of all the intentionally vibrated parts at each
drum. Term is used synonymously with vibrating weight.
Vibrating Weight (Mass:): The weight (mass) of all intentionally vibrating
parts at each drum.
Vibratory Roller: A compactor designed with mechanical systems which
cause one or more of its drums to be intentionally vibrated.
Viscosity: A measurement of the resistance to flow. It is one method of
measuring the consistency of asphalt.
VMA: Voids in the mineral aggregate.
Voids: Total empty spaces in a compacted mix.
Workability: The ease with which paving mixtures may be mixed, placed
and compacted.
50
2M1104TTMP
B90H-973
2000 Kentville Road Kewanee, IL 61443
Printed in U.S.A. Tel: 309 853-3571 Fax: 309 852-0350

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Hot-Mix Asphalt

Part 1 Materials and Mixes...........................................................page 1

A.P.I. gravity crude chart..................................................................page 2

WHAT IS PETROLEUM ASPHALT?

A block of semi-solid asphalt is heated to 77 degrees F (approximately

SPECIFIED SIEVE OPENING

Resistance to wear or abrasion is measured by the Los Angeles Abrasion

Cleanliness and purity is very necessary so that an aggregate might produce

PAVING MIX MAXIMUM SIZE AGGREGATE

Percent of theoretical density, or percent density, refers to the volume of

ASPHALT BASE AND SURFACE COURSES

Seal coat is commonly referred to by many contractors and construction

1/2 inch................ 100 100

Cover aggregate should be spread immediately after application of the

PENETRATION OR BITUMINOUS MACADAM

ROAD MIX BASE AND SURFACE COURSES

CONSTRUCTION OF DENSE-GRADED ROAD MIX

CONSTRUCTION OF OPEN-GRADED ROAD MIX

PLANT MIX ASPHALT

Following blending, the mixture (having temperatures ranging from 300-

SPREADING HOT-MIX ASPHALT

COMPACTION OF HOT-MIX ASPHALT

aggregate binding property which it is intended to contribute. At lower

During compaction, rollers should move at a moderate but uniform speed

Regardless of whether a static steel wheel, pneumatic or vibratory roller is

Rollers should always be operated in a straight back and forth (shuttling)

STEEL WHEEL ROLLERS

PNEUMATIC TIRE ROLLERS

Rubber tires produce a kneading action as well as developing high ground

increase helps increase manipulation and compaction of the hot-mix

The pneumatic tire compactor, capable of developing contact pressures

VIBRATORY ROLLER APPLICATION

As a rule of thumb, vibration should not be engaged when compacting

difficult-to-compact mix designs, deeper layer thicknesses and changing

to 1-1/4 inches (25 to 30 millimeters) apart. This impact spacing insures

1 MPH 2 MPH 3 MPH

Consider the relationship between impact spacing and rolling speed to

300 fpm 500 fpm

Proper impact spacing is maintained by adjusting rolling speed relative to

SIDE-BY-SIDE PASSES REQUIRED FOR ONE COVERAGE OF PAVED PANEL

PLANT PRODUCTION vs. ROLLER COVERAGE

Sufficient compaction equipment must be on the job to roll an equal

6" 5" 4" 3" 2"

Depending on the mix design and aggregate, production and coverages

ROLLING SPEED: As a quick estimate of the maximum rolling speed for

The illustration below shows the ideal coverage of a 12 foot wide

PANEL WIDTH 12 FEET (144 INCHES)

Pinching of longitudinal joints, as illustrated on page 24, normally requires

PANEL WIDTH 13 FEET (156 INCHES)

illustrated here, a compactor with 84 inch wide drums is able to complete

PANEL WIDTH 11 FEET (132 INCHES)

PANEL WIDTH 12 FEET (144 INCHES)

PANEL WIDTH 13 FEET (156 INCHES)

PUTTING IT ALL TOGETHER

Step 1: Surface coverage

320 fpm x 60 min/hr x 6 ft x 0.85 = 10,880 square yards per hour

is still, however, only 6 feet. Since vibration frequency of this compactor

Step 2: Passes to achieve density

Compactor A: 6120 square yards = 3060 square yards per hour

Compactor B: 10,880 square yards = 5440 square yards per hour

Compactor C: 9180 square yards = 4590 square yards per hour

Step 3: Conversion to tons per hour

Compaction, which is the process of increasing the density or the unit