SIGNAL INTEGRITY (SI)

The losses associated with PCB transmission lines constitute an

important topic in area of high-speed simulation/design and signal
integrity. Digital designs have not traditionally suffered by issues
associated with transmission line effects.

Lower Frequencies
At lower frequencies the signals remain within data characterization
and the system performs as designed. But as system speeds
increase, the higher frequency impact on the system means that not
only the digital properties, but also the analog effects within the
system must be considered. Some of the biggest design challenges
surround the I/O signaling where transmission line effects can have
a significant effect on the data being sent.

Lower Speeds
At low speeds, the frequency response has little influence on the
signal, unless the transmission medium is particularly long. However,
as speed increases, high-frequency effects take over, and even the
shortest lines can suffer from problems such as ringing, crosstalk,
reflections and ground bounce, seriously hampering the response of
the signal - thus damaging signal integrity. In reality, these problems
can be overcome by good design technique and by following simple
layout guidelines.


 Printed Circuit Board Schematic Depicting Signal Integrity

PCB Considerations During the Circuit

Design
Below are some of the guidelines that have been published by many
different sources such as Texas Instruments that addresses high-
speed signals such as clock signals and their routing and gives
designers a review of the important coherences. Because many
things can affect transmission lines, EMI problems can occur. In
order to reduce these problems, good PCB design is important and
with some simple design rules, the PCB designer can minimize
these problems.
What is the highest frequency and fastest rise time in the
system?
 What are the electrical specifications at the inputs and outputs of
the sinks and sources?
Are there sensitive signals to route for example, think about
controlled impedance, termination, propagation delay on a trace
(clock distribution, buses, etc.)?
Is a microstrip adequate for the sensitive signals, or is it
essential to use stripline technique?
How many different supply voltages exist? Does each supply
voltage need its own power plane, or is it possible to split them?
Create a diagram with the functional groups of the system e.g.,
transmitter path, receiver path, analog signals, digital signals, etc.
Are there any interconnections between at least two
independent functional groups? Take special care of them. Think
about the return current and crosstalk to other traces.
Clarify the minimum width, separation and height of a trace with
the PCB manufacturer. What's the minimum distance between two
layers?
What about the minimum drill and the requirements of vias?
Is it possible to use blind vias and buried vias?

Traces, Vias, and Other PCB Components

A right angle in a trace can cause more radiation. The
capacitance increases in the region of the corner, and the
characteristic impedance changes. This impedance change causes
reflections.
Avoid right-angle bends in a trace and try to route them at least
with two 45 corners. To minimize any impedance change, the best
routing would be a round bend.
Separate high-speed signals (e.g., clock signals) from low-speed
signals and digital from analog signals; again, placement is
important.
To minimize crosstalk not only between two signals on one layer
but also between adjacent layers, route them with 90 to each other.
The use of vias is essential in most routings. But the designer
has to be careful when using them. They add additional inductance
and capacitance, and reflections occur due to the change in the
characteristic impedance. Vias also increase the trace length.
 Avoid vias in differential traces.

Printed Circuit Board Construction

Desired printed circuit board construction (build-up) depends on the
component packages used in the design, required signal trace
density, and impedance matching requirements. For the high speed
boards, using a multilayer PCB with buried ground and power supply
planes is mandatory. Solid copper planes allow designer to keep the
device ground and power connections short. Further, the ground
plane offers low inductance return paths for the high speed signals.

PCB Laminate Selection

Today, FR-4 PCB laminate material is widely used in electronic
industry. The FR-4 material is economical solution for most of the
digital designs as long as frequencies on board can be kept below
some 2.5-3 GHz range. At high speeds the digital signal may be
affected by the parameters of the printed circuit board laminate that it
travels on.
Dedicated high speed laminates (like Rogers RO4350) have better
properties at higher frequencies than FR 4 does. Using right
materials would help designer to reach his design target easier and
more reliably than with FR-4 material. The biggest trade off when a
non FR-4 material is used is that the cost differential of the laminate
is substantial.
Firstly, a signal travelling through the printed circuit board has a
velocity that is dependent on the dielectric constant of the printed
circuit board. For example, when the signal frequency goes beyond
5 GHz, the typical dielectric constant of FR-4 (around 4.7) drops
close to 4. However, the relative dielectric constant of the Rogers
RO4350 material is constant (roughly 3.5) from 0 up to 15 GHz. If
the dielectric constant of the printed circuit board changes versus
frequency, then different frequency components of the signal will
have different velocities. This means, that these components will
reach the load at different times. As a result, this will be causing
distortion of the digital signal.
Secondly, the signal losses due to printed circuit board material
increase with frequency. Again, each harmonic of the digital signal
will be attenuated according to that frequency of operation.
Increased loss of the signal components will add to the distortion of
the digital signal.
Printed circuit board layout is often the single most important factor
affecting the electromagnetic compatibility of electronic systems.
Boards that are auto-routed or laid out according to a list of "design
rules" do not usually meet electromagnetic compatibility
requirements on the first pass; and the products using these boards
are more likely to require expensive fixes such as ferrites on cables
and shielded enclosures. Taking the time to ensure that components
are properly placed and traces are optimally routed will generally
result in products that meet all electromagnetic compatibility and
signal integrity requirements on time and on budget.