SPECIALIZATION: PHYSICAL SCIENCE : Environment

By: Prof. Crisanta A. Ocampo

Competencies:
1. Differentiate the three types of chemical bonding: ionic, covalent and metallic bonds.
2. Use the periodic table to predict the types of bonding that will occur between specific
elements.
3. Evaluate the correctness of a given Lewis Structure for a molecule.
4. Apply the valence shell electron pair repulsion theory in predicting molecular geometry.
5. Compare the different types of intermolecular forces and relate these to their physical
properties.

PART I CONTENT UPDATE

All substances that surround us may it be table salt that is brittle, candle wax that melts easily and
gold jewellery that shines has its own distinct properties. These properties are due to how the atoms are
bonded together, known as chemical bonds. Bonding between atoms forms millions of compounds that are
represented in different forms of structure and shapes. If there is an attraction between the atoms, molecules
also have attractive forces known as intermolecular forces that influence the behaviour of substances.

CHEMICAL BONDS

The force that holds the atoms together is known as chemical bond. There are two major types of
chemical bonds: ionic and covalent bonds. Metallic bond is another type but it is different from the
two general types.

Ionic bonds are simply attractive forces (electrostatic forces) between oppositely charged ions
(cations/anions). Covalent bonds are formed by sharing of electrons between two atoms having
similar attractions for the outermost electrons. Metallic bonds are an idealized type of bonding based
on the attraction between the core of the metal atoms (metal cations) and the shared pooling of
delocalized valence electrons.

If a bond is formed between two different atoms a compound is produced, and is named as an ionic
compound (e.g. NaCl) and covalent or molecular compounds (e.g.H 2O). However, we do not say
metallic compounds but as metallic elements like Na, Mg, Cu, and Fe. Just like there are molecular
elements such as H2, O2, N2, and Cl2.

Comparison between chemical bonds and their substances:

Point of comparison Ionic Covalent Metallic

elements involved metal & nonmetal Nonmetals Metals
Bond

basis of attraction cation-anion Nuclei-shared Cations-delocalized

electron pair electrons
energy range (kJ/mol) 400-4000 150-1100 75-1000
State are generally solids Varied state are generally solids
physical properties Hard & brittle, high Solids are Fairly Soft to hard, low to
melting pt., good soft, low to very high melting pt,
Substance

thermal & electrical moderate melting excellent thermal &

conductors in a pt, poor thermal electrical
molten state and electrical conductors,
conductors malleable & ductile
Solubility soluble in polar soluble in nonpolar Commonly
solvents solvents soluble/reacts in
acids

IONIC BONDS

These bonds and the existence of numerous compounds are due to the unstability of most atoms.
According to Gilbert Lewis the stability is achieved if an atom acquires a more stable electron
configuration comparable to a noble gas configuration [ns2np6].

In a bond formation, the number of outermost electron (or called the valence electron) in contact
could be two or more for the atom. In tracking the electrons, the Lewis dot symbol is used. This
consists of a dot, which represents the valence electron of the atom, arranged around the symbol of
the element. The group to where the representative elements and the noble gases belong is
numerically equal to their valence electrons. For example, Na in Group 1A has one dot (Na), Mg in
group 2A has two dots (Mg) and so on.
 SPECIALIZATION: PHYSICAL SCIENCE : Environment
By: Prof. Crisanta A. Ocampo
For an atom to be like the noble gases it must have eight electrons in its valence shell [ns 2np6] or
must follow the octet rule. However, this does not include the following elements: H, Be, group 3A,
and the elements in third period and beyond in the periodic table. The atoms way of satisfying the
octet rule will be influenced by some properties such as, ionization energy, electron affinity, and
electronegativity.

Metals have low ionization energy so they tend to loss their electrons while nonmetals have high
positive electron affinity so they tend to gain electrons. This accounts for the formation of cations
(positive ions) and anions (negative ions) and the electrostatic force of attraction between these
charged particles explains the formation of an ionic bond. Therefore, the combination of a metal and
a nonmetal forms an ionic bond. Below shows the formation of an ionic bond between Mg and Cl.

or MgCl2 = Magnesium
chloride

Figure 1. Formation of MgCl2

COVALENT BONDS

Electronegativity is a measure of the tendency an atom to attract the bonding electrons towards
itself. General trends show that elements electronegativity increases as you go across a period and
decreases down the group in the periodic table. The Pauling scale of electronegativity, where the
values ranges from 0.7-4.0, is commonly used. To get the electronegativity of the 2 nd period elements,
start at lithium (1.0) and add 0.5 Pauling unit for each step to the right in the 2 nd period.

Covalent bonds are formed between nonmetals where the electronegativity difference (EN)
between the elements involved in the bond is small. This indicates that the two bonding atoms have
similar attractions for the electrons resulting to shared electrons to satisfy the octet rule.

Covalent bonds can be polar or nonpolar (covalent). Polar covalent bond is a type of bond where
the bonding pair of electrons is shared unequally because the shared electron spend more time in
one of the atom that has greater electronegativity. This shifting of electrons causes unsymmetrical
distribution of the electron cloud and partial charges between the bonded atoms. The bond between
H and Cl in HCl molecule is an example of polar bond. Where, H is partially positive and Cl is partially

negative (H Cl ). Nonpolar covalent bond is a type of bond where the bonding pair of electrons
is shared equally because the involved atoms have the same electronegativity. This arrangement
does not shift the direction of the electrons creating a symmetrical electron cloud in the vicinity.
Homonuclear diatomic molecules such as H2, Cl2, Br2, O2 N2, etc. are examples that show a nonpolar
bond.

The bond polarity or whether bond is ionic, polar or nonpolar covalent is characterized through
electronegativity difference (EN). Based on Pauling scale there is a range of 3.3 for
electronegativities of the elements getting the half will give us 1.7. Use the table below to help you
identify the type of bond.
 SPECIALIZATION: PHYSICAL SCIENCE : Environment
By: Prof. Crisanta A. Ocampo

If EN is . . . Bond is . . .
Less than 1.7 predominantly covalent
Less than 1.7 but not equal mostly polar
to 0.0-0.3
Equal to 0.0-0.3 indeed nonpolar
Greater than 1.7 mostly ionic
Equal to 1.7 approximately 50 % ionic character and 50 % covalent
character

However, this quantitative determination is just but approximates leading to some limitation like that
in lithium iodide. The EN between LiI, 2.5-1.0 = 1.5. This would imply it is polar covalent but most
chemist would still classify it as ionic in character. It is also interesting to note that the polarity of a
bond is different from the polarity of a molecule.

Molecular or covalent compounds are represented through Lewis structures. This illustrates the
covalent bonding in which shared electron pairs are shown as lines between two atoms while the
unbonded pair of electrons (or lone pairs) are shown as pair of dots in an individual atom. In writing
the Lewis structures be guided by the following steps:

GUIDELINES IN DRAWING LEWIS STRUCTURES

1. Work on the skeletal structure first by placing the least electronegative element at the center while
taking H and F at the terminal.
2. Complete the valence electrons for each atom and count the total electrons. For polyatomic anion,
add the number of negative charge to the total while for polyatomic cations subtract the number of
positive charge from the total.
3. Draw a single bond between the central atom and the adjacent atoms. Count the lone pairs and
the shared electrons for each atom to check if the octet rule is satisfied.
4. If the octet rule is not achieved by drawing single bond, try drawing double bond or triple bonds
using the lone pairs surrounding the bonding atoms. However, always remember that there are
atoms exempted from this rule.
5. Check the acceptability of the drawn Lewis structure by computing for the formal charges of each
atom in the bond.

Formal charge of = Valence - the number of bonds - Total number of

an atom in a Lewis electron of around the atom nonbonding electrons
Structure isolated atom

In order to facilitate the choice of the correct Lewis structure, use the following
guidelines on formal charges:
For molecules, a Lewis structure with no formal charges is preferable than
the one with formal charge.
Lewis structure with small formal charges is more plausible rather than
the one with the large formal charges.
If the distribution of formal charges is the same among Lewis structures,
the most plausible structure is the one in which negative formal charges
are placed on the more electronegative element.
6. In cases, where one molecule can be represented by two or more Lewis structures that are also
plausible then these are accepted as resonance structures.

Examples:

The strength of an ionic bond is greater than the covalent bond. This strength is given by its lattice
energy, which is the energy required to completely separate one mole of a solid ionic compound into
gaseous ions. While for covalent bond it is given in terms of bond dissociation energy, which is the
enthalpy change required to break a bond in a mole of gaseous molecules. As the bond energy in a
molecule increases its bond length decreases and bond order increases. Bond length is the distance
 SPECIALIZATION: PHYSICAL SCIENCE : Environment
By: Prof. Crisanta A. Ocampo
between the nuclei of two bonded atoms while bond order is the number of bonds being shared by
any pair of bonded atoms. This relationship is supported by the data below.

Table of Bond Length

Bond Length
Type of Bond Bond Order Bond Energy(kJ/mol)
(pm)
CC 154 1 347
C=C 134 2 614
CC 121 3 839

MOLECULAR GEOMETRY

The three-dimensional arrangement of atoms in a molecule is described as molecular geometry. The

shape of the molecule affects its physical and chemical properties. It is important therefore to know
how the molecules attain their shape. The VSEPR theory is the common approach to study the shape
of the molecule, which stands for valence shell electron pair repulsion. From the title itself, it
suggests that the electron pair in a molecule must remain far apart to minimize repulsion and achieve
a stable molecule.

There are five basic shapes for simple molecules that have one central atom and no lone pairs.
Deviations from this basic shape arise when lone pairs exists in the central atom due to the greater
repulsive force of unbonded electrons. A close look on the molecular geometry of these molecules is
given below.

Basic Basic Deviation Basic Deviation

Molecular Linear Trigonal Bent tetrahedral Trigonal Bent
shape planar pyramidal

Molecular
arrangement
,
No. of
attached 2 3 2 4 3 2
groups
Bond angle 180o 120o <120o 109.5o <109.5o
Example BeCl2 BF3 SO2 CH4 NH3, H2O

Basic Deviation Basic Deviation

Molecular Trigonal Square Square
See-saw ,T-shaped, Linear Octahedral
shape pyramidal Pyramidal planar

Molecular
arrangement
, ,

No. of
attached 5 4 3 2 6 5 4
groups
90o (axial) <90o (axial), <90o (axial),
Bond angle 120o 1800 90o <90o, 90o
(equatorial) <120o (equatorial), ---
Example PCl5 SF4, ClF3, XeF2 SF6 BrF5, XeF4

The key steps in determining the molecular shape from the molecular formula is to (1) write the Lewis
structure, (2) assign the group electron group arrangement, (3) predict the ideal bond angle, (4) draw
and name the molecular shape.

Molecular shape affects the molecules polarity which influences the melting point, boiling point,
solubility, chemical reactivity, and even biological function. The molecular polarity depends on the
direction of the electrons (bond polarity) that result to an imbalance of molecular charge. For example,
carbon dioxide, CO2, is linear, with each C-O bond along the same line: O=C=O. Although, each C-
 SPECIALIZATION: PHYSICAL SCIENCE : Environment
By: Prof. Crisanta A. Ocampo
O is polar, the molecule as a whole is nonpolar because the two equal polarities are in exactly
opposite directions. Water, on the other hand, is a bent molecule. The two O-H bonds are polar that
do not cancel each other, and as a result the molecule is polar. In short, an imbalance of charge of
unsymmetrical distribution of the electron cloud in a molecule makes it a polar molecule. The
quantitative measure of the polarity of molecule is termed as dipole moment. The polarity of the
molecule is one of the factors that affect solubility. Polar solvent dissolves polar and ionic solutes
while nonpolar solvent dissolves only nonpolar solutes. Thus, like dissolves like.

The Lewis Theory and VSEPR Theory are theories that guide us in our way in explaining some
properties of molecules. However, both can not explain some experimental evidences like differences
in bond energies of bonded atoms, paramagnetic behavior of molecules, and many more. Not until,
the field of quantum mechanics provides us explanations in the theories namely, Valence Bond
Theory and Molecular Orbital theory.

INTERMOLECULAR FORCES & LIQUIDS AND SOLIDS

The attraction between atoms in a chemical bond is termed as intramolecular forces. Their bonding
forces are relatively strong due to the larger charges that are close together. Intermolecular forces
are nonbonding attractive forces between molecules as a result of partial charges, or the attraction
between ions and molecules. Their forces are relatively weak due to smaller charges that are farther
apart. Below are the different types of intermolecular forces of attraction (IMFA) presented according
to their strength of attraction:

Ion-dipole forces is an attraction of an ion (either a cation or an anion) and a polar molecule
to each other with a approximate energy of 40-600 kJ/mol. This is commonly exhibited in
aqueous salt solutions. A smaller ion and a greater dipole moment of a molecule creates a
stronger attraction. Example: Na+ OH2
Hydrogen bonding is a special type of dipole-dipole interaction between a partially positive
hydrogen atom of one molecule and a negative lone pair on the N, O, and F of another
molecule. Example: HOH OH2
Dipole-dipole forces are attractive forces between polar molecules exhibiting dipole
moments. Example: I-Cl I-Cl
Ion-induced dipole is the attraction between an ion and the induced dipole with an energy
of 3-15 kJ/mol. Example: Cu2+ O2
Dispersion forces are attractive forces that arise as a result of temporary dipoles induced
in atoms or molecules. It is also known as London Forces. Example: Br-Br Br-Br

The three latter forces are collectively known as van der Waal forces.

Substances may exist as gas, liquid and solids. The distance between their particles is the major
difference between them. IMFA affects mostly the behavior of the substances. IMFA between
molecules is considered as a factor in the non-ideal behavior of gases.

Below are the properties of liquids and their relationship to IMFA

Surface tension-is the inward molecular attractive forces, which must be overcome to
increase the surface area.
Capillary action is the rising of a liquid through a narrow space against the pull of gravity.
This phenomenon is an example of surface tension that is brought about by cohesion
(attraction between like molecules) and adhesion (attraction between unlike molecules)
Viscosity is a measure of the ease with which molecules move past one another. Viscosity
decreases with increasing temperature.
Vapor pressure is the pressure exerted by the gas molecules that evaporated from a liquid.
Boiling point is the temperature at which the vapor pressure equals atmospheric pressure

For a given liquid at a certain temperature has high or greater ()

IMFA surface tension viscosity vapor pressure boiling pt.

intermolecular forces of attraction the surface tension and vapour pressure is
high while viscosity is low.

Solids are classified as crystalline (made up of ions, molecules, atoms arranged in definite repeating
geometric patters) and amorphous (without regular structure). Ice is an example of crystalline solid
and glass is of amorphous type.