Part 2: Electrostatic Field in Materials

3.5 Dielectrics
Dielectrics (or insulators) are characterized by bound
charges instead of moving charges.
When an electric field is applied, these charges in
molecules are displaced slightly to form dipoles. The
dielectric medium is said to be polarized and the resultant
field may be different from that if the medium were free
space.

1
3.5.1 The electric dipole*
Two equal and opposite charges +Q and Q separated by a
distance d form an electric dipole.
+Q

-Q

Fig. 3.4 A dipole

Referring to Fig. 3.5, we want to determine the electric field

at point P due to the dipole.

The electric field due to a dipole can be analyzed in spherical

coordinate system.
2
 r2-r1

Fig. 3.5 Field due to an electric dipole

The potential V at P (0,y,z) is (assuming r1, r2 >> d),

Q 1 1 Q r2 r1 Q d cos Q d cos
V
4 0 r1 r2 4 0 r1r2 4 0 r1r2 4 0 r 2 (3.13)
now
E grad V
3
In spherical coordinates,
V 1 V 1 V
V ar a a
r r r sin
cos 2 cos 1 sin
2 a a 0a
r r r r

3 r 2

Qd
E 2 cos ar sin a 0a
4 0 r 3
(3.14)
We now define dipole moment as follows:
p Qd (Cm) (3.15)

Then

4
 E
p
4 0 r 3
2 cos a r
sin a E a E a
r r (3.16)

The potential at P can be written as:

Qd cos Q d ar p ar p ar
V V
4 0 r 2 4 0 r 2 4 0 r 2 4 0 r 2 (3.17)

5
3.5.2 Electric dipole in a uniform electric field*

Fig. 3.6 Dipole moment

Referring to Fig. 3.6, the torque T on the dipole is

T dF (from mechanics)
d QE p E (3.18)
Note that T tends to decrease the angle .

6
If Wp = potential energy of the dipole in the field then:
W p Td pE sin d pE cos const
Supposing the angle at the Fig. 3.6 is = 0,
when = /2, torque = 0.
Choosing the constant such that at = /2, Wp = 0. Then

0 pE cos
2
const const 0

Wp p E (3.19)

7
3.5.3 Two types of dielectric polarization
Dielectric polarization can be produced by an electric field
E in two ways:
(1) For polar molecules (e.g. HCl, H2O) which have
permanent dipoles, the randomly oriented dipoles re-align
themselves in the direction of the field E .
This decreases the effective electric field between the
plates.

8
(2) For non-polar molecules, the + and charge centres
are displaced slightly in the field E . The dipoles so
created then align themselves in the direction of E .

9
3.5.4 Dielectric polarization
If n = number of dipoles per unit volume,
the total dipole moment per unit volume:
P n p nQ d (3.20)
For a general volume (vol) with N dipoles, polarization P is
p1 p2 ... pN Q1 d1 Q2 d 2 ... QN d N
P
(vol ) (vol ) (3.21)
P may be assumed to be proportional to E, hence
P
pm
e 0 E
N

m 1 (vol )
P e 0 E (3.22)
where e (chi) = electric susceptibility.

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3.5.5 Relative permittivity
Now we adopt a more general definition of the electric flux
density vector D :
1 1
D 0 E P E D P
that means: 0 0 (3.25)
where polarization P is: P e 0 E
e (chi) = electric susceptibility ().
Then
D 0 E P 0 E e 0 E 0 (1 e ) E r 0 E E (3.27)
D E
where r 1 e = relative permittivity or dielectric constant
of the material, and
r 0
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3.6 Boundary conditions
3.6.1 Boundary conditions for dielectrics
Fig. 3.8 shows an interface between two dielectrics of
relative permittivity 1 and 2.

Fig. 3.8 Boundary conditions between two dielectrics

Consider the integral of E around loop abcda. With

h0
E dl E
l
t1 w Et 2 w 0

12
hence
Et1 Et 2 (3.28)
i.e. Et undergoes no change in passing through the interface
and it is said to be continuous at the boundary.
Dt1 1 Et1 Dt 2 2 Et 2
Dt1 1 Et1 1 Dt1 1



Dt 2 2 Et 2 2 Dt 2 2 (3.29)
i.e. Dt is discontinuous at the interface when 1 2.
Next consider the Gaussian surface S.

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By Gausss theorem, and h0
Dn1S Dn 2 S Q S S
Dn1 Dn 2 S
D can only arise due to free charges at the surface.
It is extremely unlikely that any free charge is on the
interface, for no free charge is available in the perfect
dielectrics we are considering. This charge must then have
been placed there deliberately.
Therefore, we may assume in a dielectric S = 0.
Dn1 Dn 2 0
or Dn1 Dn 2 (3.30)
i.e. the normal component of D is continuous at the
boundary.
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 En1 2
1En1 2 En 2
Dn1 Dn 2
En 2 1 (3.31)
i.e. the normal component of E is discontinuous at the
boundary when 1 2.

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 Example 3.1
In Fig. 3.9,
D2 is the incident () electric flux density vector in
dielectric 2
D1 is the refracted () electric flux density in
dielectric 1.
Given the incident conditions D2, E2 and 2, find D1, E1
and 1.

Fig. 3.9 Electric field at interface between two dielectrics

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Solution:
Applying boundary conditions:
Dn1 = Dn2 D1 sin 1 D2 sin 2
D1 cos 1 D2 cos 2 1
D1 cos 1 D2 cos 2
Et1 = Et2 1

2 2
D1 sin 1 D2 sin 2

D1 cos 1 1 D cos
2
2 2

2
tan 1 tan 2
1
and
1
2

D sin 1 D cos 1 D sin 2 D cos 2 2

2 2 2 2 2 2 2

2
1 1 2 2

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D sin 1 cos 1 D sin 2 D cos 2 2
1
2

2 2 2 2 2 2

2
1 2 2

1
2

D1 D2 cos 2 2 sin 2 2
2
2
If 2 < 1 because 1 < 2
tan 1 tan 2
1
(e.g. 2 : air, 1: water)
i.e. D and E are refracted away from the normal and
towards the tangent.

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3.6.2 Boundary conditions in ideal conductors
The following phenomena are observed for ideal
conductors:
Any charges of like sign liberated within a conductor
appear on the surface.
No charge may remain within a conductor, hence there is
no electric field inside a conductor.
No tangential component of E at a conductor surface, i.e.
the surface of a conductor must be an equipotential.
The electric flux must leave a conductor surface
normally.

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 Tangential component of E
Consider the line integral of E around the rectangular loop
abcda in the flowing figure. Side bc is parallel to, and just
outside the conductor surface, and side ad is just within the
conductor.

Boundary conditions for electric field in ideal conductors

Let En and Et be the normal and tangential components of

electric field as shown.
20
 E dl 0(Maxwells second equation)
l

Since there is no field inside the conductor,

1 1
En h Et w En h 0
2 2
Et 0 or Dt 0

Next consider the surface S containing charge Q.

By Gausss theorem,
D dS Q
S

Dn S Q ( Dt 0 )
21
 Q
Dn S Dn S
S
where S is the surface charge density.

3.7 Capacitors and capacitance

Two conducting bodies (plates) separated by a dielectric
form a capacitor, as shown in Fig. 3.10.
E

+Q
-Q
Dielectric
2 1

Fig. 3.10 Capacitor formed by two conducting bodies and a dielectric

If the bodies 1 and 2 are charged with +Q and Q, an electric

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field E exists in the dielectric. The potential difference V
between the conductors is
V V1 V2 E dl (3.32)
2

The capacitance is defined as

Q
C
V coulombs/volt (or F, Farad) (3.33)

If the electric potential difference is larger between two

conductors, the capacitance between the two conductors
will become smaller?

Example 3.2
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Find the capacitance of a parallel-plate capacitor as shown in
Fig. 3.11.

Fig. 3.11 Parallel-plate capacitor

Solution:
Assume there is no flux fringing at the edges and let the
surface flux density be S.
Apply Gausss theorem,
S
E ax

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 D E S ax
S S
V V12 E dl a x dl a x S
2
dl ( x2 x1 )
2 2

1 1
1

S
S ( 0 d ) d

The total charge on each plate Q S S ,
Q S S S r 0 S
C S
V d d d C
(3.34)
S
d

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The capacitance is not dependent on Q or V.
If the geometry and material are determined, the capacitance
is determined. Capacitance is an inherent property among
conductors. ()

Example
Find the capacitance of a cylindrical capacitor formed by
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two concentric cylindrical conductors of radii a and b (a <
b).

Fig. 3.12 Cylindrical capacitor

Solution:
Consider l length of two concentric cylindrical conductors as
shown in Fig. 3.12.
Let L = charge/m, at radius r from the centre,
Ll L
D 2rl Ll D
2rl 2r

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 L
D
E ar
2r
dr dr ar
L dr L r2
V V12 E dr E dr ln
2 2 2

1 1 1 2 r 2 r1 V/m
Q Ll 2 l
C
r2
V12 V12
ln F (3.35)
r1
For a length of l m,
2 l
C
r2
ln F (3.36)
r1

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 Example
Find the capacitance between two concentric spheres having
radii a and b, with a < b and the dielectric constant .

Solution:
Vab Edr
Q Q Q 1 1
E dr
,
b b

4r 2 a a 4r 2
4 a b
Q 4
C
Vab 1 1

a b

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3.8 Stored energy in capacitor
Only consider a simple case: a parallel-plate capacitor.
S
The magnitude of electric field: E

S d
The potential difference: V Ed

1 1 2
ED E
The energy density is: 2 2
The total energy stored in the capacitor is
S 1 S2 S d
WE E 2 d (vol )
1 1
2

dx dS dx dS
S d

2 vol 2 0 0
2 0 0
1 S 1 S S d 1 1 1 Q
or E 2
2 2 2
Sd QV
2 C (J)
W CV 2

2 2 d 2 2
1 Q
WE QV
2
C
V (3.37)
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3.9 Comparison between electric field and dc conduction
field

Electrostatic field DC Conduction field

E E

D J
d d

Q S I S
Capacitance: C Conductance: G
V d V d
1
(Resistance: R )
G
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Electrostatic field DC Conduction field
D E J E


D J 0

t
E V E V

V V
t
Boundary condition: V0 Boundary condition: V0
D dS Q I J dS

S S
Q I
Capacitance: C Conductance: G
V V

E E

V V
D J

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