Académique Documents
Professionnel Documents
Culture Documents
1. Quality Basics
2. Quality Thinkers
3. Tools in quality control
4. Acceptable sampling
5. NDT/NDE
6. Standards
7. TQM
8. Six Sigma
9. Maintenance and rehability
10. Construction, service and manufacturing
Quality :
Satisfaction Stated
Implied
Market survey/field research will be used as a tool to know the needs of customers by agencies or service
providers.
Easily available
(6) Serviceable
Less costly
(7) Aesthetics = good looking or appearance
Time
Person
Quality Characteristics :
Quality Dimensions
Market survey
Concept development
design codes/guidelines
specification
or regulations.
Market survey :
Voice of customer
Technology
Manpower
Financial
Human
Reliability
Logistical support
Cost of quality :
Appraisal cost after the production to check the quality by the producer
Internal failure cost : within the premises of company
A B C D
(Repair/Replace)
The cost of quality : It is a methodology which tells an organisation about the extent to which its resources are
being used for activities that prevent poor quality, that appraise the products quality and that result from internal
Prevention cost : Cost incurred to prevent quality problems. It includes costs of planning and design,
Q. :
A2
B1
C3
D4
(i) Quality policy can be defined as the overall intentions and direction of an organization w.r.t. quality and it has
(ii) Quality policy should be consistent with the overall policy of the organization.
(iv) Quality objectives can be defined as something aimed for, related to quality.
(vi) Quality policy is for all of the organization where as quality objectives are specific to the specific department.
S Specific
M Measurable
A Achievable
R Realistic
T Time Oriented
Preventive corrective
Proactive reactive
The goal of quality assurance is to improve processes so that the defect does not arise while the product
being developed.
On the other hand, the goal of quality control is to identify defects after a product has already been
developed. Quality assurance aims to prevent defects by focusing on the process used to make the product.
While quality control aims to identify and correct the defect in the finished product.
Quality Audit :
st
1 party (internal audit)
standard and check that whether the quality practices are being under taken as per the documented or specified
standard procedure.
It is performed by the employees of the organization itself who dont have vested interests in the audit results of
3rd party audit : These are performed by an independent party or certification body.
External customers : These are not the members of the production company and they buy the end products.
Internal customers : These are members of the production company itself and they need the project for inhouse
processing.
Q. Which of the following terns correctly describes the examination of process with the standard procedure?
Kaizen Approach
(ix) It is also based on the realizations that mass inspection of the output does not add value to the product.
Its purpose is to eliminate deflects by preventing human error from taking place. Thus it has 100 inbuilt
quality control mechanism and the company has to spend less time and resources on training of its
employees.
Bench Marking : It is a quality improvement tool to improve the performance of an organization by comparing
with the best practices and learning from them to improve own performance by setting the best performances as
benchmark.
(1) Ishikawa
(2) Juran
(3) Fungenbaum
(4) Taguchi
(5) Crosby
(6) Denning
(1) Ishikawa
Quality circle
Knowledge transfer
Quality control
Quality improvement
(3) Faigenbaum :
(4) Taguchi :
L (y y0 )2
y0 = target value
Loss
(h)
y0
Taguchi loss for is used to measure the financial loss to the society due to poor quality.
He suggested that each product has a target value and as the product moves away from the target value,
As one deviates from the target value, this loss increases and it is proportional to the square of the distance
Thus every attempt should be made to meet the target value rather than being with in upper specifications
Taguchi calls common cause variations as noise factor and the aim should be to reduce the effect of noise
on the product quality. Thus Taguchi Robust design is a concept used to make the system less sensitive to
variations.
Q. Assuming the following Taguchi loss for and specifications, determine the estimated loss if the quality
(5) Crosby :
Quality is free : Quality and cost are not in competition to each other. It means it is not true that if quality
increases cost will also increase. Further we can say that quality is free because there is a time lag between
the investment in improvement of the process and reduction in the cost of quality.
Zero defect :
(6) Deming :
Deming said :
Minor
bone
Effect or
problem
Minor
bone
cause
Brainsforming
Team approach
Why-why analysis
It is used to identify, explore and display the possible causes of a particular problem. It is done through
brainstorming, teamwork, collective knowledge and it builds supports for the solution of the problem.
The problem or effect is represented through the head of the fish. The major causes will be represented
through the major bones of the fish and further sub-divisions of the major bone into minor bones will
8. Scatter Diagram :
x x1 x2 x3 x4
y y1 y2 y3 y4
3. Pareto chart :
Pareto chart is based on the pareto principle which states that approximately 80% of the problems are
Thus if we identify the vital few factor, then majority of the problems can be solved.
The pareto chart ranks data in descending order from left to right.
4. Flow chart :
Flow chart is a pictorial representation of the sequence of steps in a process. These can be used to
document a process and find out the sources of problem as well as solution to those problem
5. Check sheet :
It is a structured form for collecting data dejectedly at the same location. Thus we can find the frequency or
6. Histogram : it is a graphical display of data using bars of different height. It can be used to identify the
frequency of the occurrence of a defect and find a pattern in it. The unusual values if any will indicate the
7. Control chart :
Common/Chance Factor
CL = Control limit
UCL 6.25cm
CL 6.0cm
LCL 5.75cm
P Plan
D Do Implement
A Act
Act Plan
Check Do
Demings PDCA Cycle : Continuous improvement
P Plan
D Do implement
A Act
Plan stage : Define the problem, find the causes, constraints and solutions :
Check stage : Monitor the results and compare them with the previous data
Act stage : Documents the results and make recommendations for the problem to be addressed in the next
PDCA cycle.
Control Charts
Control charts are used to differentiate b/w common causes and special causes. The variations due to
common causes are always present and they cant be avoided. There take place due to inherent nature of
the process. There are not considered as defects and the variations are small in magnitude.
On the other hand the variations due to special causes are due to the presence of some assignable factors.
These are of larger magnitudes and hence steps should be taken to remove thus. There are considered as
defects.
Variable Attribute
(Measureable) Count type or
Conformity/Non-unformition
X chart P chart
R chart C chart
X chart :
x x 2 xn
xi
X = 1 i1
n n
x1 x2 xn
X =
N
X CL
3
UCL = X
n
3
LCL = X
n
3 +3
3 to 3 99.73%
2 to 3 95.5%
to 68%
R-chart : R Range
R1 R 2 R N
R CL
N
UCL D4R
UCL = D3 & D4
LCL D3R
Constants
Will be given
Variables are characteristics that are measureable where as attributes are characteristics which are
one or more no of defects such that unit is unable to meet the standard.
X chart shows the centering of the process or the trend whereas R chart shows the dispersion in the
Q. For a control chart of variables the sample size is 4 and the total no of the samples are 20.
X 400, R 4
What will be the 3 control limits for X and R charts. Assume the population std deviation = 0.08.
D4 = 2.28
D3 = 0
X ch a rt
X 400
X = 20
N 20
3 3 0.08
UCL = X 20 20 3 0.04
n 4
U C L 2 0 .1 2
R-chart
R 4
R = 0.2
N 20
LCL = D3 R = 0
P Chart :
d1 p1 d1n1
n1
d2
n2
p2 d2 n2
1
1
1 1
1
1 1
1
dN
nN 1
pN dn nN
N
pi p1 p2 pN
CL p L 1
N N
p 1 p n1 n 2 nN
UCL p 3 n
n N
p 1 p
LCL p 3
n
Chart :
CL = np
UCL = p 3 n p (1 p )
LCL = p 3 n p (1 p )
C-chart :
It is used to control the number of defects in a sample.
C-chart is diff from p-chart in the sense that C-chart differentiates between two defective, whereas p-chart
Np chart is used to control the no of defectives whereas p-chart is used for fraction defectives.
CL C
UCL C 3 C
LCL C 3 C
Q. During an experiment it is found that on an avg 1 out of 10 items produced by a machine is defective. While
inspecting the quality inspector selects a sample of 100 items and finds that 15 of them are defective. What
will be the decision of the inspector about, whether the process is within control or not?
p = 0.1
U C L 0.19
L C L 0 .1 0 .0 9 0 .0 1
15
But process = 0.15 OK (within control limits)
100
Q. A control chart is established with limits of + 2 standard errors. For use in monitoring samples of size n = 20.
Assume the process to be in control. What is the likelihood of a sample mean falling outside the control limit?
(a) 97.7%
(b) 95.5%
(c) 4.5%
(d) 2.3%
+2 stand error = + 2.
Acceptance Sampling
In the present case it means that the proportion of defectives are same in the sample and the lot.
Acceptance sampling is a technique in which based on the inspection of a small sample the decision regarding
accepting or rejecting a lot is taken. It is assumed that the sample represents the whole of lot. It means that the
Single sampling :
Decision regarding the accepting or rejecting a lot is taken on the basis of inspection of only one sample no
of samples = d
Double sampling :
n1 = 1 st sample, n2 = 2 nd sample
If number of defective = d
If (n1 + n2)
d > c 2 reject
d > c 2 accept
Q. In a single sampling plan N = 200 , n = 10, c = 2 } the actual defectives found by inspection is 3, then the
decision will be
Producers Risk () : It is the probability that a lot which has acceptable quality level will be rejected i.e. it is the
Consumer Risk () : It is the probability that a lot containing defectives more than LTPD will be acceptance i.e. it
LTPD : it is the %age of defective items above which the consumers will not accept the lot.
AQL : It is the %age of defective at which the consumers will accept the lot.
Operating characteristics curve : It is a curve between probability of accepteance and the lot quality in terms of
fraction defectives. As the praction defective in the lot increases the probability of acceptance will decrease.
Probability
of
acceptance
AQL
% fraction defective LTPD
Objectives of standardization :
(7) It enhances the productivity of organisation and saves time & resources.
Indian standards :
ISI Marks : It is given for Industrial products. It certifies that the product conforms to the standard set by Bureau of
Agmark : It s given for agricultural products & it is given by directrate of Marketing & inspection under ministry of
agriculture.
It is given for all processed fruit product. It certifies that the product was manufactured in a hygienic environment .
It is given by Ministry of food processing industries under food safety & standards Act 2006.
implementation are set by central pollution control Board (CPCB) under MOEFCC (Ministry of Environment &
Bharat stage IV emission norms has been implaceed since 2010 & BS VI norms would be adopted by 2020.
India Organic : It is a certification mark for organically formed product as per National standards for organic
products 2000.
BIS : Bureau of Indian standard comes under ministry of consumer affairs food & public Distribution, GOI. It is a
statutory body established under an act of parliament i.e. bureau of Indian standard Act, 1986.
(1) Membership Bodies : Each country here is represented by one standards body from country. There
members approve the changes that take place in the standards. Burea of Indian standards represents Indian
in this.
(2) Correspondant Members : There are countries that do not have their own standards body and hence they
dont participate in the changes introduced in the standards. However they are informed about the same.
(3) Subscribe Members : There are countries with small economics. They pay reduced membership fees and
Various standards :
It is a generic management standard. It means that the same standard can be applied to any organization
irrespective of whether the organication is large or small, it is from manufacturing sector or service sector etc.
It is only concerned about the way an organic does it is not concerned about the result of that work.
These quality system are based on the principles of total quality management.
IS 14000 series : For EMS= EM Management System
It helps organization to minimize the ve effect on environment and compliance with the relevant rules and
reghlations.
It does not seek that the organization should follow a particular level of performance regarding pollution etc. but
It promotes a safe & healthy working environment by identifying and controlling health and safety risks and
It is an annual award given to companies of USA which excel in total quality management. It is given by the
president of USA.
It is instituted by BIS.
NDT : It is performed in a manner which does not effect the future usefulness of the object or material. It is used
to check the quality of structural mechanical components so that they can perform their functions in a safe,
It can be used for in service inspection to detect cracks or other defects caused by corrosion, stress, fatigue etc.
Penetrant Testing (PT/LPT/DPT) : LPT : Liquid Penetrant Test, DPT Dye Pepenetrant Test
Penetrant will be pulled into the surface breaking defect by capillary action.
A developer is then applied after wiping out the penetrant from the surface.
Advantage :
The test object is placed between the radiation source and the object.
The thickness & density of the material that the X-rays penetrate affects the amount of radiation reaching the
detector.
The variation in radiation produces an image on the detector which shows the internal features of the test object.
Advantage :
Disadvantage :
High freq. sound waves are sent into the materials by the use of a transducer.
The amount of energy transmitted & received find the time taken can be used to determine the presence of flaws.
Advantage :
Non-Hazardous
Disadvantage :
Magnetic field is established in a ferromagnetic material and the magnetic field lines flow through the material.
The place of discontinuity or cracks cant support such flow of magnetic field and hence it comes leakage of the
magnetic flux at the locations of discontinuity. The iron particles spread over the sample, will be attracted to such
Advantage :
It can be used for both surface & sub-surface cracks, large area of complex shapes can be inspected rapidly.
Alternating current is passed through a coil thus producing a magnetic field. If a conducting materials is placed
near the coil, then changing the magnetic field induces eddy currents in the conducting material.
There eddy currents produce their own magnetic field, which may be measured to analyse for the presence of any
defects.
Target of six sigma approach is 3.4DPMO 6th sigma is a set of technique for process improvement.
It aims to minimize variation in the manufacturing process by indentifying & removing the causes of defects.
Six sigma process is one in which 99.99966% of the total products manufactured are defect free.
For sustained quality performance involvement of everyone is required but the support of top management is
recognized as crucial.
It is diff. from approaches of quality improvement in the sense that it focuses on achieving measureable and
quantifiable results.
D define
M Measure
A Analyse
I Improve
C control
D-Define : Define the voice of customer, their requirements & the project goals.
M-Measure : Measure the key aspect of the process and collect the relevant data.
C-control : control the process parameters by monitoring & checking for sustained improvements.
Design : Design and improved alternative on the basis of analysis of various alternatives.
Varify : Varify the design by implementing the design the hand it over to the process owner.
Champions Mentor
Executive Leadership : It includes CEO & other members of top management. They are responsible for setting a
Champions : They act as mentors. They approve any changes to scope of the project.
Master black belts : They act as in house coaches. They assist champions and guide black belts & green belts.
Black Belts : Act as project team leader, assign team members their roles & responsibility and they are held
Green Belts : They lead small scale improvement projects within respective areas. They work under the
Yellow Belts : They are basically support staff to green & black belt. They lead any project on their own.
Preventive Regular
or restore the item to a state in which it can function as per the requirement.
(2) Predictive Maintenance : It is used for critical equipments in of a plan based on the resultant of condition
(3) Reactive Maintenance : It is done after the equipment has already failed. There type of maintenance
Reliability
R1 R2 R3
R1 R2 R3
R2
Rs = R1 {R2 + (1 R2) R4 } R3
Reliability is defined as a probability that a product performs as per the specified std over a period of time
without failing.
When the components in a system are connects in series, then the reliability of the system will be lower than
It happens because in terms of probability, these are mutually dependent events. Thus as the no. of
components in series increases the reliability of the system as whole will decrease.
To increase the reliability of the system, back up can be given to the critical components.
Q. What will be the probability of a system failure for a two component parallel system if the individual
(ii) 0.050
(iii) 0.002
(iv) 0.010
0.95 + 0.048
Rs. 0.998
Ques. On the fig show below what will be the reliability of the system.
A C RA = 0.9
RB = 0.8
RC = 0.7
B D RD = 0.6
Rs = {0.9+(1-0.9)0.8} {0.7+(1-0.7)0.6}
Rs = 0.8624
It in the total cost of ownership of a product. It included acquisition cost, installation cost, space parts cost,
Maintainability :
It is the probability that a failed device will be restored to its normal working condition in a given period after
MTBF
Availability :
To increase productivity; predictive & preventive maintenance should be used and reactive maintenance should
be avoided. It is an integrated approach and it desires the involvement of various department and employees. The
equipment should be designed in a way that the need for maintenance is minimized.
It is a systematic approach where in for each component the failure modes and their resulting effects on the rest
of the system is malyied and records, so that preventive steps can be taken.
Manufacturing :
Technology transfer
Direct & Indirect employment
Multiplier effect
Lean Manufacturing :
2. Create flow : It should be ensured that product moves from production state to shipping stage without much
interruption.
5. Value steam Mapping : Minimize those steps which dont add value to the product.
Supply Chain Management : Supply chain management is crucial to improve the efficiency in manufacturing.
KANBAN : It is a scheduling system for lean manufacturing and just in time manufacturing. It is an inventory
control system to effectively manage the supply chain and thereby improve the manufacturing efficiency.
Quality in construction
Guidelines/Costs
Quality Control Site inspection
Timely delivery
Space utilization
Total Quality control (TQC)
In traditional quality control it is assumed that quality control is within the acceptable limit. Thus allowing a certain
amount of defects as acceptable but in case of TQC, no defective items are allowed anywhere.
In const sector the goal of zero defects can never be permanently obtained because of the many no. of sub
However TQC as a goal continuously inspires the oxganization to reduce the no of defects.
Quality in Services
Service delivered > Service expected
customers satisfaction
The distinguishing features of the services is that the service is created & delivered at the same time. Hence in
1. Tangibles : Appearance of physical environment, surroundings in which the service is provided. E.g.
3. Empathy : Individual attention & earing attitude towards to make them feel special.
4. Reliability : The ability to deliver the promised service accurately & dependably.
5. Assurance : Knowledge & courtesy of the staff and their ability to convey trust & confidence.
Gap Model
4. Service quality delivery and external communication : It may be due to the fact that the company is
promosing to made to attract the customers or there may be difference in the service quality of different
branches.
km. which of the following quality characteristics are described by this advertisement ?
(a) Reliability
(b) Tangibles
(c) Features