Cycles in Music and the Mathematics of Rhythm

Musings of a Mathemusician

Shaun Van Ault

svault@valdosta.edu Valdosta State University

Jan. 31, 2013. Science Seminar Series

Shaun Van Ault (Valdosta State University) Cycles in Music 1 / 29

 Outline

1 High Frequency Cycles and Pitch

2 Low Frequency Cycles and Texture

3 Very Low Frequency Cycles and Rhythm

4 References

Shaun Van Ault (Valdosta State University) Cycles in Music 2 / 29

 Outline

1 High Frequency Cycles and Pitch

2 Low Frequency Cycles and Texture

3 Very Low Frequency Cycles and Rhythm

4 References

Shaun Van Ault (Valdosta State University) Cycles in Music 2 / 29

 Outline

1 High Frequency Cycles and Pitch

2 Low Frequency Cycles and Texture

3 Very Low Frequency Cycles and Rhythm

4 References

Shaun Van Ault (Valdosta State University) Cycles in Music 2 / 29

 Outline

1 High Frequency Cycles and Pitch

2 Low Frequency Cycles and Texture

3 Very Low Frequency Cycles and Rhythm

4 References

Shaun Van Ault (Valdosta State University) Cycles in Music 2 / 29

 High Frequency Cycles and Pitch

Periodic Vibrations in Air

Sound travels by means of longitudinal waves, increased pressure

alternating with decreased pressure.

If the changes in pressure occur periocially, then a tone of fixed

pitch can be heard.
Humans can hear pitch from about 20 Hz to to 20,000 Hz.

Shaun Van Ault (Valdosta State University) Cycles in Music 3 / 29

 High Frequency Cycles and Pitch

Periodic Vibrations in Air

Sound travels by means of longitudinal waves, increased pressure

alternating with decreased pressure.

If the changes in pressure occur periocially, then a tone of fixed

pitch can be heard.
Humans can hear pitch from about 20 Hz to to 20,000 Hz.

Shaun Van Ault (Valdosta State University) Cycles in Music 3 / 29

 High Frequency Cycles and Pitch

Periodic Vibrations in Air

Sound travels by means of longitudinal waves, increased pressure

alternating with decreased pressure.

If the changes in pressure occur periocially, then a tone of fixed

pitch can be heard.
Humans can hear pitch from about 20 Hz to to 20,000 Hz.

Shaun Van Ault (Valdosta State University) Cycles in Music 3 / 29

 High Frequency Cycles and Pitch

The Shape of a Sound Wave

Pressure waves cause the eardrum to vibrate as if it were a spring.

Hookes Law: F = kx, where x is displacement.
Since F = ma, we obtain the differential equation,

d 2x kx
a= = .
dt 2 m
Solving the differential equation, we find a general solution:
r r
k k
x(t) = C1 cos t + C2 sin t.
m m

Shaun Van Ault (Valdosta State University) Cycles in Music 4 / 29

 High Frequency Cycles and Pitch

The Shape of a Sound Wave

Pressure waves cause the eardrum to vibrate as if it were a spring.

Hookes Law: F = kx, where x is displacement.
Since F = ma, we obtain the differential equation,

d 2x kx
a= = .
dt 2 m
Solving the differential equation, we find a general solution:
r r
k k
x(t) = C1 cos t + C2 sin t.
m m

Shaun Van Ault (Valdosta State University) Cycles in Music 4 / 29

 High Frequency Cycles and Pitch

The Shape of a Sound Wave

Pressure waves cause the eardrum to vibrate as if it were a spring.

Hookes Law: F = kx, where x is displacement.
Since F = ma, we obtain the differential equation,

d 2x kx
a= = .
dt 2 m
Solving the differential equation, we find a general solution:
r r
k k
x(t) = C1 cos t + C2 sin t.
m m

Shaun Van Ault (Valdosta State University) Cycles in Music 4 / 29

 High Frequency Cycles and Pitch

The Shape of a Sound Wave

Pressure waves cause the eardrum to vibrate as if it were a spring.

Hookes Law: F = kx, where x is displacement.
Since F = ma, we obtain the differential equation,

d 2x kx
a= = .
dt 2 m
Solving the differential equation, we find a general solution:
r r
k k
x(t) = C1 cos t + C2 sin t.
m m

Shaun Van Ault (Valdosta State University) Cycles in Music 4 / 29

 High Frequency Cycles and Pitch

The Shape of a Sound Wave

q q
k k
We can rewrite x(t) = C1 cos mt + C2 sin mt as:

x(t) = A sin (t + ) ,

q
A= C12 + C22 is the amplitude.
q
= mk is the angular frequency. ( 2
is the frequency in Hz.)
= arctan(C1 /C2 ) is the phase shift.
Hint: Use the identity sin(a + b) = sin a cos b + cos a sin b.
For this reason, pitched sound is naturally analyzed using the sine
(and cosine) functions.

Shaun Van Ault (Valdosta State University) Cycles in Music 5 / 29

 High Frequency Cycles and Pitch

The Shape of a Sound Wave

q q
k k
We can rewrite x(t) = C1 cos mt + C2 sin mt as:

x(t) = A sin (t + ) ,

q
A= C12 + C22 is the amplitude.
q
= mk is the angular frequency. ( 2
is the frequency in Hz.)
= arctan(C1 /C2 ) is the phase shift.
Hint: Use the identity sin(a + b) = sin a cos b + cos a sin b.
For this reason, pitched sound is naturally analyzed using the sine
(and cosine) functions.

Shaun Van Ault (Valdosta State University) Cycles in Music 5 / 29

 High Frequency Cycles and Pitch

The Shape of a Sound Wave

q q
k k
We can rewrite x(t) = C1 cos mt + C2 sin mt as:

x(t) = A sin (t + ) ,

q
A= C12 + C22 is the amplitude.
q
= mk is the angular frequency. ( 2
is the frequency in Hz.)
= arctan(C1 /C2 ) is the phase shift.
Hint: Use the identity sin(a + b) = sin a cos b + cos a sin b.
For this reason, pitched sound is naturally analyzed using the sine
(and cosine) functions.

Shaun Van Ault (Valdosta State University) Cycles in Music 5 / 29

 High Frequency Cycles and Pitch

The Shape of a Sound Wave

q q
k k
We can rewrite x(t) = C1 cos mt + C2 sin mt as:

x(t) = A sin (t + ) ,

q
A= C12 + C22 is the amplitude.
q
= mk is the angular frequency. ( 2
is the frequency in Hz.)
= arctan(C1 /C2 ) is the phase shift.
Hint: Use the identity sin(a + b) = sin a cos b + cos a sin b.
For this reason, pitched sound is naturally analyzed using the sine
(and cosine) functions.

Shaun Van Ault (Valdosta State University) Cycles in Music 5 / 29

 High Frequency Cycles and Pitch

The Shape of a Sound Wave

q q
k k
We can rewrite x(t) = C1 cos mt + C2 sin mt as:

x(t) = A sin (t + ) ,

q
A= C12 + C22 is the amplitude.
q
= mk is the angular frequency. ( 2
is the frequency in Hz.)
= arctan(C1 /C2 ) is the phase shift.
Hint: Use the identity sin(a + b) = sin a cos b + cos a sin b.
For this reason, pitched sound is naturally analyzed using the sine
(and cosine) functions.

Shaun Van Ault (Valdosta State University) Cycles in Music 5 / 29

 High Frequency Cycles and Pitch

The Shape of a Sound Wave

q q
k k
We can rewrite x(t) = C1 cos mt + C2 sin mt as:

x(t) = A sin (t + ) ,

q
A= C12 + C22 is the amplitude.
q
= mk is the angular frequency. ( 2
is the frequency in Hz.)
= arctan(C1 /C2 ) is the phase shift.
Hint: Use the identity sin(a + b) = sin a cos b + cos a sin b.
For this reason, pitched sound is naturally analyzed using the sine
(and cosine) functions.

Shaun Van Ault (Valdosta State University) Cycles in Music 5 / 29

 High Frequency Cycles and Pitch

Harmonics

A guitar (violin, harp, sitar, etc.) string vibrates at a fundamental

frequency .
...and at a frequency twice as fast, 2.
...and at a frequency three times as fast, 3.
The frequencies n (for positive whole numbers n) are the
harmonics (or overtones, or partials) of the fundamental.
The composite wave is (ideally) a sum of these waves:

A1 sin(t + 1 ) + A2 sin(2t + 2 ) + A3 sin(3t + 3 ) +

Fourier Analysis can be used to determine the coefficients and

phases.

Shaun Van Ault (Valdosta State University) Cycles in Music 6 / 29

 High Frequency Cycles and Pitch

Harmonics

A guitar (violin, harp, sitar, etc.) string vibrates at a fundamental

frequency .
...and at a frequency twice as fast, 2.
...and at a frequency three times as fast, 3.
The frequencies n (for positive whole numbers n) are the
harmonics (or overtones, or partials) of the fundamental.
The composite wave is (ideally) a sum of these waves:

A1 sin(t + 1 ) + A2 sin(2t + 2 ) + A3 sin(3t + 3 ) +

Fourier Analysis can be used to determine the coefficients and

phases.

Shaun Van Ault (Valdosta State University) Cycles in Music 6 / 29

 High Frequency Cycles and Pitch

Harmonics

A guitar (violin, harp, sitar, etc.) string vibrates at a fundamental

frequency .
...and at a frequency twice as fast, 2.
...and at a frequency three times as fast, 3.
The frequencies n (for positive whole numbers n) are the
harmonics (or overtones, or partials) of the fundamental.
The composite wave is (ideally) a sum of these waves:

A1 sin(t + 1 ) + A2 sin(2t + 2 ) + A3 sin(3t + 3 ) +

Fourier Analysis can be used to determine the coefficients and

phases.

Shaun Van Ault (Valdosta State University) Cycles in Music 6 / 29

 High Frequency Cycles and Pitch

Harmonics

A guitar (violin, harp, sitar, etc.) string vibrates at a fundamental

frequency .
...and at a frequency twice as fast, 2.
...and at a frequency three times as fast, 3.
The frequencies n (for positive whole numbers n) are the
harmonics (or overtones, or partials) of the fundamental.
The composite wave is (ideally) a sum of these waves:

A1 sin(t + 1 ) + A2 sin(2t + 2 ) + A3 sin(3t + 3 ) +

Fourier Analysis can be used to determine the coefficients and

phases.

Shaun Van Ault (Valdosta State University) Cycles in Music 6 / 29

 High Frequency Cycles and Pitch

Harmonics

A guitar (violin, harp, sitar, etc.) string vibrates at a fundamental

frequency .
...and at a frequency twice as fast, 2.
...and at a frequency three times as fast, 3.
The frequencies n (for positive whole numbers n) are the
harmonics (or overtones, or partials) of the fundamental.
The composite wave is (ideally) a sum of these waves:

A1 sin(t + 1 ) + A2 sin(2t + 2 ) + A3 sin(3t + 3 ) +

Fourier Analysis can be used to determine the coefficients and

phases.

Shaun Van Ault (Valdosta State University) Cycles in Music 6 / 29

 High Frequency Cycles and Pitch

Harmonics

A guitar (violin, harp, sitar, etc.) string vibrates at a fundamental

frequency .
...and at a frequency twice as fast, 2.
...and at a frequency three times as fast, 3.
The frequencies n (for positive whole numbers n) are the
harmonics (or overtones, or partials) of the fundamental.
The composite wave is (ideally) a sum of these waves:

A1 sin(t + 1 ) + A2 sin(2t + 2 ) + A3 sin(3t + 3 ) +

Fourier Analysis can be used to determine the coefficients and

phases.

Shaun Van Ault (Valdosta State University) Cycles in Music 6 / 29

 High Frequency Cycles and Pitch

Harmonics

Shaun Van Ault (Valdosta State University) Cycles in Music 7 / 29

 High Frequency Cycles and Pitch

The Harmonic Sequence

On a fundamental tone of G2 (98Hz), the first 11 harmonics. Fractions

represent length of a vibrating string.

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11

Shaun Van Ault (Valdosta State University) Cycles in Music 8 / 29

 High Frequency Cycles and Pitch

Cult of the Whole Number

Pythagoras: Two pitches

sound harmonious if their
frequencies are in ratio a : b
for whole numbers a and b in
which the highest prime
factor is 3 (limit-3, Circle of
5th s).
Standard diatonic and
12-tone tuning systems are
based on limit-5, with small
adjustments to obtain equal
temperament.

Shaun Van Ault (Valdosta State University) Cycles in Music 9 / 29

 High Frequency Cycles and Pitch

Cult of the Whole Number

Pythagoras: Two pitches

sound harmonious if their
frequencies are in ratio a : b
for whole numbers a and b in
which the highest prime
factor is 3 (limit-3, Circle of
5th s).
Standard diatonic and
12-tone tuning systems are
based on limit-5, with small
adjustments to obtain equal
temperament.

Shaun Van Ault (Valdosta State University) Cycles in Music 9 / 29

 High Frequency Cycles and Pitch

Higher-Limit Tonality

A more accurate representation of limit-5 tonality is found in

19-tone Meantone scales, in which flats and sharps are different!
Harry Partch used a 43-tone limit-11 scale.
Just intonation refers to the use of only whole number ratios.

Shaun Van Ault (Valdosta State University) Cycles in Music 10 / 29

 High Frequency Cycles and Pitch

Higher-Limit Tonality

A more accurate representation of limit-5 tonality is found in

19-tone Meantone scales, in which flats and sharps are different!
Harry Partch used a 43-tone limit-11 scale.
Just intonation refers to the use of only whole number ratios.

Shaun Van Ault (Valdosta State University) Cycles in Music 10 / 29

 High Frequency Cycles and Pitch

Higher-Limit Tonality

A more accurate representation of limit-5 tonality is found in

19-tone Meantone scales, in which flats and sharps are different!
Harry Partch used a 43-tone limit-11 scale.
Just intonation refers to the use of only whole number ratios.

Shaun Van Ault (Valdosta State University) Cycles in Music 10 / 29

 High Frequency Cycles and Pitch

Equal Temperament

An octave is the pitch interval from a frequency f to 2f . The

distance of an octave is 2ff = 2.
To divide the octave into n equally-spaced pitches, we find the
fixed distance r between each tone: r is the common ratio of a
Geometric sequence.

f , fr , fr 2 , fr 3 , . . . , fr n1 , fr n = 2f .
n
2f = fr n r = 2.
Equal divisions of the octave (equal temperament) necessarily
results in
non-just intonation (unjust intonation, perhaps?)
n
because 2 is irrational.

Shaun Van Ault (Valdosta State University) Cycles in Music 11 / 29

 High Frequency Cycles and Pitch

Equal Temperament

An octave is the pitch interval from a frequency f to 2f . The

distance of an octave is 2ff = 2.
To divide the octave into n equally-spaced pitches, we find the
fixed distance r between each tone: r is the common ratio of a
Geometric sequence.

f , fr , fr 2 , fr 3 , . . . , fr n1 , fr n = 2f .
n
2f = fr n r = 2.
Equal divisions of the octave (equal temperament) necessarily
results in
non-just intonation (unjust intonation, perhaps?)
n
because 2 is irrational.

Shaun Van Ault (Valdosta State University) Cycles in Music 11 / 29

 High Frequency Cycles and Pitch

Equal Temperament

An octave is the pitch interval from a frequency f to 2f . The

distance of an octave is 2ff = 2.
To divide the octave into n equally-spaced pitches, we find the
fixed distance r between each tone: r is the common ratio of a
Geometric sequence.

f , fr , fr 2 , fr 3 , . . . , fr n1 , fr n = 2f .
n
2f = fr n r = 2.
Equal divisions of the octave (equal temperament) necessarily
results in
non-just intonation (unjust intonation, perhaps?)
n
because 2 is irrational.

Shaun Van Ault (Valdosta State University) Cycles in Music 11 / 29

 High Frequency Cycles and Pitch

Pitch Classes

Suppose P is the set of all allowable frequencies for pitches in a

tuning system.
Each frequency x P is equivalent by octave displacement to
2x, x/2, 4x, x/4, . . .. That is, x 2n x for any n Z.
The pitch class of x P is the set [x] = {2n x, n Z}.
It is convenient to declare [1] to be the tonic or fundamental pitch
class of the tuning system and choose representatives of [x]
satisfying 1 x < 2.
The set P/ admits the structure of an Abelian group.

Shaun Van Ault (Valdosta State University) Cycles in Music 12 / 29

 High Frequency Cycles and Pitch

Pitch Classes

Suppose P is the set of all allowable frequencies for pitches in a

tuning system.
Each frequency x P is equivalent by octave displacement to
2x, x/2, 4x, x/4, . . .. That is, x 2n x for any n Z.
The pitch class of x P is the set [x] = {2n x, n Z}.
It is convenient to declare [1] to be the tonic or fundamental pitch
class of the tuning system and choose representatives of [x]
satisfying 1 x < 2.
The set P/ admits the structure of an Abelian group.

Shaun Van Ault (Valdosta State University) Cycles in Music 12 / 29

 High Frequency Cycles and Pitch

Pitch Classes

Suppose P is the set of all allowable frequencies for pitches in a

tuning system.
Each frequency x P is equivalent by octave displacement to
2x, x/2, 4x, x/4, . . .. That is, x 2n x for any n Z.
The pitch class of x P is the set [x] = {2n x, n Z}.
It is convenient to declare [1] to be the tonic or fundamental pitch
class of the tuning system and choose representatives of [x]
satisfying 1 x < 2.
The set P/ admits the structure of an Abelian group.

Shaun Van Ault (Valdosta State University) Cycles in Music 12 / 29

 High Frequency Cycles and Pitch

Pitch Classes

Suppose P is the set of all allowable frequencies for pitches in a

tuning system.
Each frequency x P is equivalent by octave displacement to
2x, x/2, 4x, x/4, . . .. That is, x 2n x for any n Z.
The pitch class of x P is the set [x] = {2n x, n Z}.
It is convenient to declare [1] to be the tonic or fundamental pitch
class of the tuning system and choose representatives of [x]
satisfying 1 x < 2.
The set P/ admits the structure of an Abelian group.

Shaun Van Ault (Valdosta State University) Cycles in Music 12 / 29

 High Frequency Cycles and Pitch

Pitch Classes

Suppose P is the set of all allowable frequencies for pitches in a

tuning system.
Each frequency x P is equivalent by octave displacement to
2x, x/2, 4x, x/4, . . .. That is, x 2n x for any n Z.
The pitch class of x P is the set [x] = {2n x, n Z}.
It is convenient to declare [1] to be the tonic or fundamental pitch
class of the tuning system and choose representatives of [x]
satisfying 1 x < 2.
The set P/ admits the structure of an Abelian group.

Shaun Van Ault (Valdosta State University) Cycles in Music 12 / 29

 High Frequency Cycles and Pitch

12-Tone Equal Temperament

The twelve tones of an equal-tempered scale are related by
12
multiplication of 2. The group structure is cyclic of order 12.
Circle of semitones:

Shaun Van Ault (Valdosta State University) Cycles in Music 13 / 29

 High Frequency Cycles and Pitch

12-Tone Equal Temperament

The twelve tones of an equal-tempered scale are related by
12
multiplication of 2. The group structure is cyclic of order 12.
Circle of semitones:

Shaun Van Ault (Valdosta State University) Cycles in Music 13 / 29

 High Frequency Cycles and Pitch

Pure Pythagorean tuning

The interval of the 5th has primary importance, at the expense of

generating infinitely many distinct pitch classes. (e.g. F 6= G.)
The group structure is infinite cyclic, with pitches: {3n : n Z}/ .
Common pitches as ratios of their frequency to the frequency of C.
C D E F G A B
256 32 1024 128 16
243 27 729 81 9
9 81 4 3 27 243
1 8 64 3 2 16 128
729
512
The Pythagorean Comma is the interval ratio between G and F:

729 1024 312

= 19 1.014.
512 729 2

Shaun Van Ault (Valdosta State University) Cycles in Music 14 / 29

 High Frequency Cycles and Pitch

Pure Pythagorean tuning

The interval of the 5th has primary importance, at the expense of

generating infinitely many distinct pitch classes. (e.g. F 6= G.)
The group structure is infinite cyclic, with pitches: {3n : n Z}/ .
Common pitches as ratios of their frequency to the frequency of C.
C D E F G A B
256 32 1024 128 16
243 27 729 81 9
9 81 4 3 27 243
1 8 64 3 2 16 128
729
512
The Pythagorean Comma is the interval ratio between G and F:

729 1024 312

= 19 1.014.
512 729 2

Shaun Van Ault (Valdosta State University) Cycles in Music 14 / 29

 High Frequency Cycles and Pitch

Pure Pythagorean tuning

The interval of the 5th has primary importance, at the expense of

generating infinitely many distinct pitch classes. (e.g. F 6= G.)
The group structure is infinite cyclic, with pitches: {3n : n Z}/ .
Common pitches as ratios of their frequency to the frequency of C.
C D E F G A B
256 32 1024 128 16
243 27 729 81 9
9 81 4 3 27 243
1 8 64 3 2 16 128
729
512
The Pythagorean Comma is the interval ratio between G and F:

729 1024 312

= 19 1.014.
512 729 2

Shaun Van Ault (Valdosta State University) Cycles in Music 14 / 29

 High Frequency Cycles and Pitch

Pure Pythagorean tuning

The interval of the 5th has primary importance, at the expense of

generating infinitely many distinct pitch classes. (e.g. F 6= G.)
The group structure is infinite cyclic, with pitches: {3n : n Z}/ .
Common pitches as ratios of their frequency to the frequency of C.
C D E F G A B
256 32 1024 128 16
243 27 729 81 9
9 81 4 3 27 243
1 8 64 3 2 16 128
729
512
The Pythagorean Comma is the interval ratio between G and F:

729 1024 312

= 19 1.014.
512 729 2

Shaun Van Ault (Valdosta State University) Cycles in Music 14 / 29

 High Frequency Cycles and Pitch

Pure Pythagorean tuning

(Not a) Circle of fifths:

Shaun Van Ault (Valdosta State University) Cycles in Music 15 / 29

 High Frequency Cycles and Pitch

Higher-Dimensional Tunings

Pythagorean tuning is a one-dimensional system. The perfect fifth

(3/2) is the generator of the pitch group.
Most Western music theory is based on a tuning system that
approximates a two-dimensional system. The pitch group is
generated by the perfect fifth (3/2) and the major third (5/4) the
limit-5 system.
In limit-5, the pitch class group is:

{3n 5p : n, p Z}
= Z2 .

Shaun Van Ault (Valdosta State University) Cycles in Music 16 / 29

 High Frequency Cycles and Pitch

Higher-Dimensional Tunings

Pythagorean tuning is a one-dimensional system. The perfect fifth

(3/2) is the generator of the pitch group.
Most Western music theory is based on a tuning system that
approximates a two-dimensional system. The pitch group is
generated by the perfect fifth (3/2) and the major third (5/4) the
limit-5 system.
In limit-5, the pitch class group is:

{3n 5p : n, p Z}
= Z2 .

Shaun Van Ault (Valdosta State University) Cycles in Music 16 / 29

 High Frequency Cycles and Pitch

Higher-Dimensional Tunings

Pythagorean tuning is a one-dimensional system. The perfect fifth

(3/2) is the generator of the pitch group.
Most Western music theory is based on a tuning system that
approximates a two-dimensional system. The pitch group is
generated by the perfect fifth (3/2) and the major third (5/4) the
limit-5 system.
In limit-5, the pitch class group is:

{3n 5p : n, p Z}
= Z2 .

Shaun Van Ault (Valdosta State University) Cycles in Music 16 / 29

 High Frequency Cycles and Pitch

Higher-Dimensional Tunings

Two-dimensional lattice representing limit-5 tonality:

25 25 75
24 b
16 b
64 b
C G D
10 5 5 15 45
9 b
3 b
4 b
8 b
32 b
D A 81 E B F
80
16 4 3 9
9 b
3 b
1 b
2 b
8 b
B F C G D
64 16 8 6 9
45 b
15 b
5 b
5 b
5 b
G D A E B

Shaun Van Ault (Valdosta State University) Cycles in Music 17 / 29

 High Frequency Cycles and Pitch

Higher-Dimensional Tunings

Partch tuning is four-dimensional, with group structure:

{3n 5p 7q 11r : n, p, q, r Z}
= Z4 .

Some of the tones in the 43-tone Partch tuning system:

C D E F G A B
10 8 9
7 5 5
12 6 16 18 20
-- 11 5 11 11 11
11 11 5 11
- 10 9 3 6
1 109
5
4
4
3
3
2
27
16
243
128
9 14 12
+ 8 11 7
8 9 11 14 7
++ 7 7 8 9 4
7 7 11 16
6 5 7 9

Shaun Van Ault (Valdosta State University) Cycles in Music 18 / 29

 High Frequency Cycles and Pitch

Higher-Dimensional Tunings

Partch tuning is four-dimensional, with group structure:

{3n 5p 7q 11r : n, p, q, r Z}
= Z4 .

Some of the tones in the 43-tone Partch tuning system:

C D E F G A B
10 8 9
7 5 5
12 6 16 18 20
-- 11 5 11 11 11
11 11 5 11
- 10 9 3 6
1 109
5
4
4
3
3
2
27
16
243
128
9 14 12
+ 8 11 7
8 9 11 14 7
++ 7 7 8 9 4
7 7 11 16
6 5 7 9

Shaun Van Ault (Valdosta State University) Cycles in Music 18 / 29

 Low Frequency Cycles and Texture

Beats

Below about 20Hz, sensation of pitch becomes sensation of

texture.
Beats can be heard when two pitches very close in frequency (but
not equal) are heard simultaneously.
These kinds of beats are used in tuning. Absence of beats
indicates two pitches are the same.

Shaun Van Ault (Valdosta State University) Cycles in Music 19 / 29

 Low Frequency Cycles and Texture

Beats

Below about 20Hz, sensation of pitch becomes sensation of

texture.
Beats can be heard when two pitches very close in frequency (but
not equal) are heard simultaneously.
These kinds of beats are used in tuning. Absence of beats
indicates two pitches are the same.

Shaun Van Ault (Valdosta State University) Cycles in Music 19 / 29

 Low Frequency Cycles and Texture

Beats

Below about 20Hz, sensation of pitch becomes sensation of

texture.
Beats can be heard when two pitches very close in frequency (but
not equal) are heard simultaneously.
These kinds of beats are used in tuning. Absence of beats
indicates two pitches are the same.

Shaun Van Ault (Valdosta State University) Cycles in Music 19 / 29

 Low Frequency Cycles and Texture

Mathematics of Beats

The sum (composite) of two

sine waves can be expressed
as a product:

sin 1 t + sin 2 t =

   
1 2 1 + 2
2 cos t sin t
2 2

If 1 2 , then the cosine

factor is a low-frequency
envelope.

Shaun Van Ault (Valdosta State University) Cycles in Music 20 / 29

 Low Frequency Cycles and Texture

Mathematics of Beats

The sum (composite) of two

sine waves can be expressed
as a product:

sin 1 t + sin 2 t =

   
1 2 1 + 2
2 cos t sin t
2 2

If 1 2 , then the cosine

factor is a low-frequency
envelope.

Shaun Van Ault (Valdosta State University) Cycles in Music 20 / 29

 Low Frequency Cycles and Texture

LFOs

LFOs (low-frequency oscillators) are used to modify a sound

wave in a periodic way.
Tremolo, artificial vibrato, phasing, flanging, etc.
Leslie Speakers
Dave Gilmours solo in Any Colour You Like (Pink Floyd)
Used in Dubstep and related genres for wobble bass
Swagga (Excision and Datsik)

Shaun Van Ault (Valdosta State University) Cycles in Music 21 / 29

 Low Frequency Cycles and Texture

LFOs

LFOs (low-frequency oscillators) are used to modify a sound

wave in a periodic way.
Tremolo, artificial vibrato, phasing, flanging, etc.
Leslie Speakers
Dave Gilmours solo in Any Colour You Like (Pink Floyd)
Used in Dubstep and related genres for wobble bass
Swagga (Excision and Datsik)

Shaun Van Ault (Valdosta State University) Cycles in Music 21 / 29

 Low Frequency Cycles and Texture

LFOs

LFOs (low-frequency oscillators) are used to modify a sound

wave in a periodic way.
Tremolo, artificial vibrato, phasing, flanging, etc.
Leslie Speakers
Dave Gilmours solo in Any Colour You Like (Pink Floyd)
Used in Dubstep and related genres for wobble bass
Swagga (Excision and Datsik)

Shaun Van Ault (Valdosta State University) Cycles in Music 21 / 29

 Low Frequency Cycles and Texture

LFOs

LFOs (low-frequency oscillators) are used to modify a sound

wave in a periodic way.
Tremolo, artificial vibrato, phasing, flanging, etc.
Leslie Speakers
Dave Gilmours solo in Any Colour You Like (Pink Floyd)
Used in Dubstep and related genres for wobble bass
Swagga (Excision and Datsik)

Shaun Van Ault (Valdosta State University) Cycles in Music 21 / 29

 Low Frequency Cycles and Texture

LFOs

LFOs (low-frequency oscillators) are used to modify a sound

wave in a periodic way.
Tremolo, artificial vibrato, phasing, flanging, etc.
Leslie Speakers
Dave Gilmours solo in Any Colour You Like (Pink Floyd)
Used in Dubstep and related genres for wobble bass
Swagga (Excision and Datsik)

Shaun Van Ault (Valdosta State University) Cycles in Music 21 / 29

 Low Frequency Cycles and Texture

LFOs

LFOs (low-frequency oscillators) are used to modify a sound

wave in a periodic way.
Tremolo, artificial vibrato, phasing, flanging, etc.
Leslie Speakers
Dave Gilmours solo in Any Colour You Like (Pink Floyd)
Used in Dubstep and related genres for wobble bass
Swagga (Excision and Datsik)

Shaun Van Ault (Valdosta State University) Cycles in Music 21 / 29

 Very Low Frequency Cycles and Rhythm

Rhythmic Structures

Below about 10Hz, a periodic beat is slow enough to be perceived

as rhythm, though the exact transition may be subtle.
Four Seasons, Winter (Vivaldi)
Rhythm is based on equal divisions (beats) of time, often grouped
in larger units (measures).
Most common groupings are duple (groups of 2 or 4) and triple
(groups of 3).

Shaun Van Ault (Valdosta State University) Cycles in Music 22 / 29

 Very Low Frequency Cycles and Rhythm

Rhythmic Structures

Below about 10Hz, a periodic beat is slow enough to be perceived

as rhythm, though the exact transition may be subtle.
Four Seasons, Winter (Vivaldi)
Rhythm is based on equal divisions (beats) of time, often grouped
in larger units (measures).
Most common groupings are duple (groups of 2 or 4) and triple
(groups of 3).

Shaun Van Ault (Valdosta State University) Cycles in Music 22 / 29

 Very Low Frequency Cycles and Rhythm

Rhythmic Structures

Below about 10Hz, a periodic beat is slow enough to be perceived

as rhythm, though the exact transition may be subtle.
Four Seasons, Winter (Vivaldi)
Rhythm is based on equal divisions (beats) of time, often grouped
in larger units (measures).
Most common groupings are duple (groups of 2 or 4) and triple
(groups of 3).

Shaun Van Ault (Valdosta State University) Cycles in Music 22 / 29

 Very Low Frequency Cycles and Rhythm

Rhythmic Structures

Below about 10Hz, a periodic beat is slow enough to be perceived

as rhythm, though the exact transition may be subtle.
Four Seasons, Winter (Vivaldi)
Rhythm is based on equal divisions (beats) of time, often grouped
in larger units (measures).
Most common groupings are duple (groups of 2 or 4) and triple
(groups of 3).

Shaun Van Ault (Valdosta State University) Cycles in Music 22 / 29

 Very Low Frequency Cycles and Rhythm

Odd meters and groupings of 5, 7, or higher, can be found in many

cultures, and in some popular music.
Take Five (Brubeck) and the Mission Impossible Theme Song
(Schifrin) are in 5.
Blue Rondo a la Turk (Brubeck) is in 9, grouped as 2+2+2+3 and
3+3+3.

Shaun Van Ault (Valdosta State University) Cycles in Music 23 / 29

 Very Low Frequency Cycles and Rhythm

Odd meters and groupings of 5, 7, or higher, can be found in many

cultures, and in some popular music.
Take Five (Brubeck) and the Mission Impossible Theme Song
(Schifrin) are in 5.
Blue Rondo a la Turk (Brubeck) is in 9, grouped as 2+2+2+3 and
3+3+3.

Shaun Van Ault (Valdosta State University) Cycles in Music 23 / 29

 Very Low Frequency Cycles and Rhythm

Polyrhythms

The layering of different divisions of time is called a polyrhythm.

m against n (m : n) means m beats in the time of n beats.
The most common polyrhythms are duple-triple (3 : 2, 2 : 3, 4 : 3,
3 : 4, etc.)
Traditional African rhythms (Yorb Bt drumming).
Andante from Piano Concerto No. 21, K. 467: Mvmt. II (Mozart).
Kashmir (Led Zeppelin)

Shaun Van Ault (Valdosta State University) Cycles in Music 24 / 29

 Very Low Frequency Cycles and Rhythm

Polyrhythms

The layering of different divisions of time is called a polyrhythm.

m against n (m : n) means m beats in the time of n beats.
The most common polyrhythms are duple-triple (3 : 2, 2 : 3, 4 : 3,
3 : 4, etc.)
Traditional African rhythms (Yorb Bt drumming).
Andante from Piano Concerto No. 21, K. 467: Mvmt. II (Mozart).
Kashmir (Led Zeppelin)

Shaun Van Ault (Valdosta State University) Cycles in Music 24 / 29

 Very Low Frequency Cycles and Rhythm

Polyrhythms

The layering of different divisions of time is called a polyrhythm.

m against n (m : n) means m beats in the time of n beats.
The most common polyrhythms are duple-triple (3 : 2, 2 : 3, 4 : 3,
3 : 4, etc.)
Traditional African rhythms (Yorb Bt drumming).
Andante from Piano Concerto No. 21, K. 467: Mvmt. II (Mozart).
Kashmir (Led Zeppelin)

Shaun Van Ault (Valdosta State University) Cycles in Music 24 / 29

 Very Low Frequency Cycles and Rhythm

Polyrhythms

The layering of different divisions of time is called a polyrhythm.

m against n (m : n) means m beats in the time of n beats.
The most common polyrhythms are duple-triple (3 : 2, 2 : 3, 4 : 3,
3 : 4, etc.)
Traditional African rhythms (Yorb Bt drumming).
Andante from Piano Concerto No. 21, K. 467: Mvmt. II (Mozart).
Kashmir (Led Zeppelin)

Shaun Van Ault (Valdosta State University) Cycles in Music 24 / 29

 Very Low Frequency Cycles and Rhythm

Polyrhythms

The layering of different divisions of time is called a polyrhythm.

m against n (m : n) means m beats in the time of n beats.
The most common polyrhythms are duple-triple (3 : 2, 2 : 3, 4 : 3,
3 : 4, etc.)
Traditional African rhythms (Yorb Bt drumming).
Andante from Piano Concerto No. 21, K. 467: Mvmt. II (Mozart).
Kashmir (Led Zeppelin)

Shaun Van Ault (Valdosta State University) Cycles in Music 24 / 29

 Very Low Frequency Cycles and Rhythm

Polyrhythms

The layering of different divisions of time is called a polyrhythm.

m against n (m : n) means m beats in the time of n beats.
The most common polyrhythms are duple-triple (3 : 2, 2 : 3, 4 : 3,
3 : 4, etc.)
Traditional African rhythms (Yorb Bt drumming).
Andante from Piano Concerto No. 21, K. 467: Mvmt. II (Mozart).
Kashmir (Led Zeppelin)

Shaun Van Ault (Valdosta State University) Cycles in Music 24 / 29

 Very Low Frequency Cycles and Rhythm

Analyzing Polyrhythms

In m : n polyrhythm, the there is the sensation of a larger rhythmic

unit L, the time between simultaneous beats.
Let be the time duration of each of the m beats, and be the
time duration of each of the n beats.
There is a smaller rhythmic unit , the pulse, defined by the
property that is the largest duration that divides evenly into both
and .

b b b b b b
b b b b

L

Shaun Van Ault (Valdosta State University) Cycles in Music 25 / 29

 Very Low Frequency Cycles and Rhythm

Analyzing Polyrhythms

In m : n polyrhythm, the there is the sensation of a larger rhythmic

unit L, the time between simultaneous beats.
Let be the time duration of each of the m beats, and be the
time duration of each of the n beats.
There is a smaller rhythmic unit , the pulse, defined by the
property that is the largest duration that divides evenly into both
and .

b b b b b b
b b b b

L

Shaun Van Ault (Valdosta State University) Cycles in Music 25 / 29

 Very Low Frequency Cycles and Rhythm

Analyzing Polyrhythms

In m : n polyrhythm, the there is the sensation of a larger rhythmic

unit L, the time between simultaneous beats.
Let be the time duration of each of the m beats, and be the
time duration of each of the n beats.
There is a smaller rhythmic unit , the pulse, defined by the
property that is the largest duration that divides evenly into both
and .

b b b b b b
b b b b

L

Shaun Van Ault (Valdosta State University) Cycles in Music 25 / 29

 Very Low Frequency Cycles and Rhythm

Analyzing Polyrhythms

By rescaling time, we may take

L = LCD(m, n), = GCD(m, n).

If GCD(m, n) = 1, then
L = mn
=1
=n
= m.
To perform a polyrhythm, count by .
If m > n, it helps to think of m measures of n beats each.

Shaun Van Ault (Valdosta State University) Cycles in Music 26 / 29

 Very Low Frequency Cycles and Rhythm

Analyzing Polyrhythms

By rescaling time, we may take

L = LCD(m, n), = GCD(m, n).

If GCD(m, n) = 1, then
L = mn
=1
=n
= m.
To perform a polyrhythm, count by .
If m > n, it helps to think of m measures of n beats each.

Shaun Van Ault (Valdosta State University) Cycles in Music 26 / 29

 Very Low Frequency Cycles and Rhythm

Analyzing Polyrhythms

By rescaling time, we may take

L = LCD(m, n), = GCD(m, n).

If GCD(m, n) = 1, then
L = mn
=1
=n
= m.
To perform a polyrhythm, count by .
If m > n, it helps to think of m measures of n beats each.

Shaun Van Ault (Valdosta State University) Cycles in Music 26 / 29

 Very Low Frequency Cycles and Rhythm

Analyzing Polyrhythms

By rescaling time, we may take

L = LCD(m, n), = GCD(m, n).

If GCD(m, n) = 1, then
L = mn
=1
=n
= m.
To perform a polyrhythm, count by .
If m > n, it helps to think of m measures of n beats each.

Shaun Van Ault (Valdosta State University) Cycles in Music 26 / 29

 Very Low Frequency Cycles and Rhythm

Analyzing Polyrhythms

By rescaling time, we may take

L = LCD(m, n), = GCD(m, n).

If GCD(m, n) = 1, then
L = mn
=1
=n
= m.
To perform a polyrhythm, count by .
If m > n, it helps to think of m measures of n beats each.

Shaun Van Ault (Valdosta State University) Cycles in Music 26 / 29

 Very Low Frequency Cycles and Rhythm

Analyzing Polyrhythms

By rescaling time, we may take

L = LCD(m, n), = GCD(m, n).

If GCD(m, n) = 1, then
L = mn
=1
=n
= m.
To perform a polyrhythm, count by .
If m > n, it helps to think of m measures of n beats each.

Shaun Van Ault (Valdosta State University) Cycles in Music 26 / 29

 Very Low Frequency Cycles and Rhythm

Analyzing Polyrhythms

By rescaling time, we may take

L = LCD(m, n), = GCD(m, n).

If GCD(m, n) = 1, then
L = mn
=1
=n
= m.
To perform a polyrhythm, count by .
If m > n, it helps to think of m measures of n beats each.

Shaun Van Ault (Valdosta State University) Cycles in Music 26 / 29

 Very Low Frequency Cycles and Rhythm

Analyzing Polyrhythms

By rescaling time, we may take

L = LCD(m, n), = GCD(m, n).

If GCD(m, n) = 1, then
L = mn
=1
=n
= m.
To perform a polyrhythm, count by .
If m > n, it helps to think of m measures of n beats each.

Shaun Van Ault (Valdosta State University) Cycles in Music 26 / 29

 Very Low Frequency Cycles and Rhythm

Analyzing Polyrhythms

Exercise: Come up with a phrase that helps beat 5 : 3.

5

b b b b b

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
b b b b b b b b b b b b b b b

b b b

Shaun Van Ault (Valdosta State University) Cycles in Music 27 / 29

 Very Low Frequency Cycles and Rhythm

Higher Polyrhythms in Music

Shifting meters: Rite of Spring, Sacrificial Dance of the Chosen

One (Stravinsky)
Complex shifting polyrhythms: Dsordre (Ligeti)
Many tempi at once: Study for Player Piano, No. 37 (Nancarrow)
Extreme polyrhythm? Chaos? Noise?: Pome Symphonique
(Ligeti)

Shaun Van Ault (Valdosta State University) Cycles in Music 28 / 29

 Very Low Frequency Cycles and Rhythm

Higher Polyrhythms in Music

Shifting meters: Rite of Spring, Sacrificial Dance of the Chosen

One (Stravinsky)
Complex shifting polyrhythms: Dsordre (Ligeti)
Many tempi at once: Study for Player Piano, No. 37 (Nancarrow)
Extreme polyrhythm? Chaos? Noise?: Pome Symphonique
(Ligeti)

Shaun Van Ault (Valdosta State University) Cycles in Music 28 / 29

 Very Low Frequency Cycles and Rhythm

Higher Polyrhythms in Music

Shifting meters: Rite of Spring, Sacrificial Dance of the Chosen

One (Stravinsky)
Complex shifting polyrhythms: Dsordre (Ligeti)
Many tempi at once: Study for Player Piano, No. 37 (Nancarrow)
Extreme polyrhythm? Chaos? Noise?: Pome Symphonique
(Ligeti)

Shaun Van Ault (Valdosta State University) Cycles in Music 28 / 29

 Very Low Frequency Cycles and Rhythm

Higher Polyrhythms in Music

Shifting meters: Rite of Spring, Sacrificial Dance of the Chosen

One (Stravinsky)
Complex shifting polyrhythms: Dsordre (Ligeti)
Many tempi at once: Study for Player Piano, No. 37 (Nancarrow)
Extreme polyrhythm? Chaos? Noise?: Pome Symphonique
(Ligeti)

Shaun Van Ault (Valdosta State University) Cycles in Music 28 / 29

 References

Selected References

Dave Benson. Music: A Mathematical Offering. Available on the Web.

http://www.maths.abdn.ac.uk/~bensondj/html/maths-music.html

Leonard Bernstein. The Joy of Music.

David Cope. New Directions in Music.

David Lewin. Generalized Musical Intervals and Transformations.

Harry Partch. Genesis of a Music.

Shaun Van Ault (Valdosta State University) Cycles in Music 29 / 29