Analysis of a Complex Kind

Week 6

Lecture 1: Infinite Series of Complex Numbers

Petra Bonfert-Taylor

Lecture 1: Infinite Series of Complex Numbers Analysis of a Complex Kind P. Bonfert-Taylor 1/9
Infinite Series

Definition
An infinite series

X
ak = a0 + a1 + a2 + + an + an+1 +
k =0

(with ak C) converges to S if the sequence of partial sums {Sn }, given by

n
X
Sn = ak = a0 + a1 + + an
k =0

converges to S.

Lecture 1: Infinite Series of Complex Numbers Analysis of a Complex Kind P. Bonfert-Taylor 2/9
Example

X
Example: Consider z k , for some z C. We have that
k =0

Sn = 1 + z + z 2 + + z n .
Can we find a closed formula for Sn in order to help us find the limit as n ?
Trick:
Sn = 1 + z + z 2 + + z n , so
z Sn = z + z + + z + z n+1 ,
2 n
thus
n+1
Sn zSn = 1 z .
1 z n+1
Hence Sn = for z 6= 1, and since z n+1 0 as n as long as |z| < 1
1z
we have that

X 1
zk = for |z| < 1.
1z
k =0

Lecture 1: Infinite Series of Complex Numbers Analysis of a Complex Kind P. Bonfert-Taylor 3/9
P k 1
k =0 z = 1z for |z| < 1

What happens for |z| 1?

Theorem

X
If a series ak converges then ak 0 as k .
k =0

X
In our example: If |z| 1, then |z|k 6 0 as k , thus z k does not converge
k =0
for |z| 1. We say the series diverges for |z| 1.

X 1
Lets now analyze the real and imaginary parts of the equation zk = for
1z
k =0
|z| < 1:

Lecture 1: Infinite Series of Complex Numbers Analysis of a Complex Kind P. Bonfert-Taylor 4/9
P k 1
k =0 z = 1z for |z| < 1
Writing z = rei we have z k = r k eik = r k cos(k ) + ir k sin(k ). Thus

X
X
X
k k
z = r cos(k ) + i r k sin(k ).
k =0 k =0 k =0

Furthermore,
1 1 1 rei
= =
1z 1 rei (1 rei )(1 rei )
1 r cos + ir sin 1 r cos + ir sin
= i i 2
= .
1 re re +r 1 2r cos + r 2
Thus

X 1 r cos X r sin
r k cos(k ) = and r k sin(k ) = .
1 2r cos + r 2 1 2r cos + r 2
k =0 k =0

Lecture 1: Infinite Series of Complex Numbers Analysis of a Complex Kind P. Bonfert-Taylor 5/9
Another Example
k
X i
Next, consider . Does this series converge?
k
k =1
 k
X i  X 1
We note that  =
k  is the harmonic series, which is known to
k
k =1 k =1
diverge. One way to see this:
     
X 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
=1+ + + + + + + + + + +
k 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 16
k =1 | {z } | {z } | {z }
1/2 1/2 1/2

But does the series itself (without the absolute values) converge? Lets split it
up into real and imaginary parts.

Lecture 1: Infinite Series of Complex Numbers Analysis of a Complex Kind P. Bonfert-Taylor 6/9
 P ik
Does k =1 k Converge?

Note: When k is even (i.e. k is of the form k = 2n), then i k = i 2n = (1)n is real.
When k is odd (i.e. k is of the form k = 2n + 1), then i k = i 2n+1 = i(1)n is purely
imaginary. Thus
k 2n
X i X i X i 2n+1
= +
k 2n 2n + 1
k =1 n=1 n=0

1 X (1)n X (1)n
= +i .
2 n 2n + 1
n=1 n=0

But

X (1)n 1 1 1
= 1 + + +
n 2 3 4
n=1

is the alternating harmonic series, which converges.

Lecture 1: Infinite Series of Complex Numbers Analysis of a Complex Kind P. Bonfert-Taylor 7/9
Absolute Convergence
Definition
X
X
A series ak converges absolutely if the series |ak | converges.
k =0 k =0

X
z k converges and converges absolutely for |z| < 1.
Examples: k =0
k
X i
converges, but not absolutely.
k
k =1

Theorem

 
X X  X
If ak converges absolutely, then it also converges, and  ak  |ak |.
 
 
k =0 k =0 k =0

Lecture 1: Infinite Series of Complex Numbers Analysis of a Complex Kind P. Bonfert-Taylor 8/9
Example

X
Here is an example: If |z| < 1, then the series z k converges absolutely, so
k =0
 
X  X
zk  |z|k .
 

 
k =0 k =0
 
 1  1
But the left-hand side equals 
 , and the right-hand side equals , so
1z  1 |z|
that  
 1  1
 1 z  1 |z| .
 

Next up: Power Series.

Lecture 1: Infinite Series of Complex Numbers Analysis of a Complex Kind P. Bonfert-Taylor 9/9