Static Failure

Why do parts fail?

The simple answer is that parts fail because the applied
stresses exceeds the materials strength

Then, what kind of stresses cause failure?

Remember under any applied load, there is always a
combination of normal and shearing stresses in the material

Pure Tension Pure Shear

S. Waldman MECH 323

Static Failure
So, which stress causes the material to fail?
In general:
ductile materials are limited by their shear strengths
brittle materials (f < 5%) are limited by their tensile
strengths

The next question is, how do we define failure?

Fracture is an obvious answer but yielding can also be
considered as the failure point if it distorts the material such
that the part no longer functions properly

S. Waldman MECH 323

Static Failure

Ductile Material Brittle Material

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Failure of Ductile Materials
Several theories have been developed to describe the failure of
ductile materials, such as:

Maximum Shear Stress Theory

Distortion Energy Theory

S. Waldman MECH 323

Maximum Shear Stress Theory
Theory states that failure occurs when the maximum shear stress
in the part exceeds the shear stress in a tensile test specimen (of
the same material) at yield.

recall that maximum shear stress in this case is:

x
max =
2
thus, the maximum shear stress at yield is:
Sy
max =
2

thus for a general state of stress, the maximum shear-stress

theory predicts:
1 3 Sy
max =
2 2

S. Waldman MECH 323

Maximum Shear Stress Theory
this implies that the yield strength in shear is:
S sy = 0.5S y

which leads to a hexagonal failure envelope:

UNSAFE

SAFE

interior is considered SAFE whereas stresses leading to a

point outside the hexagon are UNSAFE and lead to failure
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Maximum Shear Stress Theory
for design purposes, the failure relation can be modified to
include a factor of safety (n):

Sy
n=
1 3

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Distortion Energy Theory
Theory states that failure occurs when the distortion strain energy
in the material exceeds the distortion strain energy in a tensile test
specimen (of the same material) at yield.

Total Strain Energy:

the strain energy per unit volume (u) stored in a material
associated with ANY applied stress is equal to the area
under the stress-strain curve
assuming the stress-strain relationship is linear up until yield:

1
u =
2

S. Waldman MECH 323

Distortion Energy Theory
for a general 3D stress-state:
1
u= [ 11 + 2 2 + 3 3 ]
2
applying Hookes Law:

u=
1
2E
[ ]
12 + 2 2 + 3 2 2 ( 1 2 + 2 3 + 3 1 )

there are two components of this strain energy function:

Hydrostatic: uniform stresses acting in all directions leading
to only a change in volume

Distortion: shearing leading to only a change in shape

only

u = uh + ud

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Distortion Energy Theory
the principal stresses can also be expressed in terms of a
hydrostatic and distortion component:
1 = h + 1,d
2 = h + 2,d
3 = h + 3, d

adding the principal stresses together:

3 h = 1 + 2 + 3 ( 1,d + 2,d + 3,d )

For a volumetric change with no distortion (i.e. state of pure

hydrostatic stress), the sum of the distortion components
must be zero:
1 + 2 + 3
h =
3

S. Waldman MECH 323

Distortion Energy Theory
the hydrostatic portion of the strain energy function then
becomes:
3 (1 2 ) 2
uh = h
2 E

the distortion component can now be determined:

ud = u uh

=
1+ 2
3E
[
1 + 2 2 + 3 2 1 2 2 3 3 1 ]

the failure criterion is obtained if we compare the distortion

energy present in a material test specimen to this derived
expression

S. Waldman MECH 323

Distortion Energy Theory
the distortion energy (per unit volume) present in a tensile
test specimen at yield is:
1 = S y , 2 = 3 = 0
1+ 2
ud = Sy
3E

thus,
1+ 2 1+ 2
3E
Sy =
3E
[
1 + 2 2 + 3 2 1 2 2 3 3 1 ]
S y = 1 + 2 + 3 1 2 2 3 3 1
2 2 2

or, for a 2D stress-state:

S y = 1 + 3 3 1
2 2

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Distortion Energy Theory
this happens to be an equation for an ellipse in the 1 3
axes:

UNSAFE

SAFE

the interior region is considered SAFE whereas stresses

leading to a point outside the ellipse are UNSAFE and will
lead to failure
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Distortion Energy Theory
von Mises Effective Stress
defined as the uniaxial tensile stress that creates the same
distortion energy as any actual combination of applied
stresses:

= 12 + 2 2 + 3 2 1 2 2 3 3 1

= 12 + 3 2 3 1 (2D stress state)

or, in terms of the applied stresses:

=
( x
2
(
y ) + ( y z ) + ( z x ) + 6 xy + yz + zx
2 2 2 2 2
)
2

= x 2 + y 2 x y + 3 xy 2 (2D stress state)

S. Waldman MECH 323

Distortion Energy Theory
this simplifies the approach, since we can use the following
as the failure criterion:
Sy

and the factor of safety is:

Sy
n=

S. Waldman MECH 323

Distortion Energy Theory
Case of pure shear
1 = , 2 = 0, 3 =

applying the failure criterion:

S y = 1 1 3 + 3
2 2

= 2 ( ) + 2

= 3
Sy
= max
3

this relationship defines the yield strength in shear as:

S sy = 0.577 S y

S. Waldman MECH 323

Failure of Brittle Materials
Several theories have been developed to describe the failure of
brittle materials, such as:

Maximum Normal Stress Theory

Coulomb-Mohr Theory
Modified-Mohr Theory

S. Waldman MECH 323

Failure of Brittle Materials
Many brittle materials have different failure properties in
compression as opposed to tension:

Suc > Sut

Low tensile properties are typically due to the presence of

microscopic flaws that can propagate upon tensile loading or serve
as nuclei for additional crack growth.

When subjected to compressive stresses, these flaws can be

pressed together increasing the resistance of crack propagation.

Thus, we define an materials as either:

EVEN: Suc = Sut
UNEVEN: Suc > Sut

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Maximum Normal Stress Theory
This theory simply states that the part will fail if the normal stress
exceeds some stress limit of the material (e.g. yield, ultimate).

the result is a square failure envelope:

however, this theory is only valid in quadrants I and III and

over-predicts failure in quadrants II and IV
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Coulomb-Mohr Theory
This theory is a modification of the maximum normal stress theory
in the which the failure envelope is constructed by connecting the
opposite corners of quadrants I and III.

the result is a hexagonal failure envelope:

3

S ut
Suc
1
S ut

Suc

similar to the maximum shear stress theory but also accounts

for the uneven material properties of brittle materials
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Modified-Mohr Theory
This theory is a modification of the Coulomb-Mohr theory and is the
preferred theory for brittle materials.

the failure envelope encompasses an even materials

maximum normal stress envelope connected to quadrant IV

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 Modified-Mohr Theory
the factor of safety depends on where the principal stresses
lie (assuming a 2D stress-state with: 1 > 3 , 2 = 0 )

Sut
Case I: n= 1 3 0 or
1
3
1 0 3 and 1
1

Sut Suc
Case II: n =
Suc 1 Sut ( 1 + 3 )
3
1 0 3 and >1
1

Suc
Case III: n = 0 1 3
3

S. Waldman MECH 323

Example

S. Waldman MECH 323

Example

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