Hydrologic and Hydraulic Design Concept

Hydrology is a branch of Earth Science. The importance of

hydrology in the assessment, development, utilization and
management of the water resources, of any region is being
increasingly realized at all levels.
It is the science which deals with the depletion and
replenishment of water resources.
It deals with the surface water as well as the ground water.

It is also concerned with the transportation of water from

on place to another.
It helps us in determining the occurrence and availability of
water.
 The hydrologic cycle
Hydrologic cycle is the water transfer
cycle, which occurs continuously in
nature; the three important phases of
the hydrologic cycle are:

(a) Evaporation and

evapotranspiration (b) precipitation
and (c) runoff and is shown in Fig. 1.1.
Contd
 Contd
Evaporation from the surfaces of lakes, reservoirs,
ocean surfaces, etc. and transpiration from
surface vegetation i.e., from plant leaves of
cropped land and forests, etc. take place.
These vapours rise to the sky and are condensed
at higher altitudes by condensation nuclei and
form clouds, resulting in droplet growth.
The clouds melt and sometimes burst resulting in
precipitation of different forms like rain, snow,
hail, sleet, mist, dew and frost.
 Contd
A part of this precipitation flows over the land
called runoff and part in filters into the soil which
builds up the ground water table.
The surface runoff joins the streams and the
water is stored in reservoirs. A portion of surface
runoff and ground water flows back to ocean.
Again evaporation starts from the surfaces of
lakes, reservoirs and ocean, and the cycle
repeats.
 Contd
Precipitation: It is atmospheric
discharge of water in the form of the
solid, liquid from the earth surface.
The distribution of water on the
surface and subsurface is governed
by duration and intensity of
precipitations.
 Forms of precipitation
Drizzle a light steady rain in fine drops
(0.5 mm) and intensity <1 mm/hr
Rain the condensed water vapor of the
atmosphere falling in drops (>0.5 mm,
maximum size - 6 mm) from the clouds.
Glaze freezing of drizzle or rain when
they come in contact with cold objects.
Sleet frozen rain drops while falling
through air at subfreezing temperature.
Snow ice crystals resulting from
sublimation (i.e., water vapor condenses to
ice)
 Scope of hydrology
The study of hydrology helps us to know:

(i)The maximum probable flood that may occur at a

given site and its frequency; this is required for
the safe design of drains and culverts, dams and
reservoirs, channels and other flood control
structures.

(ii)The water yield from a basinits occurrence,

quantity and frequency, etc; this is necessary for
the design of dams, community water supply,
water power, river navigation, etc.
 Contd
(iii)The ground water development for
which a knowledge of the
hydrogeology of the area, i.e., of the
formation soil, recharge facilities like
streams and reservoirs, rainfall
pattern, climate, cropping pattern,
etc. are required.
 Hydrological data
For the analysis and design of any hydrologic
project adequate data and length of records are
necessary. A hydrologist is often posed with lack of
adequate data. The basic hydrological data required
are:

Climatological data

Hydro meteorological data like temperature, wind

velocity, humidity, etc.

Precipitation records

Stream-flow records
 Seasonal
Contd
fluctuation of ground water table or
piezometric heads
Evaporation data

Water quality data of surface streams and ground

water
Geomorphologic studies of the basin, like area, shape
and slope of the basin, mean and median elevation,
mean temperature (as well as highest and lowest
temperature recorded) and other physiographic
characteristics of the basin; stream density and
drainage density; tanks and reservoirs.
 Contd
Hydro meteorological characteristics of basin:

Depth-area-duration (DAD) curves for critical

storms (station equipped with self-recording
rain gauges).
Daily, monthly and annual evaporation from
water surfaces in the basin
Water balance studies of the basin

Soil conservation and methods of flood

control
 Optimum rain-gauge
network
The aim designrain-gauge
of the optimum
network design is to obtain all
quantitative data averages and extremes
that define the statistical distribution of
the hydro meteorological elements, with
sufficient accuracy for practical purposes.
When the mean areal depth of rainfall is
calculated by the simple arithmetic
 Contd
2
Cv
N
p

where N = optimum number of rain

gauge stations to be established in the
basin
Cv = Coefficient of variation of the
rainfall of the existing rain gauge stations
p = desired degree of percentage
error in the estimate of the average depth
of rainfall over the basin.
 Contd
The number of additional rain-gauge stations (Nn) should be
distributed in the different zones (caused by isohyets) in
proportion to their areas, i.e., depending upon the spatial
distribution of the existing rain-gauge stations and the
variability of the rainfall over the basin.

Saturated Network Design:

If the project is very important, the rainfall has to be
estimated with great accuracy; then a network of rain-gauge
stations should be so set up that any addition of rain-gauge
stations will not appreciably alter the average depth of
rainfall estimated. Such a network is referred to as a
saturated network.
 Density of Rain-gauge
The number of rain-gauges to be erected in a given
area or what is termed as rain-gauge density
Area Rain-gauge density
Plains 1 in 520 km2
Elevated regions 1 in 260-390 km2
Hilly and very heavy rainfall areas 1 in 130 Km2
preferably with 10%

of the rain-gauge stations

equipped

with the self recording

type
 Contd
The length of record (i.e., the number of years) needed to
obtain a stable frequency distribution of rainfall may be
recommended as follows:

Catchment layout: Islands Shore Plain areas

Mountainous regions

No. of years: 30 40 40 50
The average annual rainfall (a.a.r.) of a place depends
upon: (i) distance from the ocean, (ii) direction of the
prevailing winds, (iii) the mean annual temperature,
(iv) altitude of the place, and (v) its topography..
 Contd
The ratio of rainfall in a particular year to
the a.a.r. is the index of wetness.
There may be wet (good), dry (bad or
difficult) and normal (average) years as
the rain fall is greater, less than, or equal
to a.a.r., respectively. For example, an
index of wetness of 60% in a particular
year indicates a rainfall deficiency of 40%.
Estimates of missing data & adjustment of records
For frequent analysis of rainfall data, a sufficiently
long record is required. It may so happen that a
particular rain-gauge is not operate, when it
becomes necessary to supplement the missing
record by one of the following methods:

(i) Station-year methodIn this method, the

records of two or more stations are combined into
one long record provided station records are
independent and the areas in which the stations
are located are climatologically the same.
 Contd
The missing record at a station in a particular
year may be found by the ratio of averages or
by graphical comparison.
For example, in a certain year the total rainfall
of station A is 75 cm and for the neighboring
station B, there is no record. But if the a.a.r. at
A and B are 70 cm and 80 cm, respectively, the
missing years rainfall at B (say, P B) can be
P B P Bas:
75
found by simple proportion 85.7 cm
70 80
 Contd

This result may again be checked

with reference to another
neighboring station C.

(ii) By simple proportion (normal

ratio method)This method is
illustrated by the following example.
 Contd
Example 1 Rain-gauge station D was
inoperative for part of a month
during which a storm occurred. The
storm rainfall recorded in the three
surrounding stations A, B and C were
8.5, 6.7 and 9.0 cm, respectively. If
the a.a.r for the stations are 75, 84,
 Contd
Solution By equating the ratios of
storm rainfall to the a.a.r. at each
station, the storm rainfall at station D
P P 9.65 cm
8.5 6. 7 9
D

(PD) is75 estimated

84 70 as:
90 D

1 8.5 6.7 9
The average value of P D

3 75
90
84
90
70
90

9.65 cm
 Example
Example 2 For the basin shown in Fig. 1,
the normal annual rainfall depths
recorded and the isohyetals are given.
Determine the optimum number of rain-
gauge stations to be established in the
basin if it is desired to limit the error in
the mean value of rainfall to 10%.
Indicate how you are going to distribute
Contd
 Graphical representation of rainfall
The variation of rainfall with respect
to time may be shown graphically by
(i) A hydrograph, (ii) Flow Duration
Curve and (iii) a mass curve.
A hydrograph is a bar graph
showing the intensity of rainfall with
respect to time for a specified period
(Fig.1.1) & is useful in determining
Contd
 Flow Duration Curve
Is a plot of discharge against the
percentage of time the flow was
equaled or exceeded.
It is the curve plotted between
the flow available during a period
verses fraction of time.
The area under the flow of the
Contd
Contd
Contd
Contd
Contd
 Contd
A mass curve of rainfall (or precipitation) is a
plot of cumulative depth of rainfall against time.
From the mass curve, the total depth of rainfall
and intensity of rainfall at any instant of time can
be found.
The amount of rainfall for any increment of time
is the difference between the coordinates at the
beginning and end of the time increments, and
the intensity of rainfall at any time is the slope of
the mass curve (i.e., i = P/t) at that time.
 Contd
A mass curve of rainfall is always a
rising curve and may have some
horizontal sections which indicates
periods of no rainfall. The mass curve
for the design storm is generally
obtained by maximizing the mass
curves of the severe storms in the basin.
Contd
 Water losses
The hydrologic equation states that
RainfallLosses = Runoff
In the previous topic we studied
precipitation. The various water losses
that occur in nature are enumerated
below.
(i) Interception loss-due to surface
vegetation, i.e., held by plant leaves.
(ii) Evaporation:
(a) from water surface, i.e., reservoirs,
lakes, ponds, river channels, etc.
 Contd
(iii) Transpiration: from plant leaves.

(iv) Evapotranspiration for

consumptive use from irrigated or
cropped land.

(v) Infiltration: into the soil at the

ground surface.

(vi) Watershed leakage: ground water

 Evaporation
Evaporation from water surfaces
(Lake evaporation)
The factors affecting evaporation are air
and water temperature, relative humidity,
wind velocity, surface area (exposed),
barometric pressure and salinity of the
water, the last two having a minor effect.
The rate of evaporation is a function of
 Contd
where E = daily evaporation
ew = saturated vapour pressure at the
temperature of water
ea = vapour pressure of the air (about 2 m above)
K = a constant.
The Daltons law states that the evaporation is
proportional to the difference in vapour pressures ew
and ea. A more general form is given by
E = K (ew ea) (a + bV)
where K, a, b = constants and V = wind velocity.
Higher the temperature and wind velocity, greater is
the evaporation, while greater the humidity and
dissolved salts, smaller is the evaporation.
 Ground water
Ground water is widely distributed under the ground and

is a replenishable resource unlike other resources of the

earth.

The problems in Ground Water Investigation are the

zones of occurrence and recharge.

The modern trends are to create more opportunity for

recharge of ground water from natural sources like rain,

percolation dams, etc.

The ground water is free from pollution and the ground

water storage is free from atomic attacks.


Floods-estimation and control
A flood is an unusual high stage of a river due to runoff
from rainfall and/or melting of snow in quantities too great
to be confined in the normal water surface elevations of the
river or stream, as the result of unusual meteorological
combination.
The maximum flood that any structure can safely pass is
called the design flood and is selected after consideration
of economic and hydrologic factors.
The design flood is related to the project feature; for
example, the spillway design flood may be much higher
than the flood control reservoir design flood or the design
flood adopted for the temporary coffer dams.
 Contd
A design flood may be arrived by considering the cost of
constructing the structure to provide flood control and
the flood control benefits arising directly by prevention
of damage to structures downstream, disruption
communication, loss of life and property, damage to
crops and underutilization of land and indirectly, the
money saved under insurance and workmens
compensation laws, higher yields from intensive
cultivation of protected lands and elimination of losses
arising from interruption of business, reduction in
diseases resulting from inundation of flood waters.
 In the design flood
Contd
estimates is usually made to three
classes:

(a) Standard Project Flood (SPF): is the estimate of the

flood likely to occur from the most severe combination of
the meteorological and hydrological conditions, which are
reasonably characteristic of the drainage basin being
considered.

(b) Maximum Probable Flood (MPF): its differs from the

SPF in that it includes the extremely rare and catastrophic
floods and is usually confined to spillway design of very high
dams. The SPF is usually around 80% of the MPF for the
basin.
 Contd
(c) Probable Maximum Precipitation (PMP): From the
observations of air moisture from the maximum due-
point and temperature recorded and air-inflow (from the
wind speed and barometric pressure recorded), the
moisture inflow index in the storm is determined.

(d) Design Flood: is the flood adopted for the design of

hydraulic structures like spillways, bridge openings, flood
banks, etc. It may be the MPF or SPF or a flood of any
desired recurrence interval depending upon the degree
of flood protection to be offered and cost economics of
construction of structures to the desired flood stage.
 Contd
Estimation of peak flood

The maximum flood discharge (peak flood) in a

river may be determined by the following
methods:

(i) Physical indications of past floods (ii) Empirical

formulae and curves

(iii) Concentration time method (iv) Overland flow

hydrograph

(v) Rational method (vi) Unit hydrograph (vii) Flood

frequency studies
 Contd
Methods of flood control

(i) By confining the flow between high banks by

constructing levels, flood walls.

(ii) By channel improvement by cutting, straightening

or deepening and following river training works.

(iii) By diversion of a portion of the flood through

bypasses or flood ways. It is a low section of levee,
which when once over topped, will wash out rapidly
and develop full discharge capacity into the flood-
way
 Contd
(iv)By providing a temporary storage of the peak floods by
constructing upstream reservoirs and retarding basins
(detention basins).

(v) By adopting soil conservation measures (land

management) in the catchment area.

(vi) By temporary and permanent evacuation of the flood plain,

and flood plain zoning by enacting legislation.

(vii)By flood proofing of specific properties by constructing a

ring levee or flood wall around the property.

(viii)By setting up flood forecastingshort term, long term,

rhythm signals and radar, and warning centres at vulnerable
areas.
 Reservoir sedimentation
Sediment movement and deposition
As the silt originates from the water shed, the
characteristics of the catchment such its areal extent, soil
types, land slopes, vegetal cover and climatic conditions
like temperature, nature and intensity of rainfall, have a
great significance in the sediment production in the form of
sheet erosion, gully erosion and stream, channel erosion.
In regions of moderate rainfall, sheet erosion is the
dominant source of total sediment load while in arid and
semi-arid regions, gullying and stream-channel erosion
furnish the greater part of the load.
 Contd
Reduction in reservoir capacity
The useful life of a reservoir gets reduced due
to sediment deposition causing a decrease in its
storage capacity. The factors affecting the
pattern of sediment deposition in reservoirs are:

(i) sediment load (i.e., sediment inflow rate)

(ii) sediment size (i.e., gradation of silt)

(iii) compaction of sediment

(iv) river inflow pattern

 Contd
(v) river valley slope

(vi) shape of reservoir

(vii) capacity of reservoir (its size and
storage period)

(viii) vegetal growth at the head

(ix) outlets in the dam (their types,

location and size)

(x) reservoir operation

 Contd
Reservoir sedimentation control

Sediment deposition in reservoirs can not be

actually prevented but it can be retarded by
adopting some of the following measures:

(i) Reservoir sites, which are prolific sources

of sediment should be avoided.

(ii) By adopting soil-conservation measures in

the catchment area, as the silt originates in
the watershed.
 Contd

(iii) Agronomic soil conservation

practices like cover cropping, strip
cropping, contour farming, suitable
crop rotations, application of green
manure, proper control over graze
lands, terracing and benching on
steep hill slopes, etc. retard overland