O XFO R D U N I V E R S I T Y P R ES S

Lon do
n E d i nb ur gh G l gow
as Co p e nh ag e n

N e w Yor k T o r on to Me lbourn e Ca p e Town

B om b y
a C lcutt
a a M ad r as S h an h
g a i
H UM P H R E Y M I L FO R D
l h rt
P ub i s e o th e r ity
U nive s
 C O N TE N TS O F V O L

XI I A RI STAR CH US OF S A MOS
. PA GES 1 15

AR C H I M EDES 1 6 1 0 7)

Tr d itio
a ns

( ) A tro omy
u s n

(d ) M ch i c e an s

Summ ry of m i a chi m t a n a e ve en s
Ch r t r of tr ti
a ac e ea se s
Li t of w ork till
s t t s s ex an
Tr c of l o t w ork
a es s s

Th t t of A r hi m d
e ex c e es
Co t t of Th M th od
n en s e e

O th Sph
n e d Cyl i d I II
er e a n n er , ,

C b i c q ti o
u ri i g o t of I I 4
e ua n a s n u .

(i ) A r h i m d ol ti o

ow c e es s n s u n .

(ii ) Dio y od o ol t io

n s r us 5 s u n

(iii ) Di o l ol ti o of origi
c es s sl p obl

u n na 1 em
M easu r eme t o
f a C i r cle
On Conoid s a nd Sph er oz d s

On Spi r a ls
On P la n e E q uili br iu m , I , I I
Th e S an d r eckon (Ps a mmi tes or A r ena r ius )
-

Th e Qu ad r a tu r e of th e P ar a l ola
On Fl oating B od i es , I , I I
r l
Th e p ob e m of th e own cr
th r r
O e wo ks
ttl r
(a ) Th e Ca e P ob l em -

(6 ) O m i r g l r poly h d
n se e u a e ia

y ) Th Li b A mp tom m
e er -
ss u

(8 ) F orm l fo r of t i gl u a r a ea r an e
E to th
ia s en e s
M r m t of th E rth
eas u e en e a

CONI C SECTI ONS . A P OLLONI US O F P ER GA

A . H I S TO R Y or C om e s U P TO A P O L L O NI U S
c r c t
Dis ove y of th e on i c s e c ions by Menaech mus
r l r c ur
M en ae ch mu s s p obab e p o e d e

W ork by A ri t u
s d Eucl id s ae s an

S ol i d l oc i ol i d probl m


d an s e s
'
A i t
r s ae us s S oli d L o i c
Fo u d ic s t i prop rty k own to E cl i d
i ec r x e n u
P roof f P pp
1 0 1n a us

P ropo iti o s i cl d d Eu l id Co i
ns n u e 1n c s n cs
Co ic n ti o
sec A rch i m d ns i n e es
vi C O NTEN TS

C O N T I NU E D .

B . A P O L L O N I U S or PE R GA PA GES
Th e t t of th Com
ex e es

A pol l o iu ow
n os st f th Com n acc u n o e es

E t t of l i m to ori g i l ity
x en c a na

Gr t g ea r l ity of tr tm t
en e a ea en
A l y i of th Co i
na s s e n cs
B ook I
Co i n csobt i d i th mo t g
a ne l w y f om
n e s e ne l a a i

ob l i q o ue c ne

m p r bol lli p h yp rbol

N w

e na es , a a a e se e a

F d m t l prop rti
un a en a qu i l t to C rt i e es e va e n a e s an

q ti o
e ua ns
Tr iti o to n w d i m t r d t g t t it
an s n e a e e an an en a s

tr m ity
ex e
Fir t pp r s a of pri ip l
ea an ce nc a ax es
B ook I I
B ook I I I
B ook I V
Book V
r l
No ma s a s m ax i ma an d m i n i ma
r
Nu mb e of n o ma s om a poi n r l fr t
t l
P r opos i i on s ead i n g i mm ed i a e y to d e e mi n a i on tl tr t
of evolnte of 0 0 11 1 0
tr t
C on s u c i on of n o ma s r l
Book V I
B ook VI I
t r
O h e 1 wo ks b y A po on iu s ll
(a On the Cu tting 0 of ( 1 R ati o (h oyov a n or op
'
-

),
two B ooks 1 7 5 1 7 9
(B On th e Cu tttny of of a n A r ea (xcoplov ( in cm ini), -

two B ooks 1 7 9 1 8 0
7 ) On D ete r min a te S ecti on (6 1 wpw p e w; m ph), two

B ooks
w
(8 ) On C on tacts 0 1 Ta ngenctes two B ook s
(e) P la ne L OC I , two B ooks
(g) N ev o a s ( Ver gmgs 0 1 I n cl in ations ), two B o ks

o
(q) Comp ar is on of d od ecahed von wi th i cosahed r on
(6 ) Gen er al Tr ea tise
On th e Cochl ias
(K ) On Unor d er ed I r r a tion a ls
(A) On th e B ur n ing -
mir r or
l

(p) Q K U T OK LO V

As tro n om y

XV THE SUCC ESSOR S OF TH E GR EAT GEOM ETER S

.
1 9 7 2 34

Nicomed e s
Di oc es l
P ei s e u s
I s ope 1 imet1 ic
H y pSl C l eS
g u 1 es Z en od or u s

Diony s od o1 us
P os i d on iu s
 C O N TEN TS v ii

Gemi nus P A G ES 2 2 2 234

A e m p to move th e Pai a llel P os
tt t ae tul t 22 7 2 30
-

On M eteovologz ca of P os id onius

23 1 2 3 2
I n tr od ucti on to theP ha en omena a ib ed to Gemin us ttr ut 2 32 2 3 4

SOM E H A NDB OOK S

Cleome d e s , De motn ci r cu la r i
Nicom ach d s
h
T e on of S 11 1 y 1 n a, E xp os itto 1 8 1
'

um math enmtwa r u m ad
l egend n m P l a toh em u tili um -
2 38 2 44
-

XV I I TR I GONOM ETR Y
. : H I P P A R CH US , M ENELA US, P TO ,

LE MY

Th e od os ius
W o1 ks h
by T eod os i u s
t t
C on en s of th e Sp h aen ca
No a ctu l
a t1 1 gon omet1 y in T eod os i us h
The b e gi n n ing s of t1 1 g on on1 et1 y
H ippal ch u s
Th e wo1 k of H i ppa s rchu
t t t
Fi 1 s sys em a i c u se of ti igon om et1 y
l
Tab e of c o d shr
M en e lu a s

Th e Sp h a et u a lu of M en e a s

( ) M a l u th or m fo th ph

en e a s s e e

i e s e1 e
D d ucti o from M e l u th m ns ene a s s e0 1 e

(y) A h rm o i p op ty of four gr t ircl

n a n c r e1 ea c es
th o gh o poi t u ne n

(6 ) P opo itio l ogo to E l V I 3

i s n s ana us uc . .

C l ud iu Pt ol my
a s e .

Th M eqp e ) a
f (Ar b A l m g t)
a r tx r o u t/r a ts a . a es
C omm t i en ai es
Tr l tio d d it i o
an s a ns an e ns
S mm ry of o t t
u a c n en s
T i o om t y i Ptol my
1 n e r n e

) L mm fo d i g i 1 8 d i 36

a e a i n n s n an s n

(6 ) Eq i l t of i 6 + 1 2 2
6
u va e n s n 008

(y ) P tol my th or m gi i g th q i l et of

e s e e ,
v n e e u va n

(6 1 ) i 6 o 1
si n o 6 i (1 s n c s () c s s n

(8 ) Eq i l t of i
?1
6 (1
u va e n o s n 7z
-
c s

( ) Equi l t of o (9
e o 9 o
va e n i ei a c s c s1 c s s n s n

(0 M thod of i t pol tio b e d o fo m l n ei a n as e n 1 u a

i /i B /B (%
S n aB) s n a 1r a

( ; ) T b l of chord
r a e s

(6 ) F rth r of proporti o
u li
e use na n ci ease

( ) Pl 1 t ig o om t y an e ff t d
1 n e r ln e ec use
S ph ic l t ig o om t y
er a f m li oluti o ofn e i : 01 u ae in s n

ph i c l tri gl
s er a an es
Th e A na l em ma
Th e P la n ispha er l u m
The Optics
ch
A m e an ica w oi k , H epl pmr aw l
tt t
A em p to move th e P a a el P os r ll tlt u a e
v iii CONTENTS

XV I I I MENS UR ATI ON :
. H ER ON OF A LEXA NDR IA . P A GES 2 98 3 54

Co tro r i to H ro d t 2 98 30 6

n v e s es as e n s a e

Ch r ct r ofwo k
a a e r s 3 0 7 3 0 8
Li t of tr t i 3 0 8 3 1 0

s ea se s

G om try
e e

( ) C omm t ry o Euclid E l m
a en a n 8 e ents

(6 ) Th D itio e e n ns
M e nsur tion a
Th e M etr ica ,
Geometr ica , Ster eome tmca , Geod nes m,
M ens nr ae 3 1 6 3 20
Con t t
en s of th e M etrz ca
'

3 2 0 344
B ook I . M eas u r m t of r
e en a eas 32 0 3 3 1
-

( ) A ea of s a en e 1 an e
1 r c l t i gl -

32 1
P 1 oof of f0 1 mu l a A = J { s (s b s c
( )} 32 1 32 3
-

t
(6 ) Me h od of app1 ox imating to th e squ a1 e oo r t
of a n on sq a e n mb e ur u r
(y) Quad r il atei als
lr l
(8) R egu a po ygon s wi th 5 , 6, 7 , 8,
1 2 s i d es
(s ) The i e c rcl
(f) Seg m en ofa i e t c rcl .

t cl r
(11) Elli ps e , par abol ic segmen , s u 1 face of y ind e ,
r ht c hr
ig one, s p e e and s egm en ofsp e e t hr
Book I I ur
M eas emen ofvo u m es t l
d
(11 ) Cone cyl i nd er , par allelep1 ped (pr1 sm) py rami
.

and us fr tu
m 3 32
l
(B) Wed ge sh aped so id (Bwpimcos or a nvlmoi) 3 32 3 34
-

c t
(y ) Fi us tu m of one sph e1 e, an d segmen th ei eof 3 34 ,

c r
(8) A n h o i ing or o e tr -
3 3 4 3 35 .

Th e twospe ia s o id s ofA r chimed es s M e

c l l thod

33 5
(O Th e ve eg ai s o id sr ul l 335
B ook I II Divi si ons ofgu es
. r 3 3 6 34 3
A ppi oximati on to th e cu r t
be oo of a non ub e c -

n mb s 1 u
r tc u t l
Quad a i eq a i ons s o ved i n H e on r
tr t
I nd e e mina e p1 obl ems i n th e Geometwica
Th e D ioptr a
Th e M echan ics
r t tl
A i s o e 8 W ee h l
l ct
Th e par al le log1 am of ve o i i es
Moti on o d pl n n an i li
nc n e a e
O th n tr ofg itye cen e 1 av
Th m h e i l pow r
ve ec an ca e s
M ch i c e d ily l i f
an q s in a e: ue1 i es an d ans we s r
P obl m o th c t
i e of gr ity
s n e en 1 e av , &c.

Th C toptm
e a ca

H o p oofof qu l ity of n gl
ei n s

i e a a es of1 nc1 d ence an d
r cti o e e n 3 5 33 54

XI X PAPPUS OF A LEXANDR I A
. .
3 5 5 4 3 9

Da t e ofPappus
Wo1 ks (comu1 enta 1 ies) oth e1 th an th e Collect1 o
n
 C O N TE NTS ix

Th e Synagoge or C ollection P A G E S 3 5 7 4 39
h r ct r r
(a ) C a a e ofth e wo k ; wid e ang e r 3 5 7 35 8
t th r
(B Li s of au o s m en i on ed t
i ur l rt c t tt
3 5 8 36 0
(y T an s a ions and ed i ions 3 6 0 36 1
(8 ) S mma y of on en s 3 6 1 4 3 9
Book I I I . t
Sec ion r l
On th e p ob e m of th e two
m ean 1 1 0 por tiona l s
t l
'

S ec i on 2 ) The th r .e o y of means
ct
Se i o n T h e rP a a

d o es of Er y cin u s
x

t
Sec ion cr
Th e i n s ibi ng of th e ve eg u a r lr
l hr
s o i d s in a S p e e 3 68 36 9
B ook I V ct
S e i on
. t t r
Ex e n si on of heo e m of
th r
P y ag o as 3 6 9 37 1
ct
S e i on cr l cr
On i c e s ins ib e d i n th e d q c
h r
s oe make s k ni f

e )

37 1 37 7
t
S e c i on s t r
(4 ) M e h od s of squ a i ng th e i c ecrl
an d tr is e c tm g any a ngl e 37 7 3 8 6
rh
(a ) Th e A c i m ed ean s pi a rl 37 7 3 7 9

ch
(B) Th e con oid of Nicomed cs 37 9
( y) Th e Ou ad r a tr ix 37 9 3 8 2
r rl
8 ) Di g es si on : a spi a on a s ph e e r 3 82 3 8 5
r t rt l
T is ec ion (or d i vi s i on in any a i o) of any an g e 3 8 5 38 6
t
Sec i on l t rh
So u i on of th e 11 15 17 0 1 9 of A c i me d e s
r
On Sp i r a ls , P op 8 by m ean s of onics
. c
,

B ook V . rf ct
P e ace on th e s aga i y of B ee s
t
S ec i on r t tr
I s ope i me r y a f e Z en od or u s
t
S ec i on r
C om pa i son ofvol umes ofs oli d s ha vi ng
th r re i s u fa ces e qu a l r
Ca se ofs ph e e
. 9 3 3 94
ct
S e i on r r lr l
Dig es s i on on s e mi eg u a s o id s of -

rh
A c i me d es
t
Se c ion r t l
P opos i i on s on th e i n es ofA r ch imed e s ,
On th e Sph er e a nd Cyli n d er 3 94 395-

ct
S e i on r lr l rf c
Of eg u a s o i d s w1 th s u a es equ a l
th t r t r c
a is g ea e wh i h h as mo e fa es r c
B ook V I .

r l r l
P ob em a is ing ou t of E u c i d s Optics
'

B ook V II r r l
On th e T eas u y ofA na y s i s
.

.

t l
Deni i on ofA n a y s i s and Syn es i s th
t r r ur
Li s of w o s i n th e T e as y ofA n a y s is
k
l

cr t tr t
Des i p i on of th e ea i s es
tc t h r
A n i i pa i on of Gu ld in s T eo e m
'

Lemm as to th e d iffe e n r t tr t ea i ses

(a ) Lemmas to th e Sectio r a tionis an d S ectz o

ll u
sp a ti i ofA po oni s

(B) Lemmas to th e Deter nu n a te S ection of

'

ll u
A po oni s 40 54 1 2
(y) L e m m as o n th e N ll
a u r m of A po oni u s

4 1 2
416
( )
8 L e mm as o n th e O n C on ta ctsll
o f A p o on i u s 4 1 6
417
( 6 ) Lemm as to th e P lane L oci of A po oni us ll 41 7 4 19
-

(g) L e m m a s t o th e P o ul
r is ms ofE c i d 4 1 9
42 4
(0 ) L e m m as t o th e C o n i csll u
o f A p o o n i s 4 2 4
42 5
( )
6 L e mm as t o th e S u l
r face L oci of Euc i d 4 2 5
42 6
()1 A u ll t l
n n a o ca ed e mm a 42 6
42 7
B ook V I I I tr l rfc
H i s o i ca p e a e
. 42 7 42 9
t
Th e obje c of th e B ook 42 9 4 3 0
-

c tr
O n th e e n e ofg av i y r t 4 3 0 4 33
-
 C O N TEN TS

C O N TI N U E D .

B ook V
I I I (contm ned )
cl
Th e i n i n e d p an e l P A E S 4 3 92
434 G
C on st1 u ction of a on 1 c 1 oug c
ve poin s th
4 34 4 37 h t
c t
Gi ven two onju ga e d iam e e s of an e i ps e , to nd tr ll
th e a xes
r l
P ob em of s ev en h e x ag on s i n a i e c rcl
tr t t th
Con s u c ion of oo ed w ee s an d ind en ed s c e ws h l t r

A LGEBR A : DI OPH A NTUS O F A LE XA NDR I A 44 0 5 1 7

B eg i nn i n gs l ea m t om Egyp fr t
H au cal cu a i on s lt
r
A 1 i th me ti cal epig am s i n th e Gr eek A n h o ogy t l
ut
I n d e te i m in ate eq a i on s of 1 st d eg 1 es
t
I n d etei mi n ate e qu a i on s of s e on d d eg 1 es b e 0 1 e Dio c f
ph an tu s
I n d ete i minate e q u a i on s i n H e ron i an o ec i on s
t c ll t
l t
Nu m e 1 i cal s o u i on of qu ad a i equ a i on s r tc t
r
W o k s of Di op an s h tu
Th e A with meti ca
l t
Th e se ve n os B ooks a n d h ei p a c t r l
lt r
R e a i on of Po i s ms to A 1 ith meti ca

t t r fr
C om men a o s om H ypa ia d ownwa d s t r
r lt
T an s a i on s an d ed i i ons t
tt
No a i on an d d eni i ons t
Si gn fo1 u nk now n cc) an d its o i i n
g r
Si g n s for powe 1 s of u nknown & c .

Th e si g n (A ) f0 1 and its m eani ng

t
me h od s of Di oph a n u s t
h t
I Diop an u s s t1 eatm e nt of e qu a i ons t
tr
(A ) De e min a e e q ua i on s t t
r tr
(1 ) P u e d e e mi n a e eq u a i on s t t
(2 ) M ix ed q u ad 1 atic eq u a i ons t
3 ) Sim ul tan e ous e qu ati on s in vol vi n g quad atics i
(
4 ) C ub i c e qua i on
tr t
t
t
(B) I n d e e mi na e equ a i on s
(11 ) I n d ete r min ate e qu ati ons ofth e s econd d egr ee 46 6 47 3
( 1 ) Si ng e equa ion l t 46 6 468
(2 ) Dou b e eq u a i on l t 46 8 -

47 3
.
l
1 Doub e e q a i on s of1 s t d eg ee ut r . 469 47 2
l
2 Dou b e e q a i ons of s e on d d e e e
gut c r 47 2 47 3
tr t
(b) I n d e e m i na e equ a i on s of d eg ee i g h e t r h r
th
an secon d 0

(1 Si ng e e q a ion s
ut l
l t
.

(2 Dou b e eq ua i on s
th l t
I I Me od of i mi s
.

th r t
I II M e od of app ox i ma i on to l imi s
. t
r r t
Po is ms an d p opos i i ons 1 n th e Th e 0 1 y of Nu mb e i s
c t
(a ) Th e0 1 ems on th e ompos i i on of n u mb e1 s as th e
r
s um of tw o s qua e s 4 8 1 48 3
hc
(B) On n u m b e1 s w i h ar e th e s u m of ee sq a e s thr ur 483
t
(y ) C ompos i i on of n u mb e1 s as th e s um of fou 1 s qu a1 es 48 3 484
t ht
Cons pe c u s of A r i thi netica , wit ypi ca so u ions l l t 48 4 5 1 4
Th e tr t l l r
e a i s e on P o ygon a Nu mb e s 5 1 4 5 1 7
 C O N TEN TS xi

COMMENTA TOR S A ND BYZANTI NES PA GE S

Ser en u s

(a ) 0 11 the Secfion of a Cyl m d m

(B) 0 1 1 the er t1 o1 1 of a C one
Th eon ofA l exan d ri a
C omm en a y tr on th e Syntax w
t
Ed i i on ofE ucl id s E lements

Ed it i o n of th e Op ti cs of E u i d cl
H yp ti a a
P orph yry . I ambl ich u s
P roclu s
tr
C ommen a y on E uclid , Book I
urc tr
(a ) So es of th e Com me n a y
h r ct r tr
(8 ) C a a e of th e C omme n a y
H ypotypo i of A t o omi l H yp oth
s s s r n ca es es

C omm t ry o th R p bli
en a n e e u c
M ri u of N pol i
a n s ea s

Dom in n ofL ri
us a s sa

Si mpl i c iu s
E tr ct from E d m
x a s u e us
E utocius
A nth emiu s of Tmlle s
0 11 bu r n ing mi r r or s
-

Th e P apy s ofAkh m ru '

Geod a es ia of H e on th e Y ounge r r
h l
M ic ae P s ell u s
r
Geo gi us Pach yme i es
M ax i mus Plan u d es
tr ct
Ex a i on of th e squ a 1 e oo r t
r l
Two lp ob e ms
ul c
Man e M os h opou os l
cl
Ni o as R h ab d as
l r t
R u e for app ox i ma i n g to s quai e 1 oot of a n on s q ura e
u r
n mb e
I oannes P ed ias imu s
Bar laam
c
I s aa A r gy r u s

A PP ENDI X On A
. r h im
c e d es s

proof ofth ubt e s t rop rty

angen
p e

rl
of a s pi a 5 5 6 5 6 1

I NDEX OF GR EEK W OR DS 5 63 569

ENGLI SH I NDEX 5 7 0 5 86
-
 I
A R S TA R C H U S O F S A MOS

H I S TOR I A NS of m ath e m atic s

rule given too little h vea , as a ,

att e n ti on to A ri s t rchu s of S m os Th e r e on i n o doubt

a a . as s

th t h e w s a n s tr onomer n d th er efor e it might be uppo ed

a a a , a s s

th at his w ork w ould h av n o s u fci nt i n te r es t for th e math e e e

m tician
a Th e Gr ee k k n e w b ett er ; th y c all e d him A is t
. s e r ar

ch u s the m ath em tic i an to di s ti nguis h h im from th hos t

a

, e

of oth r A is ta ch u s e ; h e is a l s o in clud e d by V itruviu

e r r s s

am on g th f w gr ea t men w h o p os s es se d n e qu lly pr ofou n d

e e a a

kn owl dg e of ll br n ch of s ci en c g eom try a tr onomy

e a a es e, e , s ,

mu s ic 8 ,
60 .

Men of thi s typ e a
r r m n s uch s w er in t i m pas t re a e, e a e, es ,

A ri s t archu s of S a m os Phil ol u s n d A rchyt s of T r n tu m ,

a a a a e ,

A p oll on iu of P rg E ra t o th nes of C yr e n A rchi m d s n d

s e a, s e e, e e a
S opin s of S yr cu s e w h o l ft to p os t erity m n y m ch nic l
'

c a a , e a e a a
an d
gpom on ic ppli an c e wh i ch th ey i n ven t e d an d e xpl i n d
a s a e

on m th e m tic l (l i t n u m e ric l ) pr i n c i pl es

1
a a a . a .

T h at A ri s t archu s w a s a v ry capabl e g eome ter

e is prov ed by
h is xt n t w ork 0 the s i es n d d i sta n ces of th S u n n d
e a -

11 z a e a

Moon which will b e notic e d l t e r in thi s ch pt r in th e a a e :

m ch n ic a l li n e h i s cr dit d with th di s cov ery of n im

e a e e e e a

prov e d u n di al th e s o c l led oid mwhich h d n ot pl an e

s -

,
-
a ax ,
a ,
a ,
,

but c on c v h mi ph ric l urf c w i th p oi n t r r cted

'

a a e e s e a s a e, a e e e

ve rtic ally in th e m iddle throwi ng h dow s nd s o en bli ng s a a a

th e dir e cti on n d th e h e ight of th e s u n to b r ad off bys m n

a e e ea s

of li n e m rk d on th e s urf c e of th h em i ph r
s a e H e al o a e s e e . s

wrot on vi i on light n d colour H is vi ew s on th e l tt r

e s ,
a s . a e

subj ects w er e n o d oubt l arg ely i nu nce d by hi ma t er S tr ato e s s ,

of L m p a cu ; thu s S tr at o h e ld th at col our s w er

a s s m n ti on s e e a a

from bodi es materi l mol ecul es s it w r e w hich i m parted to

,
a , a e ,

th e i n t e rv en i ng ai the me c ol our as th t p os ses se d by th e

r sa a

b ody whil A ri starchu s id th t colours e s h apes o for m

,
e sa a ar

r s

V i tr iu D hit t i l 16 uv s, e ar c ec u r a , . . .

B
2 I
A R S TA R C H U S O F S A M OS

t mpi ng the ai with i mpr e i on s like th ems e lv es it w e r e

s a r ss ,
as

,

th t col our in d arkne s h ave no colouri ng n d th t light

a s s a a

is th e c ol our i m pi ngi n g on ub s tr tum a s a

Tw o f ct n bl e u to f ix A ri s t rchu s s d t ppr oxi m te ly

a s e a s a a e a a .

In B C h e m de n ob erv a ti on of th e s u mm r
. . a a s e

s ol tic e ;s nd book of h is pr s n tly to be m n ti one d w s

a a ,
e e e , a

publ i h d b efore th e dat e ofA rchi med es s P s amm i tes o S n d

s e

r a

r e kon e
c a w ork wr i tt en b e for
r ,
216 B C A r i t rchu th e r e e . . s a s,

fore prob bly l i v e d ci c 3 1 0 2 3 0 B C th t is h e w as old er

, a 1
1
a . .
, a ,

th n A rchi m de by b out 2 5 year s

a e s a .

To A r i t rchu b l ong th h i gh h onour of h avi n g b n

s a s e s e ee
1

th rs t to for mul t th C op rn ic n hyp oth s i s which w

e a e e e a e ,
as

th n b n done d g i n u ntil it w r v i v d by C op ern icu s

e a a a a as e e

hi mself H is cl i m to th titl of th n ci n t C op rn icu is

. a e e e a e e s

s t i ll in m
y op i n i on qu i t e u n s h k en n otwith s t n d i n g th i
, ,
a ,
a e h

gen iou s n d l b or at e rgu men ts brought forw rd by S chi

a e a a a a

p elli to prov th t i t w as H aclid es of P on tu s w h o r t

ar e a er s

con c ive d th e h eli oc en tr i c i d a H aclid es i ( long with on e

e e . er s a

Ecph ntu s Pyth gor n ) cr dit e d with h vi n g b n th e r s t

a ,
a a ea e a ee

to h old th t th e e rth r v olv a bout its ow n xi s e ve ry 2 4

a e es a a

h our n d h w s th rs t to di s cov er th t M rcury n d V n u s

s, a e a e a e a e

r volve lik s tellit s ab out th e su n B u t th ough thi s prov

e ,
e a e ,
. es

th t H a lid es c am e n e r if h e d i d n ot ctu lly r e ch th e

er ac a , a a a ,

hyp oth es is of Tych o Br ah e ccordi ng to wh i ch th e e arth w s ,

a a

in th c n tr e n d th e r es t of th e s y s t em th e s u n w i th th e
e e a ,

pl n ets r e volvi n g r ou n d it r volved rou n d th e e rth it d oes

a , e a ,

n ot s ugg e t th t h m ov d th e e rth w y fr om th c n tr
s a e e a a a e e e .

Th e c on tr ry is i n d ee d s t t d by A etiu s w h o s y s th t H r a
a a e , a a e

clid s an d Ecph n tu s make th e earth move n ot i n the sen se of

e a ,

t a n s la ti on but by w y of tur n i n g on an xl
r , l i k e wh eel a a e, a ,

fr om w es t to e t bout its ow n cen tr N on e of th

as ,
a e e

ch m pion of H e clid s h v e been abl to me t thi s p o itiv e

a s ra e a e e s

st t m nt
a e B u t w e h av e c on clu s iv e vid en c e in fa v our of th e
e . e

cl im of A ri s t rchu ; i ndeed an c i en t tes ti mony is u nani mou

a a s , s

on th e p oi n t N ot only d oes P lut rch t e ll u s th at C l an th es

. a e

h ld th at A ri t rchu s ough t to b e i n dicte d fo th ei m pi ety of

e s a r

putti ng th H rth of th e Un iver s in moti on ; w e hav th e

e ea e 2
e

bes t po ible t s ti mony in th e pr e ci s e s t te men t of a gr ea t

ss e a

1
A et iii 1 3 3 , I or s is , p 3 4 1 8
'

. . . . . . .

2
ltr
P u a ch , De faci e in or be lu nae, c . 6 , pp 92 2 F9 2 3 . A .
 A R I STA R C H US O F S A MO S

con temp or ary A rchi me des , . In th e San d -

r ec kon er A rchi
m e d e h as thi s p as sag e
s .

Y ou [ K i ng
w r e th t u n iv er Ge l on]
is the n am ar e a a a se e

given by mos t s tr onomer s to th s ph re th centr e of which

a e e e
is th e c en tr e of th e ea rth whil e its r adiu s i e qu l to th e , s a
s tr ight li n e b tw ee n th e c e n tr e of th e s u n
a e n d th c en tr e of a e
th e earth Thi s is th e c omm on cc ou n t as y ou h v h e rd
. a , a e a

from s tronom r s Bu t A ri s tarchu s brought ou t a book con

a e .

s is ti n
g of c ta i n hypothes es wh r e i n it pp r s
er s a c ou s , e a ea ,
a e

qu en ce of th e s s u m pti on m d th t th e u n iver s is m ny
a s a e, a e a

ti m s gr eat r th an th e u n ivers e j us t m ntione d H is hypo

e e e .

th es e th t the xed sta r s a n d the su n ema i n u n m oved

es ar a r ,

tha t the bou t the su n i n the cir cu mfer en ce of a

ea r th r evo ves a l
, y g i n the m i d d l e ofthe or bi t an d th at th e
ci r cl e th e s u n l i n
,

s ph e r e of th e x e d s t a r s , s itu at e d a b out th e s am e c e n tr e as th e

s u n i s s o gr eat th a t th e c i rcl e in which h e s upp os es th e e a rth

,

to r e v olv e b ea r s s uch a pr op orti on to th e di s t an c e of th e x e d

s t ar s as th e c en tr e of th e s ph e r e b ea rs to its s urfa c e

.

(Th e l s t s t t men t is a v r i ti on of tr d i ti on l phr

a a e fo a a a a a as e , r

which th e r a e m n y p r ll ls (cf A ri st rchu s s H ypoth s i 2

e r a a a e . a

e s

th t th e rth i in th e r el at i on of p oi n t and c n tre to th e

a e a s a e

s ph e r e in which th e m oon an d is m th od of sayi ng a e

th at th e u n ivers i i n n i t ly gr t in r l ti on n ot m r ely to
e s e ea e a e

th e s i e of th e u n but v en to th e orb i t of th e earth in its

z s e

r voluti on a bout it ; th e a u mpti on w s n e ce ss ry to A ri s

e ss a a

barchu s in ord e r th at h m ight n ot h a v e to ta ke cc ou n t of e a

p r llax )
a a .

P lut rch in th e p as s g e r e fe rr e d to ab ov e al s o m k e s it
a ,
a ,
a

cl r that A ri s t rchu foll ow e d H er clid e in ttributi ng to

ea a s a s a

th e rth th e daily rot ati on b out its axis Th e b old hypo

ea a .

th es i s of A ri t rchu s fou n d few dher en t

s a S e l e ucu s of a s .
,

S el uci on th e Tigri is th e on ly c on vi n c d s upp ort r of it of

e a s, e e

wh om w e h ear n d it w as s p ee dily aban don ed altog eth er

, a ,

m i n ly owi n g to th e gr eat uth ority of H ipp archu

a N or f
do a s .

w e n d any tra c e of th e h e li oc n tric hyp oth e i s in A ri s e s

tar ch u s e xt n t w ork On the s i z es a n d d i s t n ces i of the

s a a -

S u n a n d M oon Th i i pr u m bly b e c u e th a t w ork w

. s s es a a s as

written before th e hypoth es i w as formulate d in th b ook s e

r ferr ed to by A rchi me d es The geometry of th e tr ati se

e . e

i
s, h ow e v r u n affe ct ed by th e differ en ce betw een the hyp o
e ,

th e e s
s .
4. A R I STA R C H U S OF S A MO S

A r c hi medes a sol
ys th t it w as A ri starchu s w ho d is sa a

cov ered that the appar en t n gular di meter of the sun is about a a

1 / 7 2 0 th p art of th e z odi c circl e th t is to say h alf a d egr ee a ,

a ,
.

We do not k now h ow h e rriv d at thi s pr etty accurat e gure a e

but as h e is cr edite d with th i n v n t i on of the ma tch) h e may

,
e e ,

h av e u s ed thi s i n s tru m n t fo th e pu rp os e Bu t h er e ag ai n e r .

th e di s c ov ery mu s t a pp r n tly h a v e b een l at e r th an th e tr ea a e

ti s e On si z es a nd d i s t nces fo th e v lu e of th e s ubten ded a ,

r a

an gl e i s th er e ass u m d to b e 2 (H ypoth es i s H ow A ri s

e

ta ch u s c ame to as s u me a valu
r o e xc e s i v e is u n c er t a i n As e s s .

th e math ematic s of h i tr eati e is not d ep en d en t on th e a ctu al s s

value taken 2 m y h v be n ,
ume d merely by way of

a a e e ass

illus tration ; or it may h ve b en a gu es s at the a ppa ren t a e

diameter mad e before h e h d th ought of attempti ng to mea a

s ur e it A ri s ta rchu s
. u m d th t the angul ar d iame te rs of ass e a

the u n an d m oon a t th e c n tr of th e e rth a e e qua l

s e e a r .

The me th od of th e tr t i s d p n d on th e ju s t ob s er v ati on ea e e e s ,

which is A ri s tarchu s th i rd hypoth e s i s tha t wh en the moon s

app ear s to u s h a lv e d th e gr e tcircl e which divid es th e d ark ,

a

and th e bright p ort i on of th e moon is in the dir e cti on of ou r s

th e effe ct of thi ( i n ce th e moon r e c eiv e s its light fr om

e e
y s s

th e s u n) is th at a t th e t i m e of th dich ot omy h e c entr es of

,
t e

th e s un moon an d earth f orm

, tri ngl e right angled at the a a -

centr e of the moon Two oth er as u mpti on s w er e nec ess ary . s

r st an estimat e of th e i of th ngl of the l att er tri an gle

, s z e e a e

a t th e c en tr e of th e rth t th mom n t of dich ot omy e thi s

a a e e :

A ri s tarchus as s u med (H yp oth i 4 ) to be l e ss than a qu d es s

a

r an t by one thirti e th of qu dr n t i e-
a ga i n an in accu a a a . .

r t e esti mate the tru e v lue b i n g 8 9

a , se c on dly an e s ti a e

,

mate of the breadth of th rth h dow wh ere th e moon

e ea s s a

tra vers es it thi h e s u m d to b e th e brea dth of tw o

: s a s e

moons (H ypoth es s

i

Th e i na ccur acy ofth e u mption d o n ot h ow e ve r detra ct as s s es , ,

from the math ematical in ter t of th e uccee ding i n vestig ati on es s .

H ere we fi n d the l ogic l e qu n c of pr op o iti on s an d th e a b eo a s e e s

lute rigour of demons tr t ion ch r cteri tic of Greek g eometry ; a a a s

th e on ly r emai ni n g dr wb ck w ould b the pra ctic al difculty a a e

of d et erm i n i ng th e e x ct m om n t wh n th e moon a pp ear s to a e e

us hal ved The for m n d tyl e of th book a r e th or oughly

. a s e .

class ical as b ets the p eri od b tw e n Euclid and A rchi med es

, e e
 I
A R STA R C H U S O F S A MO S .

th e G r ee k is ev en r emarkably attractive Th e c ont n t from . e

th e m ath m tic al p oi n t of V i ew is no l ess i n t er es ti n g fo w e

e a , r

h a v e h ere th r s t s pe ci men x t n t of pur e g ometry u s d

e e a e e

with a tr igon ometr i ca l obj ec t in which r es pect it is a or t of ,

s

fore ru nn er ofA rchi m edes s M ea su r em en tofa C i r cle A is ta

. r r

chu s does n ot ctu lly e v luate the trigonom trical r ti os

a a a e a

on which th e r a ti os of th e s i s an d di s t an c e s to be obt i n d z e a e

dep en d ; he n d li mit s betw een which th ey lie, and th t by

s a

m an s of c e rt i n prop os iti ons which h e s s u mes w i th out pr oof

e a a ,

a n d which th e r e for m u s t h v e b en g e n r ally kn ow n to

e a e e

math em at i ci n of h is d ay a Th es e pr op o i ti on s
s e th e qui . s ar e

va e l n t of th e s t at em n t s th at
s e ,

(1 ) if or i s wh at w c ll th ci cula me ur of n n gl e a e 1 r as e a a

an d o r is l th n es s t h en th r tio s in
a d s s n d th e a ecr ea e ,
a e

rat i o t n a i n cr e ses s or i n cr e from 0 to

a ,3 a a ses 2
77

(2 ) i f B b e th e c i rcul r me s ur of noth r n gl l ss th n a a e a e a e e a

i 7r nd o
,
a r > B th e n ,

or ta n or
'

11 B ta n 6
A ri s t rchu of cour s e de l s n ot with actu l circul r m ur s
a s a ,
a a ea s e ,

sin n d t n ge n t s but w i th
es a a n gl s (e xpr s s d n ot in d gr
,
s a e e e e ee

but fr t i on s of r i ght n gl ) rc of c i rcl

as ac n d th i r a es ,
a s es a e

ch ord P r t i cul r r ult obt i n ed by A r i s tarchu

s . a a es e th e
s a

s ar

e qu i v l n t of th
a e foll owi n g e :

in 3 7 [ P r op 7 ] s
1
1 1

0 1

[ Pr op 1 1 ]
i
s in 1 gg ,

[P r op 1 2 ]

l co l g% s ,

1 > co 1 as [ P r o p 13
] s
2
.

Th e book c on i s t of eight een pr op o it i on

s s B gi nn i n g with s s . e

s ix hyp oth e s to th e effe ct a lr e dy i n d i c t d A r i tarchu s

es a a e ,
s

d cl r s th t h e is n ow in pos iti on to prov e

e a e a a

()I th a t th e di s t n c e of th u n from th e arth 8 gr e t r th n

a e s e 1 a e a

e ight en t i me s but l e
e th n tw en ty ti mes the di tan c of th e
,
ss a ,
s e

moon fr om th ea rth e ,

( )
2 th t thae di m e t e r of thae s u n h s th e s ame r ti o for e a a as a

s a id to th diamet r of the m oon ;

e e
 A R I STA R C H U S O F SA MOS 7

BH : H A s in HAs in H EA ]
A H AB z A H BA ,

wh en c e A HA B 3 ;
1
A H BA ,

and (t aki ng th e doubl es) A HA K A H BK

1
3 3

Bu t A H B K A E BO 75
1
5 R (wh er e R is a right a n gl e);
there fore A HA K 1
3 53 5
-
R .

Bu t
a magn itud e (ar c E X ) s e en under s uch an a n gle is
im p rc ptible to our eye
e e

th er efor e a for ti oml the arc s

, , OE , DF ar e r lly i m pe r
sev e a

ce ptib le to ou r ey e .
QE D . . .

An y d educti on from th e same gure is Pr op 1 2 which

e as .
,

sh ow th at the rati o of CD th diameter of the di v i di ng

s , e

circle to E F th e di amet er of th e moon is 1 but g%

, , ,
.

We have A EBC A BA C

ther for e
e (a e E C) 5 (ar e E G) r
1
5 ,

an d a cc ordi n gly ( ar c C G) (a c GE ) 8 9 59 0 r .

Doublin g th e arc s w e h v e , a

ar c E GE
0 GB )
(ar c ( )
CD : E F ar c C GD) (ar c E GE )
Bu t (
[equiv l en t a to s in a s in 3 a /B wh ere A CB D ,
2 a,

and 2 B w] ;

th er fore
e CD E F cos 8 9 90
: : ,

while ob v i ou s ly
Pr op 1 1 n d s li mit s to th e r a ti o E F BA (the r tio of the
.
: a

di met r of th e moon to the di stanc e of its cen tr e fr om

a e

th e c en tr e of th e earth ); th ra ti o is but 1 30e .

8 A R I STA R C H U S O F S A MOS

Th e r t part follow s fr om
s th e r lati on fou n d
e in P r op . 4,

n a me ly B C z BA

EF 2 BC .

Th e c d p rt requ i re th e u s e of th e circle draw n with

s e on a s _

c ntr A an d r d i u s A C Thi circl i th t on wh i ch th

e e a . s e s a e

en d s of th e di me t r of th d i vidi n g circl e mo e th e moon

a e e v as

move in s c i rcl b out th e rth If r is th e ra diu s A O

a e a ea .

of thi s c i rcl e ch ord in it qu l to r ubten d s t th e cen tre

,
a e a s a

A n a n gl e of % R o
a n d th e C D ubt n d at A r a ar c s e s

n gl of 2

an a e

Bu t ( e ubt e n d e d by
ar CD ) ( c s ubt e n d d by
s ) ar e r
i

< CD : r ,

CD z r

th t a is , CD z oA '

A nd , by s i milar tri ngl a es,

0 L : CA CB z B A , or CD z CA 2 CB z BA FE z B A .

r for
The FE B A
e 1 30 e : : .

Th e pr op o iti on which i of th gr at s t i n t r e s t on
s s e e e e th e
wh ol i Pr op 7 to th ff ct that th d is t n e of the
e s .
, e e e e a c su n

fr om the ear th i s gr ea ter tha n 18 ti m es , bu t les s tha n 2 0

ti mes , the d i s ta n ce of the m oon fr om the hi r es ult
ea r th . T s

r e pr es n t gr t i mprov m n t on
e s a ea e e a ll pr e v i ou ttem pt s to s a

e s ti m t th e r l t i v di t n c
a e Th e a e s a es . e r t s p cul ti on on th e
s e a

s ubj e ct w s th t of A n ax i m n d e r (ci ca 6 1 1
a 545 B
a who a r
.

se m e to h v m d th d i s t an c s of th e s u n n d m oon fr om
s a e a e e e a

th e rth to b in th r ti o
ea Eud oxu a cc ord i n g to
e e a s,

A rch i m d s m d th e d i met r of th e s un 9 t i m th t of
e , a e e a e es a

th e m oon n d P hidi A rchi m d e s f the r 1 2 ti mes ; n d

,
a as , e s a , a ,

s u m i n g th t th e
a s n gul r di met e rs of th e tw o b odi s
a a a a e ar e

equ l th e r ti o of th ir di s tan c es w ould b th e me

a ,
a e e sa .

A ri t rchu s s pr oof is s h ortly follow A is th e c en tr e of

s a as s .

th eu n B th t of th
s , earth an d C th at of th e m oon
a t th e e , a

mom n t of d i ch ot omy s o th t th
e n gl e A OB i s right A BE F , a e a

.

is s qu ar e nd A E is a
qu dr n t of th e u n s circul r orb i t

a ,
a a a s a .

J oi n B F n d bi s ct th e ngl EBE by B G so that

,
a e a e ,

A GBE or 2 25 .
 A R I STA R C H US O F S A MOS 9

I . N ow by H yp oth es is 4 ,
, A A BO
SO th t a Z E BE : A BA O :

th er efor e A GBE A H BE 1
5; 1
: 3
6 R
15 : 2,

GE : H E [ = tan GBE z tan H B E ]

15 : 2 .

The rati o which has to be pr ov e d is A B : B C or

FG z
GE z
Ft BE z

t z z

(thi s pprox i m tion to

is the a a 2 menti one d
kn ow n to th e Pyth agor ean s) .
10 I
A R S TA R C H U S O F SA MOS

T he refor e FE E G o z r

C om poun di n g thi s with (1 ) ab ov e ,

we h v a e

FE z E H > or

II . To pr ove BA 20 BC .

Le t EH mee t
circl e A B in D an d dr w DK p ar lle l
th e ,
a a

to E B . C ircu m scr i b circl ab ou t th e tri angle B K D n d

e a e ,
a

l e t th e chord BL b e e qu l to th e r diu s ( ) of th circl a a r e e .

A B DK A DB E 3 5
1
13 ,

th t BK (circu m f e ren c e of circle)

1
so a ar c 5 5
.

Thu s (ar c BK ) (ar c B L)

1 10 .

A nd (ar e BK ): (ar c B L) - BK : r

[th i s is e qu i v len t to
a a B s in or s in B ,
wh ere or B r ] ,

r 10 BK ,

BD 2 0 BK .

B D z BK

AB 2 0 B0 .

Th e r e m ai n i n g res ults
bt i n e d in th e tr eati s c n be o a e a

vi s u li d by me n s of th e thr ee gures n n ex d which ha ve

a z e a ,
a e ,

r fer en ce to th pos iti ons of th e s u n (c ntr A ) th e ea rth

e e e e ,

(c n tr B ) n d the m oon (c en tr C ) d u ing n e clip se Fig 1

'

e e a e r a . .

s h ow s th e m iddl e p os iti on of th moon r el ativ ly to th e e arth s

e e

s h d ow wh i ch is b ou n d d by th e c on e c om pr e h en d i n g th e s u n
a e

an d th e e rth ON is th e a c w i th c en tr e B l on g which
a . r a

mov e th e extre m iti es of th di m et e r of th e di v idin g circl e in e a

th e m oon Fig 3 s h ow s th s ame po iti on of the moon in th

. . e s e

m i ddle of th e s h ad ow but on a l rg r s c al e Fig 2 s h ow s,

a e . .

th m oon t th e m om en t wh en it h s ju s t en t r d th e s h a d ow ;
e a a e e

a nd s th e br eadth of th
,
a arth s s h d ow is th t of tw o m oon s e e

a a

(H ypoth s i s th e m oon in th e p os iti on s h ow n t ouch es B N t

e a

N n d BL t L w h er e L is th e middl p oi n t of th e e ON
a a ,
e ar .

It s hould b dd ed th t in Fig 1 UV is th di m ete r of th e

e a a ,
.
, e a

circle in which th s un i t ouch ed by th d oubl e con e with B

e s e

a s v rt e x e which c om pr eh n ds b oth th s u n an d the moon

,
e e ,
 A R I S TA R CH US O F S A MO'S '
11

whil e Y; 3 ar e the oints

p in wh ic h th e p erpen di cul r through
a

A , th e cen tr e of th e s u n ,
to BA me et s

r s ults obt
e ai ne d

P rop
. 13 .

UN i (d i am . of m oon ) 2 : L
12 I
A R STA R C H US O F S AMOS

0N :
(d i a rn
-
. of s u n) 1 : 9

22 22 5 .

sun ) (d i am . of

60 : 19 .

I t is W orth wh i le to s h ow how thes e r e sult s ar e pr ov ed .

Pr o p . 13 ,

(1 ) In Fig . 2 it is cl r th ea at

Th e tr i ngles
a LON CLN, b ei ng si mil r a ,

th refore
e

89 : 45 .

(by Prop .
 A R I S TA R C H U S O F S A M OS 13

H en c e

8 92

th er efor e ON z LP 7 92 1 : 4050
0

ys A ri s tarchu s 88 sa .

[ I f z % t
"
be d ev el ope d as a c on tin ue d fr acti on we easily ,

1
g
1
obtai n 1 +
1 + 51 7
which s in f ct , i a
2
(2 ) ON 2 (diam . of m oon ).

But (diam . of m oon ) of s u n ) , (Prop . 7 )

th ere fore ON 3 (diam . of s u n ).

'

A ga i n ON : (di am . of moon ) from above ,

an d
(di am . ofmoon ) (diam . of s u n ) 1 : 20 ; (Prop . 7 )
th erefor e , ea: aequ a li ,

ON : (di a m . of s u n ) 88 900
'

22 2 2 s;

(3 ) S i n c e th e sa me con compr eh n d th e sun and th e moon

e e s ,

th e tri angl e B UV (Fig 1 ) n d th e triangle BLN (Fig 2 ) ar e

. a .

s i mil a r an d
,

LN z LP UV : (di am . of

WU : UA

HA z AS

UA : A Y

LN z LP (Prop . 1 2)

a for tior i ,
UA : A Y

(d iam . of s u n ) YZ .

But ON :
(di am . of s u n ) (P rop . 1 3)

ther e for e , ea aequ a li ,

ON z YZ 89 x 22 : 90 x 225

97 9 1 0 1 25 .
 I
A R S TA R C H U S O F S A MO S 15

A B B0 20 1

th re fore
e ,
ea; ae a al i ,
q
A B z BR 1 3 500 67 4

6 7 50 337 ,

wh en ce by i n v er s i on
, an d co mpon en d o ,

RA AB 7 08 7 6 7 50 .

10125 z 97 9 ; (Pr op . 1 3)
th er efor e ,
con ver ten d o,

XA : A R 10125 : 9 1 46 .

From thi s an d (l ) w e h v a e, e m aeqn ali ,

XA : A B > 1 0 1 25 7 087 9 1 46 x 67 50

7 1 7 558 7 5 6 1 7 35500

a for ti or i .

'

[ It is d ii cu lt n ot to s ee in 43 3 7 th e xpr s s i on 1
e e

which s ugges ts th t w asa ob t ai n e d by d ve l opi n g e

r ti o as con ti n u e d fracti on ]
a a

Th re for con ver ten do

e e, ,

X A : XB 43 6,

wh ence (di am . of s u n ) (di am . of ea rth ) 43 6 .

Q . E .
 A R C H M E DE S I
i g n d c ptur of S yr cu s by M rc llu durin g th e
TH E s e e a a e a e a e s

se c on d Pun ic w fur n i s h ed the occ i on fo th ppe r n ce of

ar as r e a a a

A rchi medes a p r on ge in h i tory ; it is w i th thi b i s t ori

s a e s a s s

c l e v n t th t mo t of th
a e det i l d s torie of him a e con
a s e a e s r

n t d ; n d th e f ct th a t h e w
ec e a k i ll ed in the s ack of th city
a as e

in 2 1 2 B C wh en h e is upp ose d to h v e b n 7 5 y e r of ge
. .
,
s a ee a s a ,

e n bl a u to x h i d t e t ab out 2 8 7 2 1 2 B C
es s H w s th e
s a a . . e a

s on of P hidi as th e tr onom r n d w on i n t i m at t rm s
,
as e ,
a as e e

with if n ot r late d to K i n g H i er on n d his on Gel on It

, e ,
a s .

a pp rs fr om p sage of Diod o u th t h e s p n t som ti m

ea a as r s a e e e

in Egypt which v i it w a th e occ i on of h is di c ov ry of th e

,
s s as s e

o c ll d A rch i m d an s cr ew m ean of pu m pi n g w t e r 1
s -
a e s e e a a s a .

It m y b i n f rr d th t h e s tud i d at A l ex an dri with th e

a e e e a e a

s ucc s or of Eucl i d It w as probably t A l ex n dri th t h e

es s . a a a a

m d th
a e cqu i n t n c e of C onon of S m o (fo wh om h h d
e a a a a s r e a

th e high s t r egard b oth

e m th m tici n n d a fri e n d ) n d as a a e a a a a

of E ra to th n e of C yr en
s To th for m r h e w
e s in th e h ab i t e . e e as

of c omm u n i c ti n g h i di cour ab for e th ir public ti on ; s s ses e e a

wh il i t w s to Er to th n th t h e n t The M thod with n

e a a s e es a se e , . a

i n troductory lett r which i of th e high t i n t r t e w ll s es e es , as e as

(if w e m ay judg by its h di ng ) th e f mou C ttl e Pr obl em

e ea a s a -

Tr ad ition s .

It is n tur al th at h i s tory o l g n d h ould y mor e of his

a r e e s sa

m ch n ic l i n v en t i on s th n of h i m th m tic l chi e v m nt s
e a a a s a e a a a e e ,

which w ould ppe l l to th ver g e m in d H i machi n es '

a a ess e a a . s

w r u s d with gr eat eff ct ga in s t th e R oman s in th s i ege

e e e e a e

of S yr cu e Thu h e c on triv e d ( o w
a s . e t old ) c t apult s
s o s e ar a s

i ngen i ou ly cons truct d to b qu lly s ervic bl t lon g o

s e as e e a ea e a r

Di od or us ,
v . 87 . 3 .
 TR A D T O N S I I 17

s h ort r ng e m chin e fo di s cha rgin g s h ow r s of m i s iles

a , a s r

e s

through h ol e s m de in th e w ll n d oth er cons i ti n g of a a s, a s s

l ong mova ble p ol es proj ecti ng bey on d th e wa ll which ith er s e

dr oppe d h ea vy W eight on th e en emy s hip s o gr ppl ed -

s

s , r a

th e ir prow s by mean s of n ir on h an d o a b eak lik th t of a r e a

a cr n e th en lifte d th em i nt o th e ai and let th em f ll gai n

a , r a a .
1

M rc e llu s is s id to h av e d e rid d hi own n gi n ee r s with the

a a e s e

w ord s S h all w n ot m ke an end of ghti ng gain t thi s

,

e a a s

geometric l B ri reu w h o u ses ou s hip s lik e cup s to l adle

a a s r

w ter fr om th sea driv s off ou s a mbu a ignomi n i ou s ly

a e , e r c

with cudg el blow n d by th multitud of m i s i le th t h s, a e e s s a e

hurl s t u s all at on ce outdo th e hun dr d h n ded gi an t of

a es e -

a s

but ll to n o purp os e fo the R oman w r in a ,

r s e e

s uch bj ct t rr or th t i f th y did bu t s
a e epi ec e of rop a ,

e ee a e

o w ood proj e cti n g b ove th wall th ey w ould cry th r e it

r a e , e

is d cl ri ng th at A rchi mede s w setti n g ome engi ne in

e a as s

m oti on gain s t th em n d w ould turn th ir b cks nd un

a , a e a a r

a w y Th
a thin g h ow v r w er m er ely th diver s i on
ese s, e e ,
e e s

of ge om e try t pl y n d A rchi m d h i m lf ttach d no

a a a e es se a e

i mp ortan c to th m A cc ordi n g to Plutarch e e .

,

th oug h th e se i n ven ti on h d obt i n e d fo him th r n ow n of s a a r e e

mor th n hu man e g city h y et w ould n ot ev en deign to

a sa a , e

l eav b h i n d hi m ny writt n w ork on uch s ubj ect s but

e e a e s , ,

r g rdi n g ignobl an d ord i d th bu s i ne of m ch an ics n d

e a as e s e ss e a

e v ry s ort of
e t which i d i r e ct d to u s e n d pr ot h e pl c e d
ar s e a , a

his wh ol m biti on in th o p ecul ti on th be uty an d

e a se s a s e a

s ubtl ty of which is u n t i n t d by
e n
y d m i x tur of th e com a e a a e

mon n ed of lif e 4

e s .

(a ) A s tr on om y .

rch i me de did i n d ee d writ e on mech n i c l book On

A s e a a ,

S phe e m a kin g w hi ch i l os t ; thi s d crib e d the c on s tructi on

r -

,
s es

of s ph r e to i m it t
a th m oti on e of th s un m oon nd a e e s e ,
a

pl n et a C ic r o s w thi s c on triv an c
s .
5 n d giv es e d e cr i ption a e a a s

of it ; h e say s th t it r e pr sen t d th p ri od of th e moon a e e e e s

a n d th e pp ren t moti on of th s u n with uch ccur cy th t

a a e s a a a

it w ould e v en (ov er a h ort p eri od ) h ow th e clip ses of th e s s e

n d m oon A s P ppu s p k s of th os e w h o u n de r t n d
6
sun a . a s ea s a

P olyb i H i t iii 7 8 ; Li y i 8 4 ; Pl t r h M ll 15 17
1
us, s v . v xx v . u a c , a r ce us , cc . .
.
,

Ib c 17 Ib 17 3 4
2
Ib 14 .
, c . . .
, c . .

C rp i P ppu iii p 1 0 2 6 9 ; Procl o E l I p 4 1 1 6

. .
, .

5 us n uc
a us n a s, v , . . .
,
. . .

C i ro D
S
p i 2 1 22 T
ce i 63 D
,
t d e re 88 . .
, ,
7 7 30 . .
, e na . ear . 11 . .

0
18 A R C H I M EDES

the ma ki ng of s ph ere s n d pr oduc e model of th e h ea ven s by a a

mean s of th e ci r c ul r m oti on of w ter is p os s bl e tha t

a a i

A rchi med e s s s ph er w m ove d by w t er I n any c as e A rchi

e as a .

me des was much occup i d w i th a tronomy Li v y c all s him e s .

un icu s s p ect at or c a li id u m qu e H ipp archu s says Fr om

e s er ,

th ese observa ti on it i cl r that th e d i ffer en ces in th e y ear s

s s ea

ar e alt oge th e r s mall but a to th e s ol tic e s I a l mos t thin k

, ,
s s ,

tha t A rchi me des an d I h v e both err d to the e xtent of a a e

quarter ofa day both in th e ob erv ti on and in th e deducti on s a

there fr om A rch i m d th en h ad e viden tly c ons ide r ed th e e es

length of the y ea r M crobi u say he di s cove re d th e dis . a s s

tances of th e pl n t nd h hi m elf des cribes in his S a n d

a e s,
3
a e s

r eckoner th e a ppa r tu by which h meas ure d the apparent a s e

a ngular diamet er of th e u n s .

(B) M echa n ics .

A rchi me de s
wrote a w e h ll on th e or etic al m e ch an ics
,
s s a see, ,

an d it w as by th eory th t h olv d th e pr obl em To move a a e s e

gi ven wei ght by a gi n for ce fo it w s in r eli an c e on th e

ve , r a

irres i stible c ogency of h i pr oof that h e declar ed to H i er on s

th at any gi v en w eight could b move d by any gi v en forc e e .

(h ow ev er s mall ) an d b o s t d that i f h e w er e gi ven a plac e to

,
a e ,

s t an d on h e c ould move th e e rth ( ? B6

i K 3 a ya

, a 77 0 ), K a /(
it T u v,

as h e said in his Doric di l e ct ) Th t ory t old by P lutarch a . e s , ,

is th at when H i er on w
,

truck with m z e ment and as ked as s a a

A rchi me d e s to r e duc e th pr obl em to pr ctic e and to gi v e an e a

illu stration of s ome gre t w ei ght move d by a s mall force he a

,

x ed upon a s hip of burden w i th thre m s t s from th e king s e a

ar sen l which ha d on ly b en dr w n u
a with r eat l ab our by e a
p g
m any men and l oadi n g h e with m n y p sen ger s and a full
,
r a as

freight hi ms elf th e whil s i ttin g fa off with no gr eat effort

, e r ,

but only h oldi ng th e n d of a com p oun d pull ey ( oAow os) e fr

-

aar

qui etly in his h an d an d pullin g t it h drew th e ship along a , e

s moothly and sa fe ly as if s h e w r e m ov i n g thr ough th e s ea

e 4
.

The s t ory that A rchi m de s et th e R om an s hip s on r e by e s

an arr angemen t of bur n i n g gla s o c on cav e mirr or s is not -

sse r

foun d in any auth or i ty e rli r th n Luci an ; but it is q uite a e a

Livy
1
i 34 2 xx v Ptol my Sy t i I I I 1
. .
ol 1 p 1 94 2 3
.
2
e , n ax s , v
M robiu I Som S p ii 3 ; cf th
.
, .
,
. . .
3 '

i H PP 1yt
'

ac s, n n
Rf a . cz . . e o ur es n O us , e u
d D ck r
.

p 6 6 52 q
. . s .
, e . un e .

Plut rch M r ll a 14 , a ce us , c . .
 M EC H A N I C S 19

like ly th at h e di cov e r d om for m of burn i ng m irr or g s e s e -

, e . . a

par boloid of r e v oluti on which w ould r e ect to one p oi n t all

a ,

ray s f lli ng on its con cave s urf c e in dir e cti on p ar all l to

a a

a e

it xi s
s a .

A rchi m e de s own V i e w of th e r e l ativ i m p ortanc e of h is

s e

man y di s c ov e ri es i s w e ll h ow n by hi r e qu e s t to his fri en d s s s

a n d r e l a tiv es th at th e y h ould pl c e up on h is t omb a s

p e en a r e r s

tation of cyli n d r circum s cribi ng a s ph ere with an in sc ip

a e
,
r

ti on givin g th e rati o which th e cyli n de r b ar s to th e S ph r e ; e e

fr om which w e m y i n f r th at h e r eg rd ed th e dis c overy of a e a

thi s r ati o as his gr eat e s t achi e vem n t C ic er o wh n qu s tor e .

, e ae

in S icily f oun d th t omb in a n egl ct e d s t a

, te n d r ep air d it ;
e e a e
1

but it has n ow di a pp eare d an d n o on e k now s wh ere h w s s , e a

buri ed .

A rchi m e d e e n tir e pr e occup ati on by h is b tr ct s tudi is

s s a s a es

illu s trat e d by a n u mb e r of tori es We t old th t h w ould s . ar e a e

forg et ll b out his food an d s uch n c es s i ti e s of life n d w ould

a a e ,
a

b dr wi n g g eom tric l gur es in th e a s h e of th e e o wh en

e a e a s r r ,

an oi n ti n g hi m s lf i n th e oil on his bod O f th e sam e or t 2

e
y s
-
.
,

is th e ta l e th t wh en h e di c ov e r e d in a b th th e oluti on of
, s a a s

th qu es ti on r e f rr d to him by H i er on
e s to wh e th e r a c rt i n
e e , a e a

cr ow n s upp osed to ha ve b een m d of gold did not in fact cen a e

t i n a ce rt i n prop orti on of ilv er h e an n ked through th e

a a s ,
r a

s tr e t to h is h om hout i n g bpm pm kill ed '

3
e H w e s e ca , e zJ ca . e as

in th e s ack of S y r cu se by R om n oldi er Th e s t ory is

a a a s .

t old in v ri ou s forms ; th e m os t p i ctur e qu e is th t foun d in

a s a

T e t es whi ch r e pr e s n t him
z z ,
s y i n g to a R oman s oldi e r e s as a

w h o foun d hi m i n t en t on s om e di gram s which h e h d dr w n a a a

in th e du s t an d c m e too cl ose S tan d a w y f ll ow fr om m y

a , a ,
e ,

di gr am wh e re t th e m n w s s o en rag ed th t h kille d
a a a a a e

him 4 .

S um mar y of m ain a ch iev e m e nts .

geometry A rch i medes s w ork con is ts in the mai n of

In

s

origi n al i n v es t i g ti on s in t o th e qu adr ature of curvili n ear

a

pl n e gur es nd th qu dr ture and cubatur e of curved

a a e a a

surf ces The s e i n v es t i gati on begi nning wh er Euclid

a . s, e

s

B ook XI I l e ft off ctu lly (in th e w ord s of C h as l es ) gav

,
a a e

C i ro T
1 64 q
ce P lut rch M
u sc v
. ll c 17
. s .
2
a , ar ce u s, . .

V i tr i
,
3
D hit t m i 1 9 10
uv us , e ar c ec /u , x . .
,
.

T t 4
C hi li d ii 3 5 1 3 5
z e z es , a . . . .
20 A R CH MEDES I
birth to th e ca lculu of th in n it con ce iv ed an d brought to
.
s e e

p erfecti on ucc e i vely by K pl r C v li r i Fer m t Lei bn i

s ss e e ,
a a e ,
a ,
z

n d N e wt on H e p erf or m d in fa ct what is e quiv l en t to

a . e a

i n teg ti on in n d i n g th e a r
r a of par bolic s eg m n t an d of ea a a e ,

a pir l th
s a s urf c e
,
n d v olu m e of a
e ph r n d s eg men t of
a a s e e a a

a pher e nd th volu m es of ny egm en t of th e s olids of

s , a e a s s

r ev olut i on of th econ d degr e I n rith metic h c lculat d

e s e . a e a e

a ppr ox i m ti on to th v lu e of
a in th e c our se of which cal
s e a 77 ,

cul ti on h s how s th at h e could appr oxi m t e to th valu of

a e a e e

s qu r root s of large o m all n on quar n u mb er ; h furth er

a e r s -

s e s e

i n ven t d s ystem of r i thm tic l t er mi n ol ogy by which h e

e a a e a

could xpr s in l ngu g ny n umb r up to th at which w

e es a a e a e e

s h ould write dow n with 1 follow d by m illi on m illi on e

ciph er I n m ch n i c h n ot on ly w ork d ou t th pri n cipl e of

s . e a s e e e s

th e ubj ect but dv n c ed o f

s to n d th c n tr of gr vity
a a s ar as e e e a

of gmen t of a p r bol
a se em i c i rcl con h em i ph e r e
a a a, a s e, a e, a s ,

a se g men t of s ph r e a r i ght g m n t of a p r bol oid n d

a e ,
se e

a a a

a s ph er oi d of r ev oluti on H i m ch n ic as we h ll ee h as . s e a s, s a s ,

b come mor e i m portan t in r l tion to hi geom etry s in c th

e e a s e e

di cov ry of th e tr at i e c ll d Th M thod wh i ch w as for m rly

s e e s a e e e e

s upp o ed to b e lo t L tly h e i n v en t e d th wh ol e s c i en ce of
s s . as , e

hyd ro t atic which g i n h e c rr i d o fa as to giv e mo t

s s, a a a e s r a s

c ompl ete i n v tigati on of th pos i ti on of r e t an d s tability of

es e s s

a right egm nt of p r ab oloid of re voluti on o t in g in

s e a a a a

u i d w i th it b e ith r upwa rd s o dow n w rd bu t o th t

s as e e r a s, s a

th b a e i
e ith r wh olly bov o wh olly bel ow th e urfac of
s s e e a e r s e

th uide Thi r pr . nt u m of m th m tical

s e chie ve es e s a s a e a a

m n t un s urp s d by n y on e m n in th e w orld s h is t ory

e as e a a .

Ch ar acter of tr eatis es .

Th etr eati e s a with out excepti on mon u men t of math

s r e, , s e

m tic l e xp os i t i on ; th gr du l r v l ati on of th
a a pl n of e a a e e e a

att ck th e mas t e rly ord ri n g of th e pr op os iti on

a , th e t e r n e s, s

e l i m i n ti on of e v e rythi n g n ot i m me d i t ly r e l v n t to th
a a e e a e

purpos e th e n i s h of the wh ol r e o i mpr e s iv e in th ir

, e, a s s e

p erfecti on as to cr e te a fe li ng aki n to w e in th m in d of a e a e

th e r eader A P lutarch sai d. It is n ot p o s ibl to nd in

s ,

s e

g ometry mor di fcult and tr oubl e ome qu e ti ons or proofs

e e s s

s et ou t in s i m pl e r an d cl ear e r pr op o iti on Th e r e is at th e s s

Plut rch M ll c 17 1
a , a r ce us , . .
 OH A R A CTER or TR EA T S ES I 21

sa me ti m c ert i n my t ry v e ili n g th e w y in which h

e a a s e a e

arriv e d at hi r e ult s Fo it i cl r th at th ey w e re n ot
s s . r s ea

d i s cover d by th s t e p whi c h l e d up to th em in th e ni s h e d
e e s a

tr e ti ses If th e geometri cl tr eati se t ood al one A rchi

a . a s s ,

me d e s might s eem a s Wa lli s a id s it w r e of t purp ose

, s ,

a e se

to h v e c ov er e d up th tr c e of his i n ves t i gati on s if h h d

a e a s a e a
,

grudg e d p os terity th e s ecr et of h i me th od of i nquiry while s ,

h e wi s h e d to e xt ort fr om th em as sen t to h i r e s ult A nd s s

.

i n d e d ( g i n in th e w ord s of W ll i ) n ot on ly A rchi me de s
e a a a s

but n e rly all th e an ci n t s s o hid fr om pos t er i ty th eir meth od

a e

of A n ly i s th ough it i cl ea r th t th ey h d on e th at m or
a
( s
) s a a e

m od ern m ath e m tici n foun d it ea i er to i n v n t a n e w a a s s e

A n ly s i s t han to s e k ou t th e old
a A p arti a l e xc e pti on i e

. s

n ow furn i s h e d by The M ethod of A rch i m ed es s o h pp i ly d i s ,

a

c ov r d by H eib erg I n thi s b ook A rchi me de s t ell s u s h ow

e e .

h e d i c ov r e d c ertai n th e or em in qu dr atur e an d cubatur e

s e s a ,

n am e ly by th u s e of m ch n ic s w i ghi ng l emen t s of
-

e e a , e e a

gur e ga in t l m en t s of n oth er i mpler gure th e men s ura

a s e e a s ~

t i on of w hi ch w alr e dy kn ow n A t th e ame t i me h e is as a . s

c ar ful to i n s i t on th e di ffer n ce betw e n (1 ) th me n

e s e e e a s

wh i ch m y b ufc i n t to s ugg t th truth of th or em s

a e s e es e e ,

a lth ough n ot furn is h i n g s ci n t i c proofs of th em an d (2 ) th e ,

e

rigor ou d m on tr t i on of th em by orth odox g om tr i cal

s e s a s e e

m eth od which m u t foll ow be for th y can b e n l ly cc pt e d

s s e e a a e

as e s t bli s h d
a e :

c rt i n th i n g s h
e a y t b c m cl e r to m by

,
e sa s,

r s e a e a e a

me ch n ic l m th od lth ough th y h ad to b d mon tr t e d by

a a e ,
a e e e s a

geom try ft rw rd becau s e th ei r i n v tig ti on by th id

e a e a s es a e sa

m eth od d i d n ot furn i h n ctu l d m on s tr ti on Bu t i t i s a a a e a . s

of c our e i r wh en w e h v pr vi ou ly cquir e d by th e
se as e ,
a e e s a ,

m eth od s om e k n owl e dg e of th qu s ti on s to upply th pr oof

,
e e , s e

th n i t is to n d it with out ny pr evi ou s knowle dge

a Thi s a .

h e a dd s i r as on why in th e c e of th e th or m th t
,

s a e ,
as e e s a

th e v olu m es of c on e an d pyr mi d on e th i rd of th
a a a ar e -

v olu me s of th e cyli n d er n d pris m r s p ctiv ly h vin g th a e e e a e

s am e b s n d e qu l h ight th e pr oof s of wh i ch Eud oxu s w s

a e a a e ,
a

th e r t to d i s c ov er n o m ll s h r e of th e cr dit s h ould be
s ,
s a a e

g i v en to Democr i tu s w h o w a s th e r s t to s t t the f ct a e a .

th ough with out pr oof .

Fi n lly h e y th t th e v ery r s t th eor em which h fou n d

a ,
sa s a e

ou t by m a n s of m ch n i c was th t of th
e s p r t e tr eat i se
e a s a e e a a
 LI S T O F EXTA N T WO R K S 23

Qurra b ook
ttribute d to A rchi m des th pr opos iti on
th e is
"

a e ,
e s

c ann ot be h is in th eir pr s en t for m s in ce hi n me i e veral e , s a s s

ti mes m n ti on e d in th em ; but it is quite li k ly th t ome

e e a s

of th em e of A rc hi m e d e n origi n n ot bly th ose

ar bout th e a a a
,

geom tric l gur e c ll e d ola Aos ( s h o m ke r s kn ife ) n d

e a s a

e a

a

o iA w o (prob bly salt ce ll r r e s pe ctive ly n d P r op 8 be r

-
c v a -

a a . a

in g on th tri e cti on of n n gl e
e s a a .

Th e r e is l s o th e Ca ttle P r oblem in e pigr mmatic for m

a -

a ,

which purp ort s by its h e ding to hav b een commun ic t ed by a e a

A rchi m e d e to th e m th em tici an at A l ex n dri in

s l ett er a a s a a a

to Er at os th en e s Wh eth er th e e pigr am m t i c for m i d u to

. a s e

A rchi m e des h i m s lf o n ot th er e i n o ufci n t r e on fo e r ,

s s e as r

doubtin g th e p o ibility that th e ub t n c of it w s s t ss s s a e a e as a

probl m by A rchi m d s
e e e .

Tr ace s of l os t w or ks .

O f w ork s
w hi ch e l os t w e h av th e followi ng tr ce s ar e a .

1 I n v e s tig ati on s r e l t i n g to p olyh d a

. r efe rr ed to by a e r ar e

Pappu w h o ft er alludi ng to th ve regul ar p olyh edr

s ,
a e a,

de cr i bes thirt een oth r di cov er d by A rchim edes wh i ch

s e s s e ar e

sem i r egul ar -
b ei n g cont ain ed by polygon quil t er l and
,
s e a a

e qui n gul r but n ot ll imil r 1

a a a s a .

2 Th r e w as a b ook of rith m e t i c l c on t n t d e dic at e d to

. e a a e

Z u ippu
e x W l earn fr om A rchim de s hi m s lf th t it de lt
s . e e e a a

W ith th e n a m i n g of n u m be s ( o o y g g 63 lp G/ B ) nd
2
r K ar v a t 7 1 C L H V a

e xp ou n d d th e y t e m which w e n d in th e S a nd
e s eckon
s of ,
-
r er ,

e xpr s i n g n u m b e r s high r th n th os
e s which could be written e a e

in th e ordi n ary Gr e e k n ot t i on n u mb er in fact (as w e h v e a , s a

said) up to th e en ormou s gur e r pr es n te d by 1 follow ed by e e

m ill i on m illi on ciph r e s .

3 O n e o m or e w ork on m ch n ic s
. r e llud d to con t i n s e a ar a e a

ing pr op os iti on n ot i n clud d in th e e xt n t tr eati s On P l n e

s e a e a

E gu i li br i vn s Pappu m n ti on w ork On Ba l n ces o L ve s

. s e s a a r e r

( p { y
w t e w ) in which
v it w

pr ov e d ( s it l s o w s in Philon as a a a

s

an d H e r on s M echa n ics ) th t gr e ter circles overp ow r le ser

a a e s

circl wh en th ey r e v olv e about the sam cen tr e H er on too

es e , ,

s p ea k s of writin gs of A rchi m e d es which b ar th e titl e of

e

1
Pappu s , v , pp 3 5 2 8 . .

2
c
A r h im ed e s , vol ii , pp 2 1 6 1 8 2 3 6 1 7 . . .
, .
-
2 2 ; of p 2 2 0 4 . . . .

3
P appu s, v iii , p 1 0 6 8 . .
24 A R C H MEDE S I
w ork s on th e lev r
r f r s to p oblem s on the e S i m pliciu s e e r

ce nt e o
f g a vi ty
r
p oB p oZ r uch s th e m n y e l e gan t
, K eur
'
a uc ,
s a a

probl m solv d by A rch im d s n d oth r the obj ct of which

e s e e e a e s, e

is to h ow h ow to n d th c en tr of gr v i ty th t i s th e p oi n t
s e e a ,
a ,

in body uch th t if th b ody i hun g up fr om it th e b ody

a s a e s ,

will r m i n t r e t in n y p os it ion Th i r ec lls th e a u mp

e a a s a .
2
s a ss

tion in th Qu ad a tu e ofthe P a bola (6 ) that if body h n g s

e r r r a ,
a a

a t r es t fr om point th e c entr of gr v i ty of th b ody an d th e

a ,
e a e

p oin t of s u p n i on e in th me v rt i c l l i n P ppu h as
s e s ar e sa e a e . a s

a i m il ar r em rk with r f r n c
s to poin t of su ppo t addin g
a e e e e a r ,

th t th cen tr e of gr v i ty is d ter min d a s th e in t r e ct i on of

a e a e e e s

tw o tr i ght l i n e s in th b ody thr ough tw o p oi n t of s upp ort

s a e ,
s ,

whi ch tr ight l in s s v rt i c l wh en th body is in quilibriu m

a e ar e e a e e

s o s upp ort d Pappu l o give the ch r ct ri t i c ofth e c en tr

e . s a s s a a e s e

of gr vity m n ti on e d by S i m pliciu
a ob s e rvi n g th t th i
e is s, a s

th mos t fu n d men t al pr in cipl of th e th eory of th e c en tr e of

e a e

gr av i ty th l m nt ry pr op o i ti on of wh i ch e foun d in
, e e e e a s s ar

A rchi m de s On E qu i li b i u m s (m p2 io oppon di ) n d H r on s

e s r a e

t v

M e ha n i c c A rchi m d him lf cit pr op os it i on wh i ch m u t

s . e es se es s s

h v been prov d l s wh r
a e g th t th centr of gr v i ty
e e e e e, e . . a e e a

of c on d i v i d th xi in th r ti o 3 1 th e lon g r s g m n t
a e es e a s e a ,
e e e

b ing th t dj cent to th v rt x ; h l s o s y that i t i

e a a a e e e
3
e a a s

s

prov d in th E qu i li b i u m th t th c n tr of gr vity of n y
e e r s a e e e a a

se g m n t of right ngl d conoid (i p r bol oi d of r e volut i on )

e a -

a e . e . a a

d i v i d th xi in uch w y th t th p orti on t ow rd s th
es e a s s a a a e a e

v ert x is d oubl of th r m i n d r It i p o s ibl th at th er e

e e e e a e .
1

s s e

w s or i g i n lly
a l rg r w ork by A rchi m d s On E qu ili b i u ms
a a a e e e r

of wh i ch th s urv i v i n g b ook On P la n E qu i li br i u m s form d

e s e e

O n ly p rt ; in th t c s r pi f y B n d
a a
poB p i m y a a e 7 e v r V a K GV T a t a

on ly b lt r n t i v t i tl
e a Fi n lly H r on y th t A rch i
e a e es . a ,
e sa s a

m ed l id dow n c rtai n proce dur in book b r i n g th e

es a a e e a ea

t i tl e Book on S upp orts

4 Th e on of A l e x n dr i
. qu ote pr op os i ti on from w ork a a s a a

of A rch i m d c ll e d C topt i c (pr op rt i of m i rror ) to th

e es a a r a e es s e

e ff ct th t thing s thr ow n in t o w at r l ook l arge r an d s till

e a e

l rg er th f rth er th y in k O ly mpiod o u too m n ti on s

a e a e s .
6
r s, , e

H ro M h
1
e i 1 32n, ec a n cs , . .

Sim pl o A ri t D
2
l o ii p 5 0 8
. n 3 0 Br d i ; p 5 4 3 2 4 H i b
s . e ca e , , . a , an s . .
,
. e .

M th od L mm 1 0
11
e , O Flo ti g B od i
e a ii 2 .
1

n a n es ,
H ro M h i
. .

5
e 1 25 n, ec a n cs , . .

Th o o P tol my Sy t i i p 2 9 H l m
6
e n n e s n ax s , , .
, a a .
 TR A C ES O F LO S T WOR K S 25

th t rchi me d pr ove d th e ph en omen on of r e fra cti on by

a A es

m ean s ofth e ri n g pl c e d in th e v e s e l (ofw t er ) A s ch oli t

a s a as

to th e P s udo Euclid Ca top t i ca qu otes a pr oof which h

e -

s r ,
e

attribut e to A rchi med es of th e equ ality of th e angl s of

s , e

in ciden ce an d of r e e cti on in mirr or a .

Th e tex t of A r ch i me d e s .

r on Pappu n d Th on all cite w ork s of A rchi me des

He , s a e

which n o l on g r urviv f ct which s how s th at uch w ork s

e s e, a a s

w ere s till x tan t at A l e xan dr i a a lat e s th th i rd nd fourth

e s a e a

c en tur i e s A D Bu t it i e viden t th t tten ti on c m e to b

. . s a a a e

con c en tr at d on tw o w ork on ly th e M e su emen t ofa Ci cle

e s ,
a r r

a n d On the Spher e a n d Cyli n d er Eu tociu (f l b out A D 5 0 0 ) . s . a . .

on ly wr ot e c omm en t ri e on th s w ork n d on th P la n e a s e e s a e

E qu i li b i u ms an d h e do s n ot s eem
.
r ,
ven to h ve b n e e a ee

a cqu a i n t e d with th Qu a d a tu e of the P r bola o th w ork

e r r a a r e

On Spi r a ls lth ough th es h av e s urv i v d

, a I idoru of Mi letu e e . s s s

r evi s e d th c omm en tar i es of Eutociu on th Measu r em en t

e s e

ofa Ci cle n d th e tw o B ook

r a O n the Sphe a n d Cyli n d er s r e ,

n d it w ould
a eem to h a v been in th e s chool of I i doru s
s e s

th t th s tr ti s w r tur n e d from th ei r or i gin l Dor i c

a e e ea se e e a

in t o th e ord i n ry l n gu g e w i th lt e r ti on d i gn e d to m a k
a a a ,
a a s es e

th e m m or i n t ll i g i bl to l m n t ry pupil
e e Bu t n e i th r in
e e e e a s . e

I s i d oru s s ti me n o
rli r w s th r n y c oll ect d ed i t i on
r ea e a e e a e

of A rchi m d s w ork s o th t th os wh i ch w r l ss r d

e es s, a e e e e ea

t n d d to di s pp e r
e e a a .

I n th e n i n th c en tury L on w h o r es t or ed th U n i v e r i ty e ,
e s

of C on s t n ti n opl c ollect d t og eth e r ll th w ork s th t h

a e, e a e a e

could n d t C on tan ti n opl n d h d th m n u cr i pt wr i tt n

a s e, a a e a s e

(th rch
e e typ
a H ib e
g s A ) which through it
e, ed e riv at i v s
r

,
s e ,

w a up to th e di c ov e ry of th C on s t nti n opl e m n u s cript (C )

s, s e a a

con t i n i n g Th M ethod th e on ly s ourc e fo th e Gre k tex t

a e ,
r e .

Leon s man u cript c am e in th e tw lfth c en tury to th e

s ,
e ,

N or man C ourt t Pal e r mo n d th en c e p ss d to th e H ou

a ,
a a e se

of H oh en s t uf n Th e n with ll th libr ry of M n fr e d i t
a e .
,
a e a a ,

w s gi v en to th e P op e by C h rl e of A nj ou ft e r th e b ttl e
a a s a a

of B n e v n t o in
e e It w in th e Papal Li br ry in th e as a

y r s 1 2 6 9 n d 1 3 1 1 but om e ti me fte r 1 3 6 8 pas sed i nto

ea a , ,
s a ,

Ol y mpiod o
1
o A ri t M t o ologi
r us ii p 94 I d l r ; p
n s . e e r ca , , .
, e e .

Bu ss e .
26 A R C H MEDES I
priv t e h n d I n 1 4 9 1 it belong d to G orgiu s V ll w b c
a a s . e e a a,

tr n s l ted fr om it the port i on s publ i s he d in his p os thumou

a a s

w ork De e peten d i s et fu gien d i s r ebu s

sc n d i n t en d e d tc a

publ i h th e whol e of A rchi m d es with Eu to iu s s commen

s e c

t ri s On V all de th in 1 5 0 0 it w s bought by A lb rtu

a e . a s

a a e s

Pi u s Pr in c e of C rp i p
,
i n g in 1 5 3 0 to h i n eph w R odolphua ,
as s s e ,
s

Pi u s in wh o ,
p os ss i on i t r m in e d t i ll 1 5 4 4 A t s ome
se se e a .

t i me b etw een 1 5 4 4 nd 1 5 6 4 it d i s pp r d l ea vi n g n c a a ea e ,

tr ca e .

Th e gre t r p ar t of A w s tr an l t e d i n t o L ti n in 1 2 6 5
a e a s a a

by Wi ll i m of Moerbek t th P p l C ourt at V it rbo Thi

a e a e a a e . s

tr n l t i on in Wi ll i m s ow n h n d x i t s t R om (C od
a s a ,
a

a ,
e s a e

O ttob on l t 1 8 5 0 H ib g s B ) n d i s on e of ou pr i m e

. a .
,
e er ,
a r

s ourc fo lthough th e tr n l ti on w s h s tily don n d

es, r ,
a a s a a a e a

th tr n s l t or om e t i m es m i u n d r t ood th e Gr e k h e foll ow e d
e a a s s e s e ,

its w ord i n g s o cl o ely th a t h i ve r s i on is fo purp os s 0 1 s s ,

r e

c ollat i on s g ood s Gr e k m nu cript Willi am u d l so

, a a a e a s . se a

fo hi tr n l t i on n oth e r m n u s cript fr om th s m e libr ry

r s a s a ,
a a e a a

wh i ch cont i n ed w ork s n ot i n clude d in A Thi s m n u s cript

a . a

w as coll ction of w ork on m ch n i c an d optics ; Willi

a e s e a s arr

tr n s l t d fr om it th e tw o Book s On Floa ti n g B od i es an d 11
a a e ,

a sl o c on tai n d th P la n E qu i li b i u m s n d th Qu d tu n
e e e r a e a r a

of th P a bol e fo wh i ch b ook Wi ll i m u e d b oth m n u

r a a, r s a s a

s cri pt s .

Th e four mo t i mp ortan t xt n t Gr e k m n u s cript s (ex ce p1

s e a e a

C th C on t n t i n opl m n u s cr i pt d i cov r d in 1 9 0 6 ) w e <

, e s a e a s e e r

C op i e d from A Th rl i s t is E th e V en i c e m n u c ip
. e ea e , a s r i

(M rci n u sa wh i ch w as writt en betw een th y e r s 1 4 4

a e a

an d 1 4 7 2 Th e n e xt is D th Flor en c m n u s cript (L ur en t
.
,
e e a a

XXV III wh i ch wa copi d in 1 4 9 1 fo A ngelo Poli i ano

. s e r z

p e rmi s i on h v i ng been obt i ne d with Some d i fculty in on

s a a c

s qu n c e of th j
e e lou y with wh i ch V ll gu rd d his tr e s ur
e ea s a a a e a e

Th e oth e r tw o a G (P ri s 2 3 6 0 ) c opi e d fr om A ft e r i t h <

r e a .
a a

p e d to A lb rtu Piu and H (P r i 2 3 6 1 ) copi ed in 1 5 4

as s e s s, a s .
4
.

by C hr i s toph ru s A u er fo G org s d A mag n c B i s h o]e v us r e e

r a ,

of R od e Th ese four man u s cript s with th

z . tr n s lat i on 0 , e a

Wi ll i m of Moerbeke (B ) en abl e th e readi n gs of A to b

a ,

i n ferr d e .

A Lati n tr an l ati on w s ma d e t th i n s t n ce of Pop

s a a e a

N i ch ol V a bout th e y ar 1 4 5 0 by J a c obu s C e mon ns i

as e 1 e <
 TH E TEXT O F A R C H I M EDES 27

It d e from A wh i ch w as th e ef0 1 e acce ss ibl to Pop e

wa s m a ,
r e

Nich ol as th ough it does n ot s eem to h a v e b el ong d to h im e .

R eg i omon t an u s mad e a c opy of thi s tr ans lati on a bout 1 4 6 8

an d r e v i e d it with the h e lp of E
s
(th e V enic e m n u s cript of a

th e Gr ee k t ex t ) an d a c opy of th e s ame tran s l ati on b e lon gi n g

.

to C a rdi n a l B es s a ri on a s w e ll as an ot h er old copy wh ich ,

s ee ms to h av e b e en B .

Th e ed iti o pr i nceps w s publi s h ed at Bas e l a u d H er va

(p a

g iu m) by Thomas Gechau ffV en ator iu s in 1 5 4 4 Th e Gr ee k .

t e xt w a b ased on a N ur n b e rg MS (Nor imbe g C ent V

s . r . .
,

a
pp 1 2 ) which was copi e d in th e s i x t een th c en tury fr om A
.

but wi th i nt erpolati on s d riv ed from B ; the L tin t ans la e a r

ti on w s R egiomontanu s s re vi i on of Jacobus C emon n is

a

s r e s

(N o imb C en t V
r . .
,

A tr ns la ti on by F C omman di n u s publi s h ed at V e n i c e in
a .

1 5 5 8 con t ai ne d th e M easu em n t o a C ir cle On S i

f p ls th e r e ,
r a ,

Qu a d r a tu r e of the P a r a bol a On Con oid s , a nd Spher oi d s , an d

th e S a n d -
r eclcon er . Thi s tr l tion was
an s a bas edion th e B as el
ed i ti on but C ommand inu s, an d oth r Gre ek a l o c on s ult e d E
s e

man u s cri pt s .

Tor e ll i s e diti on (O x f ord 1 7 9 2 ) al s o follow ed th ed i tio

,
e

p i nceps in th e mai n but Tor e ll i a l s o c oll at ed E

r Th e book , .

w as br ought ou t a ft e r Tor e lli d th by A bram R obe rt s on

s ea ,

w ho l o c ollat ed e mor m an u s cripts i ncludi ng D G

a s v e , ,

an d H Th e coll ti on h ow e v r w s n ot w e ll don
. a n d th e ,
e , a e, a

e diti on w n ot pr op e rly c orr e ct e d wh en m th e pr es

as s

Th e s c on d edi ti on of H ib e g s t e xt of all th w orks o

.

f

e e r e

A rchi m d e with Eu tociu s s c omm nt ri es Lati n tr n s l t i on

e s e a ,
a a ,

a pp r tu a acriticu s &c is n ow a v ila ble (1 9 1 0 1 5 ) and of

s , .
,
a ,

cour se s up er sed es th e r t e d i ti on (1 8 8 0 1 ) an d ll oth r s

, s a e .

It n tur lly i n cludes The Method the frag ment of th e S tom a

a a ,

chi on n d s o much of the Gree k tex t of th e two Books On

, a

Floa ti n g B od i es as c ould b e r s tore d from th e n wly d i e e s

c ov re d C ons tan ti nople m n u cr ipt

e a s .
I

C ontents of T he M ethod .

d s cription of th e e xt n t w ork s of A rchi medes

Our e a

m y s uit bly b egi n with The M ethod (th e full titl e is O n

a a

Th Wo k of A h im d
1
e d it d i m od r rot ti o b y th pr
s rct e es , e e n e n n a n e es en

writ r i 1 8 9 7 w b d o H ib g r t d it i o d th S ppl m t

e n , as as e n e er s s e n , an e u e en
28 A R C H M EDE S I
M echa n i ca l Theor em s M ethod (c om m uni cat e d) to E r a tos then es ) ,

P r emi s i n g c e rta i n pr op os iti on s in m e ch an ic s m os tly ta ker

from th e P la n e E qu ili br i u ms , an d a l emm a which for m s
Pr op 1 of On Con oid s a n d Spher oi d s A rch i m e d e s obt a i n s by
.
,

hi s me ch an ica l m eth od th e foll ow in g r es ult s Th e a r e a of an y .

seg men t of a s e ct i on of a right an gl e d c on e (pa r a b ol a i s s oi

) -

th e tr i angl e with th e sa m e ba se a n d h e ight (P r op Th e .

right cylin de r c i rcu ms cribi ng a s ph ere or a s ph er oid of r ev olu

ti on an d with ax i s e qua l to th e d ia met er or a xi s of re v olution
of th e s ph e r e or s phe roid is 1 17 ti m e s th e s ph e r e or s ph eroi d
r e sp ectively (Pr op s 2 P r op s 4 7 8 1 1 n d th e v olu m e of
.
,
.
, , ,

an y gm n t cut off by pl n t right n gle to th e xi

se e ,
a a e a a s a s .

from ny r i ght angled c onoi d (p r b ol oid of r voluti on)

a -
a a e

s ph r ph roi d n d obtu se angl ed conoid (hyp rb oloid) in

e e, s e ,
a -
e

t rm of th con which h th e m e b
e s e e th e egm n t n d as sa as e a s s e a

e qu l h i ght I n Pr op 5 6 9 1 0 A r chi m de u es h is meth od

a e . s .
, , ,
e s s

to n d th e c n tr e of gr vity of e eg m en t of p rab ol oi d of a a s a a

r voluti on
e s ph e r e ,
an d a ph roid r p ctiv ly P r op ,
a s e es e e . s .

12 15 n d Pr op 1 6
a e c on c e r n d with th
. cubatur e of tw o
ar e e

s p e c i l s ol i d gur
a
(1 ) S uppo pri m w i th a qu r e b e
es . se a s s a as

to h v a cyli n d r in cr i be d in i t th circular b s of th
e a e s ,
e a es e

cyl i n d er b i n g circl i n cr i b d in th qu re wh i ch e
e es s e e s a s ar

th b e of th
ases pr i m n d u pp o e plan e draw n throu gh
e s , a s s a

on i d e of on e b
e s of th pr i m n d thr ough th at d i m et r of
a se e s a a e

th c i rcl e in th opp o i t b
e which is p r ll l to th
e id s e ase a a e e sa

s id e .Th i pl n cut s of s f ol i d b ou n d e d by tw o pl n e
a e nd a s a s a

by p rt of th curv e d s urf c of th e cyl i n d er ( ol i d h p ed

a e a e 3. s s a

li k e a h oof cut off by plan ); n d Pr op 1 2 1 5 pr ov th t a e a s . e a

it v olu m e i on s i xth of th e v olu m e of th pr i sm

s s e -

(2 ) S u p e .

p os cyl i n d r i n s cr i b e d in cu b s o th t the circul r b s e

'

e a e a e, a a a s

of th cyli n d er e c i rcl s i n crib d in tw o oppos it f c s of

e ar e s e e a e

th ecub an d s uppo e, n oth r cyli n d e r i m i larly in s cr i b d

se a e s e

w i th r fere n c e to two oth r oppos it e f c es Th e two cylin der s

e e a .

e n cl o se c rt i n ol i d w h i ch is ctu lly mad e up of i ght

a e a s a a e

h oof l i k that of P r op 1 2 R e p 1 6 pr ov es th at th
s

e . . . e

volu m of thi s ol i d is tw o third s of th t of th e cube A rch i

e s -

a .

m d e esob s erv e in his pr fac e th t a r e mark bl f ct a b ou t

s e a a e a

t
( 1 9 1 2 ) con a i n i n g The M ethod , on th e o igi na e d i i on of H e ib e
g (in
r l t r
H er mes , x l ii , 1 9 0 7 ) w i th e an s a i on b y Z e u h e n th
(B ibli oth eca M a the tr l t t
ma ti ca , vii s .
 TH E M E TH OD 29

t h ese solid r es p e cti v ely is th t ea ch of them is equ l to

s a a a

s olid e n cl o e d by
pla n es wh er eas th e v olu me of curvili n ear
s ,

s ol id s (s ph e r e s s ph er oid &c ) is g en e r a lly on ly e x pr es ibl e in

, s, . s

ter ms of oth er cur v ili n ear s olid s (cones n d cyli n ders ) I n a .

a cc ord an c e with h is di c tu m that the res ults obtai ned by the

mech n ic al met hod a e mere ly i n dica te d but n ot a ctually
a r ,

proved un less c on rme d by the rigor ou s meth od s of pure

,

g eometry A rchi mede s pr ov e d the fa ct s a bout th e tw o las t

,

name d s olid s by th e orthodox m et h od of e xh au sti on as

r egul rly u s ed by him in his oth er geometrica l treati s ; the
a se

proofs p ar tly los t w er e gi v en in Prop s 1 5 nd 1 6

, , . a .

We will r s t illu s trat e th e m ethod by givi ng th e argument

of P r op 1 b ou t th e a r a of parabolic s egmen t
. a e a .

Le t A B C b e th e se gmen t B D its di am t er C F th e t n gen t ,

e , a

at C Le t P b an y p oi n t on th e seg m n t an d let A K E
. e e , ,

OP NllI be dr aw n p a ra ll e l to B D Joi n CB and produc e it to .

meet M O in N an d FA in K a n d l e t K H be mad e e qu al to ,

KC .

N ow , by a pr op os iti on pr ov e d in a l emm a (cf Qu ad r a tu r e .

o the
f P a r a bola Pr op 5 ) ,
.

M O z OP CA : AO
CK : KN
HK : KN .

A l s o, by th e property of th e parabola ,
EB B D, so that
It follow th at if H C be rega rde d as th e bar of a b lan ce
s ,
a ,

a lin e TG e qu a l to P O an d pl c e d with it m iddl e p oi n t tH a s a

balan ces about K th e s traight li n e M O plac ed w her e it is

, , ,

i e with it middl e p oin t at N

. . s .

S i m il arly with a ll li n es a s M O P 0 in th e triangl e CFA , , ,

a nd th e segment CB A r es p e ctiv ely .

A nd th er e ar e th e s am e n um b er of th e e li nes Th r e for e s . e
 TH E M E TH O D 31

KA z AQ

c
n e es s a ry prove th at

prop er ty of th e el li p s e ,

there fore

wh enc e

ar ea s of
circles W th MM
i

,
PP

, QQ r es p e ctively as d i ameters
; , and thes e
 32 A R C H M EDES I
circles a e s cti ons m de by th plan e though N t rig :
r e a e a

ngl e to A A i n th cyl i n der th e s ph eroid n d th e con e A B

a s e ,
a

res p ectively .

Th er efor if H A A b l ev er an d th ecti on s of tl
e, e a ,
e s

sph r oid n d con e b both pl c d w i th th ei r c n tr es of g a i

e a e a e e r v i

at H t h s e , cti ons pl c d t H b lan c bout A th e s ecti(

e se a e a a e, a ,

cylin d r wh er e it is e .

Tr e ti n g ll th c orre p on d i n g e ct i on of th e seg m en t
a a e s s s 4

th e ph r oid th e c on
s e n d th ,
cyli n d r in th e s am e w e a e e a

w e n d th at th e cyl in d r with x i A G wh er e i t is b al an ce e a s , ,

a bout A th con e A E F n d the eg me nt A DC t og eth er w he

, e a s ,

both e pl ced w i th th ir c en tre of gra vity at H ; n

ar a e s a

if W b th c n tr of gr vity of th e cyl i n d er
e e e e th mid d a ,
e

poi n t of A G ,

HA '

A W (cyl i n de r , a xi s A G) (c on e A E F+ se
gm t A D C ). .

If w e c ll V th v olu m of th e con e
a e e A EF , an d S th ta of
s eg m en t of th ph er oid w e h v e s , a e

Z
AA
(cyl n d er ) i (V + S ) 3 V (V + S )
.

. .

AG
,
2

whil e

T h r e fore
e AA

: AG 3 V

3AA

w h en c e S V
<A G2

A g a n, i le t V be th e

volu m e of th e c on e A DC .

T h en V: V

: E G2 z D G2
2
BB
AG H

Z DGQ
AA
T

DG 2
z A G GA .

BB

Thr f r e e o e V : V A G2 z A G GA .

A G z GA
.
 "

TH E M ETH OD 33

A G SA A
I t follows th t
a S V

GA 2AG

g r i ef -

AG

A G

snA
' '
J
r A G

which r es ult stat e d by A rchi me d es in Pr op 8

is th e . .

Th e r s ult is th e am fo the segm en t of a s ph er e

e s e The r .

proof of c our e s lightly s i mpler i given in Pr op 7

, s , s . .

I n th e p rticula r c s e wh er e th e seg m en t is h lf th e s ph r e
a a a e

o s ph e r oi d th e r el ati on b e c om es
r ,

(P r op 2 3 )

S 2 V ,
s .
,

a n d it f oll ow s th a t th e v olu m e of th e wh ol e s ph e r e or s ph e roid

i 4 V wh er e V is th e v olu m of th e c on e A B B ; i e th e

s , e . .

v olu me of th s ph er e o ph er oid is tw o third s of that of th e

e r s -

circu ms cribin g cyli n der .

I n ord r n ow to n d th c en tr e of gr a vity of th e s eg me n t
e e

of a s ph roid w e m u s t h a v e th
e , e g m en t acti n g wher e i t i s e s ,

n ot at H .

Th er e for e for mul (1 ) b ove will n ot serv e But w e foun d

a a .

that
wh en ce M N (NP N Q ) (NP N Q ) N Q ;2 2 2 2 2
1
2

there for e HA AN (N P + N Q) N Q :
2 2
:
2
.

(Thi s is se parat e ly pr ov e d by A rchi me d e s fo th e s ph er e r

i n Pr op .

Fr om thi w e derive s u s u l th at th e con e A E F an d the

,
as a ,

seg m en t A DC b oth cti n g wher e they a e bal n ce volum

a r a a e

e qu al to th cone A E F pl ce d with it cen tre of gra vity t H

e a s a .

N ow th e c en tr e of gr vity of th e c one A E F i on the li n e a s

A G at a di s t an c e % A G fr om A Le t X b e th re quir ed c en tr e . e

of gr a vity of th e seg m en t Th en taki n g m omen t s a b out A .

, ,

w e have

A G) S AK

V (A A -
.

1
) AX , from a bove .
34 A R C H ME D E S I
Th er efor e

AXz A G (A A


% A G) (gA A . A G)

A A
4 A G);
(4

whence A X z XG (4 AA


3A G): (2 A A

-
A G)

which is the result obt in d by A rchi me d es in Pr op 9 for the

a e .

sph er e and in Pr op 1 0 fo th s ph er oid . r e .

I n th e case of th e h em i s ph e r oi d or h em i s ph e re th e w h o
A X X G b ec omes 5 3 a r s ul t obt i n e d for the h emi s ph er e in
,
e a

P r op 6. .

Th e c as es of th e p ar bol oid of r e v oluti on (P r op s 4 5 ) an d

a .
,

th e hyp erb ol oid of re v oluti on (P rop 1 1 ) follow th e s am e c our s e . ,

a n d it i s u nne c es sary to r pr oduc th m e e e .

Fo the cases of th tw o ol i ds d lt with at the en d of th e

r e s ea

treati e th e reader mu s t b re f rr d to th e propos iti ons th em

s e e e

s e l ve s I n ciden tally in P rop 1 3 A rchi me des nd s th e c entre

.
,
.
,

of gr vity of th e h lf of
a cyl i n d r cut by a plan e thr ough
a a e

th e a xi s or in oth r w ord th e c n tr e of gr av ity of a s emi

, ,
e s, e

circl e .

We will n ow t ak e th oth r tr ti e in the order in which e e ea s s

they app ear in th e e d i ti on s .

On th e Sph e r e an d C ylin d e r , I , I I .

The mai n re s ult s obtai n e d in Book I a e s h ortly s tated in r

a pr e fat ory l ett er to Do ith e u A rchi m e d es t ell s u s th a t

s s .

th ey ar e n ew n d th t h i n ow publi hi n g th em for the

,
a a e s s

r s t ti me in ord e r that m th m tici n may be a bl e to e x

,
a e a a s

ami n e th e pr oofs an d judge of th ir v lu e Th e r es ults ar e e a .

(1 ) that th e s urfac e of pher i four ti mes th at of a great

a s e s

circl e of th e s ph ere (2 ) th t th urf c e of any s egmen t of a

,
a e s a

s ph e re is e qu al to circle the r diu s of whi ch is e qu al to th e

a a

s tr aight lin e dr aw n fr om th v rte x of th e s eg men t to a point e e

on th e circu m f er en c e of th b se (3 ) th t the v olu me of a e a , a

cylin der circu ms cribi ng ph re n d with h eight e qu al to the a s e a

diameter of the s ph ere is of th e v olu me of the s ph er e ,

(4 ) th at th e s urf ac e of th e circu m s cribi ng cylin der i n cluding

its b as es is al s o g of th s urf c e of th s ph er e It is w orthy
e a e .

of n ot e th at whil e th e r s t , n d third of th es e pr op os iti on s a

app ear in the b ook in thi ord r

(Prop 3 3 a nd 3 4 r es pec s e s .
 ON TH E S PH ER E A N D C Y LI NDER , I 35

tiv e ly ), thi s was not th e orde r of their di s c ov ery ; for A rchi

m e d es tells u s in The Method th at
fr om the th eor em that a s ph e re is four ti mes as gre t s the a a

c on e with a gr eat circl e of th e s ph ere as bas e and with heigh t

e qu a l to th e r adiu s of th e s ph e r e I c on c e i ve d th e n oti on th t a

th e s urfa c e of any s ph e r e i four ti mes as gr eat as a gr a t s e

circl e in it for j udgi n g from th e fact that any circl e is qu a l

, e

to tri angle with base equ al to th e circu mfer enc e and h ight
a e

e qu al to th e r adiu s of th e circl e I a ppr e h en d e d tha t in l i k e , ,

m nn e r any s ph er e i s e qu l to a c one with bas e equ a l to th e

a , a

s urfa c e of the s ph er e an d h eight e qual to the radiu s

.

k I begi n s with d n iti on (of concav e in th e same

B oo e s

dir e cti on as appli e d to curv s o brok en li ne s an d surf ces of

e r a ,

ol i d s e ct or lid rhom bu s ) foll ow e d by

an d a so

a s ve

A u m pti on s all of i m p ort n c e

ss Of a ll li nes which ha
a the . ve

s m e ex tr emi ti es the s t a i ght l in e is the least a nd if th r e

a r e , , e ar

tw o curv e d or be nt li n es in plan h a ving the same x t mi a e e re

ties n d con cave in th s me di rection but one is wholly

a e a ,

i n clud d by o p artly i n clud d by an d p artly c omm on w i th

e ,
r e ,

th oth e r th e n th a t which i i n clud e d is th e l es s e r of th tw o

e ,
s e .

S i m il rly with pl an e s urf c

a n d s urfa c es c on c a v e in th e
a es a

s m a di re cti on Las tly A s u m pti on 5 is th e famou s A xi om

e .
,
s

of A r chi m e d es which h ow e v er w accor di ng to A rchi med e

,
as , s

him lf u s ed by earli er geom ter (E ud ox us in p articul r ) to

se ,
e s a ,

th e ff
e e ct th at Of u n equ a l ma gn i tu d es the g ea t er ex eed r c s

th l ess by su ch a ma gn i tu d e a
e when a dd ed to i tself c n be s, ,
a

m a de to exceed a n y as si gned m a g ni tu d e of the s ame ki n d

th e a xi om is of cour s e pr a ctica lly e quiva l en t to Eucl V Def 4 .
, .
,

an d i s cl os e ly c onn e ct e d with th e th e or em of Eu ol X 1 . . .

A s in applyi n g th e m eth od of e xh a u s ti on A rchi m e de s u

, ,

both circu ms crib ed and i n s cribe d gur es with a V iew to com

p r ess i n
g th em i n t o c oal es c en c e with th e cur v ili n ear gur e to

be mea s ur e d h e has to begi n with pr op os iti on s s h owi ng th at

, ,

given tw o une qua l magn itud e s th en h ow ever n ea r the ra ti o , ,

of greater to the l es s i to 1 it is pos s ibl e to n d two

th e s ,

str ight li n es s uch tha t th e greater i s to the less in a till less

a . s

ra tio an d to circu ms crib e n d i n cribe s i mila r p olygon to a s s

a circle or s e ctor s uch th at th e pe ri mete r or the area of th e

circums cribed polygon i s to th t of the i nne r in a r atio l e s
'

a s

th n th e gi v en r ati o (P rop 2
a l o j us t as Euclid prove s
s . a s ,

D 2
36 A R C H I M EDES

th at if w e c ontin u ally d oubl th e n umbe r of the s ide of the

,
e s

regul r polygon i n crib ed in circl e seg ment s will ulti ma tely be

a s a ,

left which ar e tog eth er les s th n any as s ign e d rea A rch i m de s a a ,

e

h s to s upplemen t thi s (P r op 6 ) by provi ng th t if w e i n crea s e

a . a ,

th e n u mber of th e s ides of a ci cu mscr i bed r egul ar p olygon r

s ufc i en tly w e c n mak e th ,

xc ess of th rea ofthe p olygon
a e e e a

ov r that of th e circl e l es s th n a ny gi
e n r ea A rchi me d es a ve a .

th n ddres s es hi ms lf to the problems of n di n g the su fa ce of

e a e r

any right c on e o cyli n d er pr obl ms n ally s ol v e d in P r op

r 13 , e s .

(th e cylin der) n d 1 4 (th e con e) C ircums cribi ng an d in c ib

a . s r

ing r gul ar p olygon s to th e ba e s of th e c on e an d cyli n d r h e

e s e ,

e r ct s pyram id
e an d pri s ms r s p ecti v e ly on th e p olyg on s as
s e

b e and circums cribe d or i n cribe d to th con e and cyli n der

as s s e

r p ecti v ely I n P rops 7 an d 8 he nd s th e s urfa ce of th e

es . .

pyramid i n crib d and circu ms cribed to th e c on e nd in

s s e
,
a

P r op 9 and 1 0 h pr ov es th t th e s urfa c
s . of th e i n crib ed
e a es s

an d c i rcu ms crib e d pyramid s r es p e cti v ely ( xcludi n g th e ba s e

) e

ar e les s an d gr ater than th e u rface of th e cone (excludi ng

e s

the b se) Prop s 1 1 and 1 2 prov e th e same thing of the

a . .

pris m i ns cribe d nd circums crib d to the cyl i n d er an d n lly

s a e , a

Pr op s 1 3 an d 1 4 prove by th e meth od of e xh u s ti on th t th e
.
, a , a

s urfa c e of th e c on or cyli n d er (e xcludi n g th e b as e s is e qu al

e
)
to th circle the r dius of which is a mean proport i on al
e a

betw e n the sid (i e gener tor) of th e con e or cy lin der nd

e e . . a a

th e r diu s o di me te r of th e b s e (i e is qu al to r s in th e
a r a a . . e 1r

c as of th e c on e n d 2 17 r s in the c ase of th e cyli n der wh er e

e a
,

r is th r adiu s of th e bas e and s a g enerator) A s A rchi med es

e .

h e re ppli es th e method of exhau sti on fo the rs t ti me we

a r
,

will illu trate by th e ca se of th e con e (Prop

s .

Let A be th e ba of th e c on e 0 a s tr aigh t li n e e qu al to its

se ,

radiu s D a li ne e qua l to a generator of the c one E a mean

, ,

proporti onal to C D and B a circl e with radi u s e qu al to E

, , .
 ON TH E S PH ER E A N D C Y L I N DER , I 37

If S is the s ur fac e of th e con e we h v e to prov e th t S B , a a : .

Fo if S is n ot qu l to B it mu s t b e eith er gr eat er or l e s
r ,
e a , s .

1 S upp os B
. S e .

C ircu m s crib e a r e gul a r p olygon ab out B and i n s cribe a s i m ila r ,

polygon in it s uch th at th e for mer has to th e l att r a r ti o le ss

, e a

th n S B (Prop
a : De s crib e b out A a s i mil ar polygon n d
. a a

set up fr om it a pyram id circu ms cribi n g th e c on e.

Th en (polygon ab out A ) (p olygon bout B ) a

2
C E2

C: D

(p olyg on
b out A ) (s urf c e of pyr mid )
a : a a .

Th ere for e (s urf c e of pyram id ) a

(polygonabout B ) .

Bu t (p olygon about B ) (polyg on in B) S B ; :

th er efore (s urfa ce of pyr mid) (p olygon in B ) S B a : .

Bu t thi s is i mp o s ibl e s i n c e (s urf c e of pyr mid)

s S wh il ,
a a ,
e

(polygon in B) B ;
th er efor e B i s n ot l es s th an S .

II S uppos e B S
. .

C ircu ms cr i b e an d in s crib e s i milar r egul r p olygon to B a s

such th at th e form r h a to th e l tter a rati o B S I n s cr i b

e s a . e

in A a s i m il r p olygon n d e r e ct on A th e i n crib e d pyr mid

a ,
a s a .

Th en (p olyg on i n A ) (p olygon in B ) O E 2
:
2

C D

(polygon in A ) (s urfa c e of pyramid ) .

(Th e l att er i n fe r en c e is cl ear b e ca u s e th e rat i o of C : D

,
is
gr ter th n th e r ti o of th e p erp n dicul r from th e c n tr e of
ea a a e a s e

A n d fr om th e v e rt e x of th e pyr m id r
a pecti vely on any a es

s id of th e polygon in A ; in oth r w ord s if B a

e e
.
,

s in a s in B
) .

Th e re for e (s urf c e of pyr m id) (polygon in B)

a a .

Bu t (p olyg on a b out B ) (p olyg on in B ) B S : ,

when c e (a for tior i )

(polyg on about B ) (s urf c e of pyram id) B S : a : ,

which is i mp os s ibl e fo (p olygon about B ) B wh i le (s urface

,
r ,

of pyram id ) S .
 .

O N TH E S PH E R E A N D C YL N DER , I 1 39

wh en c e a dd i ng an tec eden t s nd c ons equ ents

, a , we h av e

(Fig 1 ) (B B + CC + r op
'
.
EE ) A A A B

z BA , (P 2 1)

(Fig 2 ) AM (P rop

.
A B : z BA . . 22 )
When ke th e p olygon re volv e ab out A A the s urface
we ma
,

of th e i ns cribe d gure s o obt ai n e d is mad e up of th e s urf c s a e

of c on es an d fru s t a of c on es
; P rop 1 4 h as pr ove d th at th e .

s urf c e of the c on e A B B i s wh at w e s h ould writ e A B BF

a 17 ,

a nd P r op 1 6 has pr ov e d th at th e s urf ac e of th e fru s tu m

.

B C (B F C G) It foll ow s th a t s i n c e A B

B CC B is 77 .
,

BC th e s urf ac e ofth e i n s crib ed s olid is

7r . AB

th t a is , 77 A B (B B + CC +

EE

) (Fig .
(Prop . 24 )
(Fig r op 3 5

A B (B B + CC
2) P
77 .
( ) .

H en ce , fr om a bove , th e s urf ace i ns cribed s olid

of th e is
or nd is th er e for e l e
a th ss an

(Pr op 2 5 ) or A M th a t is A P (Prop
2
AA . 1r . A A

, ,
2
.

S i m ila r
pr op os iti on s with r eg rd to surfac es form d by th a e e

r voluti on ab out A A of r gul r circu ms cribe d s olid s pr ove

e

e a

that th eir s urfa ce s ar e gr t er th n AA an d AP ea a 77 .

Z
77
'

.
2

r s pect i ve ly (P rop s 2 8 3 0 n d Prop s 3 9

e The c as of th
.
a . e e

segm en t i s mor e c om plic at e d b e c u e th e circu ms crib e d p oly a s

gon with its s id es p a ra ll l to A B B C DP circu m cr i b . e ,

s es

th e sector P OP C on se qu en tly if th e s egment is l es s th n

.
,
a a

emici rcl e as CA C th e b as of th e circu m s cribe d p olygon

s , , e

(cc ) i on th e s id e of CC t ow rd A an d th er e fore the circum

s a s ,

s crib ed p olygon l eav es ov e r a s m all s tr i p of th e i n s crib ed Thi s .

c omplicati on is dealt with in P rop s 3 9 4 0 H av ing th n .

. e

a rriv ed at circums cribed nd in s cr i bed gur es with s urfac a es

gr e t r and l ess th an A A
a e nd A P r es p e ctiv ly n d 1r .
2
a 7r .
2
e , a

h vi n g proved (Pr ops 3 2, 4 1 ) that th e s urfaces of th e circum

a .

s crib e d n d i n s c r ib e d gur
a e to on e an oth e r in th e duplic at e s ar e

r ti o of th eir s ides A rchime de procee d to prov e form lly by

a , s s a ,

th e me th od of exh au s ti on th at th e s urfa c es of th e phe r e an d ,

s

s gmen t ar e e qu a l to th ese c i rcl e

e r s pe cti vely (P rop s 3 3 an d s e .

is of cour s e e qu al to four ti mes th e gr eat circl

2
AA1r . e

of th e s ph er e The segm en t i fo con ven ien ce t ak en to b e

. s, r ,
40 A R C H M E DES I
les s th n a h emi sph er e and Prop 4 3 pr ov es th t th e s ame
a ,
. a

for mula appli es als o to segmen t gre ter th n h em i s ph er e a a a a .

A s r ega rd th e v ol u me di ffer en t c on s ide rati on s i n volvi n g

s s

s olid rh om bi come in Fo con v eni n ce A rchi medes tak es

. r e ,

i n th e c of th e wh ol e s ph er e
ase n i n s crib e d p olygon of 4 n ,
a

s id e (Fig
s It i ea ily
. s een th t th e s olid gur s f or me d
s a e

by its r e voluti on i m de up of th e foll owi n g r s t the solid s a : ,

rh ombu s formed by the r voluti on of th e qu adrilateral A B OB e

(the v olu me of thi i how n to be equ l to th e c on e with b e s s s a as

e qu l to th e urfa ce of th e c on e A BB nd h eight qu al to p
a s

a e ,

th e p erp en di cul r fr om O on A B P r op a s e c on dly th e ,

.
,

e xt i n gui s h e r sh p e d gur e for me d by th

-
a r v oluti on of th e e e

tr i n gl B OC bout A A (th i gur is e qu l to th e di ff r n c e

a e a

s e a e e

betw en two s olid rh ombi formed by th e revoluti on of TB OB

e

an d TC C C r e p e ct i v e ly ab out A A wh er e T is th e poin t of

s ,

i nter s ect i on of CB C B pr oduc d with A A produc ed and ,

e

,

thi differ en ce is prove d to b e qu al to a con e with b se e qu al

s e a

to th e s urf c e of th e fru s tu m of c on d es crib e d by B C in its

a a e

r v olut i on n d h ei ght e qu l to p the p erpen dicu l r from O on

e a a a

B C Pr op
,
an d s o on ; n lly
. th gur e for me d by th e a , e

r e voluti on of th e tri ngle C OD about A A i th e di ffer en ce a

s

b etw een cone an d a s ol i d rh ombu which is pr ov ed equ l to

'

a s, a

a c on e with b equ al to th e urf c of th fru stu m of c one

a se s a e e a

d s cr i b d by CD in it re voluti on n d h ight p (Prop

e e s a e .

C on equ n tly by dd i ti on th e v olu m of th e wh ol s olid of

s e ,
a ,
e e

r volution is e qu l to th e con e with b se e qu l to its wh ol e

e a a a

s urf c e a n d h eight p (P r op
a B u t th e wh ol of th e s u rf c e . e a

of th e ol i d i s l s s th n 4 p r ; th e r fore th v olu me
2
s r an d e a 7r , e e

of th e i n crib e d ol i d is l e
s th n four t i mes th c on w i th
s ss a e e

bas e r n d h ight r (Pr op

7r
2
a e .

It i th n pr ov d in
s e i mil r w y th t th e r e v oluti on of
e a s a a a

th e i m i l r circu m s cr i b e d p olygon of 4 n s id es giv e

s a s olid s a

th e v olu m of wh i ch i gr ea te th n four ti m e s th e s m c on e
e s r a a e

(P rop 2 8 3 1 s . La tly th e volu m

of th e c i rcu m s crib ed s , es

a n d i n s crib e d gur e e to on e n oth er in th e triplic t e r a t i o of

s ar a a

th ei r id s (Pr op 3 2 ) an d A rchi me d is now in a pos i ti on to

s e .
es

apply th e me th od of x h u s ti on to pr ov e th t th e v olu m e of e a a

th e s ph er e i 4 ti mes th e c one w i th ba e
s r n d h e ight s 7r
2
a r

(Prop .

Deali ng with th e s egmen t of a s ph er e A rchi m d es t ak es fo , e r

,
 O N TH E S PH ER E A N D C YLI N DER , I 41

con v en ie n c e s egmen t les s th an a h emi s ph er e and by th e

,
a ,

same ch in of argu m en t (P rop s 3 8 4 0 C orr

a 4 1 an d prov e .
, .
, s

(P r op 4 4 ) th at th e v olu me of th e sector of th e s ph er e bou n d ed

.

by th e urface of th e s egmen t i e qu al to a cone with ba

s s se

equ al to th e s urfa c e of th e se gmen t an d h e ight e qu al to th e

radiu s 1 e th con e w ith b s

,
. A P an d h eight
. e (Fig a e 17
2
r .

It i n ote w orthy th t th e propor ti on s obtai ned in Prop 2 1

s a s .
,

2 2 (se e p 3 9 ab ov e ) an b e e xpr e se d in trigon om etric l for m

. c s a .

If 4 n i s th e n umb er of th e ide s of th e p olygon i n s cribed in s

th e circl e an d 2 n th e n u m b r of th s id e s of th p olyg on
,
e e e

i n s cr ib d in th e segment an d i f th angle A OP i d not ed

e ,
e s e

by a th e trigon ometric l e qu i v l en t s of th prop or ti on s a

,
a a e re

r s p ct i vely
e e

+ s in (2 n 1 )
2a

{
a
g + s 1 n (n 1 ) m
(2 ) 2 e1 n
n
+ s1 n
n n
+ s a

1 cos a )cct 2 n

T hu s th e tw o pr op orti on s giv e in ef
fe ct a s u mm ti on a of th e

s e r i es
i 0 + s i n 2 6 + + s m (n s n

both gen r al ly whe r n 6 is e qu l to ny an gl a l ess th n

e e a a e a 77

a n d in th e p artic ul r c s e wh r e n i s v n nd 0 a n a e e e a 77 .

Prop 2 4 n d 3 5 pr ov e th t th e ar e as of th e c i rcl es e qu al to
s . a a

th es urfa c es of th e s ol i d s of r e v oluti on d s cr i b e d by th e e

polygons i n s cr ib d in th e s ph r n d s gmen t e th e bove

e e e a e ar a

17
s e ri e s m ultipli d by 4 7 s in an d e 2 s in r spe ctively
77
2
1r r
2
e
R
1r a
an d th re fore 4 r cos 47 1 an d r 2 cos 5 55 (1 cos a )
ar e e 1r
2
7r
2
,

resp ecti ely A rchi m d s s r es ult s fo th e s urface of th e

v . e e

r s

s ph e r e s egm n t 2 r (1 c os a ) ar e th e 2
nd 4 e a nd e , 7 a 7r ,

li miti ng valu es of th ese e xpr es s i on s wh en n is i n d n it ly e e

a
mor e s ed an d wh en th e re for e cos
a an d cos b come ~
e

un ity . A n d th e tw o se ri es multi pli e d by 47r r

2
s in
42 -
A R C H I M EDE S

7r r
2
r e p e cti ve ly e (wh n n is i n d e n it ly in cr eas d)
2 s in s ar e e e

pr ci ely what w s h ould r epr s en t by th i n tegra l s

e s e e e

2
s in Od d or
2
477 r .
, 4 7r r ,

2 s in Od d , or 2 7r r 2
(1 -
cos a ) .

k 1 1 con t in s ix probl ms an d thre th eor ms O f the

B oo a s e e e .

th or m Pr op 2 c ompl t es th i n v tig ti on of th e volu m of

e e s . e e es a e

an y s gm en t of e ph r Pr op 4 4 of Book I h vi ng only
a s e e, . a

br ought u to th e v olu m of th corr e pon di n g s ector If

s e e s .

A BB be
'
g ment of s ph e cut off by a pl n e t right
a se a ei a a

n gl s to A A w e l e ar n t I 4 4 th t th e v olum of th secto

a e , 1 11 . a e e r

OB A B is

e qu l
con with bas qu l to th e s urfac
a to th e e e e a e

of th seg m en t n d h ei ght e qu l to th r a d i u s i e 4
Z
e a AB a e ,
. . 11 . r ,

wh er is th r d i u s Th volum of th s gm n t i th er for e
e r e a . e e e e e s e

% 1r . AB 2
. r

rch i med s
A to e xpr e thi se w i s h es ss as a c on e with b s e th e a

s am s th t of th e eg m e n t
e a aLet A M s .
, th e h eight of th s eg e

m nt e h .

BM A M
2 2 '
AB z A A : : 2r :
(2 r
h) .

7r (A B 2
. r BM 2 OM ) : 77
'

. B 1l1 2

T h at is , g men t is e qu al to th e c on e with
the se th e sa me
b as e as . th t of th s egmen t nd h e ight h (3
a e a r h) .
 O N TH E S P H ER E A N D C Y LI N DER II
'

, 43

T hi s is e xpr es s d by A rch im ed
e es thu s . If H M is th e h eight
of th e r qu i r e d c on e
e ,

HM : AM (OA A M ): A M
'
, (1 )
an d i milarly the con e
s e qual to th e se g m en t A BB

h a s th e
h eight H M wh ere

,

H M:A M A M) A M

(0 A .
(2 )
H is proof is of cour s e n ot in th e abov e for m but pur ely
, ,

g eom etric al .

Thi s pr op o iti on l ea d s to th e mo t i m p ort n t pr op os iti on in

s s a

th B ook P r op 4 wh i ch s olv es th e probl em To cu t a i ven

e , .
,
g
s
pher e by a
p la n e i n s u ch a wa y tha t the volu mes f
o the
s eg m en ts ar e to on e a n other in a gi ven r a ti o .

Cu bi c equ a ti on ar i si n g ou t o fII . 4 .

Ifm z n be th e giv en rati o of th e c on es which ar e e qu al to

th e s eg men t s a n d th e h ei ght s of which a r e h h w e h av e

, ,

a: 2 v
3:
h
..

an d , if w e eli m i n te h by m ean s of th r el at i on h + h
a

e

2r
we ea s ily obt i n th e foll ow i n g cubic e qu t i on in h
a a ,

h 3
3 h 2
r r
3

m+n
rchi m ed s in ff ct re duc es th probl m to th i s e qu ti on
A e e e e e a ,

which h ow e v er h e tr e ts
,
p rticul r c as of th m or e
,
a as a a a e e

g ene r l p oblem c o es pond in g to the e qu ti on

a r r r a

2
c z (2 r -
h)2 ,

whe r e b is a giv
l n gth nd c n y giv n ar ea
en e a
2
a e ,

x (a x) b0 2
wh r a: 2 r h nd 3
2
,
e e a r

A rchi m d s obt i n s his cub i c e qu at i on wi th on u n know n

e e a e

by mean s of a geometri ca l li mi n tion of H H from th e e a ,

m
e qu ti on H M H M wh r H M E M h a v e th e v alu es

a .
,
e e ,
n

d et r mi ned by th e proporti ons (1 ) and (2 ) bove after which

e a

th e on e v ri abl e p oi n t M r em i n i n g c orr s p on ds to th on
a a e e e

u n k now n of th e cubic e qu t i on H is m th od i r t to n d a . e s, s
44 A RCH IM EDES
v lu es for each of th r ti os A H H M an d H H A H which
a e a

ar e lik e i n d pen d ent of H H an d th en s econ d ly to qu t e

a e ,

, ,
e a

th ra ti o c om p ou n d d of th ese tw o to th k now n v lu e of
e e e a

r ti o
a

(01 ) We h v fr om a e,

0A :
(0 A + AM) .

(B) From 1 ) an d se
par a n d o,

AH z AM

OA : AM .

E quating th v lu s e a e of th e r tio A
a

M : AM giv en by
we h av e OA

: AH A H

OA

OH : OH ,

wh n ce e EH

OH

OA OA )

so th t a HH

A H

OH
2
A H
2
.

Bu t , by AM:A M

,

an d , co mpon end o , OH

:

A H

AA

: A M

.

By s ubs tituti on in
A M2
Z
AA

C om p oun d i n g w i th we o btai n
E M A M 2 ) (OA

HH "2

(A A

0A

[ The alg ebr aic al e quiv al ent of thi s is

m n

n (2 r h)2

which r educ es to

h 3
3 h2 r O, as a bov e ]
A rchi m e d es xpre ses
e s the r es ult (8 ) mor e s i m ply by p o r

d u cing C A to D s o th at OA AD n d th n di v idi ng A D at
, a e
 O N TH E S PH ER E A N D C YLI N DER , II 45

E so th t a or We h av e
t h en 0A AD an d 0A +AM MD, so th at (8 ) re duc es to

A D z DE (A D z MD) ,

AI D z DE

y s A rchi med es D is given s i n ce A D OA A l o

N ow , sa , , . s ,

A D DE b e i n g a gi v en r ti o DE is given
,
: H en ce th e p o a , . r

blem re duce s it self to that of di v idi ng A D i nto two parts t

a

M s uch th t a

M D (a gi v enl en gth ) ( given ar ea) : A M

: a
2

Th a t is th e g enerali e d qu ti on is of the for m

, z e a

(a c)
c bc as a bov e 2
, .

A rchi med es s
luti on of the cubic

(1) own s o .

A rchi me des a dd s that if th e problem is propou n de d in thi s

,

gen r l for m it r e quires d opw pg [ i e it is ne c ss ry to

e a ,
a i . . e a

i n v es tig t the li m its of p oss ibili ty] but if the conditi on s e

a e , ar

add e d whi ch ex i s t in th e pres en t c ase

[i e in th e actu l . . a

probl em of Pr op it d o s n ot r e quir e a d opw ps (in oth er

. e t

w ord s a s oluti on is alw ay s p oss ible) H e th en promi s es to

,
.

giv t th e end an an aly s i s an d syn th es i s of both problems

e a

[ i e. t h e ao
.
p g an d th t pr obl em it s e lf]
la

Th e pr om is e d e .

s olu ti on s d o n ot a p ea r in th t r eati s e as w e h v e it but e

p a ,

Eu tocius gi v es s olutions taken fr om an old book which h e

man ge d to di s cov er aft er la boriou s s earch and which s in ce it
a , ,

w s p artly w r itten in A chi me des s fav ourit e Doric h e with

a r ,

f i r r as on ass u med to con t i n the mi ss i ng ad d en d u m by

a e a

A rchi me d es .

I n th e A rchi med ean fr ag m en t pr es er ve d by Eu tociu s th e

a b ov e e qu ati on x (a bc is s olv e d by mean s of th e i n t er 2
a)
2
, ,

secti on of a p arab ol a an d a r e ct an gul r hyp erb ol a th e e qu ti on s a , a

of whi ch m ay b e wri tt en thu s

2
c
y ( a w)y ab
E
.
,

Th e dtopw ps t a k es th e for m of i n v es tig ati n g th e max i mu m

p oss ible lu e o {1 3 (a ao) an d it is prove d th at thi s ma xi mu m

v a f 2
,

va lu e for r eal s oluti on is that corresp on di ng to the valu e

a

a: g a . Thi s is establi s h e d by s h owi ng th at if bc 7 7 a ,

2 3
,
 O N TH E S P H ER E A N D C YLI NDER , II 47

(iii ) S oluti on rigi nal pr oblem of II 4 by Diocl

of th e o .
_

Diocl es procee de d in a diffe r en t m ann er s ti s fyi n g by ,

a ,

a g e ome tric al c on s tructi on n ot th e d e riv ativ e cubic e qu ati on

, ,

b ut th e thr ee s i m ult n eou s r el ati on s which h old in A r chi

a

me d es s p r op os iti on n ame ly

,

HA : h

H A : h

wi th th e s ligh t gen erali ation th at z su bs titutes for r in

th s e e qu ti on s n oth er l ngth a
e a a e .

pr oble m is give n s tr aight li n e

,
a r ti o m n nd , a a z ,
a

n oth e r s tr igh t li n e A K a ) to divid e A A poi n t M

a a t ,
a a

m e ti m to n d tw o p oi n t s H H on A A

an d t th e
a sa e ,

produce d s uch th at the bov r elati ons (with a in pl ce a e a

of ) h old
r .

Th analy s i s l e di n g to th e c on s truc ti on is v ery i n g n i ou

e a e s .

P l ce A K right n gl e s to A A n d dr w A K e qu l

a a
) t a a ,
a a a

an d p ra ll e l to it
a .

S upp os e th e pr obl em s olv e d and th e p oi n t s M H H all

, , ,

fou n d .

Joi n K M pr oduc e it a nd c om pl e t e th e r e ct n gle K GE K
, ,
a
48 A R C H I M EDES

P roduc e K M to

Dr w a QMN through M p r ll el a a to A K .

meet K G produc e d in F .

By s i mil r tri ngl es a a ,

FA z A M = or FA : h a z h ,

wh en ce FA A H (to s uppos ) ,
e .

S i m i l rly A H (lc s uppos e)

'
a A E ,
.

A g in by s i milar tri angl e

a ,
s,

(FA A M ) (A K

A M)

AM : A

M
A M)
(A K + A M ): (E A

,

(M k) (a + h)
N ow ,
by hypothes is ,

m : n (k + h)
(k + h)
[by
2
+ h ) (h + h

( a h)(a

s ur produc ed both w ays e qu l to a

M ea A A

AR , e A R on a .

at right an gl es to R R as s h ow n in th e gure

Draw

RP R P ,
.

Meas ure a l ong MN th e l ngth M V equal to MA o h an d e

r

,

dr wa PP

through V A to mee t R P R P
,

,

QV = P V:

/2
w

PV=

wh n ce
e PV . P V

2 (a h)(a h

)
and fr om (2 ) ab ov e
, ,

Zm z n

2 (
a + h) (h h )2

P V P V: .
QV 2
.
(3 )
he refore Qis on an elli ps e in which P P is a di amete r
T


,
and

QV is n ordi nat e to it
a .

A ga i n D GQNK is e qu al to D A A K K wh en c e

,

GQ .
QN = a 2r a, (4 )
and th re for e Q is on the r ectangular hyperbola with
e K F,
s ympt ot es an d pass i n g thr ough A

KK a s a .
 O N TH E S PH ER E A N D C Y LI N DER , II 49

thi s i ng eni ou s an ly s i s wa s uggeste d it is n ot p os ibl

H ow a s s e

to say It is th quiv l en t of r educin g th e four u n know n

. e e a s

h h h l to tw o by putti ng h

n d Ic

, , , c + ac h
,
az
y r ,
r a ,

an d th en r e duci n g th e giv en r el ati ons to tw o equ ati on s in 90 y , ,

which ar e coordin at es of poi n t in el ati on to Ca Oy as ax e a r z, s,

wh er e O is th e m iddle p oin t of A A n d 0 56 li es long OA

,
a a

,

w hile Oy is p erp en dicular to it .

O u origin l r e l ati on s (p 4 7 ) giv e

r a .

r c
c ah r + zc

an d
h

r + a
$ n h

We h ave at on e , c from th e r s t two qu ation s e ,

r +x

wh ence (r a )y a (r at ,)
(90 + r )(y + a) z r a,

which is th e r ctangular hyp rbola (4 ) bov

e e a e .

wh ence w e obt i n a a cubic equ ti on a in a

c,

x
) Z (r
which gives

n
o
r a

+ r c
c
y
wh en c e
r a:

an d the e qu ati on be comes

2
(y r a; 2
) (r + a)

which is th e e llip s (3 ) bov

e a e .
50 A R C H M EDES I
To r eturn to A rchi me des k II of ou r tr eati se c ontai n s
. B oo
further pr obl ems : To nd ph r e qu al to a gi ven con e o
a s e e r

cylinder (Pr op s ol e d by r educti on to th e n di n g o

. v f tw o
mean prop ortional s ; to cut ph er e by a pl ane i nt o two a s

s egmen t s h avi n g th e i r urfac s in a given rati o (Prop

s e .

which is easy (by me n of I 4 2 a given tw o se gments of

s .
,

s ph eres to n d a third s g m e n t of a s ph e r e s i m il a r to on e
,
e

of th e giv en s egment s n d h a vi n g its s u r f ac e e qu al to th a t of

a
"

th e othe r (P rop 6 ) th e m e problem wi th volu m e s ubs titut e d

. sa

for s urfac e (P r op whi ch i g in reduced to the n di n g

. s a a

of two mean proporti on l ; from giv en sph er e to cut off

a s a

a s eg men t h avi n g a giv en r tio to th e c on e with th e same a

base and equ l hei ght (P rop

a Th e Book c on cludes with .

two i n t er e s tin g th eor em If ph re be cut by a plane i n to

s . a s e

two seg men t s th e gr t r of wh i ch h a its s urfac e e qua l to S

,
ea e s

n d its v olu me e qu l to V whi l e th e s urfac e an d

a a S V , e , ar

volu me of the l es r th n V V S S but Si S i 2 2

se ,
e : : r

(Pr op . an d of ll ,
gm n t of s ph er es which have th eir
a se e s

s urfac es e qu l th e h em i s ph r
a ,
i th e gr eat es t in v olu me e e s

(Prop .

M eas u r em e nt of a C ir cle .

The book on the M s u m en t of C i cle cons i s ts of thr ee

ea r e a r

pr opos itions only and is n ot in its origin l form h av i ng los t

,
a ,

(as the tr eati se On th Sphe nd Cyli nd er al s o h as pr ac

e
) r e a

tically all tr ace of th Doric di lect in which A rchimede s

e a

wrote ; it may be only fr gm n t of l r ger treati se Th e

a a e a a .

thr ee propos itions which s urv i v e prov e (I ) that the area of

a circl e i s e qu al to th t of igh t ngl d tri an gl e in which
a a r ~
a e

th e per p en dicul ar is e qu al to th e r diu n d th e base to th e a s, a

circu mference of the circl (2 ) th t th e a re of a circle is to

,
e, a a

th e s quar e on its di m t r s 1 1 to 1 4 (th e te xt of thi s pr o

a e e a

pos ition is h ow e ve r u n ti f ctory n d it cannot h ave been

, ,
sa s a ,
a

pl ace d by A rchi medes be fore P rop 3 on which it d epen ds ) .

, ,

(3 ) tha t the r ati o of the ci r cu mf r n ce of a n y ci r cle to i ts e e

d i ameter (i c .
) is . 3 % bu t
1r Pr op 1 i s pr ove d by .

the meth od of e xh u ti on in A rchi m d es s u s u al for m

a s he e :

approx i mat es to th e r of th c i rcle in both di r ecti on s

a ea e

(a)by i nscribing s ucc es i v regul r polygons with a n u mber of

s e a
 M EA S U R EM EN T O F A C I R C LE

side s con tin u ally doubl ed beginn i ng from a s qu ar e (b) by , ,

circu ms cribin g s im il r s et of r egular polyg on b gi nn i ng

a a s e

from a qu are i t bei ng s h ow n th a t if th e n u mbe r of th e

s , ,

s ides of th e e p olyg on s be c on ti n u ally d oubl e d mor e th an h alf

s ,

of th e p or ti on of th e p olyg on out i d e th e circl e will b e t ak e n s

aw ay each ti m e s o th a t w e s h ll ulti mat ely a rriv e

, t circu m a a a

s crib e d p olyg on gr e t e r th n th e circl e by s p ac e l es s th an

a a a

an y s s i n e d ar ea
a
g .

Pr op 3 c on t ai n i n g th e rith m e ti c al a ppr oxi mati on to

.
, is a 77 ,

th e mos t i n t e r es ti n g Th me th od mou n t s to c lcul ti ng

'

. e a a a

appr oxi mat e ly th e p r i m e t r of tw o r e gul ar p olyg on s of 9 6 e e

s id es on,
of which i s e r cu ms c ibe d
e n d th e oth e r i n s crib d l r , a e ,

to th e circl e ; n d th e c lcul a ti on s t art s from a gr e t r and

a a a e

a l esse r li mit to th e v alu e of / 3 which A rchi me d es u mes s , as s

without rem rk as kn ow n n mely a ,

a

H ow did
rch i m d e rrive t th e particul r pp o i
A e s a a se a a r x

m ti on ? N o pu l e h s e x erci se d mor f s ci n ati on upon

a s z z a e a

writer i n t r s t ed in the hi s tory of math m atics De Lagn y

s e e e .
,

Mollweid Bu engeige H ub r Z uth en P T nn ery H il e r

e, z r ,
a e , e ,
. a ,
e

mann H ul t ch H u n ath We r th ei m B oby n in th e

,
s ,
e th e r , ,
: se ar

n ame of s om e of th e auth or
s of di f f r en t conj ectur es Th e s e .

si mples t upp o iti on is cert i n ly th t of H un th nd H u lts ch

s s a a ra a ,

wh o s ugg s t e d th t th e form u l u s e d w a
e a a s

> a +

wh ere a
2
is th e b v b l w +b
n ea es r t s qu r a e n u mb er a o e or e o a
2
,

as th e c e m ay b e
as The u s of th e r s t p art of th i s for mul
. e a

by H er on w h o m de a n u m ber of s uch ppr oxi mati ons i

,
a a ,
s

prov ed by p s s ge in his Met i ca wh er e a rul e e quival ent

a a a r
1
,

to thi s is appli e d to / 7 2 0 ; th e s e c ond p r t of th e for mul a is x a

used by th e A r abi n A lk r khi ( l e v en th c en tury) wh o dr ew a a e

from Gr eek sourc es an d on e approxi m ti on in H eron m ay be ,

a
'

obt ai n e d in thi s w y A n oth e r s ugg es ti on (th a t of T nn ery 2 a

a .

1
r
H e on, M etr i ca , i . 8 .

2
Ster eom .
ii , p . 1 84 . 1 9 , H ul ts ch ; p . 1 54 . 1 9 , H ei b .
J5 4 = 7 1 =7 5
1 3

instead of 7 1 51 .
52 A R C H I M EDES

of
an d Z euth en) is th at th e s ucc ess iv e so luti on s in i n t eg r s e

th e e quati on s

m ay h v b en foun d in
a e s i m i l ar w ay to th os e of th e
e a

e u ti o
an s 56 + 1 g i ve n by Th eon of S myrn
2 aft r a e
q
th e Pyth agor ns Th r es t of th e s ugge s ti on s am oun t fo th e
ea . e r

m os t p rt to th u s of th me th od of c on ti n u ed fr c ti on
a e e e a s

mor o l s s di gu i s d
e r e s e .

A pplyi ng th bov formul w e eas i ly n d

e a e a,

x/
2 3, 3 2

Z
,
w/ 3 g .

N e xt ,
cl ar i n g
e of fr cti ons
a ,
we con s id r e 5 appr ox i

m a ti on to x/ 3 3 2 or /27
x ,
an d we h vea

2
5 + T5
Z
3 7 3 5 + Tf ,

wh e n ce

C l eari n g of fr cti on s g
a a a n,i an d t ki n g
a 26 an appr ox i

l

ge
26

which r educes to
x/ 3
1 3 s 1 _ _ _
26 5
7 8 0 1 5 3
.

Archi med s r t t ake th e c s ofth c i rcu m s cr i b d polyg on

e s s a e e e .

L t CA b e th tan g n t t A to
e c i rcular c with c n tr e 0
e e a a ar e .

M k th e n gl A OG equ l to on third of
a e a e right an gle a e -
a .

Bi ct th e an gle A GO by OD th
se n gl e A OD by OE th e , e a ,

a n gl e A C E by OF n d th e n gl e A OF by O G , P r oduc e GA
a a .

to A H m k i n g A H e qu al to A G
,
a Th n gl e GOH i s th e n . e a

qu l to th n gl e FOA wh i ch is h of a r i ght an gl 1
7 3t so
e a e a e,

th t GH i th e s i d of circu ms cribe d regul r p olyg on with

a s e a a

9 6 s ides .

OA : AC [= V 3 : l ]
 MEA S U R EM EN T O F A C I R C LE 53

A nd, i c
s n e bi sects th e an gl e C OA

CO : OA C D z DA ,

so that (0 0 + OA ) OA CA DA ,

(C O + OA ) CA 0A : AD .

H en c e 0 14 A D 57 1 1 53,

0 11 2 A D2 (0 14 + A D
2 2
): A D
2

3 49 450 : 23409 .

T h er for e e, sa y s A rchi m ed es ,

0 1) s 5915 1 53 .

Next ,
ju s t
ve foun d th e li mit of OD A D
as we ha z

from C C CA n d th e li m it of OA A C w e n d th e l i mit
a , s

of OA A E n d OE A E from th e li m it s of OD DA and
: a : z

OA A D : nd s o on Thi s gi v es ulti m t ly the l i mit of

,
a . a e

OA AG .

Dea l i ng with th e i n scri be d polygon A rchime de g ets s a

s i mi l ar se ri es of a ppr oxi m ati on s

A B C b ei ng a s emic i rcl th e
. e,

angl e B A C is mad e qu al to on e third of

e right angl e Th n -
a . e ,

if th e an gl e B A C is bis e ct e d by A D th e an gl e BA D by A E , ,

th e ngl e BA E by A F an d th e
a n gl e B A F by A G th
,
a , e

s tr ight li ne B G is th e s id e of an i n s crib e d p olygon w i th

a

9 6 s ide

s .
 M EA S U R EM EN T O F A C I R C LE 55

ries of v alue foun d by A rchi m ed

Th e se s es ar e s h ow n in th e
followin g t bl e a :

a b n a b c

65 306 0 1351 1 560 7 80

7 1 153 1 291 1 7 80

59 1g so me 9,
153 s ee4 g e 7 80

>li7 z e 1823 2 40

1 8 3 8 51T

( 233 g) 2
1 5 32 1] s s ci fg

2 3 3 94 1 007

1 0 0 93 -

20 1 6% 66
20 1 7 2
an d , b ri n g in m ind th at in th e r s t c se th n al r ti o
ea a e a

a c i s th e r t i o OA
4
AG 2 CA GH an d in th s con d c a e
a ,
e e s

th n al r ti o b c is th r ti o A B B G whil e GH in th r t
e a
4
e a , e s

gure n d B G in th e s econ d
a th id of r gul r polyg ons ar e e s es e a

of 9 6 i d e c i rcu ms crib d
s n d i n s cr i b d r e p
s e ctiv l y w h v e a e s e , e a e

n lly a

> 7T >

A rchi m e d es s i m ply i n f r from thi s th t

e s a

34 >7r

m a tt er of f ct
667 % an d
As a a 3
46 7 3 ;
1 '

1
It is l bs rv ed that 3 43 3 + 7 1 0 n d t may
a so to b e o e , a i

h av b en
e rr i v d t by a me th od e quiv l n t to d vel op i n g
e a e a a e e

6 336
th e fr ct on a n th e form of
i con t n u ed f ctmn
l a l ra .

1
20 1 4

It s h ould b e n ote d th t in th e text a s w h ve it th v lu s a ,

e a ,
e a e

of b b b b e s i m ply s t at e d in th ir ar n al for m with out e

l , 2 , 3 , 4
th e i n t e r me di t e s t e p c on t ai n i n g th e r dic l xc pt in th r s t
a a a e e e

1 H r th r t i o of to i nth r t i t r d d to low c ar e e s n s an ce e u ce e
'

e e e a s a

t rm
e s .
56 A R C H I MEDES

case of all wh ere w e ar e t ld th t

o a OD : A D 2
3 4 9 4 5 0 2 3 4 0 9 2
,

an d th en th at OD D A A t th e poi n t s ma rke d
59 117 : 1 53 .

h t bl A rchi m d i m pli t h r ti o a z : e an d
a d T
n i n t e a e e es s e s e a

a : 0 b e for e c alcul ati n g b2 b3 r e s p ectiv e ly by m ultiplyi g

n ea ch
, ,
s
t erm in th e rs t c e by { 5 nd in th e s econ d c asby 3 1
a as e
1
21

H e gi v s no explan ti on of th e ex act gure t ak en as th e

e a

a ppr x
o i m ti on to th e s qu
a a r r oot in e ch c a s e o o f th e e a ,
r

me th od by which h obtaine d it We m y h ow ev e r b e s ure e . a , ,

th at th method mount ed to th e u se of th e form ul (a 1 b)

e a a
-

_
-

_
2

2 a h 11 m uch as ou m th od of xtr ac ti ng th e s qua r e

2 2 e
a r e
,

root also depen ds upon it .

We h v e alre dy s een ( ol i p 2 3 2 ) th at according to

a a v .
, . ,

H e r on A rchi med e s m ade a s till cl os e r pproxi mat i on to th e

,
a

valu e of 71 .

O n C onoid s an d S ph e r oid s .

Th e m ain probl ems att ack ed in thi s tre ati se ar e in A rchi ,

med es s m ann er s t at e d in h is pr efa c e ad dr e s s e d to Dosith e u s

, ,

whi ch als o s et s ou t th e pre mi ss es with rega rd to th e s olid

gur es in ques tion Thes e premi s ses cons i s t of d en i t ions and
.

obv i ou s i n fer en c es from th em Th e gur es ar e ( 1 ) th e r i ght .

an l ed con oid (p ar ab ol oi d of r e v oluti on ) (2 ) th e obtu se a n gled

g
-

con oid (hyperboloi d of revolution ), and (3 ) th e spher oi ds

(a ) the oblong d es cri be d by th e re volution of an ellips e a bout
,

its gr ea t er di ame t e r (m aj or a x i s ) (b) th e f la t, d es cr i b e d by

r
th e e o v luti o o
n f a n e llip s e a b out i ts

les s er di ameter (min or

a xis ) O th er d en i t i on s ar e thos of the v t x and ax i of the

. e er e s

gures o segmen t s th ereof th e v ertex of a segmen t be ing

r ,

the p oi n t of c on t act of th e tan g ent pl an e to th e s olid which

is p ar ll l to th e bas e of th e s gmen t
a e Th e cen tr e i s on ly e .
.

r ecogn i ed in th e c se of th e s pheroid wh t corr es p on ds to

z a
:

th e cen tr e in th e c se of th e hyp e rboloid is th e v rte x of

a e .

th e en v el opi ng con (des crib e d by th e rev olution of wh at

e

A rchi m d s c all s th e n ear s t li n es to th e se cti on of th e

e e e

obtu se ngl e d con e i e th e y mptot e of the hyp erbola)

-

a , . . as s ,

an d th e l i n e b etw ee n thi s poi n t n d th e v e rt ex of th e hyp e r a

boloid o egmen t is calle d not th e a x i s o di ame t e r but (th e

r s , r ,

line) dj cent to th e ax i s Th e axi s of th e segm en t is in

a a

.

th e c e of th e p ar b ol oid th e l i n e thr ough th e v ert e x of th e

as a

s e gm n t p arall el to the ax i
e of th e p ar b oloid in th e c ase s a ,
 ON C O N OI DS A N D S PH ER O I DS 57

of hyprboloi d th e p orti on within th e s olid of th e lin

th e e e

j oin i ng th v ertex of th e en velopin g cone to the v ertex of

e

th e s eg men t an d produc d n d in th e c s e of th e s ph er oi d th e e , a a s

li ne j oin i ng th e p oi n ts of con t ct of th e tw o tan gen t pl nes a a

p r alle l to th e b ase of th e s eg men t Den i t i on

a dd d of . s ar e a e

eg m en t of con e (th e gure cut off t ow rds th e ve rtex by

a s a a

a n lliptic l n ot c i rcul ar se ct i on of th e con e) nd fru tum

e a , ,
a a

s

of a cyl i n d r (cut of f by two p r ll e l e lliptic l s ecti on s )

e a a a .

Pr op s 1 to 1 8 with Le mm a at th e b egi nn in g
. e pr li m i n ary a ar e

to th ma i n s ubj e ct of th e tr e ti s e
e Th e Lemm a n d Pr op s 1 2 a . a .
,

a e gen e r al pr op os iti on
r n ee d e d aft e rw ard s Th y i n clud e s . e

pr opositi on in s u m m ti on s a ,

2 n . na 2 { a +2a + )a } 1

(Le mma )
(th i s is cl ea r fr om S7 , n (n 1 )a );

(n 1) + n a)

L mm a to P r op 2
( e ) .

wh en ce
'

(C or ) .

2
n na ( )
2
(n -
1a )}
l tly Pr op 2 gives lim i ts
as ,
. for th e su m of n t rm
e s of th e
er i e for m of
2
s d x + xs 2x 2
,
a a 3x (
3x ) ,
in th e
i n qu liti of r ti o thu
e a es a s, s :

-
a + n x)
-

Prop 3 pr ove that if QQ b e a ch ord of p r bola b i s cted

. s ,

a a a e

at V by th di met er P V th n if P V b e of con t nt l ngth

e a ,
e ,
s a e ,

th e ar ea of th e tri n gl e P QQ an d of th e segmen t P QQ

s a e ar

al s o c on t n t wh at e v e r b e th e dir e cti on of Q Q ; to pr ov e i t

s a ,

A rchi me d es as s u m es a pr op os iti on prov e d in th e comic an d s

by n o me n s eas y n me ly th t i f QD b e p rp en dicul r to P l
a ,
a a ,
e a

an d if p b e th e p ar am e t e r s c orre s p on di n g to th e ord i n at es
p , a

p rall l to QQ and th prin cipal ordi n ates r e p ectively then

a e

e s ,

QV z QD = p z p
2 2
.
a

Prop s . 4 6 d l withea th e a ear of a n e llip se wh i ch ,

is in th e
,
58 A R C H I M EDES

r t s thr propo it i on prov d to be to th e re of

of th e ee s s, e a a

th e uxili ry circl e s th m i nor xi s to th e m aj or ; e quil at r al

a a a e a e

p olyg on of 4 n i de s e i n s cribed in th circl e n d c om p ar e d

s s ar e a

with corr s pon d ing p olygon sin c ibed in th e llip e which a

'

e s r e s ,
r e

d term in e d by th i n t er secti on with th e ellip e of th e doubl

e e s s e

ordi n t p ass i ng through th angul r p oi n ts of th e p olygon

a es e a s

i n s cr i b d in th circl nd th e m eth od of ex h u ti on is th en
e e e, a a s

a ppl i ed in th u u l w y Prop 7 8 s h ow h ow giv n an ellips

e s a a . s .
, ,
e e

wi th c en tre C n d s tr ight li n e C O in a pl n p erp en di cul ar to

a a a a e

th t of the ell i p nd p s i n g through an xi of i t ( 1 ) in th

a se a as a s ,
e

c as e wh r 0 0 is p erpen d i cular to th t xi s (2 ) in th e c s
e e a a ,
a e

wh r it i n ot w c n n d an (in g n r l obl i qu ) circul r

e e s ,
-

e a e e a e a

c on with ve rt x 0 s uch th t th e giv n l l i p e i s

e e cti on of it a e e s a se ,

o i n oth r w ord s h ow w e c n n d th c i rcul ar

r , e cti on of the
, a e se s

cone w i th v rt x 0 wh i ch p e through th c i rcum fe r n ce of

e e as s s e e

th e ellip se ; i mi l arly P rop 9 h ow s h ow to n d th circul r

s . s e a

se ction s of cyl i n der w i th C O as x i s n d with s urf c p s i n g

a a a a e a s

through th circu m fer n ce of n ll i p s with c n tr C wh er

e e a e e e e ,
e

C O i in th pl n thr ough n ax i s of th
s e a llip n d pe p n
e a e e se a r e

dic l to its pl n e but is n ot i t s elf p rp n d i cul r to th at

u ar a ,
e e a

a x i Prop 1 1 1 8 g i ve im pl prop ert i s of th e con oid s n d

s . s .

s e e a

s ph roid e ily d r i v bl e from the properti s of th e re s p ctive

s , eas e a e e

con i c ; th y xpl i n th n tur nd r l t ion of th

s e e a ct i on s e a e a e a e se

m d by pl n
a e cuttin g th s ol i d s r s p ct i v ly in d i ff r n t w y s
a es e e e e e e a

(pl n through th x i p r ll l to th x i thr ough th c n tr

a es e a s, a a e e a s, e e e

o thr v rt x of th n v lop in g con e p rp n d i cul r to th axi

e e e e e e ,
e e a e s,

o cutti n g i t obl i qu ely r

r p ctive ly) w i th e s p ec i l r efe ren c e to ,
es e ,
a

th e llipt i c l sect i on of ch s oli d th e im il rity of p r all l

e a s ea , s a a e

e ll i pt i c l secti on s &0 Th n w i th P rop 1 9 th e r l bu s in es s

a , . e . ea

of th treat i s b gi n s n m ly th
e i nv e tig ti on of th v olu m e
e e , a e e s a e

of g men t (r i ght o obl i que) of th tw o con oi d n d th e

se s r e s a

s ph roi d r s p ct i v ly
e s e e e .

Th m th od is in ll c es to circu m s crib
e e , n d i n cr i b e to a as , e a s

th s gm n t s ol i d gur e m d up of cyli n d er o ffru s t a of

e e e s a e s r

cyli n d rs which c n b made to d i ff r s littl

e

, w e pl sea e e a e as ea

from on n oth r s o th t th c i rcu m crib d nd i n s cribed

e a e , a e s e a

gur s e s i t w er e compr s d tog th e r n d i n to coin c i d n c

e ar ,
a , es e e a e e

with th e s egm n t wh i ch i i n t er m di t b e tw e n th em
e s e a e e .

I n e ch d i gr m th e pl n of th p p r i
a a a pl an e through a e e a e s a

th x i s of th e c onoid o s ph er oid t r i ght ngl to th plan e

e a r a a es e
 O N C ON O I DS A N D S PH ER O I DS 59

of th e ti on which is the b s e of the egm n t n d which

s ec a s e ,
a

18 c cl
a o1r n e ll i p se a cc ordin g
e r a s th e aid b e i s o i s n ot
a s as r

a t right ngl e s to th e
a plan e of th e p per cut s th e a

base in a di m eter of th e circl e or n xi s

a e llip s e
a a

th c e m ay b e
e as .

t r
n a u e of i n s crib d nd circum s cribe d gur es will
th e e a

be s een fr om th e b ov e gure s s h ow i n g eg me n ts of
a sp r a a a

boloid ,
a hype rboloid n d a
ph r oi d r s p e ct i v ly cut off
a s e e e ,
60 A R C H I M EDES

by planes obliqu ely i n clin ed to th e axi s The base of th e

.

s egmen t is an ellip se in which B B i s an ax i s an d its pl an e i s

,

at right angl e s to th e p l n of th p p r which pas ses thr ough

a e e a e ,

the a xi s of th e s olid an d cut s it in p r bol a a hyp erbola or a a a , ,

an e llips e r es p e cti ve ly Th x i of th e s g men t is cut in t o

. e a s e a

n u mbe r of e qu al p art s in ea ch c se n d pl an es ar e dr a w n a ,
a

through each poi nt of s ection p r llel to th e bas e cutti ng th e a a ,

s olid in e llip s es s i mil a r to th e b s e i n wh i ch P P

Q &c ar e
, Q a , , ,
.
,

a xe s Des cribi ng fru t of cylin de rs with axi s A D an d p as s in g

. s a

through these elliptical se ction re p ctiv ely w e draw the s s e ,

-

circumscribed and i ns crib d s oli d con s i tin g of thes e frus ta e s s .

It is ev iden t th at begi nni n g from A th e r t in s cribe d fru s tu m

, ,
s

i s equ al to the r s t circum crib d fru s tu m th e s ec on d to th e s e ,

se c on d an d s o on but th re i s on e mor
, , circums cribe d fru s tum
e e

th an i ns cribe d and th e diff ren ce b etw en th e circums cribed

, e e

an d i n s crib e d s olid is qu l to th la s t fr u s tu m of which BB

s e a e

i s th e b as e and N D is th ,
xi s S in ce N D can be made as e a .

small as w e pl e se th e d i f f r en c b e tw een th e circums crib e d

a ,
e e

an d i n s crib ed s olid s c n b m d l es th n an y as s igne d s olid

a e a e s a

whatever H en ce w e h av th r equ i r m n t s for pplying the

. e e e e a

method of e x h au s tion .

C on s id er now s e p r te ly th c of th e p ar ab ol oid th e
a a e as es ,

hyp erboloid and th e s pheroid .

I The par a boloi d (Prop 2 0

. s .

Th e fru s tu m th e b e of wh i c h i th e e llip se in which P P is

as s

n a xi s i proporti on l to P P o P N i e proporti on al to 2 2
a s a r ,
. .

AN . S uppos e tha t th e a x i A D c) i s di v ide d in t o n e qu als

parts A rchimede com p res each fru s tum in th e in s cribe d

. s a

and circu ms crib ed ur with th e fru tu m ofth e wh ol e cyli n de r

g e s

B F cut of f by th e s ame plan e s Thu . s

(r s t fru s tu m in B F) (rs t fru tu m in in s cribe d gure) s

B D2 P N 2
AD: AN

S i milarly

(s econ d frus tum in B F) (s econ d in i n s crib ed gur e)

and s o on . Th e las t fru tu m s in th e cylin der B F h as non e to

 ON C O NO I DS A N D S PH ER O I DS 61

corre pon d to it in the i ns crib ed gure and w e s h ou ld wri t

s , e

th e r ti o as (B D
a e ro) z .

A rchi m ed e c on clud es by m ean s of a l emma in prop orti on s

s ,

formi n g P rop 1 th at .
,

(fru s tu m B F) (i n s cribed gur e)

(B D + H N + (TN + S M + + X O)
n
2
lc (16 + 2 lC + 3 16 + +n

wh er e XC 1 s o th t B D n k 6, a .

I n li k e man n r h e c on clud es th at e ,

(fru s tu m BF) (circums crib d gur e e )

z
n k (lc+ 2 h + 3 k + + uh
)
.

Bu t , by th e Lemma precedi ng P r op 1 .
,

16 + 2 /c + 3 76 + +n 1 h en
2
lc 16 + 2 16 + 3 16 + + n h,

when c e
(fru s tu m B F) (i n sor g ) 2 (fru s tu m B F) (ci cu m c . . r s r .

Thi s i n di c t e th e de s ir ed r e ult which i th en c onrme d by

a s s , s

th e me th od of e xh u s ti on n me ly th at a ,
a

(frus tu m B F) 2 ( egm en t of p r bol oi d ) s a a ,

o i f V b e th v olum e of th s eg m n t of cone with v ertex

r , e e e a ,

A n d bas e th
a am s th t of th e s gm n t
e s e a a e e ,

(volu me of egm n t) V s e -

A rchi m d e it will be en proves in ff ct th t if k be

e s, se , e e a ,

i n d ni tely d i mi n i s h ed n d n i nd nitely i n creas ed while n /

e , a e , c

r emai ns e qu l to c the n a ,

li mit of 16
th at i in ou n ot ation
s, r ,

Pr op prov es th t th volu me is cons tan t for a given

. 23 a e

leng th of axi A D wh ethe r the seg m n t is cut off by plane

s ,
e a

perpen dic ular o n ot p erp endi cul r to th e axi and Prop 2 4

r a s, .

s h ow s th at th e v olu m es of tw o s egm en t e s th s qu ares on s ar a e

th eir x es a .
 O N C O N O I DS AN D S P H ER O I DS 63

so tha t
71 8 7 1 ah (h + 2 h + + n h)+ h + 0 00
2
}
Th e li mit of thi s l atter e xpr ess ion is what we s h ould w r ite

(
2
ax + x )d x b2

an d rchi me d es s pr oce dure is th e e quiv l ent ofthi s i nt egrati on

A

a .

III I n th case of th e spher oid (Pr op s 2 9 30 ) w e take

. e .
,

a se gm en t l es s th an h alf th s ph r oid e e .

A s in th e c s of th e hyp erb ol oid a e ,

(fru s tu m in B F) (frus tum on base Q

Q)
B D2 QM
2

AD A D AM A M;

-
. .

but in ord r to r educ th e s um mati on to th am

, e that ine e s e as

Pr op 2 A rchi m d e xpr ss es A M A M in a di ffer n t for m

.
, e es e . e

equiv l n t to th e followin g
a e .

Let A D b) b e d ivid e d i n t o n e qu l parts of l ength h a ,

an d s upp os e th t A A CD

a so a , .

Th en AD A D
2
%a
AM A M h)2 (DM h)

.

(
so + r r

AD A D

{c
c b + b2 {6 r h+

hu s in thi s c se w e h v
T a a e

(frus tum B F) (i n crib d g u r e) s e

E n
{o r . h ( r h 2

(fru s tu m B F) (circu m s crib ed gure)

n cb ( b) 2
[ (
n cb b 2
) El n 1
{c h
'

A nd ,
i c
s n e 6 n h, we h ave by me ,
an s of P o r p . 2,

n cb ( 6 2
) :
[ n (cb b2 ) El n { c r h

(c + b) { c + b (% c +
n eb ( b 2
) [ ( n cb b ) 2 2
{c r h
 64 A R C H M E DES I
The con clu si on , Con rm d e as us ual by the me thod of ex

h aus tion is th at ,

(frus tu m BF) (s egmen t ofs pher oid) (c b) : { c b $0 % b)}

(c b) (so b) ,

whence (v olume of s gmen t ) (v olume of con e A B B ) e

(30 + 2 b) (0 + b)

(3 CA A D) (2 0 A -
A D ), i c
s n e 0A 15 0
7 b.

pa rticular ca s e (Props 2 7
As a half the s ph eroid is .
,

double of the corres pon di ng c on e .

Pr ops 3 1 3 2 con cludin g th tr e ti e d e duce th e s i mil a r

.
, ,
e a s ,

formula for the volu me of th gre ter s egmen t namely in ou r e a , ,

gure ,

(great er s egmt) (c on e or . se
gmt of con e with s ame base and ax i s)

O n S pir al s .

Thetreati se On Spi r als b egin w i th a pr eface addr es se d to s

Dosith eus in which A rchi me d es m en ti on s the d eath of C onon

as a gri ev ou s l oss to math m t i c n d th en s u mmari e s the e a s, a z

mai n r es ults of th e tre tis s On the Sphe e a n d Cyli nd er an d

a e r

On Con oid s a n d Sphe oi d s ob e rvi n g tha t th e l as t two pr o

r ,
s

positions of Book II of th form r tre ti s e took the place e e a

of tw o which as or i gi n a lly en un ci t e d to Dos ith eu s w er e

,
a ,

wrong ; las tly h e s tate th mai n res ul ts of the treati s e

,

s e

On Spi r a ls pr emi s i n g th e den iti on of a s piral w h ich i s as

,

follow s

If traight li n e one extr mity of which r emai ns x ed be

a s e

mad e to rev ol ve at a un i form r at in pl ne un til it r eturn s e a a

to th e p os iti on from w hi ch it s t art e d n d if a t th e s ame ti me , a ,

a s th e s traight li ne is r v olvi n g a p oi n t mov e at a u n ifor m

e ,

rate along th e s tr aight lin s t rti ng from th e x e d ex tremity

e a
,

th e p oin t will d e s crib e a s p r l in th e pl n e

i a a .

u sual w e h ave s eri es of prop os iti ons preli mi nary to

As ,
a

the mai n s ubj ect rs t tw o propo i ti on ab ou t u nifor m moti on

, s s
,
 O N S P I R A LS 65

th n tw o s i mpl e geom trical pr opos iti on s follow e d by p o

e e ,
r

pos iti on s (5 9 ) which a e ll of one typ e Prop 5 s tat es th t

r a . . a ,

giv en a circle with cen tr e 0 tangen t to it t A and c the ,

a a , ,

FI G . 1 .

circum feren ce of ny circl e wh t v r it is poss ible to dr w

a a e e , a

a s tr ight li n
a OFF meeti n g th e circl e in P n d th e t n gen t
e a a

in F s uch th t a

FP : UP < (a1 c A P )

c .

A rchimed e s t k D tr ight li n e gr ea t r th n dr w
a es a s a e a 0, a s

OH p r all l to th t nge n t a t A and th n s y l t PH b

a e e a e a s e e

placed qu al to D ve gi n g ( o ) tow rd s A
e r Thi s i th e
ve va a a s

us u al phras eolog y of th typ of pr obl m kn own e am s e e as r e

W h er e s tr ight li n e of giv e n l e ngth h

a a to b pl c e d b etw e n as e a e

two li n s o curv e in s uch a p o i ti on th t if produc d i t

e r s s a , e ,

p s e s thr ough a given poi n t (thi s is th m an ing of ve gin g)

a s e e r .

Each of th e prop os iti on s 5 9 d p en d on a m s of thi s ki n d

e s ue

,

FI G 2 . .

which A rchi me d es as su me s a pos i bl e with out s h owing h ow s s

it i effected Ex ce pt in th e ca e of Pr op 5 th e th eoretical
s .
s .
,

s oluti on c n not b e ef
a fe ct e d by mean s of th e tr igh t li n e nd s a a

circle ; it dep en d s in g ene ral on th e soluti on of n equation a

of th e four th d egr ee which c n be solv e d by m ean s of th e

,
a
66 A R C H I M EDES

poin ts i n ter s cti on of a cert i n r ectangul r hyp erbol a

of e a a

a n d a c e rt i n p r bol a It is quit pos s ibl e h ow e ver th t

a a a . e , , a

s uc h pr obl m s w r e in pra ctic e oft en s olv e d by

e e m e ch an ic l a a

meth od n m ly by pl ci ng a rul er by tri al in th e p os iti on of

, a e a , ,

th r qu i r d li n e fo it is on ly n e c e ssary to pl c e th e rul e r
e e e : r a

s o th t i t p s ses thr ough th e giv en p oi n t

a a n d th en turn it a

r oun d that p oin t s pivot till th e i n t rc pt b ecom s of th e

a a e e e

g i v en l ength I n Pr op 6 9 we h ve circl with c en tre 0

. s .

a a e ,

a ch ord A B l e s th n the di am t r in it OM th e perpen dicular

s a e e ,

from O on A B B T th tang n t t B OT th e s tr ight l in

, e e a , a e

thr ough 0 p ar ll el to A B ; D E i ny r ti o l es s o great r

a : s a a r e ,

a s th c s m y be th n th rati o B M M O P rop s 6 7
e a e a , a e : . .
,

(F i g 2 ) h ow th t it is po s ibl e to draw s tr ight li n e OFP

. s a s a a

FI G 3 . .

m eet i ng A B in F an d th e c i rcl e in P s uc h th at FP P B = D E
(OP mee tin g A B in th e c as e wh er e D E B M : M O an d ,

m e e ti n g A B produc e d wh en D E B M M O) I n P r op s 8 9 . .
,

(Fig t i prov d th t it is poss ibl e to dr w s traight li n e

. 3) i s e a a a

OEP m ti n g A B in F th e circl in P an d th t n g n t t B in
ee , e e a e .a

G s uch th t FP B G = D E (OP m e ti n g A B i t s elf in th e c ase

, a : e

wh r D E B M M O an d m eeti n g A B pr oduce d in th e
e e : ,

c s wh e r D E B 11] M O)
a e e : : .

We w ill illu str t e by th con s tructi on s in P rop s 7 8 a e .

, ,

as it is th es e prop o i ti ons w hich e ctually cit d l t r s ar a e a e .

Pr op 7 If D E is ny r ti o B M M O it is r e quire d (Fig 2 )
. . a a : , .

to dr w OP F meeti n g th c ircl e in P an d A B produc e d in

a e

F s o th t

a

DzE .

Dra w OT p ara ll e l to A B ,
an d let the tangent to the circle at
B mee t OT in T .
 O N S P I R A LS 67

T h en hypothe i
D: E BM : M O by , s s,

OB B T by si mila r tri an gl es , .

T ke s tra ight li n e P H
a a
(le s th an B T) s uch t h t D E

s a

n d pl a c e P H be tw ee n the ci r cl n d OT

OB P H

z ,
a e a

v ergi ng tow rd s B (con s truc ti on s u me d )

a

a s .

FP

PB

OP P H
: :

'
0B

P H

P rop 8 If D E is any giv en r ati o B M M O it is r equire d

. . : ,

to dr aw OEP O m ee ti n g A B in F th e circle P th e ,

tang n t at B to th e circl in G s o that

e e

OT is par lle l to A B
a an d m ee t s th e t n g e n t a t B in
a

B ZV
I 111 0 OB B T, by s imilar tri ngles a ,

wh n ce e D E OB : BT .

Produc e TB to 0 maki n g B O of s uch

,
length th at

so th at BO B T .

Des crib circl thr ough the thr ee p oi nt s 0 T O and let OB

e a e , ,

produce d me et thi s circle in K .

Th en s i n c e B O

B T n d OK is p erp en di cul a r to C T it i s
, , a ,

pess ible to pl c e QG [ b e tw ee n th e c ircl e TK O and B 0 ] equ l to

-
a a

B K n d v e rgi n g t ow ard s O (c on s tru cti on ass u med)

a .
68 A R C H M EDES I
Le t OGO mee t th e origi n a l c i rcl e in P an d AB
OFP G is th e s tra ight li n e r e quir e d .

For
But OF : OG B T : GT , by p ar ll l a e s,

wh en c e OF GT . OG B T . .

Th er for e e GG GT : OF GT . OG BK OG
wh en ce C G OF : BK BT
B O : OB

BO : OP .

Pa ppu s o bj ct
rch i m e des s u s of th m g s u m ed
e s to A

e e ue as

P r op 8 9 . w ords
,
in th ese

i t s eem to b gr v rror i n t o wh i ch geom et er f ll

s e a a e e s a

whene v r ny on e di s c ov rs th s oluti on of a pl n e probl em

e a e e a

by m n of conics o li n e r (hi gh e r) curv s o gen r lly

ea s r a e ,
r e a

s olv es i t by m e n of a for ign k i n d s is th c s

a e
s g ( 1 ) w i th e ,
a e a e . .

th e pr obl m in th e fth B ook of th e C on ic of A p oll on iu

e s s

r l ti ng to th p rabol nd (2 ) wh en A rchi med s s u m in

e a e a a, a es a es

h is w ork on th s pir l s ol i d ch aract r with

0 9 of
"
e a a 1 4 0 1 a e

r efer en ce to circl ; fo it is p o ibl e with out ca lli ng in th

a e r ss e

a id of nythi ng olid to n d th e proof of th e th or m giv n by

a s e e e

A rchi me d th t i to prov th t th c i rcu m f ren ce of th

es , a s, e a e e e

c i rcl e rrived at in th r t r evoluti on is e qual to th e tr ight

a e s s a

l in e dr w n t right n gl to th i n itial lin e to meetth e t n gen t

a a a es e a

to th e pir l (i e th
s a . . e

T h re is howe v r th i xcuse fo A rchi m ed s th at h e on ly

e , e , s e r e ,

as su m th t th pr obl em c n b olved n d doe n ot as su me

es a e a e s a s

th e ctu l oluti on
a P ppu
a hi m elf giv es
s olu t on of th e
. a s
1
s a s l

p arti cular g by m e n of coh ics A pollon iu s wr ot e tw o

ue a t a s .

B ook of no u s an d i t is qu i t p o s ibl th t by A rchi m e d e

s ve ,
e s e a s s

ti me th er e m y lre dy h ve b een coll cti on of s uch probl em s

a a a a a e

to which t cit re f r e n c W s p er m i s ibl e

a e e a s .

P rop 1 0 r p ts th e res ul t of th e Lemma to P r op 2 of On

. e ea .

1
P appu s, i v, pp 2 9 8 3 02 . .
 O N S PI R A LS 69

Con oi d s an d Spher oi d s i n v olvi n g the s u mmati on of th e s ri es e

12 + 22 + 32 n
2
. P r op 1 1 pr oves an oth e r pr op os i ti on in

s u mmati on ,
n a me ly th at
(n
(
2
na
) : a 2
)}
(n + (n a )

Th e sa me pr op os iti on is a sol tru e if t er ms of the s eries

th e
1 b) and it is s u me d in
2
ar e a , ( a + 2 b)
2
(a + n
2
, as

th e mo r e gen er al for m in P r op s 2 5 2 6 .
, .

A rchi m e d es n ow i n troduc es h is De n iti on s of th e spir a l ,

it self th e or igi n th e i n i ti l li n e the r s t d i stan ce

, , th e a ,

radiu s v ector at th e en d of on e r e voluti on) th e secon d d i st n c , a e

th e e qu l l en gth a dd d to th e r diu ve ctor d uri n g th e

a e a s

e c on d c ompl e t e r v oluti on
s
) an d s o on ; th e s t ar ea (th ar ea
e ,
r e

bou n de d by th e pira l d es crib d in the r s t r voluti on an d s e e

th e r s t th e s econd ar ea (th t bou n de d by th e s pir l a a

des cr i b d in th e econ d r volu ti on a n d th e secon d di s t n ce

e s e

a

n d s o on ; th r s t ci r cle (th e circl e with th r s t di s tan c e

a e e

as r diu s ) th e s econ d ci cle (th e circl e with r diu s e qu l to th

a ,
r a a e

s u m of th e r t an d s e c on d di s tan c e s or twic e th e r s t


s ,

di s tan c e) an d s o on , .

P r op s 1 2 1 4 1 5 giv e th e fu n dam en tal pr op erty of th e

.
, ,

s piral conn e cti ng the l en gth of th e r d i u ve ctor w i th th e angl e a s

through w hi ch th e i n it i l lin e h as r ev olv e d from it or ig i n l a s a

po iti on an d corr es pon ding to th e e quati on in pol r c oor d i n t e

s ,
a a s

r z a 0 A A rchi me d e s d o
. n ot s p e k of an gl es gr e t r
s es a a e

th an o 2 h e h in th c se of p oi n t s on any tur n ft er
7 T, r 7r ,
as , e a a

th e r s t to u se m ultipl ,
of th e circu m fer e nc e es

of circl s w ell s rc s of it H e u s es th e
a e a a a .

r st circl e fo thi purp os e Thu s if P Q

r s .
, ,

ar e two p oin t s on th e r s t tur n ,

0p OQ ( ar c AKP ) (ar c

if P Q a ,
r e p oi n t s on th e n th turn of th e

s piral nd ,
a c is th e circu mfer en ce of th e r t circl s e,

OQ {( n 1 c + ar c A K ) Q
OP z {( n

P rop 1 3 .
pr oves th t if a ,
a s tr ight li n touch
a e es th e s p i ra l it
,
 ON SP I R A LS 7 1

LetOF meet th e s piral in Q

.

Th en we h av e , alter na nd o, s n e i c P0 QO ,

FQ QO P Q OU

(ar c P Q) (ar c A S P ) by hyp oth es i s , and a

for ti or i .

Componen d o , F0 Q0 (ar c A S Q) (ar c A S P )

OQ : OP
'
.

But QO OP ; therefore F0 OQ

which is i m pos s ibl e .

Th e re for e OT is n ot grea te r than th e ar c A SP .

11 . N ex t s uppos e if poss ible that

, , OT ar c A SP .

Me as ure 0 V a lon g OT s uch th at O V is gr eate r than OT bu t

less th an the ar c A SP .

Then th e rati o P O O V is l es s th n th e rati o P O OT i e a ,

. .

than the rati o of P S to th e p erpen dicular from O on P S ;

th erefore it is p oss ibl e (P r op 8 ) to draw a s traight li ne OF R G
.

meeting P S th e circl e P S A an d th e t n gent to th e circle at P

, ,
a

in F R G r es p ectiv e ly n d uch th t

, , , a s a

FR
z GP z P O z OV .
72 A R C H M EDES I
Let OF G me et th e pir l
in R

s a .

Th en ,
i
s n e c P0 R0 , we hav e , a l ter na n d o,

FR R O = GP

: z OV

(ar c P R ) (ar c A S P ) ,
a for ti or i ,

wh n c e e F O BO

(ar c A S R ) (ar c A S P )
OP ,

OR :

so th t F O OR ; wh i ch is i mpos ibl
a

s e .

Th re for OT e n ot l s s th n th e c A SP e 18 e a ar . A nd it w as
proved n ot gr t r th n th s m e c Th er for e ea e a e a ar . e

OT z (ar e A S P ) .

particul r c s (s eparat ly pr ov d by A rch i m d es ) if

As a a es e e e ,

P be th xtr mi ty of th e r t turn and 0 th circu m f r en c

e e e s 1
e e e

of th e r s t c i rcl th e ubt n gen t c ; if P b e th e e xtr m i ty

e, s a e
l

of th s c on d tur n nd th e c i rcu mfe r n c e of th e e c on d

e e a c e s
2

circl e th e ubt ng n t

,
20 ; n d g en e r lly
s i f o b tha e
2
a a , n
e e

circumfer n c e of th e n th circle (th e circl e w i th th e r adiu

e s

v ctor to th xtr mity of th e n th turn as r d i u s) th s ub

e e e e a ,
e

t ng nt to th t ngen t t th extremi ty of th n th turn n o

a e e a a e e n
.

If P is p oi n t on th n th turn n ot th e extr emity n d th e

a e , ,
a

c i rcl w i th O c ntr nd OP s r ad i u s cuts th e i n it i l l i n

e as e e a a a e

in K wh i l e p is th e c i rcu m f er n c of th e circl e th
,
ub e e ,
e s

t n g n t to th tan g en t at P (n 1 )p + rc K P (m as ur d
a e e a e e

forw rd a

Th r m i n d r of th
e book (Props 2 1 8 ) is d v ot d to
e a e e .

e e

n d in g th r e s of porti ons of th e s pir al n d its v er l

e a a a se a

turn s cut off by th e i n i ti l l i ne o n y two r di i v ctor a r a a e es .

W w i ll illu s trat by th e g n ral c e (P r op

e Ta k e
e e e as .

OB 0 0 tw o b ou n d i n g r di i v e ct or es i n cludi n g n
, , c BO a ,
a ar

of th p i r l W i th c n tr e 0 n d r diu 0 0 d s cribe a circl

e s a . e a a s e e .

D i v i d e th e n gl B OO i n to ny n u m b r of qu l p a rt s by
a e

a e e a

r dii of th i s c i rcle Th s pir l m t th s r di i in p oints

a . e a ee s e e a

P Q ,
Y Z s uch th t th e r ad ii v ct or es OB OP OQ
, OZ OO a e , , ,

1
On th e w h o e l c ou se r of A r hi m
c ed e s s

r
p oof of th e p ope r rty of th e
s u b an gent t ,
s ee n o te i n th e A ppe n d ix .
 O N S PI R A LS 73

ar e in a rith
me i at c l progr es s i on Dra w arcs of circl e w ith . s

radii OB OP , OQ
, s s h ow n ; thi s produc es a gur e circu m
a

s crib e d to th e s pir al an d c on s i s ti ng of th e s u m of s mall s e ct ors

of circl e s an d n i n s cribe d gur e of th e s am e ki n d

, a A s th e .

rs t s e ctor in the circu ms cribe d gure is e qu al to the s e con d

s e c tor in th e i n s crib e d i t is eas ily se en th at th e a r eas of th e
,

circu ms crib ed n d i n s crib ed gures differ by the d iffe r ence

a

b etw een th e s e ctors 0 3 0 n d OB p ; th ere fore by i n cr eas i ng a

,

n u mb er divi s i on s of th e n gl e B OO w e c n mak e th a , a e

differen c e betw een th e r eas of th e circu ms crib ed n d in a a

s crib e d gur es s m all s w pl eas ; w h av e th er for e th e

a s a e e e ,
e ,

e l e me n t n e c ess ry fo
s th e applic ati on of th e m eth od of
a r

e xh au ti on s .

If th e r e n ra di i OB
ar e 0 0 th ere e (n 1 ) pa rt s of
, ,
ar

th e an gl B OO e S i n c th e ngl es of l l th e m all s ct or a
. e a a s e s r e

e qu al th e s e ct or s a
,
as th e s qu r on th eir r adii
r e a e .

T hu s (w hol e se ct or Ob O)

(circu m s cribed gure)

(n OQ2 +

an d (wh ol e s e c tor Ob O)

(in s cribe d gur e)

(n
74 A R C H MEDES I
A n d OB OP OQ , , , OZ 0 0 is an , a rith me t i cal progres s ion
of n t er m s ; th ere for e
(cf Prop 1 1 . .

(n

00 2
:
{ OG .
2
O )}
R

(n
C ompres s i ng th e circu m cr i b ed n d i ns cribe d gures t og eth r s a e

in th e u su l w y A rchi med s pr ov s by e xh us tion th t

a a , e e a a

( ect or Ob G) (ar of s pir l OB O)

s ea a

2
{ OG OE)
2
00 : .
} .

If OB b 0 0 c and (c b) (n 1 )h , ,

,
A rch i m ed e s s

r e ult is th equiv l n t of yi ng that wh en h di mi n i s h es

s e a e sa ,
an d

n i n cr se i n d en i te ly whil
ea c b r em i n s con s tan t
s ,
e a ,

li mit of z h
)}
2

2
( c b) b) }

r
s
r );
th ta is, w i th ou r n o a i on ,t t
z

J
3
a dx % (c
b

In pa rt i cul r th e r e in clude d by th e r s t tur n n d th e

a ,
a a a

i n i t i l l i n e i b oun d d by th r d ii v e ct or es O a n d 2 d ;
a s e e a 1r

th e a r e th er efor e i to th e c i rcl e w i th r diu 2 a as % (2 a )

a, , s a s 1r 1r
2

to (2 a ) th t i to s y it i s
7r
z
, of tha circl e o s a ,
e r

Thi i s e p r t ely
s
p ov d in P r op 2 4 by m e n of P r op 1 0
s a a r e . a s .

an d C orr 1 2 .
, .

Th r e of th rin g dd d wh i le th e ra diu s v ector d es cribe

e a a e a e s

th e e con d turn i th e r e b ou n d ed by th e r a d i i v e ctor s 2 d

s s a a e 7r

a nd 4 m nd i
1 to th c i rcl e w i th ra diu s 4 a in th e r t i o
,
a s e
1r a

of ) } to wh er 2 a
nd r 4 a ; 1
2
r
2
e r 1r a r
2 7r

th r at i o i s ? 1 2 (Pr op
e .

If R b e the are of th e r t turn of th e s pir l boun de d by

I
a s a

th e i n it i al li n R th re of th e ri ng dd d by th e e con d '

e, e a a a e s
2
complete turn R th t of th rin g dd d by th third tur n , 3
a e a e e ,

a nd o on th en (P r op 2 7 )
s ,
.

1 .
1,
n R4 = 3R R5 = 4R 1
)R 2 .

A l so R 0
= 6R , .
 ON SP I R A LS 7 5

La s tly , if
porti on of th e ector b OO boun de d by
E b e th e s

c b z G of th e circl n d th e a c B O of th e s pir l an d

b B th e , ar

e a r a ,

F th e p orti on cut off betw een th e ar c B O of th e s pir l th a , e

ra diu s 0 0 an d th e ar c i n terc ept ed b tw een OB and 0 0 of e

th e circl e with c en tr e 0 an d r adiu s OB it s pr ov e d th at ,

I

E OB O OB
)} (Pr op

:
{ + O .

O n P lane E qu ilibr iu ms , I , I I .

thi tr eati se w e h av e the fun d men t l prin cipl es of

In s a a

m e ch n ic s e t bli s h e d by th e m e th od of g eome try in it

a s a s s

s tricte t se n se The r e w r e d oubtl es s earli e r treati ses on

s . e

m e ch n ic s but it m ay b e as s u me d th t n on e of th em h ad
a ,
a

b een w orke d ou t with s uch g eometric l rigour A rchi med es a .

begi n s with s e v en P os tulat e s i n cludi n g th e foll owin g prin

cipl e E qu l w e ight s at e qu l di t an c s b lan c e ; if u n e qu l
s . a a s e a a

w e ight s op e r at e at e qu l di s t n c th l rg e r w igh d ow n a a es , e a e s

th e ma ll e r sIf w h en e qu al w ei ght a e in quili briu m s ome

. s r e

thi n g b e dd ed to o s ubtr cte d fr om one of th em qu i libriu m

a ,
r a , ,
e

is n ot m a i n t i n d but th w e ight which is i n cr e e d o i s n ot

a e e as r

di mi n i s h d pr v il s Wh en e qual an d s imil r plan e gur es

e e a . a

coi n cid e if ppl i ed to on e n oth er th ir cen tr s of gr avity

a a ,
e e

s i milarly coin cid ; nd in gur s which e un equ al but e a e ar

s i m il a r th e c en tr es of gr vity will b s i m il arly s i tu at e d

a e .

I n an y gur e th e c on t our of which is c on c av e in on e n d th e a

sa m e dir e cti on th e c n tr e of gr vity m u s t be within th e gu re a e .

S i m pl e pr op os iti on s (1 5 ) foll ow d educ e d by ed u cti o d

,
r a

a bs u r d itm ; th s e l ea d to th fu n d men t l th or em prov ed

e e a a e ,

rs t fo c ommen s ur ble n d th en by r ed u cti o a d a bs u r d u m

r a a

fo i n comm en s urable m gn itud

r th t Two m agn i tu d es a es , a ,

whether co mm en su r a ble or i n commen su r a bl e bala nce , at d s i

ta n ces r ecipr oca lly pr op or ti on a l to the m agn i tu d es (P rop s .

6, P r op
h ows h ow to nd th c en tr e of gravity of
. 8 s e

a p art of m gn itud e wh en th e c en tres of gr vity of th e

a a a

oth e r pa rt n d of th e wh ol e magn itud e a e gi ven

a A rchi me d e r . s

th en addres s es hi ms elf to the mai n pr oblems ofBook I n me ly ,

a

to nd th e c en tr es of gr a vi ty of (1 ) a p arall e l ogr am (Prop s

a tri an gl e P r op n d (3 ) p r all e l
9 , ( )
2 ( 13 s .
,
a a a

tr p e ium (Prop
a z an d h e r e w e h v e an illu s tr ti on of th
. a a e

e xtr aordi n ry r i g our wh i ch h e r e quir es in h is g ome tric l

a e a
76 A R C H I M EDES

or oofs . We he re as uming as in The Method

do not nd h im s , ,

Lhat if ,
ll th e li n e s th at can b dr w n in a gur e pa ra ll l to
a e a e

[a n d i n cludi n g ) on e s id e h av e th e i r m iddl e p oi nt s in s tr igh t a a

.ine th c en tre of grav ity m u s t lie s ome wh ere on th a t s tr aight

,
e

li ne ; h e i n ot con tent to r eg rd th e gur e as ma d e u p of an

s a

inn ity of s uch par all e l li ne s ; pur e g eometry r eali es th at z

the par ll e l ogram is mad e up of l eme n t ary p ar ll l ogr ams

a e a e ,

in d en it ly n rrow if you pl as but s till pa ra ll e logram s and

e a e e, ,

the tri n gl of el emen t ary t p e i a n ot s tr aight lin es s o

a e r a z , ,

th at to s u m e dir e c tly th at th e c n tre of gr avity li

as on th e e es

straight li n e bi s ecti ng th e p r all l ogr ams w ould r e l ly be a e a

a peti ti o p i n cipii A cc ordi n gly th e r es u lt no d oubt d is

r . ,

cov ere d in th e i nformal way is cl i n ch ed by a pr oof by r ed u cti o

,

ad a bs u d u m in eac h c ase
r I n th e case of th e p ra ll e l ogr am
. a

A B CD (P r op
'
if th e c entr of gr vity is not on th e s traight
. e a

lin e E F bi s cti ng two oppo it e s i d s let it b e at H Dr aw

e s e ,
.

E X p r ll l to A D Th en it is pos s ibl e by bi s e cti n g A E E D

a a e . , ,

then bi se cti ng th e h alv es nd s o on ulti mat ly to reach ,

a ,
e

a l ength l s th an K H es L t thi s b e d one an d thr ough th e

. e ,

p oin t of divi s ion of A D dr aw p rallel s to A B o DC making

s a r

a n u mb r of e qu al an d s i mil r p r all e l ogr ams as in th e gur e

e a a .

Th e c en tr e of grav ity of e ch of th es e p ar all logr ms is a e a

s i mil rly itu at e d with regard to it

a s H en c e w e h v e a n u mb er . a

of e qu al m gn itud es with th ir c entr es of gr vity

a t equ al e a a

d is t n c
a alon g a s traight
es l i n e Th er efor e th e c n tr e of . e

gr v i ty ofth e whole is on th e l i n e j oi ni ng the centr s ofgr avity

a e

of th tw o m iddl e p ar all l ogr m s (Prop 5 C or

e e B u t thi s a .
,
.

is i m pos s ibl e b ecau se H is outs id e th ese p rall l ogr ams

, a e .

Th r for th e c entr e of gr vity c annot but lie on E F

e e e a .

S im i l rly th e c en tr e of gr vity li es on the s traight l ine

a a

bi s e cti ng th e other oppos ite s id es A B OD ; the r efor it li es at , e

th e i nt rs e cti on of thi s li ne w i th E F i e at th
e p oi n t of , . . e

i nt rs cti on of the di agonals

e e .
 ON P LA N E EQU I LI BR I UM S , 1 7 7

Th e proof in th e cas e of th e tr i angl e is s i mil ar (P rop .

Le t A D b e the me dian through A Th e c en tre of gra vi ty

.

mu s t lie on A D .

For , if n ot let it be at H and draw H I p arall l to B C

, , e .

Th en if w e bi sect DC th e n bi s e ct th e h al ves a nd s o on
, , , ,

w e h l l a rrive at a l ength DE l ess th an I H

s a Di v id B C i nto . e

len gth e qu a l to DE draw par ll l s to DA through th e poin ts

s , a e

of divi s ion and c ompl e te th e s m ll p ara ll e l ograms as s h ow n in

, a

th e g ur e .

Th e cen tr es of gr avity of th e wh ol e p ar all elogr ms S N TP a , ,

FQlie on A D (Prop 9 ) th er e for e th e c en tre of grav ity of th e

.

gur for me d by th em all li s on A D ; let it be 0 Jom OH

e e .
,

an d pr oduc e it to me et in V th p rall el through C to A D e a .

N ow i t is eas y to s ee t h t if n be th e n u mb er of p rt s i n t o
a , a

w hi ch D C A C ar e di v ide d r s p e ctively
,
e ,

(s u m of s ma ll A s A II R M LS A R N N UP
I
, (A A B C ) ,
:

n AN2 AC 2

when c e

(s u m of s ma ll p r llelogr ams ) l (n
A s) (su m of a a

Th e r e for e th e c en tr e of gr v ity of th e gur e mad e up of all

a

th e s mall tri angles is at a p oi n t X on OH pr oduc ed s uch th at

XE :
(
n 1 )OH .

Bu t VH z HO there fore XH > VH

CE z E D or (n l ): 1 ; .

I t follow s th a t th e c en tr e of grav ity of all th e s mall

tri an gl s tak en t og eth e r li es t X notwith s tandi n g t h t all
e a a

th e tri n gl es lie on one s id e of th e p ar all el to A D drawn

a

thr ough X w h ich is i mpos s ibl e .

 ON PLA N E EQU L BR U M S , I I I I II,
79

Thi s is m e r e ly pr li mi n ary Th n begi n s th e r al rgumen t e . e e a ,

th e c ours e of which is ch ar ac t ri s tic nd d es e rv e to b e t ou t e a s se .

A rchi m e d e s u ses a s e ri e s of gur es i n s cribe d to the seg men t ,

s h e s ys in th e r ec ogn i e d man n e r Th e rul e

a a ,
z

is s follow s I n s cribe in th e seg m n t the tri n gle A BB with

a . e a

th e s m e b se an d h e ight ; th v ert e x A i th en th e p oi n t
a a e s

of c on t ct of th e t n g n t p a r all e l to B B Do th e sam e with

a a e .

th r em ai n in g seg men t cut off by A B A B th en with th

e s , ,
e

s e g m en t s r e m i n i n g an d s o on If a i s uch , . s

a gure th e di amet er s through Q Q P P R R bi ct th e

, ,

, ,

, ,

se

s traigh t li n e A B A B A Q A Q QB QB r s p ectiv e ly an d

s , , , , ,
e ,

BB i s divide d by th e di m e t e r i n t o p ar ts which

e ll a s ar a

e qu l It is e y to prov e l s o th at P P QQ R R a
a . as ll a , ,
r e a

p a ralle l to BB n d th t A L LM M N N O
, a 7 th e a : : : ,

sa m e re l a ti on holdi n g if th e n u mb e r of s id of the p olygon es

i s i n cr s d ; i e th e eg m e n t of A O a e a lw y s in th e r ti o
ea e . . s s r a a

of th s ucc ess iv e od d n u m b e r s to P rop

e
(Lemm Th e as .

c n tr of gr vity of th e i n s crib d gur l i s on A O (Prop

e e a e e e ,
.

If th ere b e tw o p r bolic egm en t n d tw o gure i n crib d a a s s, a s s e

in th m in th e r e c ogn i e d m n n r with n qu l n u m b er of
e

z a e a e a

s id s th e ,
c n tres of gravity divide th e r p ct i v x es in th
e e es e e a e

s am e pr op orti on fo th e r ti o d e p en d on th e sam ,
r ti o of odd
r a s e a

n u mb er 1 3 5 7 s
(Prop Th e c en tr of gr vity of th e . e a

p r b ol i c s egm en t it elf li s on th e d i m ter A O (th i s is prove d

a a s e a e

in P rop 4 by ed u cti o d a bs u r d u m in e x ctly th s m e w y

. r a a e a a

as fo th r tri n gl e in I
e It is n xt prov e d (Prop 5 ) th at
a . e .

th c en tr e of gr vity of th
e eg m en t i n ear e r to th e v rt x A
a e s s e e

th n th e c entr e of gr vity of th i ns cri b d gur e is ; but th at

a a e e

it is pos ibl e to i n s crib in th s egm n t in th e re cogn i e d

s e e e z

m ann e r a gur e s uch th at th di s t n c e b etw e n th e c n tr es of e a e e

gr vity of th egmen t an d of th e in s crib ed gure is l s th n

'

a e s e s a

a ny s s ig n d l en gth for w e h a v e on ly to i n cr e s
a e th n u m b er,
a e e

of id e s u fc ien tly (Prop

s s I n cid n tally it is ob e rv ed in . e ,
s

P rop 4 th t if in ny seg m n t th e tr i ngl e with th e s me

. a ,
a e a a

b a s e an d e qu a l h ight is i n s crib e d th t i an gl e i gr e t e r th an
e ,
e r s a

h alf th e eg men t wh en ce it follow s th at each ti me w e in cr e

s , ,
eas

th n u m be r of s id s in th e i n s crib e d gur e w e t k e aw y
e e ,
a a

mor e th n h alf of th e s gm en t s r em i n i n g ove r ; an d in Prop 5

a e a .

th t corr p on d i n g eg men t s on oppos it e s ides of the xi s e g

a es s a ,
. .

Q R B Q R, B h av

e th e ir
a x e s e qu l

n d th e re for e e qu l in a a e ar a
80 A R C H I MEDES

r
a ea La tly (Pr op
. s if th er e be two p arabolic s g m en t s
.
e ,

th ir cen tres of gravity divide th eir di ameter s in th e s me

e a

rati o (A rchi medes enun ci ates thi s of s i milar s eg men ts on ly ,

but it is true of any two seg men t s and is requir ed of n y tw o a

segmen t s in Pr op P rop 8 n ow nd s th e c en tr e of gr vity

. .
a

of any s g men t by u s i n g th
e l s t propos iti on It i the e a . s

g om t i c l equi valen t ofth olution of a s i mpl e qu t ion in

e e r a e s e a

th e r t i o (m s ay) of A G to A O wh er e G is th e cen tr of
a , ,
e

gr vity of the s egmen t

a .

S in ce th e s eg men t g (A th e s u m of th e tw o s eg
m n ts A QB A QB
e
3, (A ,
1

Further i f QD QD a e th di meter s of th ese s g men ts

, ,

r e a e ,

QD QD e e qu al and s in c e th e c n tres

,
ar , ,
e

of gr vity H H of th e seg m n t s divide

a ,
e

QD QD proporti on ally E H i p r ll el

, ,
s a a

to QQ n d th e c en tre of gr vity of th e
'
,
a a

tw o seg m en t s toge th e r is at K th e poin t ,

wh r H H meets A O e e

.

Now A O 4 A V (Lemm 3 to P rop a .

Q D
an d
A O A V : A V . Bu t
H d i vid e s QD in th e s am e r ti o a as G
divid es A O (P o r p . th er efor e

Ta k i g moments about A of th e s egmen t the tri ngle A B B

n
,
a

a nd th s u m of th e s mall s egmen t s w e av e dividi n g ou t by

e
h ( ,

A V an d A A BB

)
4

1 5 m = 9,

an d m

Th a t i s , A G = % A O, or A G z GO

Th e n l proposition (1 0 ) n d s th centre of gra vity of the

a e

por ti on of a par abola cut off b tween two p arallel chord P P e s

,

BB

If P P is the s horter of th e ch ords and the diameter
.

bi s ectin g P P BB meet s th em in N 0 r es p ectiv ely A rchi

,

, ,

m des pr ov es that if N0 be d ivid e d i n t o ve equ al p rt s of

e , a
wh i ch L M is the middl e on e (L b ei n g n ear er to N th an M is
) 3
 O N PLA N E EQUI LI BR I UMS , 11 81

th e cen tr e of grav ity G of th e porti on of th e parab ol b etw een a

nd B B divid es LM in s uch way th at

PP

a a

L G z GM = B 0 2 .
(2 P N + B O) : P N2 .

Th egeome trical pr oof is s omewhat d iicult and u s es a v ery ,

r em rka bl e Lemma which forms Prop 9 If a b c d as y r e

a . .
, , , , , a

s tra ight li n es sa ti s fyi n g th e c on diti on s

2 g
(a b c d) ,

2 a + 4 b+ 6 c+ 3d

th mu s t
'

en w+ y %a .

Th eproof is en tirely geom tric l but amoun ts of cou rs e to e a ,

th e li m i na ti on of thr e qu n titi
e b c l from th e bov four
e a es , ,
( a e

e qu ation s .

Th e S an d -
r e ckon e r
(P s ammites or A r enar i us) .

I ha v e alr eady des crib ed i n pr ev i ou s ch apt er th e r em rk a a

a bl s y s t em ex pl ain e d in thi
e ,tr e ti se an d in a los t w ork s a ,

Mpx P r i n ciples a ddr es e d to Z eu x ippu s for ex pres i n g v ry

az , , s , s e

large n u mb ers w hi ch w ere beyond th e range of th e ordin ry a

G r e k a rith me tic a l n ota ti on

e A rchi me d es s h ow e d th t his . a

s ys t em w ould ena bl e an
y n um be r to be e xpr ess ed up to th at
vwhi ch in ou r n otati on would re quire milli on m illion
ciph e r s and th en proc ee de d to prov e that thi s s ys tem mor e
th an s ufc e d to ex press th e n u mb er of grai ns of s an d which
it w ould tak e to ll th e u ri i e s e on a r eas onable V i ew (as it
v r ,

s eem e d to hi m) of the s i e to b attribut ed to th e u n iv e rs

z e e .

I n t r es ti n g as the b ook is fo th e cours e of th e argumen t by

e r

which A rchi medes es tabli s h e thi s it is in addition docu s , , ,

a

men t of the rs t i mp ortan c e hi toric lly It is here that w e s a .

l earn th t A ri s tarch u s pu t forw ard th e C opern ican th eory of

a

th e u n iv e r se with th e s u n in th e c entr e an d th e pl an ets

,

i n cludin g th e earth revol v i n g roun d it and th at A ri tarchu s ,

s

furth er di s cove red the angul r di ame ter ofthe s u n to be th a a

of th e circl e of the z odi a c o h a lf a d egr ee

_
S i n ce A rchi me d es
r .
,

in ord r to c alcul at e a s a fe gur e (n ot too s mall) for th e s i e

e z

G
82 ,
A R C H I M EDES

of th e un iverse has to m k e c rt in as s u mptions as to th

,
a e a e

i es and dis tan c es of th e s u n n d moon an d th e ir r e l ati on

s z a

to th e s i e of th e un iv er s z h e t kes th e O pp ortu n ity of e, a

quot i ng earli er vi ew s S ome h ve tri e d he s ays to prove . a , ,

th t th e p erimeter of th e rth is bout

a s tad es ; in ea a

ord r to b e quit e s afe h e w i ll t k

e it to be about ten ti mes a e

thi o s, rs ta d e an d n ot gr e at e r Th e di am et er of s, .

e arth like mos t e r l i er tron omers h e tak es to b

'

th e ,
a as ,
e

gr t r than that of th e moon but l e s s th an th at of the su n

ea e .

Eud ox u s h e say s d e cl ar d th di m t er of th e s un to be n i ne
, ,
e e a e

ti m s tha t of th e moon Ph i d i s h is ow n fath er tw elve tim

e ,
a , , e s,

wh i le A ri s tarchus tri ed to prov th at it is gr eater th an 1 8 bu t e

l ess th n 2 0 ti mes th e di met r of th e moon ; he will agai n be

a a e

on th e s afe id e an d t ak e it to b s3 0 ti me but not more Th e e s, .

p o i ti on is rath er more d i fcult as reg rd s the rati o of th

s a e

d i t an ce of the s un to the s i of th un ivers e H ere h e s i e

s z e e . e z s

upon a dictu m of A ris t rchu th t th e s ph ere of th e x d a s a e

s t rs is s o gr e t th a t the circl
a in which h e s uppos es th e e rth
a e a

to r v olv e (r ou n d th e s n) b r uch a proporti on to th

e u ea s s e

d i tanc e of th e x ed s tar s th c en tr e of th e s ph er e bear s to

s as e

it s urfac e
s If thi s is tak n in s tr i ctly math ematical s en e e a s ,

i t m e ns th at th e s ph er of th e x e d s t ar s is i nnit e in i e
a e s z ,

which w ould not s uit A rchi m d s s purp ose ; to get anoth r e e

e

m e n in g out of it h e pr e th e p oi nt th at A r i s t archu s s

a s s es

w ords c nnot be taken quit e l it r lly be cau s e the c entr e b i ng

a e a , e

with out magnitude cann ot be in ny ratio to any oth er mag ,

a

n itu d e h ence he ugg s ts th t r son able in terpretation of

s e a a ea

th e s t atemen t w ould b to s upp o that if we con c iv e se , e e a

s phere with radius e qu l to th d i s tan ce between the cen tre a e

of th e su n and th e c en tr e of th e e rth th en a ,

(di am of earth ) (di m of said s ph er e)

. : a .

(di am of said s ph er ) (di m of s ph er e of x e d s tars )

. e a . .

Th i s is of c our se an a rbitra ry i n t erpr eta ti on ; A ri s tarchu

, , s

pr s u mably meant n o s uch thi ng but me r ely that th e s i of

e , z e

th e e arth is negligibl e in c om p ri on with th a t of th e s ph er a s e

of th e x e d s ta r s H ow e ve r th e oluti on of A rchi m d es

.
, s e s

probl em deman d s s ome s su mpt ion of th e kin d and in m king a , ,

a

thi s ass um pti on he w no doubt w ar e that h e was taking

, as a

a lib erty with A ri s t archu fo th e s ak e of gi v i ng his hypo s r

 TH E S A ND R E CK ON ER -
83

A rchi me d e s h a s
l s tly to compar th dia m te r O f the s un,
a , e e e

with th e circu m fer en ce of th e c ircl de cribed by its centr e e s .

A ri t rchu h ad ma d e th a ppa r e n t di a
s a s m et e r of th e s u n 7 g th e a

of th e s id circu m f er n c e ; A rchi m ed e
a will pr ove that th e e s

s id circu m f e r n c e c an n ot c on t ai n m ny s s un s

a s e a a a

di am t r s o th t th e di amete r of th e s un is gr e t er th n the
e e ,
r a a a

side of r gular chili agon i n cribe d in th e circl e Fir t h

a e s . s e

m d e an e x pe rim en t of h i own to d e t er m in e th e pp r en t
a s a a

d iameter of th e s u n With sma ll cylin de r o dis c n a pl n . a r i a e

a t right n gl s to a l ong s tra ight s tick an d mov abl e al on g it

a e e ,

h e ob e rv e d th su ns t th e m om en t wh e n it cl eare d th e
e a

h ori on in ri s i n g m ovi ng th di c till it j u s t cove re d n d ju s t

z ,
e s a

f il ed to cov r th e s u n as h e looke d along th e s tr ight s tick

a e a .

H thu s fou n d th e n gul r di a me t e r to lie b etw e n T z R n d

e a a e a

%5
R wh e e R is a right n gl
,
1 Bu t s u n d r h is s s u mp a e . a , e a

t i on s th e s i of th e a rth s not negligible in c ompari s on with

,
z e e I

th e u n s c i rcl h h ad to ll ow fo p r ll x n d n d li m it

s e, e a r a a a a s

fo th r n gl s ubt n d e d by th e s u n
e a t th c n tr e of th
e e rth a e e e ea .

Thi s h d oe by g eome tric l rgu m n t v ry m uch in th

e s a a a e e e

m n n e r of A ri s t rchu s
a a .

Let th e circles with c en tr es O C repr esen t se cti on s of th e s un ,

an d e arth r e s p e ctiv e ly E th e p os iti on ofth e obs e rv e r ob s ervi ng

,

G 2
84 A R C H I M E DES

th e when it h s ju s t cl re d th e h ori on Dr w from E

sun a ea z . a

two t an g en t s E P E Q to th circl e With c n tr e 0

,
n d fr om e e ,
a

C l t C F C G b e d r w n t ouchi ng th s me c i rcl
e , a With c en tr e a e . e

C an d r diu s C O d e cr i b
a c i rcl e thi s will r epr e sen t th e path
s e a :

of th e c en tre O f th u n rou n d th e rth Let th i s circl m t

e s e a . e ee

th e t n g en t fr om C in A B
a s n d j oi n A B m e ti n g C O in M , ,
a e .

A rchi m ed es s O b s erv t i on h h ow n that

a as s

R > A FE Q > 5 55 B ;
a nd proc d to prov e th t A B i l s th an th e id Of
he ee s a s e s s e a

g l
1 e polygon of 6 5 6 s i d s i n cr i b d in th ci el A OB
u ar e s e e 1 e ,

but gr t r th n th s i d of n i n crib ed r egul r polygon of

ea e a e e a s a

s id s in oth r w ord s th t
e , e ,
a

R A FOG R .

Th e fi r t r l ti on
s e a is O bv i ou s, for ,
i c
s n e CO E0 ,

1 PEQ A FC G .

N e xt , th e p r im t r O f
e e e an
y polyg on i n s crib d in th circle e e

A OB l 1s ess th n a 0 0 (i
4 4
7
. e . ti me th di m t r ) s e a e e ,

Th ere for e AB
5
CO or 1 1 55 CO ,

an d , a for ti or i,
AB 5 55 C0 .

N ow th etr i an gl s CA M C OF b ing equ l in ll res p cts

, e , e a a e ,

AM OF s o th t A B ,
2 OF (di m t er of u n) OH OK
a : a e s ,

sin c th e di am t r Of th u n is gr eat e r th n th t of th e e rth

e
-

e e e s a a a
'

th r for OH + OK <
e e e CO nd H K 5 5 5 CO 1 5 5 ,
a
9
.

A nd CO OF whil e H K E Q s o th t E Q , T 5 , a
9 9
6

We can n ow c om p r e the an gl es OCF OE Q; a ,

A OOF tan
4 OE Q tan OE Q

EQ
>
CF
9 9
5 55 , a for ti or i .

Doubli ng th e an gl e s ,
we h ve a

A FCG 9 9
1 0 5
. A P EQ
9 9
5 5 5 5 5 R , i c
s n e A P EQ 2 55 -

R ,
 TH E S A N D R E CK ONE R -

85

H en c e A B i s gr eat er th n th s ide of r egul r p olygon of a e a a

8 1 2 s id e s nd a f or ti o i gre t e r th an th e
, a id e f regul r r a s O a a

polygon of s id es i n crib e d in th e circl e A OB ,

s .

Th e p e ri me t er of th e chili g on as of an regul r p olygon a a

y ,

with mor e s id es th n s ix i n s cribe d in th e circle A OB i gr e t r a , s a e

than 3 ti mes th e di me ter of th e s u n orbi t but is l ess th an a

s ,

ti mes th e di am ete r of th e su n an d a for ti or i l ess th an ,

ti mes th di m te r of th e earth ; e a e

th er efor e (di am et er of s un s orbit) (di m of earth )

a .

s t d es a .

B u t (d i am of e arth ) (di m of s u n s orbit)

. a .

(di am of s u n orbit) (di am of u n iv ers e);

. s : .

th er e for th u n iv r s e o th s ph er e of th e x d t r s is les s
e e e ,
r e e s a ,

th an t i mes th e s ph er e in which th s un s orbit is a e

gr ea t circl e .

A r ch i m d es t ak e s qu n t i ty of s n d not gr eater th an
e a a a

a p oppy ee d an d s u m s th t i t c on t i n s n ot m or e th n
-

s a s e a a a

gr i n s ; th e di am et er of a p oppy e d h e t k s to be n ot l ss
a -
se a e e

th n 5 5 th of a nge br dth thu s a s ph er e Of d i met r

a
1
r -

ea a e

1 n e b
g d th i s n ot gr ea t e r th n
r ~
r ea p oppy s d s an d a -
ee

th ere for c on tai ns n ot m or e th n

e gr i n s of an d a a s

u n its of secon d o d e un its of s t o d ) r r r r er

an d a
for ti or i n ot mor e th n 1 ooooooooo 1 0 u n i t s of a , , ,

s econ d o d e of n u m b r r Gr du a lly i n cr eas in g th e di am e t r

r e s a e

of th e s ph r by m ultiplyi n g it ea ch t i m e by 1 0 0 (m aki n g th
e e e

s ph er e times l rg er ach t i m ) n d ubs tituti n g for a e e a s

ng br dth s a s t diu m er -
ng eabr e dths ) a er -

a ,

h e n d s th e n u mb r of gr ai n s of an d in a s ph er e of di m et er e s a

s t di to be les s than u n it of s eventh

a a s

or d e of n u m ber an d th e n u mb er in a s ph e r e
51
r o 10 s r ,

ti mes thi s s i to b e l e th n z e un its Of the eighth ss a

of n u m b er s o 1 0

63
o d r er r .

Th e Qu ad r atur e of th e P ar ab ola .

pr ef ce addr es s ed to Dosith eu fter th e de th of

I n th e a ,
s a a

C on on A rchi me d e s cl i m s or i gi n ality fo th
,
ol uti on of th e a r e s

pr obl m of n di n g th e r e of a segmen t of p r bol cut ff

e a a a a a a O

by ny ch ord which h e s ay s h e r s t di s cov er ed by m e n s O f

a ,
a

me chan ic s a n d th en c on r me d by m e n of g ome try u s i n g a s e ,

th l emm th a t if th er e
e e tw o u n e qu l ar e s (or m g n itud e
a ,
ar a a a s
 TH E QU A DR A TU R E O F TH E P A R A BO LA 87

curve in R R 1 , 2 ,
Joi n QR I ,
an d pr oduce i t to mee t OE in
F QE me ti ng
,
2
e O1 E 1 in F1 , an d s o on .

rchi me d e h as pr ov e d in seri es of pr op os it i ons

A s a

(6 1 3 ) th a t if
-

tr ap e iu m s uch s O E E O is us p en ded
, a z a
1 1 2 2
s

from H H an d n r e P u s p en d d t A b al an ces O E E 0
1 2 ,
a a a s e a
1 1 2 2
s o s u s p en d e d i t will t k e gr eat er r e th n P u p en d d t
, a a a a a s s e a

A to b l an c th e s m e tr p e iu m s u p en d d fr om H
a e a nd a z s e
2
a

a l es s re th n P to b l n c e th e same tr p e iu m su s p en de d
a a a a a a z

from H A s i m i l r pr op os iti on h old s w i th r eg ard to a tr i n gl e

1
. a a

s uch s E H Qs u s p en d e d wh e r e i t is an d s u s p en d e d at Q n d
a a
n n

H r e s p e ctiv e ly
n .

S upp os e (Prop s 1 4 1 5 ) th e tri n gl e QgE s u s p en d e d wh r e

.
,
a e

it i from OQ n d s uppos th at the tr p e i u m E 0 s u s p n d ed

s ,
a e a z
1 , e

W h er e it is is b l n c d by an ,
r I f u p en d d t A th
a a e a ea s s e a ,
e

trap iu m E 1 0 s u p n d d wh er e i t is is b l n ce d by I
ez
2 , s e e ,
a a
;

s u s p en d e d at A a n d o on a nd n lly th e tri an gl e E O Q
,
s ,
a n n ,

s u s p en d e d wh e it is i b lan ce d by P s u pen de d at A ;
re ,
s a ,, + 1
s

th en R P R at A b l an ces th e w h ol e tri ngl e so th t

2 , +1
a a , a

l A E QQ,

i c
s n e wh ole tri angl e m ay b r eg rd d s s us p en d ed fr om
th e e a e a

th e poi n t on OQ v rtic ally bove its c n tr e of grav i ty

e a e .

N ow A O OH 1 Q0 OH 1
(29 3 9 0 1
E 1 O1 z O1 R 1 by Pr op 5 ,
.
,

(tr pe iu m E 0 ) (tr ap e iu m F0
a z 1
z
1 )
,
88 A R C H M EDES I
th at i it t ke th e trap e ium FO s u s p end e d at A to balan c e
s, a s z
1

th e tr ap e iu m E O s u s p n d e d at H
z A n d P bal an c e E 0
1
e 1
.
1
s 1

wh er e it i s .

Th r efor
e (F0 ) P
e 1 1
.

S i mil rly a (F 0 ) P n d o o n
1 2 Z , a s .

A g ai n A O OH E 0 O R 1 1 1
:
1 1

(tr p e iu m E O
) ( tr ap e i u m R O ) a z
1 2
z 1 2 ,

th t i (R 0 ) t A w i ll b lan ce (E 0 ) u s p n de d t H
a s, 1 2
a a 1 2
s e a 1 ,

wh i le P t A b l n c s (E O ) s u s p nd d wh er e it is
2
a a a e
1 2
e e ,

wh en c e P R 0 2 1 2
.

Th er fore e (F O ) R (R 0 ) 1 2 , 1 2 ,

(E2 0 3 ) 15 R20 an d s o on ;

an d n ally ,
A E ,, On Q

B y a dd i ti on ,

(R 1 0 2 ) + (A R n 0 n
-

Q) P2 + I +

th r efore
e ,
a for ti or i ,

3
1 1 + P2 +

h t is to y w e h v e an i n s crib d gur e con i t i n g of

T a sa , a e s s

trap i n d a tr i angle wh i ch is l s n d c i rcu ms cr i be d

ez a a es ,
a a

gur e com pos d in th e s me way wh i ch is gr te r th n

e a ea , a

i . e .
5 A Eq Q .

It isth re for i n ferre d and prov e d by th e m eth od of ex

e e ,

h au s tion th t th se gm n t it s lf is equ a l to 5 A E q Q (P r op
,
a e e e .

I n ord r to n bl e th m eth od to b appl i d it h s on ly

e e a e e e , a

to be pr ov e d th at by i n cre i ng th n u m b e r of p art s in Qq
, as e

s u ffici n tly th e diff r n ce betw een th e c i rcu ms crib d n d

e ,
e e e a

i n crib d gur es c n b e m d e as m ll s w e pl e s e Thi s

s e a a s a a a .

ca n b e s een thu s W h av rs t to s h ow th t ll the part s s

. e e a a , a

gF i n t o wh i ch qE is div i d e d
,
qu al ar e e .

We h ve E 0 O R a QO OH 1 1
:
1 l
z

l
or O R l . E 1 O1 , wh en c e a so l O2 S
n + 1
 TH E QU A DR A TU R E O F TH E PA R A BOLA 89

E2 0 2 : 0 2 R 2 Q0 OH (n + 2,

2
2 2

It foll ow s th at O S SR n d s o on2 a .

C on s qu en tly O R
e O R 0 R 1 divid ed in to
1 , 2 3 2 , 3 3
ar e

e qu al p rt s r s p ctiv e ly by th
a e e l i n e from Q meeti ng qE e s .

It foll ow s th at th di ff r en c e b tw een th e circu ms crib ed an d

e e e

i ns crib e d gur es is equ l to th e tri angl e FgQ which c n b e a

,
a

m a d e as s m a ll s w e pl eas by i n cr e s i n g th e n u m b r of
a e a e

divi s i on s in Qq i e in qE , . . .

S i n c e th e r e O f th e s g men t is e qu al to 5 A Eg Q an d i t is
a a e ,

e as ily prov e d
(Pr op 1 7 ) th at A E g Q 4 (tri n gl w ith s m e
. a e a

b as e n d equ l h ight with s eg m nt ) it follow s that th e r

a a e e ,
a ea

of th e s eg m n t e ti m s th e l tt er tri angl e
4
e a .

It is e s y to s ee th at thi s s oluti on is ess en ti lly th e sam s

a a e a

th t giv n in The M ethod (s ee pp 2 9 3 0 bov ) on ly in a mor e

a e .

,
a e ,

orth od ox form (g e om etric lly s p k i n g) Fo th re A rch i a ea . r e

m d es t ook th e s u m O f ll th e s t i ght li n e
e s O Ra O R r a s, a
1 1 , Z 2

a s m ki n g up th
a s g m en t n otw i th s t an di n g th t th e r e a
e e n a re a

in n i t e n u m b e r of th em n d s tr ight li n es h av n o br eadth a a e .

H er e h e t k s i n crib d n d circu ms crib ed tr p i prop or

a e s e a a ez a

tion al to th e s tr ight li n e an d h vi n g n it br e dth n d th n

a s a e a ,
a e

com pr ess es th e gur es tog th r i n to th gmen t it lf by e e e se se

i n cr eas in g i n d en i t ely th e n u mbe r of tr pe i in ch gur a z a ea e,

i
. e dim i n i s h i n g th i r breadth i n de n it ely
. e .

Th p oc d u
e r e is e quiv l n t to n i n t egr t i on thu s
r e a e a a ,
:

If X d en ot th e r e of th e tr i ngl Fg Q w e h av i f n b
e a a a e ,
e, e

th e n u m b e r of p art s i n Qq ,

(circu ms crib d gur e) e

su m QqF QR 1 F1 QR 2 F2
of A s , , ,

s um Of A s QqF Q0 1 R 1 QOZ S , , ,

(n (n z
r
2
71

l
n
2
X2 )
X
.
'
a z
n

S i m il arly , w e n d th at
(i n s crib ed gur ) e X { X2 +
 TH E QUA DR A TU R E O F TH E PA R A B OLA 91
'

th e tri angle P Qg is h lf of th e p ara ll logram and th erefore

.
a e

more th an h lf th e s gmen t
a A n d s o on (Pr op e . .

We n ow h v e to s u m n t rms of th e abov e g eometric al

a e

seri es . A rchi me d es en u n ci ates th e probl em in th e for m Gi v en ,

a s e ri es of a r e as A B C D Z ofwh i ch A is th e gr eat es t an d
, , , , ,

each is e qu al to four ti mes th e n ex t in ord er th e n (Prop 2 3 ) , .

Z :
3A .

Th e a lgebr ic al e quival en t of thi s

a is of o c urs e
1

;i
n
1 _

<
1
ir (4 )
"
1 + + s
F
To nd th e a ear Of th e g ment A rchi me d es ns tea d of
se , ,

taking th e li mit ,
as we s h ould u s e s th e me th od of r ed u cti o a d
,
,

a bsu r du m .

S upp ose K 5 A P Qg .

(1 ) If poss ibl let the area of th e s egment be gr eater th n K

e, a .

W th en in s crib e gure in th e r cogn i e d man ner s uch

e a

e z

that th e s egm n t ex c eed s it by an ar e les s th an the exc ess of

e a

th e s egmen t ov e r K Th er efor e th e i n s cribed gur e m u s t b e

.

gr eat er th an K which is i mpos s ibl e sin ce

,

A + B + C+ 5A ,

wh er A A P Qq (P rop
e .

2 ) If p os s ibl e le t th e r ea of th e seg m en t b e l e s s th an K
,
a .

If then A P Qq A B 5 A C 5 B and s o on un t i l we , ,
:
, ,

arrive t an r ea X l ess th an th e e x c ess O f K ov e r th e r ea of

a a a

the s gme n t w e h av e
e ,

A +B+C+ X + 5X = 5A
+ K .

Thu s K ex c ee ds A r l ess th an X
B 0 + X by an a ea ,

and xceeds th e segmen t by an ar ea gr ater th n X

e e a .

It follows th at A + B 0 + +X (th e s egment) which

is i mp os s ibl e (P r op .

Th r e for e th e ar ea of th e s egmen t b ei n g neith e r greate r no

e ,
r

les s th n K is e qu a l to K or 5 A P Qq
a ,
.

O n Fl oating B odies , I ,
II .

I n Book
I of thi s treati se A rchi med s l ay s dow n the fun da e

ment l pri n cipl s of th e s ci en c e of hydros t atic s Th es e

a e e . ar
92 A R CH I MEDES
d e duce d from Postul te which a s ar e on ly two in n u mb r e . Th e
rs t which b egins Book I is thi s :

le t it
u d th t u i d is of s uch a n ature th t of th
b e a ss me a a a ,
e

p rt
a it which
s of ven ly n d e con t i n u ou s th t wh ch s
lie e a ar ,
a i i

pr d
e ss e l driv n l on g by th t wh i ch is pres ed th e
th e ess is e a a s

r ch
m o e ; a n d ea p rt is pr e s d by th e u d wh ch
of its a s se i i 1S

p rp d cul rly b v i t exc pt wh en th e u i d i s hut up n

.

e en i a a o e e s i

anyth g pr d by s om th i ng l s e
i n an d es s e e e

th e c d pl c d ft r Pr op
s e on ,
a e a e . 7 ,
sa y s

it b ass um d th at of bodi es wh i ch e b orn e upw rds in

l et e e ,
ar a

a u i d e ch i born e upw ard s al on g th e perp en d cul r dr w n

,
a s i a a

through its cen tr of gra v i ty e

P rop pr el i mi n ry propos i ti on about s ph er an d

. 1 is a a a e,

th en A rch i me d s plu ng es i n m ed i s r es with th th eor em

e a e

(P r op 2 ) th at.the s u r f c f yf
o n l u id a t es t

i s a phe e the a e a r s r

f which is the s a m e a s tha t ofthe ear th , an d in th e

cen tr e o
wh ol e of B ook I the s urfa c e of th e ui d is alw ays s h ow n in
th e d i agr ms s ph e ric al
a Th m eth od of proof i
as i mil r to . e s s a

wh t w e s h ould xp ect in a mode rn lem en t ry t extbook th e

a e e a ,

m i n prop os i ti on s s t abl i s h d b ei n g th e foll owi n g

a A s ol i d
e e .

wh i ch s i e fo S e is of equ l w ight w i th u i d w i ll i f l t
,
z r iz ,
a e a ,
e

d ow n i n to th e u i d s in k t i ll it is ju s t c ov er e d but not l ow er
,

(P rop . s olid l i ght r th n uid will if l t dow n i n to i t

a e a a ,
e ,

b on ly p artly i mm er d in f ct ju s t o f
e th t th e w ei ght
se , a s ar a

of th ol i d i
e qual to th w i ght Of th u i d d i s pl c d
s s e e e e a e

(Props 4 n d i f i t is forcibly i mm e r s e d it will b

.
,
a , dr i ven ,
e

upw rd s by forc equal to th e d i ence b ewe n its w ei ght

a a e
'

er e

a n d th e w i ght O f th e uid d i s pl c e d (P rop

e a .

Th e i mp ort n t pr op o iti on follow s (P r op 7 ) th a t

a s olid s . a

h eavi r th n uid w i ll i f pl c d in i t s in k to th bott om of

e a a , a e ,
e

th e uid an d th e s ol i d will wh en w e i gh e d in th e u i d b
, , ,
e

l i ght r th an its tru e w eight by th e w eight of th e uid

e

d i s pl c d a e .

The p r obl em o f the C r own .

Th i s
pr opos iti on gi v s a meth od O f s olvin g th e f mou e a s

probl m th di s cov ery of which in hi s b th s en t A rchi m des

e e a e

h om n ak ed cryi ng vp y
e ia n m ely th e pr obl e m of e

r xa , ez
'

a, a
 ON F LO A TI N G B O DI ES ,
I 93

d et e r mi n i ng th e proporti ons of gold an d s ilver in a cert in a

crow n .

Le t W bew eight of the crow n 71 1 an d 20 th e w eights of

th e , 1 2

th e gold n d s ilv er in it res p e ctiv e ly s o th t W

a w +w a
,
1
.
,

(1 ) Tak e w eight W of pur e gold an d w eigh it in th uid

a e .

Th e pp r en t l os s of w eight is th e n e qu al to th w ight of th
a a e e e

uid di s pl c e d thi s is as ce rta i n e d by w eighi n g Le t it b e F

a .
1
.

It foll ow s th t th e w eight of th e uid di s pl ace d by a w e ight

a
r

g
i
iv of gold s t F
1
i .

(2 ) Ta k e a w e ight W of s ilver nd pe for m th e s me ,

a i a

p r ti on
o e a . Let th e w ight of th e uid dis pl c d b e F
e a e
z
.

Th n th e
e w igh t of th e uid di s pl ced by w eight u) of
e a a
2
w
s ilv r is
e F2
W
-
.

(3 ) La s tly w igh the cr ow n it elf in th uid n d

e s e , a l et F be
los s O f w e ight o th e w e i ght of th uid di pl ced
r e s a .

We h a ve th en F1 F2 F
W ,

th at is , 10
1
F1 + w z Ff
:
(w1 wz )
f
F ,

F2
wh en c e
M

10
l

2
F
1
I

? 1

A ccordi ng to th e uth or of th poem d e pon d e i bu s et m e n

a e r

s u r is
(writt n pr ob bly bout A D 5 0 0 ) A rch i mede ctu lly
e a a . . s a a

us e d m th od of thi s ki n d W rs t tak s ays ou uth or i ty

a e . e e, r a ,

tw o e qu l w e i ght s of g old and s i lv r r es p ctive ly n d w e i gh

a e e a

th em ag i n s t ea ch oth e r wh en both a e i mm rs ed in w t r ;
a r e a e

thi s giv s th e r el ati on betw een th eir w eights in w te r n d

e
'

a , a

th er efore b etw een th ir l o s es of w ei ght in w ate f N e x t w e

e s r

tak e th mixtu re of gold n d s ilve r nd an e qual w eight of

e a a

s ilv e r an d w e i gh th em
,
gai ns t each oth e r in w ter in th e a a

s am e w ay .

N e v e rth e l ess I
pr obable th at thi was th e
do n ot thi n k it s

way in which th e s oluti on of th probl e m was d i scove ed As e r .

we e t old th a t A rchi me d es di s c ov e r e d it in h is b ath an d

ar ,

th t h e n otice d th at if th e b th w as full when he en te red it

a , a ,

s o m uch w a t er o e r ow ed as w s di s pl c d by his b ody h

v is a a e ,
e

mor e lik e ly to h e d i co er ed th e s oluti on by th e alt ern tive

av o s v a
 ON FLO A TI N G B O D ES , I I II
, 95

pr i n cip l p rame ter of th e g en er ti n g p rabola i v erit bl

a a a a , s a a e

tou r d e fo ce which m u s t b e r d in full to b e appr ci t e d

r ea e a .

P r op 1 is preli m i n ry to th ef
. fect th t if a s olid light er th an a , e a ,

uid be at res t in i t th e w eight of th e olid will be to th t

a , s a

of th e s m e v olu me of th e uid as th e i mmer s e d p orti on of

a

th e s olid is to th e wh ol e Th e res ult s Of th e propos iti ons .

a b out th e s e g m en t of p raboloid may be thu s s u mm ri ed a a a z .

Le t h b e th a xi s o h eight of th e seg men t p th pri n cip al

e r , e

p r me ter O f th e g ner ti n g p r bola s th rat i o of the

a a e a a a , e

s p e c i c gr vi ty of th e s olid to th at of th e uid
a
(8 lw ays < a

Th e s eg m en t is s upp os d to b e lw y s pl c d s o th at its base e a a a e

is e ith r en tir ely a b ov e oe n tir ly b e l ow t h e s urf c e of th e ,

r e e , a

u i d n d wh t A rchime d s prov es in each c se is th at if

,
a a e a ,

th e s g m n t is s o pl ac d with its xi s i n cli n e d to th e v r tic l

e e e a e a

a t ny n gl e
a it wi l l n ot r s t th e re but will r e tur n to th e
a ,
e

p os it i on of t bility s a .

I If h is n ot gr eat r th n 5 35 th p o i t i on of s t bi li ty is with
. e a , e s a

th x i v rt i c l wh eth r th e curv d urface is d ow n w rd or

e a s e a ,
e e s a s

upw ard s (P rops 2 .

,

II If h is great e r th an 5 p th n in ord r th t th p os i t ion of

.
,
e , e a e

s tability m ay b e w i th th e xi s v e r tic al 3 m u s t b e n ot l s s a , e

th an (h if th curv d s urf c is downw ards n d n ot

13
7, e e a e , a

gr eat er th an h (h 5p) } / h if th e curv ed s urface is 2 2 2

upw rds (P rops 4 a .

,

III If h > % p but h/5p 1 5 4 th s egm en t if plac ed w i th

.
, ,
e ,

on e p oi n t of th bas t ouchi n g th e urf c e will n e v r r em i n

e e s a , e a

th er e wh e th e r th curv ed s urface be d ow nw ard s or upw rds e a

(Props 6 (Th e s gm en t will mov e in th dir e cti on of

.
,
e e

bri ngin g th e ax i s n ea r er to the v ert i c l pos iti on ) a .

I V If . but an d if s is l es s th n a

(h 5 )/h in th e c s e wh e r e th curv e d s urfac e is d ow n

2 2
a e

w ards but gr eater th n { h (h 5 ) }/h in th e c se wh er e

,
a
z 2 2
a

th e curv e d surf c e is upw rds th en th p os iti on of s t ability is

a a ,
e

on e in which th e axi s i s n ot v ertic l but i n cli n e d to th e s urf c e a a

Ofth e uid t c ert i n n gl e (Pr op s 8

a (Th e angl e is draw n
a a a .
,

in n aux i li ary gur e Th e con s tructi on fo it in Prop 8 is

a . r .

e quiv al en t to th e s oluti on of th followi n g e qu ati on in 6 e ,

p cot
2
6 -

l) % Z9 ;
96 A R C H M EDE S I
wh er e h is the axi s of th e eg me nt of the parab oloid cut off by s

the s urfac e of the uid ) .

V Pr op 1 0 i n v es tig at e s th e p os it i on s of s ta bility in th e c as es
. .

wh er e h/5 p th e b s e is n t i r e ly a bov e th e s urfa c e and a e ,

s h a s v alu es lyi ng b e tw n e p i rs of rati os r es p e ctiv e ly ee v a .

On ly in th e c as e wh er s is n ot l es s th an (h is th e
e

pos itiqn of s ta bility th at in wh i ch th e ax i s is v er tical .

B A B is a s ecti on of th e p ar bol oid throug h th e a xi s A M

1 a .

C is a poi n t on A M s uch th t A C z CM K i s a p oi n t on CA a :
,

s uch th a t A M CK 15 4 C O i s m eas ur e d al on g CA s uch

. : .

tha t CO 5p and B s a poin t on A M s uch that MR 5 OO

, I :

Z .

A is th e poin t in which th e p e rp n dicula r to A M fr om K

2 e

meets A B and A is th e m i ddl p oi n t of A B

, BA E BA M
3 e
2
.
2, 3
a e p a ra bolic s eg men t s on A M
r A 11! (par a ll e l to A M ) as ax e s .
.
2, 3 3

and imilar to the origi n l s egm n t (Th e parabol a B A B

s a e .

2 2
is prove d to pas s thr ough 0 by u s in g th e a bov e r el a ti on
A M OK an d applyi n g P r op 4 of the Qu a d r a tu r e o
:
f .

the P a a bola ) Th e p e rp en dicul r to A M from O meet s th e

r . a

par abola BA B in two poi n ts P Q an d s traight lines

2 2 2 , 2 ,

through th ese p oi n ts p aral le l to A M m et th e oth er p ara e

bol as in P Q and P Q r es p c ti v ely P T an d Q U ar e

1 , 1 3 , 3
e .
1 1

tangent s to the origi n l p ar b ol a me ti ng th e ax is MA pr o a a e ,

d uced in T U Th en , .

(i ) if s is not l es s th n A R A M o (h t her e is z 2
a z r

s t abl e e quilibriu m wh en A M i v e rtic l ; s a

 TH E C A TTLE P R O BLEM -
7

(ii) if s < A R A M but > Q Q A M th e s olid will n ot r s t

2 2 2 2
e
1 3 ,

with its b ase touchi n g th e s urface of th e uid in On e p oi nt .

on ly but in a p os i ti on with th e b s en tir ely ou t of th e u i d

, a e

an d th e axi s m ki n g with th e s urfac e n

a ngl e gr e t er a a a

th an U
(iii a) if s Q Q A M th er e is s tabl e equilibrium with one
2 2
:
1 3 ,

p oi n t of th e bas e touchin g the s urfac e an d A M in cli n ed to it

a t an an gl e e qu l to U ; a

(iii b ) if s P P A M th er e is s t abl e e quilibriu m with on e

1 3
2 Z
,

poi n t Of th e b s e t ou ch i n g th e s urface an d with A M i n cli n d

a e

to it t an n gl e e qu al to T
a a

(i v ) if s > P P A M bu t Q Q A M th er e will be t abl e

2 2 2 2
s
1 3 1 3 ,

e quilibriu m in po iti on in which th b s e i mor s ubmerge d

a s e a s e

( ) if s < P P A M th er e will be s t bl e equil i briu m w i th

2 2
v : a
1 3 ,

th e b ase e n tir ely ou t of th e uid an d with th e a xi s A M

i n cli n e d to th e s urfac e t n ngl e l es s th an T a a a .

It r emai n s to m n ti on th tra diti on r eg rd i n g oth er in

e e s a

ve s tigation by A rchi m des which h ve r ch ed u s in Gr eek

s e
'

a ea

o thr ough th e A r abic

r .

( ) a The Ca ttle P r obl em -

.

hi s is a difcult probl em in i nd t er min at e analys i s It is

T e .

r quire d to n d th e n u mber of bull n d cow of ea ch of four

e s a s

col our s o to nd 8 u n kn ow n qu an titi s Th e rs t p r t of

,
r e . a

th e probl e m c on n e ct th e u n k n ow n s by s e v en s i mpl e e qu ati on s

s

an d th e se c on d p art add s tw o m or con diti on s to which th e e

un kn ow n s m us t b ubj e ct If W to be th e n umbers of whit e

e s .
,

bull s an d cow r es p ectiv ely n d (X ac) (Y y) (Z ) r epr s en t

s a , , , , ,
2 e

th e n u m b er of th e oth er thr ee c ol our s w e h ve r s t th e

s ,
a

followi n g e qu ti on a s :

7
IF I

)2K
r 1 L 1
_
1
-

X=f
z + slz + K
Z Y ,

y (5 + W + w) -

H
 O N S E MI R EGU LA R -
P OLY H EDR A 99

an gul ar but n ot s i milar polygon s ; th ose di s cover e d by

, ,

A rchi m d e w e r e 1 3 in n u mb er
e s If w e fo con v en i en ce . r

d es ig nat a p olyh dr on cont in e d by m regul ar polygon s

e e a

of or s id e s n r egul ar p olygon s of
, 3 s id e s &c by (m , .
, 5 ,

th e thi r teen A rchi m e d e an p olyh e dr a which w e will d en ot e by ,

P P 1 , P
2
a e as f oll ow s
13 ,
r

Figur with e 8 fa ces : P1 5 (4

Figure with s 14 f c es
a : P

Figur es with 26 fa ce s : P5

Figur es with 32 f c a es : P7 5 (2 0 P8 5 (1 2

Figur with e 38 faces : P1 1, E (3 2 3 ,

Figur es with 62 fac es : P1 1

Z 30

P1 2 5 (3 0 4 ,
2 06 , 1 2

Figur wit h e 92 f c es
a : P1 3 E (S O

K e pl e rh ow e d h ow th es e gur es can b e O bt i ned A

1
s a .

me th od of obt i n i n g om of t h e m is i n dic t e d in a fr gmen t

a s e a a

Of s ch oliu m to th e V atic an M S
a of P ppu If s olid . a s . a

a n gl e ofon e of th e r e gul r s olid b cu t O ff y mme trically by a s e s

a pl an e i e in ,
uch a w y th t th e pl an cut off th e same
. . s a a e s

l ength from ch of th e edg es meeti ng t th e ngle th e

ea a a ,

s cti on is a r e gul a r p olyg on which is

e tri ngle s q uar e o a a , r

p n tag on accordi n g th e s olid ngle is for med of thr ee four

e as a , ,

o e pl an e
r v n gl e s If c r tai n e qua l porti on s b e o cut off
a . e s

from all the s olid n gle res pectiv ely they will l eave regul r
a s , a

polygon i n s cr i be d in th e fac e of the s olid ; thi s h app ens

s s

(A ) wh en th e cutti ng pl nes bis e c t th e s ides of the fa c es an d a

s o l e v e in each fa c e
a p olygon of the same ki nd n d (B)when
a ,
a

th e cutti n g pl n es cut O ff s m all er p orti on from e ach a ngl e in

a a

s uch a w ay th t r egul r p olygon i l eft in e ch fac e which

a a a s a

h a d oubl e th n u m b e r of s id es ( s wh en w e m ak e say an
s e a , ,

octagon ou t of a qu r e by cutti n g of f th n e c es s ry p orti on s

s a e a ,

1
K ep lr e ,
H a r mom ce

mu n d i i n Op er a v, pp 1 2
. 3 6 .

H 2
1 00 A R C H I M EDES

s y mmetrically from th e c orn ers ) We hav e seen th at accor d

,
. ,

ing to H e r on tw o of th e s emi r egul r s ol i d h d alr ea dy b e en

,
-
a s a

di s cov r e d by P lato and thi s w ould d oubtle s be h is meth od

e ,
s .

Th m eth od s (A ) an d (B ) appli e d to th e e r egul ar olid s

e v s

give th e follow i ng ou t of th e 1 3 s emi r egula r s ol i d s We -

. \

obt ai n fr m h t e tr ah e dr on P by cutti n g of
f n gl e s
( )
1 o t e , I
a

s o s to l e v
a h ex gon s in th e f c s (2 ) from the cube P by
a e a a e , 2

l e vi ng qua r s n d P by l e v ing oct gons in th e f ces ;

a s e ,
a
4
a a ,
a

(3 ) from th e oct he dron P by l eaving tri an gl s n d P bya , 2

e ,
a
3

l avi ng hex agons in th f c s ; (4 ) from th e i co h dron

e ,
e a e sa e ,

P by l vi n g tri ngl es
7
ea n d P by l av i n g h e x gon s
a in th ,
a
8
e a , e

fac es ; (5 ) from th e dod c h dron P by l e vi ng p n t gon

'

e a e a e a s,
,
7

a n d P by l vi ng d c gon in th f ces
9
ea e a s e a .

O f th r m i n i n g six four
e e a obt i n e d by cutti n g off ll , ar e a a

th edge sy mme tric lly n d qu lly by pl n es p ar all el to th e

e s a a e a a

e dges an d th en cutt i n g Off ngl es T k e r t th e cub e

, a . a s .

(1 ) C u t off from each four p ar ll el edges p ort i on which l av e a s e

a n oct gon s th e s ect i on of th e gur

a a p rp en dicula r to th e e e

e dge s ; th en cut O ff e qu i later l tri angl e from th c or n er a s e s

( Fi g
s ee th i giv s P con t i ni n g 8 quil ter l tri an gl es
. s e
5
a e a a

a nd 1 8 quar s (P is al o obt ai n e d by bi s ct i n ll th
s e .
5
s e g a e

f c or n er s ) (2 ) C u t off fom th e
l

e dg s of P e n d cutti n g of
,

,
a . r

e dg of th e cub
es m ll er p orti on s o s to l e v in e ch
e a s a a a e a

f cea qu r uch th t th oct gon de crib ed in it h s its

a s a e s a e a s a

si d e qu l to th e br dth O f th se ct i on in which e ch e dge is

e a ea e a

cu t ; th en cu t of f h ex g on from ch n gl e (s Fig 2 ) th i s a s ea a ee .

FI G 1 . . FI G 2 . .

giv es 6 oct gon s in th e fac es 1 2 s qu r es u n der

.
a ,
a th e dg es nd
e a

8 h ex agons t the cor ner s ; th at is w e ha v 1

a e
3
A n x actly e
, 6
.
 O N S EM I R EGU LA R -

P OLY H EDR A 10 1

si mil r proc dure with th icosa h edr on nd dodec ah e dron

a e e a

produces R an d P (s ee F i g s 3 4 for th e c as Of the icos

1 12
.
, e a

h ed r on ) .

FI G 3 . . FI G 4 . .

Th e tw o r ema i n i n g olid s P s
10 ,
P1 3 cann ot be so s i m ply pr o
d u ce d . Th ey a e r e pre sen t e d
r in Figs 5 .
, 6, which I h v a e

FI G 5 . . FI G 6 . .

t aken from K epler R i th sn u b cu be in wh i ch e ch

.
0
s e a

s olid an gl e is f or m e d by th e an gl es of four e quil a t r l tri an gl es e a

an d on e s qu ar e ; R i th e s n u b d od ca hed on ea ch ol i d
3
s e r , s

an gl e of which is form d by th e an gl e s of four e quil t e r l

e a a

tri angles and on e egu lar pen tagon r .

W e a e i n debt ed to A r bi an tradi ti on for

r a

(y ) The Li ber A ssu mptor um .

th eor ems con t i n e d in thi s coll ecti on many a e

O f th e a r

s o e l gan t
e s to af ford
a pr s u mpti on that th ey m y re lly
a e a a

b d u e to A rchi m ed s
e I n thr ee of th em th e gur e app e rs
e . a

which w as c all ed aa Aog a s hoem ker s kn ife con s i s ti ng of

,
a

three s em icircl es with a c ommon di am et er a s s h ow n in th e

ann ex e d gur e If N be th poi n t t which th e diamet ers
. e a
 TH E LI B E R A SS UM P TOR UM .
10 3

Las tly w e may m en

, ti on th e el eg n t th eor em about th e a

ar ea pr e u m bly s lt c ellar ) in Pr op 1 4
of th e S ali n on (
s a a -

. .

A CE i s a semicircl e on A B as d i met er A D EB ar e e qu al a , ,

length s meas ur ed fr om A an d B on A B S emicircl es ar e .

dr aw n with A D E B as d i mete r on th s ide tow ard s C an d

, a s e ,

a se micircl e with DE a s di a m et er is draw n on th e oth er s id e of

AB . C F i s th e p erp en dicul a r to A B thr ough 0 th e c en tr e ,

of th e semi circl es A OB , DFE Th en i s th e area b oun d ed by .

all th e s e micircl es
(th e S a li n on) equ a l to the circl e on CF
a s di amet e r .

Th e A r abi an s thr ough wh om th e B ook of Lemma s has

,

r each ed u s attribut ed to A rch i m ede s oth er w ork s (1 ) on th e

,

C ircl e (2 ) on th e H e pt gon in
, C ircl e (3 ) on C ircl es t ouch
a a ,

ing on e an oth er 4 ) on P r ll e l Li n es (5 ) on Tri angl e s (6 ) on

,
a a , ,

th e pr op erti e s of right n gl e d tri n gl e s (7 ) a b ook of Dat a

-
a a , ,

(8 ) De clepsyd r is t t em n t which w e ar e not in a pos iti on

: s a e s

to ch eck . B ut th e auth or of a book on th e ndi n g of ch ord s

in a circl e A b l R aih an M u h l B i r im i qu ot es s om e alt er na

1

a
'
-
.
, ,

ti ve pr oofs as comin g from th e r s t of thes e w ork s .

(8) For mu la for a r ea o f tr ia ngle .

More imp ortan t h ow e ve r is th e m n ti on in thi s same w or k

, ,
e

of A rchi m ed e s a s th di s c over er of two pr opos itions hith er t o

e

attribut ed to H er on th e r s t b e i n g th e pr obl em of n di n g
,

th e p erp en dicular s of tri n gl e wh en th e s id e s ar e gi ven and

a a ,

th e sec on d th e famou s for mul fo th e ar ea of a tri a ngl e in a r

t erms of the s ides ,

x/ { ( s s a )( s b) (s
7 8
S ee B ibliotheca ma thema ti ca, xis , pp 1.1 .
104 ER A TOS TH EN ES

Lon g pres ent ch apt r is it is n ev erth eles s the most

as th e e ,

a ppropriat e place fo ER A TO S TH ENE S of C yrene It was to hi m

r - .

that A rchi medes d edicat e d The Method nd th e Cattle P r oblem ,

a
-

purp ort s by its headi ng to h ave b en s ent thr ough him to

, ,
e

th e math ematici ans of A lex n dr i It is ev ident from the a a .

pr efac e to The Method th t A rch im d th ought highly of his a e es

-

math ematical ability H w s i n d e d r ec og n iz e d by h is con

. e a ,
e ,

t emp orar ies as a man of gre t d i s tin ct i on in all bran ch es of a

kn owledg e th ough in e ch ubj ect h e ju s t fell s h ort of the

,
a s

h igh e s t pl ac e O n the l tter gr oun d h e was c all ed Beta and

. a ,

a n oth e r n ick name a ppl i d to h i m P en ta thlos h as th e s ame e , ,

i mplicati on representi ng as it d oe an all rou n d athl et e wh o

,
s -

w as n ot the r s t ru nn e r o wr es tl r but t ook th e se cond priz e r e

in th es e c on t es t s as w e ll in oth r H e w as v ery littl e as e s .

you nger than A rchimed s ; th d t e of h is birth was probably e e a

284 or th e r eabout s H w pupil of th e philosoph er . e as a

A ri s t on of C hi os th e gr amma r i n Ly ani as of C yr ene and

a s ,
,

th e p oet C alli machu s h e is sa id l o to h ave b een a pupil of a s

Z eno th e S t oic an d h e m y h e c ome un d e r th e i n u en c e of

,
a av

A rc es il au s at A th ens wh e r e h e p en t a c ons id erabl e ti me

,
s .

I n v ited wh en about 4 0 y r s of g by P tol emy Eu ergetes

, ea a e,

to b e tut or to h is s on (Ph ilop to ) h e b ecame libr ari an at a r ,

A l ex andria ; his oblig ti on to P t ol emy h e r e c ogni z e d by th ea

colu mn which h e er ecte d with gr ceful epigram i n s cribe d on a a

it Thi s is th e epigr m with w hi ch we ar e alr eady acquai n ted

. a ,

(v ol i p
.
,
relating to th e s olution s di s cove r ed up to da t
.
,
e,

of th e probl em of th e duplic ati on of th e cub e an d c ommen d ,

ing h is own m eth od by m an s of n pplian c e call e d p h o e a a ea a v,

itself represented in bron e on th e c olu mn z .

Erat os th enes wr ote a book with th e titl e an d ,

wh eth er it was a s ort of comm n ta ry on th e Timaeu s of e

'

P lato or a di alogu e in which th e pr in cip al p art w as pl aye d by

,

Plato it ev iden tly d lt with th e fu n d amen t al n oti on s of

,
ea

math ematic s in c onn e xi on with P l t o s phil osophy It w s

a . a

n atur ally one of th e i m p ort an t s ourc es of Th eon of S myrna s

w ork on the math ematical m tter s which it w as n ecessary for a

th e stud en t of Pl ato to k n ow ; an d Th eon cit es th e w ork

twic e by n ame It s ms to h v e b egu n with the famou s
. ee a

probl em of Del os t elli ng th e t ory qu ot ed by Theon how the

, s

god r equir ed as a means of s t oppi n g a plagu e th at the a lt r

, , a
 P LA TONYC US A N D ON M EA NS 105

th er e which was cubic l in for m sh ould be doubl ed in i z e

, a ,
s .

Th b ook ev id ently c ont i n d a di s qui s iti on on pr opor t on

'

e a e i

a qu ot ati on by Th e on on thi s s u bj e ct h ow th a t s s

Era to s th e n es i n cid en t ally d ealt with th e fu n d amen t a l d en i

ti ons of geometry and arithme tic The pri nciples of mu s ic .

w e r e dis cu ssed in the same work .

We hav e a lr eady des cribe d Eratos thenes s s oluti on of th e

probl em of Delos and his contribution to the theory of ari th

,

m e tic by mea ns of his si ev for ndi n g s ucc e i v e

e ss

prim e n u mber s .

H wrot e al s o an i n d e p en d en t w ork O n mea n s Thi w as in

e .
. s

two B ook s and wa s i m p ort n t enough to be men ti on e d by

, a

Pa ppu s a l ong with w ork s by Euclid A ri s t aeu s n d A p ol ,

a

loniu s s for mi n g p art of th e T easu r y of A nal ys is ; thi s

a r

prov e s tha t it w as a sy s t em tic geometrical treati e A n oth er a s .

p ass g of Pappu s s p ea k s of c rt in loci which E r to th nes

a e e a a s e

c ll e d loci with r eferen ce to mean s ( 6 m mobs y mm s;

a

7 1 ea

thes e w e r e pr es uma bly d i cuss d in the tr eati s e in qu e t i on

s e s .

W h t ki n d of l oci th es e w er i quit e u n cert ain ; Pappu (if it

a e s s

is n ot an i n t erp ol at or wh o s p ak ) merely say s th at th e l oci

e s se

b l on g to the a for esaid cl s s of loci but as the cl s s s ar e

e a se

,
a e

n u m r ou s (i n cludi ng pl an e s olid lin ear loci on urfaces

e ,
s

w e n on e th e w i
e ar r T nn ery conj ectured th t th ey
se . a a

w e r loci of poi n ts s uch th t their dis tan ce s from thre x d

e a e e

s tr a i ght li n es fur ni s h e d a m d it i e l oci (s tr ight lin e s . . a

an d c on ic
) which we s hould r pres en t in trili n ear coordi n t es
s e a

by uch e quation s as 2 y m+ e y =wz

s 2 5132 ,
2
, .

w(a: y ) z (y z ) a: (a: y) y(y z ) th e r s t three e qu ti on s

, ,
a

r epr es en ti n g th e arith metic geometric an d h ar mon ic m eans , ,

whil e th e l as t two r epr e en t the s ubcontr ari es to th e s

h armon ic an d g eom etric m an s r e s p e cti v ely Z euth en h as e .

a di f f r en t c onj ectur e H e p oi n ts ou t that if QQ b e th e

3
e .
,

polar of a gi v en p oi n t C with r e fer en ce to a conic and CP OP ,

b dra w n through 0 mee ti n g QQ in O and the c on ic in P P

e , ,

then CO is the harmon ic mea n to CP CP ; th e locu s of O fo ,

r

all tr n s ve r sal s CP P
a is th en th e s tr aight li n e QQ

If A G '

.
,

a e p oi n t on P P s uch th at CA i s th e arit h metic n d C G th e

r s ,
a

Papp u s , vii,
p 636 24
. . .
2

3
Ze uth en , Di e L ehr e von d en K egelschnitten i m A l ter tu m, 1 8 8 6 , pp .

32 0 , 3 2 1 .
 MEA S U R EMEN T O F TH E EA R TH 107

or, or 1 f ur right angl e s N ow th e d i stan ce from S

/ 5 oth of o
to A ws k n ow n by m eas ur m n t to b e
.

a s t a d e ; it e e s

foll ow e d th t th e circu m fer en ce of th e earth was

a

s t desa Th i s is th e gur e gi v e n by C leom d es b u t Th eon of

.
e ,

S m yrn n d S tr b o b oth giv e it

a a tad es The
a as s .

r eas on of th e di s cr epan cy is n ot know n ; it is poss ible th t a

E ra t os th e nes corr e ct ed to fo s om e r eas on r ,

p erhap s in orde r to get a gur e di v i s ible by 6 0 nd in ci a ,

d en tally roun d n u mber (7 0 0 ) of s tad es for on e d egr ee If

,
a .

P li n y is right i n yi ng th t E r tosth en es made 4 0 s t des sa a a a

e qu l to th e E gyp ti n
xoi os th en taki n g th e oxof os a t
a a a v

u
'
,
, ,

R oy al cubit s of 0 5 2 5 m tre w e get 3 0 0 s uch cubits e s, ,

o 1 5 7 5 metr es i
r 5 1 6 7 3 fee t th e l n gth of th e s t d e
, . s .
-

, as e a .

O n thi s b i t d es w ork s out to

as s mi l nd s a es, a

th e d i m te r of th e e rth to ab out
a e miles on ly 5 0 m il es a ,

s h or te r th a n th e tru e p ol ar di met r a s urpris i ngly clos a e , e

a ppr oxi m ti on h ow e ver m uch it ow es to h ppy cc i den ts

a , a a

in th e ca lcul ti on a .

We l earn fr om H eron s Di optr a th t th e m s urem en t of

a ea

th e e r th by E r at os th en s w as giv en in
a s p r a t e w ork On e a e a

th M eas u e m n t of the E a th
e r
A cc ord i ng to G l en thi w ork
e r . a
1
s

d alt g en rally with tr onom i cal o m th emat i cal geography

e e as r a ,

tr e ti n g of th e s i e of th e e qu tor th e di t n c e of th tr opic
a

z a ,
s a e

a n d p ol r circl es th e e xt n t of th e p ol a r
a on th e s i e n d
,
e z e, z a

di t n c of th e u n nd moon tot l n d partial c li ps e of

'

s a e s a ,
a a e s

th se h a ven ly b odi s ch an g es in th e len gth of th e d ay

e e e ,

a ccording to th e di ffer en t l titud es an d s e s ons S ev r l a a

. e a

de ta il s a e pre er v e d e ls ewh r e of r es ult s obt i n ed by

r s e a

Er t o th en es wh i ch w e r e doubtl ess c on t i n e d in thi s w ork

a s ,
a .

H is s upp os e d to h v e e s ti m te d th e di s t an c e b etw e n th
e a a e e

tropic circl e s o twice th obl i qu i ty of th e ecl i ptic t 1 1 / 8 3 d s

r e a r

of a c om pl e t e circl o 47 42 but fr om P tol my e r

e

s

langu age on thi s ubj ect it is not cle r that thi s e s ti m te was s a a

n ot P t ol emy s ow n Wh t P t ol emy s y s is that he hi m s lf

. a a e

foun d th e di st n ce b etw een th e tr opic circle to lie lw y s

a s a a

betw en 4 7 4 0 an d 4 7
e from which w obtai n a bou t

e

(ox d ) th e sam e rati o as th at of Erat os th en es wh i ch

e v ,

H ipp archu s a l s o u s e d For th e di s tan c e b etween the tr opic s .

b e com es (o i s fou n d to be y f r ) v ery n arly 1 1 part , Ta l . e s

G l I tit L ogi 1 2 (p 2 6 K l b i h )
a en , ns . ca , . a e sc .
108 ER A TO S TH EN ES

ou t of 8 3 con t in ed in th wh ol e me rid i an circl a Th e e e

m an of P tole my s s t i m t es 4 7 4 2 is O f c ours e n e rly

e e a a
,

1 1 / 8 3 d of r s It is con s i s t n t with Pt ol emy s l n guage e

a

to s upp o th t Er ato th enes dh r e d to th v alu of th e

se a s a e e e

obliquity O f th cliptic di s cov r ed b efor e Euclid s t i m e

e e e

n m el y
a an d H ipp rchu s do s in h is xt n t Commen tar y a e ,
e a

on the P h en om en d E d o ay th t th e
f
o A a
a tu s n u xu s a r a ,
s a

s um mer tropi c i v ery n early 2 4 n orth of th e qu t or s

e a

Th Dowogr aphi t t e th a t Er t os th n e s
e s t i mat d th e
s a a e e e

d i t n c of th e m oon fr om th e e rth t
s a e s t de an d a a a s

th di s t an c of th
e u n from th e earth at e t de
s e s a s

(th v r i on s O f S tob eu s n d J o n n s Lyd u s dm it

e e s a a a e a

a s n alt r n tiv
a fo th l tter gur but thi s O bv i ou s ly
e a e r e a e,

c nn ot b right) M cr obi u
a e y th t Er to th ne m de
. a s
2
sa s a a s e s a

m s ure of th ti m s th t of th e rth

th u n to b e 2 7

e ea e s e a e a .

It is not cert in wh eth r me s ur e m e n s olid con ten t o

a e a a s


r

di met r in th i s cas e ; th oth r gur on r cord m ke th e

a e e e es e a

form r m or pr ob bl e in wh i ch c s e th d i amete r of th e s u n
e e a ,
a e

w ould b e thr e t i m e th t of th rth M acr obiu s al o t ell

e s a e ea . s s

u s th at Er tos th n es s e t i m t es of the di tan ces of th e s u n

a e

s a s

a n d moon w e r e O bt in e d by m n of lu n r eclip s es a ea s a .

A noth r O bs rv t i on by Er to th n
e en m ly th t at S y n e
a a s e es, a e a e

(wh i ch is u n d r th u mm er trop i c ) n d through ou t a circl

e e s a e

roun d it with r di u s O f 3 0 0 tad s th e upr i ght g n omon

a a s e

throw s n o h dow t n oon w a ft rw rds m d e u s e O f by

s a a , s a e a a

P o i don i u s in h i c lcul t i on of th
s i e O f th s un A s um i n g
s a a e s z e . s

th t th e c i rcl e in which th s u n pp r en tly moves r oun d th

a e a a e

e rt h i
a times th e s i e of a c i rcul r s ecti on of th e rth
s z a e a

through it cen tr e n d c ombi n i n g with thi s hypoth es i s the

s ,
a

d tum ju s t menti on d Pos idon ius arriv e d at

a s t d es
e ,
a

a s th e di m t e r of th e u n a e s .

Er t o th en
a wrote poem c all d H er mes con t i n i ng g ood
s es a e a a

d e l of d es criptiv e tronomy ; on ly fr gmen ts of thi s h av e

a as a

s urviv ed Th e w ork C taster i smi (lite lly pl acing s mong

. a i a

a

th e t rs ) which s e xt n t can h ardly b g n u n e in th for m

s a i a e e i e

in which i t h r e che d u s ; i t g o s back h ow ev er to g n ui ne

as a e , ,
a e

w ork by Er t o th en es which pp r en tly bor e th e same n ame ;

a s a a

a lt ernat i v e ly it is llud d to as K d Aoy o o by th e g n eral a e ar z r e

Pt ol my Sy t i i 1 2 pp 67 2 2 6 8 6
1
e , n ax s , .
, . . . .

M rob iu I S om S ip i 2 0 9 2
ac s, n n . e . . . .
 A S TR O N O M Y ,
ETO . 1 09

w ord A po op (S u id s ) which latte r w ord is p erh p s mis

ar u ta

a , a a

ta k e fo A po i c orr es p ondin g to th e title A po m

r ar ea a ar e

at

{ 9 8i 1 foun d in th e man u s crip ts Th e w ork s we h ve it . a a

c on tai n s th e s t ory myth ol ogic l an d des criptive of th e con

,
a ,

ste ll ation s &c u n d e r forty four h ea d s ; th er e is littl e o

, .
,
-

n othi n g b elon gi n g to s tr on omy pr op e r a .

Er at os th e n es is l s o f m ou s as th e r s t to att em p t a ci en tic
a a s

c hr on ol ogy begi nn i ng fr om the s i eg O f Troy ; this w s th e e a

s ubj e c t of h is X o oy wi th which mu s t b e con n ect ed

p p f v a a t,

th e s e p r at e a in s ev ra l b ook s C l em n t of e . e

A l x n dri a giv s a s h ort su m of th e m i n r s ults of th e

e a e r a e

for m r w ork an d b oth w ork s w er e large ly u se d by A p ollo

e ,

doru s A n oth er l o t w ork w s on th O ct eteri (o ight

. s a e a s r e

yea rs p eri od) which is twic m n ti on ed by Gemi n us n d

, e e ,
a

A chill es ; fr om th latt r w l ear n th t Eratos th en es e

e e e a r

g rde d th e w ork on th e m e s ubj ect ttribute d to Eudoxu s

a sa a

as n ot g n ui n e H is Geog aphica in three b ook s is m i n ly

e . r a

kn ow n to u s through S u id as s critici s m of it I t beg n with

. a

a hi s tory of g eogr phy dow n to his ow n ti me ; Er tos th nes

a a e

th en proc ee d e d to m th m at i cal g eography th e s ph erical for m

a e ,

of th rth th e n gligibility in compar i s on w i th thi s of th

e ea ,
e e

un e ven n es s cau se d by m oun t i n n d v ll ys th chang es of

se a s a a e ,
e

f atur es d u e to oods e r thqu akes an d th e lik e It w ould

e ,
a .

a pp r from Th e on of S m yr n s llus ion s th t Er tosth n s

ea a

a a a e e

e s ti m te d th e h e ight of th e high e t m ou n t i n to b e 1 0 s t d e s
a s a a

o a b out 1 / 8 0 0 0 th p ar t of th e di m et er of th earth
r a e .
 DI S C OV ER Y O F TH E C O N I C S EC TI O N S 111

O b s e rvation th at an ellip s e can be obtai ned from a cylin der

as w ell as a c on e is a ctu al ly m d by Euclid in h is P haen o a e

m en a if say s Euclid
:

c on e or a cylin der b cu t by
, ,

a e

a pl an e n ot p ar all e l to th e base th e r es ulti n g secti on is a ,

se c ti on of an acu te angl ed c one which is s i mil ar to a v s

-
e

A fte r thi s w ould d oubtl e s s follow th qu e tion e s

wh t s ort of curv es th ey w hich ar e prod uc e d if w e

'

a ar e

cu t a c on e by a pl an e which d oes n ot cut through th e

c on e com pletely but i s e ith e r par alle l or not p ar all e l to

,

a g en e r t or of th e c on e
a wh eth e r th ese cur v es h v e th e ,
a

s am e pr op e r ty wi th th e e llip s an d with on e an oth e r an d e , ,

if n ot wh t ex actly ar e th ir fu n d mental pr op erti es es pec

,
a e a r

ti v ely .

A s i t is , h ow ev e r w e e only told how the r st writers on

, ar

c on ic O bta in e d th em in ctu l pr ctice We learn on th e

s a a a .

auth or ity of Ge mi n u s that th e an ci en t s den ed a con e s th e1

a

s urf c e d e c r ib e d by th e r v oluti on of a right angl d tri n gl e

a s e -
e a

a b ou t on e of th e s id es c on t ai n i n g th e right a n gl n d th t e, a a

th ey kn e w n o c ones oth er th n r ight c ones O f th e th ey a . es

di s ti ngui s h ed three kind s ; ccordi ng as the vertic l an gl e of a a

the c on e w as l ess th an e qu l to o great er th an a right n gl

,
a ,
r .
-
a e,

th ey call d the c one a cut e n gl d right angl ed o obtus e

e -
a e ,
-

,
r

an gl e d n d fr om e ach of th ese k i n d s of c on e th e y pr oduc e d

, a

on e a n d on ly on e of th e t h r e cti ons the s ecti on be i n g e se ,

alw ya m d e p erp en dicul a r to on of th e genera tin g l i nes of

s a e

th e c on e ; th e cur ve s w e re on thi s bas i s c alle d s ecti on of n , ,

a

a cut e n gl d c on e an e llips e) s e cti on of a right n gl e d

-

a e ,
-
a

cone
a p a rab ol a) an d s e cti on of an obtu se angl e d c on
,
-
e

a hyp e rbola) r esp ecti v ely Th es e names w er e s till u d . se

by Euclid n d A rchi med es a .

Mena echmu s s pr oba ble pr ocedu r e

.

Menaech mus s c ons tr ucti on s for his cur ves would pr es u m

ably b e th e s i m pl e s t an d th e m os t dir e ct th at w ould s h ow th e

des ire d prop rti es and for th e p rabola nothing c oul d be

e ,
a

s impl e r th an a s e c ti on ofa righ t an gl e d c on e by a pl an e at right -

angl es to on e of its g en er at or s Le t OB C (Fig 1 ) r e pres n t . . e

1
Eu tocius , Comm . on Comes of A po on ll iu s.
1 12 CO NI C S ECTI ON S

a ti on through th xi s 0 L O f right ngled

s ec e a a -

a con e , a nd

conc ei v eet i on thr ou h A G ( er en di cul ar

e a s
-

g p p
right ngl ea s of th p ap er e .

a ny p oi n t per pe n d icula r to
A G l et B C be drawn thr ou gh N p e rpen d icul a r to th e ax i s of
th e c on e Th en P is on th e circu l ar s e cti on O f th e c on e a b out
.

B C a s d iame tei .

Dra w A D p ara llel to BC , an d DE C G pai all e l to 0 L m eet ,

ing A L p r oduce d in F G Th en A D A F ,
. both bi sected ,

If n ow PN y ,
AN as;

B ut B , A , ar e con cyclic ,
so tha t

AN AF .

AN 2AL . .

The re fore y
2 AN 2AL .

2AL t,
a

an d 2 A L is the par ameter Of the p rin c i p l ordi n t es y

a a .

I n th e c a e of th e hyp e rb ol a M en a ch mu s h d to O bt ai n
s e a
 M E NA EC H MU S S
PR O C EDU R E 113

p r ticul r hyp erbol which w e call r ec tangul ar or quil ter l

a a a e a a ,

l o to O bt i n its property wi th r e fere nc to its s y mp

.

a nd a s a e a

t ot c on side r bl e dv n ce on wh t w as n ec ss ry in th e
es , a a a a a e a

c se of th e p rab ola Tw o m th od of Obt i n i ng th e p rticula r

a a . e s a a

hyp erbola w e re p os ibl e nam ly (1 ) to Obt i n th hyp rbol

s , e a e e a

ari i n g fr om th e s e cti on of an
s
y obtu e n gl e d cone by pl n s a a a e
-

a t right an gl e to a g en e ra t or s ri d th en to s h ow h ow ,
a a

r e ct an gul r hyp erbol a can b e obt in ed s pa rticul r ca e

a a a a a s

by n di n g th e v e rtica l n gl e which th e c on e mu t h v e toa s a

giv e a r e ct n gul r hyp erb ola wh en cut in th e pa rticular w ay

a a ,

o (2 ) to obt i n th
r r c tangular hyp erbol a dir ct by cutti n g
a e e e

n oth e r ki n d of c on e by s e cti on n ot n c es arily

a
pe pena e s r

d icul to ar g en r tor a e a .

( 1 ) Taki n g th e
r t meth od w dr w (Fig 2 ) c on with its
s ,
e a . a e

v e rtic l ngl B OC obtu e I m gine secti on p erpen di cula r

'

a a e s . a a

to th e pl n of th p p e r n d p s i n g through A G which
a e e a a a s

p erpen dicul r to OB Let GA pr oduc d m eet C O produced in

a . e

n d c om pl e t e th e m e c on tructi on s in Of

A , a sa s a

p r b ol a a a .

In thi s c as e w e hav e
 M E NA EC H MU S S PR O C EDU R E 1 15

For , gl d c on e
l et th e right -
an e H OK
pl n e thr ough A A N p r ll el
a

a a

to th e x i OM n d cutt i n g th
a s a e

s id e s ofth e a x ia l tri n gl e H 0 K a

in A A N r e p e ctiv ely Let

, ,
s .

P b th e p oi n t 0
e th e curve 11

for wh i ch P N is th e pri n cip al

ord in t e Dr w 0 C p r ll e l
a . a a a

to H K We h av e at on ce
.

FI G 3
. .

CN z
CA z
, i
s n e c MK OM , an d MN OC
T hi s pr op rty of th e r ect ngular hyp erb ola ha v i ng A A
is th e e a

as xi s To obt i n a part i cul r rectangul ar hyp rbol w i th

a . a a e a

a xi s of giv n l en gth w e h ve only to ch oos th cutti ng pl n e

e a e e a

s o th a t th e i n t e rc e pt A A m y h v e th e g i ven l ength

a a .

B u t M en ech mu s h ad to prov e th a y mptote prop erty O f e as -

h i r e ct an gul ar hyp erb ol

s A s h e can h rdly b e s upp osed to a . a

h av e got as f s A p oll on iu s in in ve t i gat i n g th e r el ti on s of

ar a s a

th hyp erb ol a to its

e y m ptot e it is prob ably s fe to s s ume as s, a a

th t h e O btai n d th p ar ti cul ar property in th e s i mpl s t w ay

a e e e ,

i dir ectly from th e prop erty

. e . th e curv e in r e l ati on to
its a x es .

FI G 4 . .

If (Fi g 4 ) CR .
,
CR

be th e as ym pt ot es (which ar e th erefore
1 16 C O N I C S EC TI O N S

at r ight ngles ) nd A A th ax i of a r ectangul r hyp rbol

a a

e s a e a,

P ny p oi n t on th e curve P N th e pr i n cipa l ordi na t

a dr w ,
e, a

P K P K p erpe n dicul r to th e a y m pt ot es r p ctiv ly L et

"
a s es e e .

P N pr oduc ed meet th e s y mpt ot es in R R

a ,

N ow by th axi al prop erty

, e ,

CA Z CN z PN2

RN 2 ~
PN 2

RP PR

2 PK PK

,
i c
s n e A P R K is h alf a r i ght an gl e
th er for e e PK PK

W or ks by A r is tae u s an d E u clid .

If M n h mu w r lly th d i s cov r r of th e thr c on ic

e aec s as ea e e e ee

se cti on t d t which w e mu t put t b out 3 6 0 o 3 5 0

s a a a e s a a r

th e ubj ct m u t h v e b e n d v el op d v ry r pidly fo by th e
s e s a e e e e a ,
r

e n d O f th e c e n tury th e r e w e r tw o c on ider abl e w ork s on e s

con i cs in exi s t en ce w ork wh i ch as w e l e rn fr om P ppus

,
s , a

a ,

w ere con s i der d w orthy of pl ce alon gs i d th e Conies of

e a a ,
e

A p oll oniu in th T su y o
s, f A n lys i Eucl i d our is h d
e r ea r a s . e

a bout 3 0 0 B C o p rh p s 1 0 o 2 0 y ar s e rli er ; but his

. .
,
r e a r e a

Con i cs in four book s w s pr ec ed e d by a w ork of A ri s t a u s a e

which w till ext n t in th ti me of P ppus w h o d e crib it

as s a e a , s es

a s

book of S olid Loci conn cted (O conti n u ous o x)
ve s e r , vv e

with th e conic s S p e ki ng of th e rel tion of Euclid Conics a a

s

in four b ook s to thi s w ork P ppu s s ys (if th e p ss g is , a a a a e

g en ui n e) th t Euclid ga v cr ed i t to A ri t eu s fo hi d is
a e s a r s

c ove ies in c on ic s
r n d d i d n ot att em pt to n t i c i p at
a him o a e r

wi h to con truct n ew th e s ame s ys t m I n p r ti cul r

s s a e . a a ,

Euclid wh n d e li n g wi th wh t A p ollon iu s c ll th e thr ee

,
e a a a s

n d f our li n e c u wr ote so much bout th e l ocu s s w s

a -
s, a a a

p oss i bl by m ns of the conic s Of A r i s t eus w ith out cl i ming

e ea a , a

c ompl t n es s fo h is demons tration

e e rWe g th er from th es e s a

rem rks that Euclid s Con i cs was a comp i l ti on an d r e rr ng e

a

a a a

m en t of th e geome try of th c on ics s o fa s k n ow n in hi e r a s

P ppu ii p 6 7 8 4 1
a s, v ,
. . .
 WOR K S BY I
A R S TA E U S A N D EU C LI D 117

ti me wh er s, ea th e w ork of A ri s t ae us w a s mo re s p e ciali z ed an d

mor e origi nal .

S oli d loci a nd
pr oblems

s oli d

.

S olid
loci a e of cour s e S m ply conic s but th e u s e of th

r i ,
e

titl e S olid loci i n s t e d of con ics s eems to i ndicate th t

a

a

th e w ork w as in th e ma i n d e v ot ed to c onic s regard e d s l oc i a .

A s w e h a ve s een s olid l oci which a e c onic s a e di s ti n gui s h e d

,
r r

from plan e loci on th on e h an d which e s tr aight lin es

,
e ,
ar

an d circl es n d from li n ear loci on th e oth er which e

, a ,
ar

c u rve s high er th an c on ic s Th er e is s om e d oubt s to th . a e

r e l r ea s on why th e t er m s olid l oci w s ppli e d to th e c on i c

a

a a

s cti on s
e We e told th a t pl an e l oci ar e s o c all ed b ec us e
. ar

a

th ey a e g en e r t ed in a plan e (but s o
r om e of th e high e r
a ar e s

curv es s uch as th e gu a d a tr i n d th e s pir l of A r chi med s )

, r a: a a e ,

n d th at s olid l oci d eriv e d th ei r n am e from th f ct th t

a e a a

th ey ari e as se cti on s of s ol id gur es (but s o d o s ome h i gh e r

s

curv es e g th e s piric curves which e se cti on s of th e

,
. . ip ar a e a

o to e)
r Bu t s om light is thr ow n on th e s ubj e ct by th e c orr e
r . e

pon d ing di s ti n ct i on which P app u s dr w s b etw e n pl an

s a e e ,

s ol i d l i n r p oblem
an d

ea r s .

T h o e probl ems h e y which can b solv ed by m n s

s

, sa s,

e ea

of s tr ight li n e
a nd ci rcu mf r en c of a c i rcl e may p o
a a a e e r

pe rly b c ll d p l n ; fo th e l in e by m an s of wh i ch s uch
e a e a e r s e

pr obl em s a e olv e d h v th eir origi n in pl an e Thos e

r s a e a .
,

h ow e v er wh ich a e s olv d by u s i n g fo th ir d i s cov ery on o

,
r e r e e r

m ore O f th e s e ct i on s of th e c on h av e b e n c ll e d s oli d ; fo e e a r

th eir c on s tructi on r quir es th us e of s urf ces of s olid gur es e e a .

n m e ly th ose of c on e
a Th e re r em i n s third k in d of p o s . a a r

bl m th t which is c lle d li n ea ; fo oth r lin s (cu rves )

e , a a r r e e

b id s th ose m n ti on ed a e s um ed fo th e c on s tructi on th
es e e r a s r ,
e

origi n of which is m ore c om plic t e d n d l ess n t u r l as th y a a a a ,

e

ar e g en e rat d fr om mor e irre gu l ar urf c e n d i n tric at e s a es a

m ov em en t 1

s .

Th etru e s ign ican c of th e w ord pl ne s ppl i d to e

a

a a e

probl ms is e v i d en tly n ot th at s tr aight li n s n d circl es h a ve

e ,
e a

th eir origi n in a pl an e but th at th e probl ems in qu es ti on c n ,

a

b e s ol v e d by th e ord i n ary pl an e m th ods of tran s for m ti on O f e a

1
P appu s , i v, p 2 7 0 5 1 7 . . .
 A R I S TA EU S S S OLI D LO CI

1 19

th e sa me w a y th e poi n t will lie on a c on ic se cti on given in

pos t on1 i .

Th e re a s on why
pollon iu r fe rr ed in thi s con nexi on to A s e

Euclid n d n ot to A ri t e u s was pr ob bly th a t it w as Eucl i d s

a s a a

w ork th t w s on th e s me li nes s his own

a a a a .

A v e ry l arg e pr op ort i on of th e s t an d rd prop rti es of c on ic a e s

admit of b ei n g t ate d in th for m of l ocu s th eor ms ; if a

s e -
e

cert i n prop erty h olds with r eg rd to certai n poi n t th en

a a a ,

th t p oi n t li es on con ic section B u t it may b

a a um d '

. e as s e

th t A ist eu s s w ork w as n ot m e rely coll cti on of th e

a r a

a e

ordi n ry pr op os i ti on s tr n s for m e d in thi w

y ; it w ould deal
a a s a

with n w l ocus th orems not i mpli d in the fun d ment l

e e e a a

de n iti on s an d prope rt i es of th con ic s s uch s th o e ju s t e , a s

men t i on e d th th eor m of th e three,

e n d four li n locu s e s a -

e .

Bu t on (to u s) ordi n ry pr op erty th e focu dir ectrix pr op er ty

e a , s -

w s it s eem to m e in
as, a ll pr ob ab i lity i n clud d
s ,
a e .

Focu s d ir ectr ix pr oper ty kn ow n to E u clid

-
.

It r em rk bl e th t th d i r ectrix d oe n ot pp e r t all in
is a a a e s a a a

A poll on iu s gr e t tr e t i s e on c on ic Th foc l pr op ert i es of

s a a s . e a

th c n tr al c on ic
e e giv n by A poll on iu s but the foci a e
s ar e e , r

obt i n d in a d i ffe r en t w y with out an y r e fer en c e to th

a e a ,
e

d i r ectrix ; th e focu s of th e p r bol doe not ppear t ll a a a s a a a .

We m y p rh p con clud e th t n ith r did Euclid s Con i cs

a e a s a e e

c on t i n th e focu s d i r ectrix prop erty ; fo cc ordi n g to Pappus

a r , a ,

A poll on i u b s d h is r s t four b ook on Euclid four book

s a e s s s,

whil l li n g th em ou t an d add in g to th em Y et P ppu s g i v e

e . a s

th e pr op os iti on l mm to Euclid S u f e Loci fr om

s a a e a s r ac -

which w ca n n ot but i n fer th t it w s ss um d in th t

e a a a e a

tre ti s with out proof If th en Eucl i d d i d n ot take it from

a e .
, ,

his ow n S on i cs wh at m ore l i k e ly th n th t i t w s c on t i n d
,
a a a a e

in A r is ta eus S oli d Loci ?

s

Pa ppu s s en u n ci ti on of th th eor m is to th ffect th t th e

a e e e e a

locu s of poi n t s uch th t its di s t n ce from giv n poi n t is in

a a a a e

a giv en r ti o to i ts di s t n c e fr om
a x d s tr i ght l i n e is a con ic a a e a

s e c tion n d is n e llip se a p rab ol a o hyp erbol ccordi ng

,
a a ,
a ,
r a a a

a s th e giv e n r ti o is l s s th n e qu l to o gra ter th n u n ity e a ,

a ,
r ea a .

vii , p 6 7 8 1 5 24
1
P appu s , . .
-
.
l U
.
U U LV L U D I J U L l U JN 0

P r ooffr om P appu s .

proof in th e cas e wh r the gi v en r tio is di ffe ren t fr om

Th e e e a

u nity is s hortly as follow s .

L t S be the x ed poi nt S X th e p erp en dicular from S on

e ,

th e x d li ne Let P be any poin t on th e l ocu s an d P N

e .

p rp nd i cular
e e to S X, so that SP is to N X in th e giv e n
ratio ( ) 6

thu s 6
2

T k K on
a e s uch th at

th n i f K be
e ,

a no ther poi nt on SN ,
prod uced if c
n e es sa ry ,

s uch th at N K NK
'
,

S N 2
z NK 2

PN2 (N X2
N I0 )

1 s XX XX .

.

Th e pos iti ons ch ng wi th th e pos iti on of P

of N, K , K

a e .

If A A b e th e p oi nt s on wh i ch N f lls wh en K K coi n c i d e
,

a ,

w i th X r es p cti vely We h a v
e , e

SA : AX SN z N K z ez l S N : NK =

Th er e for e S X z SA
-
S K : S N = (I

wh nc e e
(S X SN )
 FOC US -
DI R EC TR I X PR OPER TY

S im il a rly it can b e s h ow n th at

(l ~ e)z e

By m u ltiplication XX , X AN A N .

(1 ~ e
2
)
z
z e ;

an d it follow s from above , ea: a equ a li , th at

(l
which is the pr operty of a cen tr l con ic a .

Wh en 6 1 A and A lie on th e same s ide of X W h il e

,

,

N li es on A A a nd the con ic is n e llip se ; wh en 6

,
1 A an d a ,

A lie on opp os ite s id es of X whil e N li es on A A pr oduc e d

, ,

an d th e c oni c i s a hyp erb ol a .

Th e cas e wh e r e e l an d th e cur ve is a p ar bol s e as y a a i

a n d n e d n ot be 1 e 1 0 d u ce d h r e
e
p e .

Th e tr eati s e w ould d oubtl s s con tai n oth er loci of typ e s e

s imi l r to th at which
a as P ppu s say s w as u e d fo th e , a ,
s r .

tri se cti on of an an gle I re fer to th e propositi on lr e dy : a a

quote d ( ol i p 2 4 3 ) th t i f A B ar e th e ba an gl s of
v .
, . a , ,
se e

a tri n gl e with v e rt e x P
a nd A B 2 A A th e l ocu of P , a ,
s

is a hyp rbola with e cc en trici ty 2

e .

P r opos ition s in cl u d ed in E u clid Conics

s .

Th a t E uclid s Con i cs c ov e r e d m uch of th e same gr ou n d a s

th e rs t thr e e B ook s of A p oll on iu s is cl ear fr om th e la nguag e

of A p ollon iu s hi m s elf C onr mati on is forthc omi n g in th e
.

qu otation by A rchi med es of propos ition s (1 ) prove d in

s

th e e l em e n t s of c oni c s (2 ) s u me d with out r em ark s

o ,
r as a

a lr e dy k n own
a The for m e r cl s s i n clud e th e fu n d m en t l
. a a a

ordi n at e pr op erti e s of th e c on ic s in th e followi n g for m s :

(1 ) fo th e e llips e
r ,

PN 2
B0 2 z A 0 2 ;

(2 ) for th e hyp erbola ,

AN A N =
' '
Ps .

A N ;

(3 ) for th e p arab ola P N p A N ; ,

2
a

th e pri n cip al t ang en t prop erti e s of th e p arab ola

th e pr op e rty th at if th e r r e two t an g en t s dra w n from on e

,
e a

poi n t to ny conic s ecti on wh t e ver an d two i n ter cti ng

a a ,
se
 C ONI C SEC TI O N S I N A R C H I MEDES 1 23

case of th e hyp erbol A rchi m des does not gi ve

I n th e a e

y ex pr es s i on for th e con s t an t r ati os P N A N A N and

2
an z .

QV P V P V r es p ectiv ely wh en c e w e c on clud e that h e had

Z
'

z .
,

no c on c epti on of di ame t e r s o r dii of hyp erbol a not meeti ng r a a

th e cur v e .

2 Th e s traight li n e draw n fr om th e c en tr e of a n ellip se or

.
,

th e p oi n t of i nt e r s ec ti on of th e s y m pt ot es of a hyperbol a a ,

through th e poin t of con tact of ny tan gent bi s ects all chords a ,

parallel to the tangen t .

3 I n th e e llip s e th e tan gen t s t th e e xtrem iti e s ofeith e r oftwo

. a

conjugate diamet er s ar e both p rallel to the other diameter a .

4 If in a hyp e rbol a th e t an gen t at P m ee t s th e tran s ver se

.

a x i s in T an d P N is th e prin cip al ordi n at e A N

, A T (It , .

is not eas y to se e h ow thi could b pr ov e d exc e pt by mean s s e

of th e g ener al pr op erty tha t if P P b e an y di ame t er of

a hyp erb ol a QV th e ordi n t e to it from Q n d Q

,
T th e t ang en t a , a

at Q m e e ti n g P P in T th n TP

P V P V)

TP , e : .

5 If a c on e righ t or obl i qu e b e cut by

.
,
plan e meeting all , a

th e g en er at or s th e s e cti on i eith r a circl e or an ellip se

,
s e .

6 If a li n e b e tw een th e as y m pt ot e s meet s a hyp erb ol a an d

.

is bi secte d at th e p oi n t of c on c our s e it will t ouch th e ,

hyperbola .

7 If a} y ar e s tr aight li n s dr aw n in x ed direction s r espec

.
,
e ,

tiv ely from a p oi n t on

,
h yp rb ol to mee t th e asy mpt ot e s a e a ,

th e r ect angl e m y is c on s t an t .

8 If P N b e th e pri n cip l ordi n at e of P a poi n t on an e llips e

. a , ,

an d if N P be produc e d to m e t th e u x ili ary circl e in p the e a ,

rati op N P N is con s tan t .

9 .The crit er i a of s im il rity of con ic s and se gm en t s of a

con ics ar e as s ume d in practi ca lly th e s me form as A p olloniu s a

giv es th em .

The P ar a bola .

1 . Th e fun damen tal pr op rti e es a pp e r in a th e a lt ernati ve forms

AN zAN P N = pa A N, 2

,
or .

P VzPV p PV
2
Qs QV
2
,
or Q V . .

A rchi me d es ppli es t erm par a m eter (a w p b w S ft w

a th e a i /a ai t

a t 0 17 2 6 f ond s ) to th e paramete r of th e prin cipal ordinate s

1 24 C O N I C S EC TI O N S
2
on p isly ; i mply th e l i n to which th e r ctan gl e equ l to
s e e a QV
a n d of width qu l to P V is ppl i e d e a a .

2 P r ll el ch ord s
. a a e bi e ct e d by on e s tr i ght li n e p ar a ll l to
ar s a e

th xis which p se through th poin t of con t ct of th

e a ,
as s e a e

t ng n t p ar allel to th ch ord s
a e e .

'

3 If th e t an g en t t Q m ee t th e di m t r P V in T
. a n d QV be a e e ,
a

th e ordin at to th d i met er P V e PT e a ,
.

B y th e id of th i s pr op os iti on a t an gen t to th e p ar ab ola can

a

b dr aw n (a ) t p oi n t on it (6) p r ll e l to a giv en ch ord

e a a ,
a a .

4 A n oth er prop os it i on
. u me d i s e qu i v len t to th e prop erty ass a

of th s ubn or m l N S
e
p a , a
.

5 I f QQ b
. ch ord of p r bol p rp n d i cul r to th e x i s

e a a a a a e e a a

a n d m ee t i n g th xi in M wh i le QVq n oth er ch ord p ralle l

e a s ,
a a

to th t ng n t t P me t s th e d i m t r thr ough P in V n d
e a e a e a e e ,
a

R H K is th e pr i n cip l ord i n at of n y p oi n t R on th curv e a e a e

m ti n g P V in H
ee n d th xi in K th n P V P H a o e a s , e z r

MK K A fo th i s is proved (0 m Floa ti ng B od ies II

r ,
.

Wh er it w s pr ov d w d o n ot kn ow ; th e pr oof i n ot
e a e e s

a ltog th r easy e e .
1

6 A ll p ar bol s
. si mi l r
a a ar e a .

A w e h ve
s n A rch i me dea h d to s p e ci li
see in th
,
s a a z e e

p r bol fo th purpo of his tre ti s s on th e Qu d tu e

a a a r e se a e a r a r

o f the P a bola S onoi d a nd Sph oid s Flo ti ng B od ie

r a ,
s er ,
a s,

B ook I I an d P l n E qu ili b iu m s Book II ; c on s e qu en tly h

,
a e r ,
e

h d to pr ov fo h i mself n u mb r of p ci l pr op os iti on wh i ch
a e r a e s e a s,

h v lre dy be n gi v n in th eir prop r pl aces A few oth r s

a e a a e e e . e

ar e a ss u m d with out pr oof d oubtl

e s b in g e s y d duct i on s , es as e a e

fr om th e pr op o iti on s w hich h e d o s prov e Th ey r fer m i n ly

s e . e a

to s i m il r p r b olic seg men t s o pl c e d th a t th e i r b e

a a a , e in s a as s ar

on e s tr ight li n an d h v e on e c om m on e xtre m ity

e a a .

1 If ny thr s i m i l r an d s i mil rly itu te d p r bolic

. a ee a a s a a a

se g m n t B Q B Q B Q lyi ng alon g th
e s m e s tr i ght l i n e 3
e sa a

as b es (B Q B Q B Q ) nd i f E b e an y p oi n t on th
as 1 2 3 ,
a e

t n gen t t B to on of th e s gm nt s nd E 0 s tr ight li n e
a a e e e , a a a

thr ough E p r ll l to th xi s of on of th s eg m n ts nd
a a e e a e e e a

m ti n g th ee gm ent in R R R r e s pe ctiv ely n d B Q

e se s
1 a
3

in 0 th en ,

R3R2 1R2R1 (Qz Qa i Q2 )

S e e A p oll oni u s of P er ga , ed . H ea h , p l iv t . .
 C O N I C S EC TI O N S I N A R C H I M EDES 1 25

2 If tw o s i mil r p ar bolic segment s with bases B Q B Q be

. a a
l , Z

pl ce d as in th e l as t prop os iti on an d if BR R be ny s traight

a ,
I 2
a

lin e through B me etin g the s egment s in R R res p ctive ly I , 2

e ,

B Q, s o, BR , B R Z .

h se prop os iti on s a e ea ily de duced from the th ore m

T e r s e

pr ove d m th Qu a d r tu e of the P a r a bol th t if through E

e a r a, a , ,

a p oin t on th e t ngen t at B s tr ight li n e E R O b dr w n

a , a a e a

p r ll l to th e x is n d meeti ng th e curve in R and any chord

a a e a a

B Q thr ough B in 0 th en ,

3 . O n th e s tr ength
th s e propo ition s A rch i m d
of u mes
e s e es as s

th s oluti on of th e pr obl em of pl a c i n g b etw n tw o p r bol i c

e , ee a a

s eg m e n t s i m i l a r to on
s an oth r n d pl c d s in th e bov e a a e a e a e

propos iti ons s traight li n of giv n length and in dir cti on

,
a e a e a e

par lle l to th e diam t ers of ei th r p rabol

a e e a a .

Euclid n d A rchi m e d e n o d oubt dh r d to th e old m th od

a s a e e e

of r g rdi n g th
e a three c on ic s s ri i n g from s ecti on s of thr
e a a s ee

ki n d s of right circular con (right an gl ed obtu se n gled nd es -

,
-
a a

a cut e ngle d ) by pl n es dr w n in e ch c se at right ngl to

-

a a a a a a es

a g en r tor of th c on e Y t n e ith er Euclid n o A rch i m des

e a e . e r e

w as u n w r e th t th e e ct i on of n cut e angl ed c on e o

a a a s a a -

, r

ellip s e c ould b e oth e rwi s e pr oduc ed

,
Euclid a ctu lly s y in . a a s

hi P haen omen th t if c on e o cyli n d er (pr s u m bly right )

s a a

a r e a

b e cut by a pl n n ot p r ll e l to th b s e th e r es ult i n g s ecti on

a e a a e a ,

is a s e cti on of n a cut e n gl e d c on e which is i mil ar to

a -
a s

a d
p g (s h i e ld )
u e A rchi m e d es k n ew th a t th e n on circul r a
-

se cti on s e v en of an obli qu e circul ar c on e m d by pl n s a e a e

cutt i ng all th e g en er tors a e ellip es ; fo h e s hows u s how

a r s r ,

given n ell i p se to dr aw a con e (in gene r l obli qu e) of whi ch

a ,
a

i t is s cti on an d which h s its v e rt e x out s id

a e th e pl n e a e a

of th e e llip s e on any s tr ight li n e th r ough th cen tr e of th e

a e

e llip s e in a pl n e at right an gl es to th e e llip e an d p as s i ng

a s

thr ough on of its a xes wh eth er th e s tra ight li n e is i tself

e ,

p erp en dicul r o not p er p en dicul r to the plane of th e ellip s ;

a r a e

dr wi ng a con in thi s cas e of cou r s e means n di ng th e circular

a e

se cti ons of th e s urf c e ge n e r t ed by a s traight li n e a lw ay s

a a

pas s i ng through the given ve rte x an d all th e s everal p oi nts of

th e gi ven e llip s e Th e me th od of pr oof w ould e qu lly s erve
. a
 TH E TEXT O F TH E S ON I SS 1 27

Th e dition of Eu tociu s s uffer d i n t erp ol ation s which w e r e

e e

prob ably mad e in the n in th cen tury wh en un der the a uspices ,

of Le on ma th e matical s tudi e s w r e r e viv e d at C ons t an ti n opl e e

, ;
for it w as at th at d at e th t th u n ci al m an u s cript s w ere a e

written from which our b e t m nu cript V

, C od V at gr s a s s, . . .

2 0 6 of th e tw elfth to thir te n th c en tury for th e S onics and

) e ,

W C od Vat gr 2 0 4 of th e t en t h c en tury ) for Eutociu s

. . .
,

w ere c opi ed .

On ly th e rs t four Book s urvi ve in Gree k ; th e e ighth s

Book is a lt og eth e r l os t but th e thr ee Book s V V I I e x i s t in

,

A ra bic .It was A hm d an d l H a n two s on s of Muh b a a sa , . .

Musa b S h akir wh o r t c on t e mpl t d tr ns l ating th e S on ics

.
, s a e a

i nto A rabic Th ey w e r at rs t dete rred by the bad s tate of

. e

the ir m an u s cr ipt s ; but ft rw rds A hm d obtained in S yri a e a a a

a copy of Eu tociu s s e d i tion of Book s I I V an d h ad th em

-

trans l ated by H ilal b A bi H i lal l B i m i (di e d 8 8 3 .

-

a -
s

Book s V V I I w er e tr n l t d
ls o fo A hma d by Thabit
a s a e ,
a r ,

b Qurr a ( 8 2 6 9 0 1 ) fr om noth er m n u s cript N as i ad d in s

.
a a . r

r ecens i on of this tran s lati on of th e se ven Books mad e in 1 2 4 8 , ,

is represen t e d by tw o c op i s in th e Bodl ei an one of th e y ear e ,

1 3 0 1 (No 9 4 3 ) an d th e oth er of 1 6 2 6 c on t ai n in g Books V V I I

.

on ly (No .

A Lati n tran s l ti on of B ook s I I V w as publi s h ed by

a

Joh ann es Bapti s t a M e m u s t V en i ce in 1 5 3 7 ; but th e r s t a

i mportan t e diti on w s th e tran sl ti on by C ommandinu s a a

(Bologn a ,
whi ch i n clud e d the l emmas of Pappu s and
th e commentar y of Eu tociu s an d w th e rs t att empt to ,
as

make th e book in t e lligibl e by m ean s of ex planatory n ot es .

For th e Greek t ext C omm an din u s u se d Cod Marcianu s 5 1 8 .

an d p erh ap s als o V at gr 2 0 5 both of which w er e c opies of V

. .
, ,

but not V it s elf .

Th e rs t publi s h d v ers i on of Books V V I I was a Latin

e

tran s lati on by A brah am Ech ellen s is and Gia como A lfon so

Borelli (Fl or en c e 1 6 6 1 )of a r e pr oducti on of th e Book s w r itten
,

in 9 8 3 by A bu l Fa th al I s fahan i

-
.

Th e ed i ti o pr i n ceps of th e Gr e k t e xt is th e monu men ta l e

w ork of H alley (O xford Th e original i n ten ti on was ,

that Gregory s h ould e dit th e four Books ex tan t in Gr eek with ,

Eu tocius s c omm en tary an d L a ti n tr an s l ati on and th at

a ,

H all ey s h ould tran l at e B ook s VVI I fr om th e A r abic i nt o

s
128 A PO LLO N U S O F P E R GA I
La ti n . Gr eg ory
h ow v r di d wh i l th e w ork w s proc ee d i n g
, e e ,
e e a ,

an d H ll y th en u n d rt ook r e p on s ibility fo th e wh ol e
a e Th e e s r .

Gr k m n u cr i pt s u s d w r e two on b l o
ee a s n g in g to S vil e e e ,
e e a

an d th oth r l en t by D B y n rd
e th ir wh e r ab outs c n n ot
e . a a e e a

apparen tly now b tr c d but th y w r e b oth copi s of P r i e a e ,

e e e a s .

gr 2 3 5 6 which w s c op i d in th e s i xt en th c n tury from P ri

.
,
a e e e a s .

gr 2 3 5 7 of th e i xt en th cen tury itself copy of V Fo th

. s e ,
a . r e

thr Book in A r b i c H ll ey u d th e Bodl i an M S 8 8 5 but

ee s a a se e .
,

l o con ult ed ( ) comp en diu m of th e thr e Book by A bd el

a s s a a e s

m lik al S hi r a i (tw e lfth c en tury ) al o in th e Bodl i n

e -
z , s e a

(b)Bo elli e d i ti on n d (c)Bod l 9 4 3 b ov e men ti on e d by m n

r s a . a , ea s
,

of which h revi s e d nd corr e cte d h i tr n s lati on wh en com

e a s a

pl e te d H ll y s . dit i on i t i
a ll o f a I e k n ow th

on ly
e s s ,
s ar s ,
e

av il bl ourc fo Book s V V I I exc pt fo th e b egi nn i n g of

a a e s e r
,
e r

Book V (up to P rop 7 ) which wa e dit d by L N ix (L ip ig . s e . e z ,

1 8 8 9)
r e k t xt of B ook I I V i n ow v i l ble with th
Th e G e e s
s a a a ,
e

comm ent ri of Eu to iu th fr gm en t of A p oll on iu &c

a es c s, e a s s, .
,

in the d e n i t i v diti on of H ib rg (T u b n e 1 8 9 1e e e e e r ,

ow n accou n t of th e S onics

A pollon iu s s .

g n r l accou n t of th c ont en t of th e gr e at w ork which

A e e a e s ,

a ccordi ng to Gemi n u s e rn ed fo h im th titl of th e gr e t ,

a r e e

a

g omete r c nn ot be b etter g i v en th an in th w ord s of th

e

a . e e

writer h i m elf Th e pr efaces to th s v er l Book c on tai n

. e se a s

i n ter ti ng h i stor i cal d et i ls n d l i k e th e pr fac e of A rchi

es a , a ,
e s

m dee tat quit pl i nly n d s i mply in wh at w ay th

s, s e e a a e

tr ti e di ff r from th os of his pr edec or s n d h ow much

ea s e s e ess ,
a

in i t i s cl i m d as origi n l a Th e s trictur e of Pa ppu (o

e a . s s r

more pr obably h is i n t rp ol t or) w h o ccu e h im of b i n g e a , a s s e a

bragg rt n d u n f ir tow rd his pr dec s or s a e vid en tly

a a a a s e e s ,
r e

u n foun de d Th e pr e fac es . qu ot d by Wil mow it ar e e v . a z

M oell en dor ff s p e ci m en of d m i r abl e Gr e k s h owi n g h ow

as s a e ,

p rfe ct th e s tyl e of th e gre t math em tici n s c ould be

e a a a

wh en th y w er e fr fr om th e tr mmel s of m th em tical
e ee a a a

t erm i nology .

Book I G n e r a l P r e f ac e . e .

A p oll on i u s to Eu d emu s gr eeti n g , .

If yo in g ood h ealth n d thi n g s

u ar e e in ot h r r e p e ct s a ar e s

a s y ou wi h it i w ell ; with m e too thi n g s a e m od e r at e ly

s , s r
 TH E S ON I S S 29

w ell Duri ng the ti me I s p ent with you at Pergamu m

.

I obs erve d your eag ernes s to be come acqua i nte d with my

work in con ics ; I am there for e sen din g y ou th e rs t book ,

which I ha v e corr ect e d an d I will forw ard th e r emain i ng ,

book s wh en I h av e n i s h e d th em to my s ti s facti on I dar e a .

sa
y y ou h a v e n ot forgott en my t elli ng y ou th at I u nd ertook
the i n v es tiga ti on of thi s ubj e ct t th e r e qu e s t of N aucra t es
s a

th e ge om t r at th e ti m wh en h e c ame to A l ex an dria n d
e e , e a

t y e d with me n d wh en I h ad w orke d it ou t in eight

s a ,
a ,

b ook I ga v e th em to him at on ce too hurri edly bec u s e he

s, , ,
a

w s on th e p oi nt of saili n g ; th ey h ad th er efor e n ot b een

a .

th oroughly r e vi ed in dee d I h d put dow n everythi ng jus t as

s , a

it occurr e d to me p ostponi ng r e vi i on till the en d A ccord

, s .

in gly I n ow publi s h s opp or tu n iti e s s erve fr om ti me to ti me

, a ,

i n s talmen t s of th w ork s th ey correcte d I n th e mean

e a ar e .

ti me it has h pp en e d th t s ome oth er p ers ons als o mon g

a a , a

th os e w hom I h v met h ve got th rs t n d econ d books

a e ,
a e a s

b efore th y w ere corr ecte d ; d o n ot b e s urpris ed th ere for e if

e

y ou c om e a cr oss th em in a di ffer en t s h p e a .

N ow of th e igh t b ook s th e r t four for m an e l e men tary

e s

i n troducti on The rs t c on t in s th mod s of produc i ng th

. a e e e

three se cti on s n d th oppos ite br n che s (of th e hyperbol )

a e a a ,

an d th e fun dam en tal pr op e rti es ubs i s ti ng in them w ork ed s ,

ou t mor e fully an d g en e ra lly th n in th e writin gs of oth er s a .

Th e s ec on d b ook c on t ai n s th e prop erti e s of th e di met er an d

_

a s

th e xe s of th e s e cti on as w e ll s th as y mpt ot es with oth e r

a s a e ,

thi ngs g enerally nd n ec ess arily u s d fo determi n in g li mi ts

a e r

of p oss i b i lity an d wh t I m ean by di me t e r s a a

an d ax es r es e c tiv e ly y ou will l ear n fr om thi s b ook Th e

p .

third book con tai ns m n y r emark ble th eor ems u eful for a a s

th s yn th es es of s olid l oci n d fo d i or i smi

e th e mo t an d a r s

pr etti e s t of th es e th eorem e n e w an d it w a their di s covery s ar ,

s

which made me wa r e th t Euclid did not w or k out th a a e

s yn th es i s of th e l ocu s with r es p e ct to thr ee an d f our li n e s b ut ,

on ly ch an c porti on of it an d th at n ot ucc es s fully ; fo it

a e ,
s r

w s n ot p os s ibl e fo th e
a id syn th es i s to be com pl et d without
r sa e

th e id of th e a dditi on l th eor ems di s cove r e d by m e

a a Th e .

fourth b ook h ows in how man y w y th e ecti ons of con es

s a s s

c n m ee t on e an oth e r
a n d th e circu m fe r en c e of a circl e ; it
a

con tai ns oth e r thi ngs in additi on n one of whi ch h ave been ,

di s cu s se d by earli er writers namely th e u es tion s in h ow ,

m an y p oi n t s a se c ti on of a c on e or a circu m e r e n c e of a circl e
'

c n m e et a d oubl e bran ch hyp e rb ola o tw o d oubl e br an ch

a
[ r -
-

hyperbol s can meet on e n oth er ]

a a .

Th e r e s t of th b ook s a e m ore by way of s urplu g e

e r sa

n e of th m d e l s om e wh t full wit h

( p
w e w m o n
v x a p ) o ar r e a
y e a s a

1 52 8 - 2 K
 TH E S ON I S S 131

d ior i s mi N icotele s i n d ee d on acc ou n t of his c on trov er s y

.
,

with C onon , will n ot h a ve it th at any u s e can be ma de of the

di s cov eri es of C on on for th e purpose of d i or is mi ; he is ,

h ow e ver m i s ta k en in thi s opi n i on for e ven if it is pos s ibl e

, , , ,

with out u s i ng th em at all to arrive at r es ults in r egard to ,

limit s of p os s ibility y et th ey at all e v ents a fford a r ea di er ,

m ean s of ob s e rvi n g s ome th i n gs , e g th a t se v e ra l or s o man y . .

s oluti on s ar e p os s i bl e or aga i n th a t n o s oluti on is p os s i bl e

;
,

an d s uch for e kn owl e dg e s e cur es a s ati s f a ctory ba s i s for ih

v e s ti ation s whil e th e th e or ems in qu e s t i on ar e ag a i n u s e ful
g ,

for th e an aly s es of d ior is mi A n d e v en ap ar t from s uch .

,

u s e fuln es s th ey will b e fou n d w orthy of a cce ptan c e for th e

,

s a k e of th e d e mon s tra ti on s th em se l v e s ju s t as w e a cc e pt ,

m an y oth e r thi ngs in m ath e matic s for thi s r eas on an d for

no o th er .

Th e pr e fa c es to Book V V I I n ow to be g i v en a e ep d s r r r

d u c d fo B ook V from th e tr n l ti on of L N ix an d fo
e r a s a . r

Book s V I V I I from th a t of H ll ey
, a .

P r efac e to B ook V .

A p oll on iu s to A t talu s gr ee ti n g , .

I n th i s fth book I h v e l id d ow n prop os i t i on r l ti ng to a a s e a

m axi mu m n d m i n i mu m s tr i ght l i n s Y ou m u t k now

a a e . s

th t my pr e d c es ors an d con t empor ar i es h av e on ly up r

a e s s e

ci lly t ouch e d up on th i n v e tig t i on of th e h ort t l i n

a e s a s es es ,

an d h v e on ly prov e d wh t s tr ai ght li n es t ouch th

a e cti on a e s s

a n d c on v e r e ly wh t pr op e rt i s th y h av e in virtu of wh i ch
. s , a e e e

th ey t n g nts Fo m y par t 1 h av e pr ov e d th se p o
ar e a e . r , e r

p ti s in th e r t b ook (with out h ow e ve r m ak i n g n y u s e in

er e s a ,

th pr oofs of th e d octri n of th e s h ort es t l i n s ) in m uch

e ,
e e , as as

I w i h d to pl c e th em in cl os c onn exion with th t p art

s e a e a

of th e s ubj ec t in which I tr t of th product i on of th e thr e ea e e

c on ic s ecti on s in ord er to s h ow t th e s me ti m th t in e ch
,
a a e a a

of th e thr cti on c ou n tl es pr op r ti e nd n c s ry r s ult

ee s e s s e s a e es a e s

a pp r ea th y d o w i t h re fer en ce to th e origi n l (tr n v r )

, as e a a s e se

di m eter Th e prop o i ti ons in wh i ch I di s cu ss th s h ort t

a . s e es

li nes I h ve ep rat d in t o c las e s n d I h ave de lt with ch

a s a e s , a a ea

i nd i vi du l cas e by c re ful d emon tr ti on ; I h ve l s o con

a a s a a a

n ecte d th e i n v s tig ti on of th e m with th e i n v es tig t i on of

e a a

th e great e s t li n es b ov e m en t i on e d b ec au e I c on i d er e d th at
a ,
s s

th os wh o cultiv t e thi s ci en c n eed th em fo obtai nin g

e a s e r

a k n owl e dg of th e an a ly s i s n d d te r m i n at i on of li mit
e of , a e s

poss ibility of problem s w ll s fo th ei r s yn th es i s in

,
s a e a r :

a dditi on to which th e s ubj ct is on e of th o wh i ch seem ,

e

se

w orthy of s tudy fo th e ir own ak e F r we ll r s . a e .

K 2
 1 32 A P O LLON U S I or P ER GA

r ef c e to Book V I P a .

A p ollon i u to A t t lu s gr e ti ng s a ,
e .

I e n d y ou th i xth book of th e c on ics w h ch em br c

s e s ,
1 a es

propo iti on bout c onic ecti on s n d egm n t of c on c s equ l

s s a s a s e s i a

a n d u n e qu l s i m i l r an d d i s i m i l r b es id e s ome oth r m att e r s

a , a s a ,
s e

l ft ou t by th os e w h o h v e pr c e d d m I n p rt cul r y ou
e a e e e . a i a ,

will nd in thi s b ook how in g i ven right c on e a t on c n , a ,

sec 1 a

b ou t which i q al to g i v n s cti on n d h ow a right c on e

e s e u a e e ,
a

can b e d e crib e d i m il r to g i v n c on e b u t s uch

s to c on t a n
s a a e as i

a giv n c on i c e cti on A n d th
e m tt er in truth I h a v
s . es e a s e

tr t ed s om wh t m ore fully and cl e rly th n th o wh o wrot

ea e a a a se e

b efor my t i me on th e e s ubj cts Far w ll

e s e . e e .

P r efac to B ook V I I e .

A p oll on iu to A tt lu s gr e t in g s a ,
e .

I s en d to y ou with th i s l tt r th e v en th b ook on c on i c
'

e e e s

e cti on
s I n it e c on t a i n e d
s . l rg nu mb er of n ew pr op os i
ar a a e

ti ons con c rn i ng d i m eters of s ctions n d th e gur es d e cribe d

e a e a s

up on th m nd ll th ese pr opo iti on h v th i r u se in man y

e a a s s a e e s

k i nd s of problem e p c i ally in th det r mi n t i on of th s, s e e e a e

li mi ts of th ei r p os ibility S v er l e x m pl of th ese occur s . e a a es

in the d et e r mi n t c on i c proble m olv d n d d e m on s tr t d

a e s s e a a e

by m in th e e i ghth book wh i ch is by w y of n pp en d i x
e , a a a ,

n d which I w i ll m k e a p oi n t of s e n d i n g to
a
y ou s oon a a s

a s p oss i bl e F r ew ell . a .

E x ten t of clai m to or igi n a li t

y .

We gath er from th ese pr e fa c es v e ry good i d e of the a a

pl n follow d by A p ollon iu in th e rr ng e men t of th e s u b

a e s a a

j ct n d of th xt n t to which h cla i m orig i n l i ty Th

e a e e e e s a . e

r t four B ook for m as h s y n l me n t ry i n troducti on

s s ,
e a s, a e e a ,

by which h m e n s n expos i ti on of th el m n ts of con ic s

e a a e e e ,

th t i th d en i ti ons n d th fu n d m en t l prop os iti on s

a s, e a e a a

which of th e m o t g en e r l u
ar e nd pp li c t i on ; th e t rm s a se a a a e

el em en t is in f ct u d w i th r fer e n c e to c on ic s in e x a ctly

s a se e

th s am s en s e a Euclid u s e it to d crib e h is gr e t w ork

e e s s es a .

Th e r e m i n i n g Book b egi nn i ng w i th B ook V

a e d v ot d to s ar e e

s p e ci l i
e d i n v s ti gati on of p rticul r p arts of th e s u b
a z e e a a

ject It is on ly fo
. v ery s m ll p ortion of th e onte nt of th e r a a c

tr t is th t A p ollon i u cl i ms or i gin lity ; in th e r s t thr e

ea e a s a a e

Book th cl ai m is c on n e d to c rt in prop os i ti on s b e ri n g on
s e e a a

th e l ocu s w i th r es p e c t to thr e o f our li n e s ; n d in th e

e r

a

fourth Book (on th n u m ber of poi n t s t which tw o con ics e a

 TH E S ON I S S 1 33

m ay in t ers ect touch or b oth ) th e p art which is cl i med

, , a

as n w i e th e ex ten s i on to th e i n t er s e cti ons of th e p ar ab ol a

s
,

e llip s e n d circl e with th e d oubl e bran ch h p e rb ol a an d of

a
y
-

, ,

two d oubl e br an ch hyp e rb ol as with one anoth er of th e in

-

ves ti ation s w h ich h ad th e r e t ofor e on ly t ak en acc ou n t of th e

g
s i n gl e bran ch hyp erbol a
-

E v en in Book V the mos t r ema rk

.
,

abl e of all A p oll on iu s d oes n ot s a

,
y th at norma l s as th e h or te s t s

li nes h ad not b een con s ide re d be fore but only that they had ,

been s upe rci ally touch ed u p on doubtless in conn exi on with ,

prop o ition s d ealin g with th e tang nt pr op erti es H e expl ain s

s e .

th at h e foun d it c onv eni en t to tr a t of th e tang ent pr op erti es e ,

with out any r efer en ce to normal s in th e rs t Book in order ,

to conn e ct th em with th e ch ord pr op erti es -

It is cl e r th ere . a ,

for e th at in treating n ormal s as m a xi ma and mi ni m a an d by

, ,

th ems e l v e with out any r e feren c to t ang ents as h e do in

s, e ,
es

B ook V h e was ma k i ng n i nn ov ati on ; and in vi e w of th e

,
a ,

ex t en t to which th e th eor y of n or ma l s as max i ma n d m in i m a a

i d eve lop e d by h im (in 7 7 propos iti on s ) th e r e is n o w on d e r

s ,

th t h e s hould de vote a whol e Book to th e s ubj e ct A p ar t

a .

from th e de velopm ent s in B ook III I V V jus t m en ti on e d s , , , ,

an d th e n u m er ou s n ew pr op os i ti on s in Book VI I w i th th e

problems th er eon which for m ed th e l os t Book V III A pollon i u s ,

on ly cla i ms to h ave tr eat e d th wh ol e s ubj e ct mor e fully an d e

g ne r lly th an his pr ed eces s or s

e a .

Gr ea t gener a li ty of tr ea tm en t fr om the begi n n i n g .

S o far fr om b e in g a bra gg a rt a n d ta ki ng u n du e cr e dit to

himself for th e impr ov emen t s w hi ch h e made upon his pre de .

cess or s A p oll oniu s is if a nythi n g too modes t in his d es cr ip

, , ,

ti on of his per s onal con tr i buti on s to th e th eory of conic

se cti on s For th e mor e fully nd generally of h is r s t
.

a

pr efac c rcely con vey s n ide of th e extreme general i ty

e s a a a

with w hich th e wh ole s ubj e ct is w ork ed ou t Thi s ch ract er . a

is tic gen e r ality a pp ear s at th e ve ry outs e t .

A nalys is of th e Sonics .

I B ook .

A p oll on iu s b egin s by d es cribin g a d oubl e obliqu e circul a r

con e in th e mos t g ener al w y Gi ven a circl e and any poi nt a .

out s id e th e pl ane ofth e circl e an d in g eneral not lyi n g on th e

 TH E co m es ,
B OOK 1 135

th e ce n tre of th circul r b as A fte r pr ovi n g th t all

e a e . a

s cti on s p ar all e l to th e b
e e ls o circles an d th at th er e as e ar a -

i s n oth e r s e t of circul a r s e cti on s s ubc on tr ary to th es e h

a ,
e

procee d s to c on s i der s ecti on s of th e con e dr w n in ny a a

m ann e r Ta ki n g ny tri an gl e thr ough th a xi s (th b as of

. a e e e

th e tri an gl be i n g c on s equ en tly a d i m et e r of th c i rcl e which

e a e

i th e b ase of th e c on ) h e is c ar e ful to mak e h is se cti on cut

s e ,

th e b as e in s tr aight li n p rp en dicular to the particul r

a e e a

di amet e r which is th e b as e of th e xi al tri angl e (Th er e i a . s

n o l os s of g n r lity in thi s efo i f an y e cti on is t k en

e a , r , s a ,

w if th ou t re fe r n ce to ny ax i l tri an gl w h av e on ly to
e a a e, e

s e l e ct th pa rticul r ax i l tr i an gl e th b s e of wh i ch i that
e a a e a s

d i amet er of th e circular b s e which is a

a t r i ght an gl s to th e s tr aigh t li n in
e e

which th e s ction ofth e c on e cut th

e s e

b se ) Let A B S b e n y x i al tri n gl
a . a a a e,

an d l t en
y cti on wh at ev er cut th
a se e

b ase in traight l i n DE t r i ght

a s e a

a n gl esto BS ; i f th en P ill b e th e in
te r se ction of th e cutt i n g pl n n d th e a e a

a xi l tri ngl an d if QQ b ny ch ord

a a e,

e a

in th e s cti on p ra ll l to DE A p oll on i u
e a e ,
s

pr ov th t QQ i b i s e ct ed by P M I n
es a

s .

oth r w ord
e PM i d i a m et of th e sect i on
s, s aA p oll on i u s i er . s

c r eful to e xplai n th t
a a ,

i f th con e is right c on th tr ight li ne in th e bas (DE )
e a e, e s a e

w i ll b e t ri ght n gl e to th com mon s cti on (P M ) of th e

a a s e e

cutti n g pl n e n d th e tri ngl through th e x s but f th e

.

a a a e a 1 , ,
1

con e is s calen e it w ill n ot in g ner l be t righ t an gl es to P M

,
e a a ,

b u t will b e at righ t an gl es to it on ly wh en th e pl an e thr ough

th e axi (i th e xi al tri n gl e) is at right an gl es to th e b s
s . e . a a a e

of th e c on e (I .

Th at is to say A p oll on iu s w orks ou t th e pr op erti es of th e

,

com ics in th e m os t g en e r al w ay wi th r e fe r e n c to di m et er e a a

which is n ot on e of th e prin cip al di am t ers or x es but in e a ,

g en ral h a s its ordi n t es obliqu ely i n clin d to it Th e ax es d o

e a e .

n ot app ear in his xp os iti on till much later after it has b een
e ,

s h ow n th at ea ch c on i c h as th e s m e prop erty wi th r e fe r en c e a _

to an y di am et e r s it h as with refer en c e to th e origi nal

a

di amete r ri s i ng ou t of the con s truct i on th ax es then appear

a e
1 36 A POLLO N I U S O F P ER GA

as p rti cul r
a a cas es of th e ne w d iam e t er Of r efer enc e . Th e
three s ecti on s, th e pa rabola hy perb ol
,
a , an d e ll p s e
i ar e mad e
m ann er

li ne DE in th e plan e of th e
of the axi al triangle ,
w
ar
to B S prod uc d e . The diamete r P M is in th e cas e of th e
 TH E S ON I S S ,
BO O K I t 137

p ar bol a paralle l to A C in th e c ase of th e hyp erb ol it meet

a a s

th oth er h a lf of th e d oubl e c on in P
e an d in th e c s e of th e e

a

e llip e sme e ts th e c on e it l f ag ai n in P W dr aw se

. e ,

cas es th hyp rbola n d ellip A F par all el to

e e a s e,

to m ee t B S o B C produ ce d in E
r .

A p oll on iu s e xpr s s s th e prop rti s of th e thre e curv e by

e e e e s

m n s of a c rt i n s tr i ght li ne P L dr awn at right n gles

ea

e a a a

to P M i n th e pl an e of th e s e cti on .

I n th e c s e of th p arab ola P L is t ak en s uch th t

a e ,
a

PL z PA BS z z BA . AS;

an d in th e cas e of th e hy

p erbola an d e ll i ps e s uch that
PL z PP B F FS : A E 2
. .

I n th e latte r
c s es w e j oin P L nd th en dra w VR
tw o a

, a

parallel to P L to mee t P L pr oduced if n cess ry in R

,
e a ,
.

If H K b e draw n through V parall el to B C nd meet ing a

A B A S in H K r e p ectiv e ly H K is th e di m t r ofth e circul r

, , s ,
a e e a

s ecti on of th e c on e m ad e by a pl an e
par all e l to th e bas e.

T h refore
e QV
2
H V VK . .

Th en (1 ) for th e par bolaa we hav e by p arallel s,

an d s i milar
tri angles ,

H V : P V = B S : CA ,

VK z PA BC z B A .
 TH E S ON I SS, BO O K I
P L is called th e la tu s r ectu m (6p0 1 a ) or

th e pa r a m eter o f
the or d i n a tes K y p

(wa p hr du a v r

ai a t ar a
-
e v a t T er a y
pevws) in
ea ch c as e . I n th e c as e of th e c en tral c onic s , th e di a met er P P

is th e tr (17 di a meter ; wh i l e ,

a n sver s e 7 r A a y ta ) or tr a n sver se

ev en mor e common ly A pollon iu s s p eaks , of th e di am eter an d

th e c orr e s p on di n g p r m et e r t og eth e r c alli ng a a ,
th e l tt e r th e
a

l a tu s r ectu m or er ect s i d e
(6p0ia wA evpci ) an d th e for m r e

th e tr a n sver s e s id e of th e u r e 6 7 8 0 9 on or a
g ( ) ppli ed , to, th e
di a m eter .

Fu n d am n ta l pr oper ti es equ i va len t to Ca t si an equ ati ons

e r e .

If p is th p r meter an d d the c orres pondi ng di m t r

e a a , a e e ,

th e prop e rti es of th e curv e th e quiv a l n t of th C art i n es ar e e e es a

e qu ati on s r ferr d to th e di m ter and th t ng n t at it

,
e e a e e a e s

extr mity e x es (in g n eral obliqu )

as a e e ,

px (th e p ara bol )

2
a ,

pm g hyp erbol llips e res p e ct i vely)

2 2
y 2 x (th e a an d e .

T hu A p olloni u s expr e ses th fun damen t l pr operty of th e

s s e a

c n tr l con i cs l i k e th t of th p r b ol as n quati on
e a , a e a a a, a e

b tw ee n r
e wh r in A rch i m d
a eas ,it pp rs e eas e es a ea as a

pr op ort i on
2
( i
2 2
bf z 2

g a x ) a

which h ow v er is quiv len t to th e C artes i an equ ti on

, e ,
e a a

r f rr ed to x w ith th cen tr e as origi n Th e l tt r p o

e e a es e . a e r

perty wi th r e fer en c e to th e or i gi n al di m t er is s ep r t ly a e a a e

prov e d in I 2 1 to th ffect th at QV v ri s s P V P V s
.
, e e
2
a e a .

, a

is r ally e vid en t fr om th e fa ct th at QV P V P V 2
PL PP

e .
,

ee i n g th t P L P P is c on s t n t fo an y x e d di ame t r P P

s a a r e .

A p oll oni u s h s a s e pa rat e prop os it i on (I 1 4 ) to pr ev th t

a -
. e a

th e opp os it e bra n ch e of hyp rbol h av th e me di meter s a e a e sa a

a nd qu l la te a ecta corr es pon di ng th e r to A h w s th

e a r r e . s e a e

r s t to treat th e doubl e bran ch hyp erbol a fully h g ener lly -

,
e a

di s cu s ses th e hype bola (i s the s i ngle br n ch ) lon g w i th r . . a a

th e e llip se an d the opp os i tes a s h e c all s th e d oubl e br n ch

, ,
-

hyp erbol s p r t ly Th properti e of th i ngl br n ch

a, e a a e . e s e s e -
a

hyp erbol a e wh e r e pos sible i n clud ed in one enun ci ati on

a r , ,

with th os e of the llip se an d circl e th e en un ci ti on b egi nn in g

e ,
a ,
1 40 A POLL N U S O I or P ER GA

If in hyp erbola n ll i p se o th c ircu m f r en ce of circl e

a ,
a e ,
r e e a

s ome ti m es how e ve r th double br n ch hype rbol n d th

, ,
e -

a a a e

e llips com in on e propos i t ion e g in I 3 0 : If in n e llip e

e e , . . .

a s

o th e oppos it es (i e the d oubl e hyp rb ol ) a s traight li n e b e

r . . e a

dr w n thr ough th e c n tr e m e t i ng the curv on both s ide of

a e e e s

th e c en tr e it w i ll b b i se ct e d t th e c en tr e Th pr op rty of

e a . e e
,

conjug t e d i amet er s in n e llip se is pr ov ed in re l t ion to

a a a

th orig i n l d i m t e r of r f eren c e an d its conjugat e in I 1 5

e a a e e .
,

wh e r it i s h ow n that if DD is th e di ameter conjug t e to

e . s ,

a

P P (i e th di am e te r dr w n ordi n t e wi e to ju s t s

. . e a a -
s a

P P bi s ct s ll ch ord s p r ll l to DD o DD b i s e ct s ll ch ord s

e a a a e ,
s a

p r ll l to P P ; ls o if DL be draw n at right angl e s to DD

a a e

a ,

a nd uch th t DL DD P P (o DL is a th i rd prop orti on al

s a

.
2
r

to DD th n th e ellip se h s th e sam prop erty in r el

"
,
e a e a

ti on to DD s di m ter an d DL s p r m et r th t i t h s in

a a e

a a a e a a

r l ati on to P P as d i m t r n d P L as th corr p on d i ng par

e

a e e a e es a

m t er I n ciden t lly i t pp ear s th t P L P P DD o P L is 2

e . a a a ,
r

a third proporti on l to P P DD i n d eed i obv i ou s fr om th a

,

,
as s e

prop rty ofth e curv QV P V P V P L P P DD P P

e e
2
.

:
2 2
.

Th n ext prop o it i on I 1 6 i n tr oduc e s th s con d a r y d i a m ter

e s , .
,
e e e

of th d ou bl br n ch hyp rb ol
e (i e th e d i m et er c onj ugat to
e -
a e a . . a e

th tr n v e r e d i m t er of r e fer en c e) wh i ch d oe n ot m ee t th e
e a s s a e , s

curv e ; th i s di m ter is d n d th at s tr ight lin e dr wn

a e e e as a a

through th e cen tr parall el to th ord i n at s of the tr n s v rs e e e e a e

di m et r wh i ch is b i e cted at th e cen tr n d i of length qu l

a e s e a s e a

to th m ean prop ort i on l b etw een th e s i d es of th gur e

e a e ,

th e tran s v rs e di m t er P P n d th e c orr es p on di n g p r

i. e . e a e a a a

m et r P L Th e cen tr e i d en e d
e . th m iddl p oi n t of th e s
s as e e

d i met er of r f ren c and it i pr ov d th t all oth er di am t r s

a e e e, s e a e e

ar e b i s e ct d
. t it (I e a .

Prop s 1 7 1 9 2 2 9 3 1 4 0 a e pr op os i t i on l di n g up to
.

,

,
r s ea

an d c on t i n in g th e t n g en t prop rti
a O n li n es e x ctly l i k a e es . a e

th ose of Eucl III 1 6 fo th circl A pollon iu prove th at if . . r e e, s s ,

a s tr ight li n e i
a dr wn thr ough th v ertex (i e th e extr mity s a e . . e

of th e d i m et r of r e f ere n c e) p ar all e l to th e ordi n t es to th e

a e a

diam et r i t will f ll outs ide th c on ic an d n o oth er s tr ight

e , a e , a

li ne can fall b etw een th e said s tr ight lin e n d th e con ic ;

a a

th r efor th e s id s traight li n e t ouch es th e c onic (I 1 7

e e a .
,

P r op s I 3 3 3 5 c on t i n th e pr op e r ty of th e t n g en t t n y
. .
, a a a a

poin t on th e p rabol n d Pr op s 1 3 4 3 6 th e prop erty of a a, a . .

,
 TH E S ON I S S , B OO K I 141

th e gen t at n y poin t of a c entr l c on ic in rel ti on

tan a a , a

to th origi n l d i ame t r of r e fe r en c e ; if Q i th e p oi n t of
e a e s

c on ta ct QV th e ordin ate to th e di met er thr ough P n d

, a , a

i f QT th e t ng n t t Q me e t s th e di am et e r produc ed in T
, a e a , ,

then (1 ) fo th e p ar bol P V P T n d (2 ) fo th central

r a a ,
a r e

con ic VP The m eth od of proof is to t k

. a e a

poi n t T on th e di am et er pr oduc d s ati fyi ng the r es pectiv e e s

r el ti on s n d to prove th t if TQ b e j oi ned n d produce d

a , a a , a ,

n y p oi n t on TQ on e i th e r s id e of
a
Q is out s id the curv e th e : e

form of proof is by r ed u ctio d bs u r d u m an d in e ch a a , a

c as it i again prov ed th t n o oth er s traight lin e c n f ll

e s a a a

b etw een TQ an d th curve Th fun dam n t l pr op erty e . e e a

TP TP P V VP fo th e c en tr a l c on ic is th en u e d to

: : r s

pr ove th at S V S T SP an d Qs S V VT = p P P (o .
2
. :

r

S D CP ) an d th e corr s p on d i n g pr op er ti s wit h r e fer en c e to

2
:
Z
e e

th e di m et e r DD conjug at to P P poin ts wh er e

a n d v t th e a , ,
e

DD i m et by th e ord i n t to it from Q an d by th e t n gen t

s a e a

at Q r es p e ctiv e ly P r op s I 3 7
( . .

Tr ans iti on to n ew di a meter a nd tan gen t at i ts extr e mi ty .

p rt n t e cti on of th e Book foll ow (I 4 1

A n im o a con
s s .

i ti ng of pr opo iti on s l e di n g up to wh t moun t s to a tr n s

s s s a a a a

form ti on of coordi n t es fr om th e orig i n al d i am et er and th e

a a

t n gen t at its e xtr emity to a n y di amet er an d the t ng n t at

a a e

i t e xtr em i ty ; wh at A p olloniu s prov e is of c ours e th at i f

s s ,

a n y oth e r di ame t e r b e t k en th e ordi n t e prop er ty of th e a , a -

con ic wi th r ef r en c e to th at di m t er i of th s m form as it
e a e s e a e

is with r efe r n c e to th e origi n l di ame te r

e It is e viden t th t a . a

thi s is vit l to th e exp os ition Th e prop os iti on s l di ng up to

a . ea

th e r es ult in I 5 0 a e n ot u s u lly giv en in ou t e xt b ook s of

. r a r -

geom tric l con ic s but e u s e ful an d i nte r es ting

e a ,
ar .

S upp o e th t th e t n g n t t n y p oi n t Q m ee t s th e di met er
s a a e a a a

of r e f er en c e P V i n T an d th at th e t n g n t t P m ee ts th e
'

,
a e a

di ameter thr ough Q in E Let R be an y third poi nt on .

th e curv e ; le t th e ordi n t R W to P V m et th e di met e r a e e a

through Qi n F an d let R U parall l to th e tang en t at Q meet

,
e

P V in U Th en .

( )
1 in th e p r ab ol th e tri n gl e R UW a= th e p arall e l ogr m a, a

E W, an d
 TH E SONI S S , B O OK I 1 43

(2 ) in hyp erbol a o ellip se A R UW the differenc e

th e r ,

b etw een th e tri angles S E W nd CP E a .

(1 ) I n the parabol a A R UW A QTV R W QV z

2
:
2

P Wz P V
D E Wz D E V .

B u t, i c
s n e TV 2P V ,
A QT V : D EV
'

th erefore A R UW D EW .

(2 ) pr oof of th e propos iti on wi th r efe ren ce to th e

Th e
cen tr al conic d e p ends on a L mm prov ed in I 4 1 to th e effect e a, .
,

th t if P X V Y be s i milar par ll logr ams on SP S V s b s es

a , , a e ,
a a ,

an d if VZ b e an e qui an gul r p r all el ogram on QV as b as e an d

a a

s uch th at if th e r ati o of S P to th e oth e r s id e of P X is m th e

, ,

rati o of QV to the othe r id of VZ is m p P P th n VZ is s e

,
e

e qu a l to th e di f
fer en c e b e tw een V Y an d P X The proof ofth e .

L mma by A polloniu s is d i fcult but the truth of i t c n be

e ,
a

eas ily s een thu s .

By th e prop erty of the curve QV C V SF

'
p PP ;
Z 2 Z
,
: 2

PP
th ere for e
p
N ow D P X p S P 2
m , wh e re u
,
is a cons tant d p n d in g e e

on th e an gle of th e pa rall e l ogra m .

S i mil rly
a
I

VZ QV / m
z
a nd D : .

It follow that s D VY ~ D P X D VZ .

Ta k i ng n ow th e tri angle d R U W in th e
s CE W, S P E an

e llips e or hyp e rb ol a, w e s ee th a t S E W S P E ar e s i m ila r a n d , ,

R UW h as one an gl e (at W) e qu a l or s uppl emen t ary to th e

an gle s at P a nd V in th e o ther tw o tri angl es while w h v e ,
e a

C V VT = s

QV "
: . P ,

Wh en ce QV : VT (s P )

an d , by par all els ,

R W: WU (s P

) (SP z P E ) .
1 44 A POLLO N I U S O F P ER GA

Th er efor e R UW, SP E , SE Wa r e th e h al v es p r ll l grams

of a a e o
rel ate d a s in the l emma ;
th er efore AR UW : A CFW ~ A SP E .

Th e prop erty with r ef ren c e to th e di ame ter second ar y

sam e e

to CP V i prov ed in I 4 5
s . .

It is i nte res ti ng to n ote th e e xact s ign ic n ce of th e prop erty a .

thu s prove d for the c entr al con ic The p opos itiom W t h is . r

th e fou n d ti on of A pollon iu s s meth od of tr an s for m ti on of

a a

coordin tes amou nts to thi s If CP S Q ar e x ed s emi

a , .
,

di ameters nd R a v riabl e poin tjth c are of th e qu drilat era l

a a a a

SER U is c on s t an t fo all p os iti ons of R on th e coni c S upp os e

r .

n ow th t SP a SQ tak en s x es of x n d y r es p ecti v ely

, ar e a a a .

If we draw R X paralle l to S Qto meet S P an d R Y p rall el to a

S P to m e t S Q th e pr op os it i on as sert s th at (s ubj e ct to th e
e ,

prop er con v enti on to sign) as

A R YE + D S XR Y + A R XU
Bu t s i n c e R X, R Y R E, R U ,
ar e in xe d dir ection s ,

A R YF v ari es as R Y2 or x
2
,
D S XR Y as RX R Y or xy,

an d A R XU as R X2 or y .

H en c e , if x , y ar e th e coordi n t es a of R ,

mu t
ter/ + 7 31 2 A ,

which i s th e C a rtes i
qu ati on of th e conic referr d to the
an e e

c en tre origi n an d
as n y tw o di met e rs ax es a as a .

Th e prop erti es s o obta in e d r e nex t u s ed to pr ov e th at a ,

if UR meet s th e curv e agai n in R and th e di amet er thr ough

Qin M th en R R is bi s ect ed at M (I 4 6

, . .

Tak i ng (1 ) th e c as e of th e p r ab ol a w h v e a , e a ,

A R UW D E W ,

A R UW D EW

: .

ubtr action (R WW R W

By s ,
D E ,

wh ence A R EM AR E

M ,

an d , i c
s n e tri gl the an R M es ar e s i mil ar R M ,

.

Th e ame r es ult is eas ily obt i ne d fo th e c en tr l conic

s a r a .

It follows th at E Q produc ed in the cas e of th e parabol a

,
 TH E co m es ,
BO O K I 1 45

or S Q in th e c
cen tral c on ic bi e cts all ch ord a s
as e of th e ,
s s

R R p ra ll el to th e t n g en t at Q C ons qu e n tly E Q a n d S Q

a a . e

are d i a m eter s of th e r es p e ctiv c on ic s e .

I n ord e r to r e fe r th e c on ic to th e n e w di m ter n d th e a e a

corr es pon di n g ordin at es w e h ave on ly to d ter min e th e pa ,

e r a

m ete of th ese ordin at e

r n d to s h ow th at th e pr op e rty of th e
s a

con ic wi th r efer en c e to th e n ew p r m et er n d diamete r is in a a a

th e s me f or m s th at origi n ally fou n d

a a .

Th e pr op os iti on s I 4 9 5 0 d o thi s nd how th t th e n ew

.
, , a s a

p arame t er is in all th c s es p wh er (if 0 is th e poi n t of e a

,
e

i n t ers ecti on of th e t ang en ts at P n d Q) a

(1 ) I n th e c as e of th e parabol a, we h ave TP PV EQ ,

wh en ce A E OQ A P OT .

A dd to ea ch th e gure P OQE W ;

th e refor e QT W E

D EW

AR U

W

wh n c e s ubtr cti n g M UW E
from both h ve

e ,
a , we a

ME

QU

AR D .

T he re for e R M ME

2 QT QM .

B ut R M ME

OQ QE p

: 2 QT , by hypoth esi s ;
th erefor e R M
2
: R M ME

p

QM : 2 QT QM . .

A nd R M ME

2 QT QM ,
from bove a

th er efor e
which is th e d es ire d pr op e rty .
1

r t t t
Th e p opos i i on h a , in th e as e of th e pa ab o a, i p b e th e pa c r l f r a

tr r
m e e of th e o d i n a es to th e d i ame e t
oug Q, h e n (s ee th e s g t r thr h t r t ur e

ou p 1 4 2
.

0 Q: QE = p : 2 QT

h as i nt eresti ng appl icati on for it enab l es us to prove th e proposition

an ,

as su m e d w ith out proof b y A rch i me d es (b t

u n ot cas y to prove oth e wme)
r ,

th at i f in a parabola th e d iameter through P bi sects th e chord 90 1 11 V ,

and QD is d rawn perpen d i cu l ar to P V th e

,
n ,

2
QV 2
QD p p
L
 TH E S ON I S S , B O O K I 1 47

It foll ow s th t a

QM (QH + MN ) QM (QT + M U) R M E M

ME
2

but from bove

, a , QM (QT + M U R M

ME ;

th er efor e R M2

QM (QH MN )

which d es ire d property

is th e .

I n th e c s e of th e hyp e rbol th e s am
a e prop e rty i s tru e for a,

th e opp os it br n ch e a .

Th s i m p ort n t pr op os iti on s s how that th e ord inat e prop e rty

e e a

of th e thr con ic s is of th s ame for m wh t e ver di m t r is

ee e a a e e

taken s th e d i met er of r e f r en ce It is th re fore m tt r

a a e . e a a e
of i n di f
fe r en c to which p rticul r di m et r n d ordi n t s th
e a a a e a a e
, e

conic is re ferr d Thi s is s t t ed by A pollon iu in s u mm ry

e .
a s a a

which follow s I 5 0 . .

Fi r s t appea r a n ce
f p r i n cipal
o a x es .

Th e a xes a pp e r
rs t time in th e prop os iti ons n ext
a for th e
followin g (I 5 2 wh er e A p ollon ius h ows h ow to cons truct
. s

ea ch of the comics gi v en in e ch c s e ( 1 ) a di mete r (2 ) th e

,
a a a ,

l ength of th e corres pon di n g p ar meter an d 3 ) th e i n clin ti on a , a

of th e ordi n t es to th diameter I n ach c se A pollon ius

a -

e . e a

r s t as s u m es th e ngl b etw een th ordi nate n d th e di me ter

a e e s a a

to b e r ighta n gl ; th en h e r e duc e th
a ca wh er e th e n gl
e s e se a e

is obliqu e to th e ca s e wh e r e it is right by h i m e th od of tran s s

formati on of coordin t es ; i e from th given di meter an d a . . e a

p r me t r h e n d s th e axis of th c on ic and the l ngth of the

a a e e e

corres p on di n g p r m t er an d h e th en con structs th e conic as

a a e ,

in th e r s t c as e wh e r e th e ordi n t s a e t right an gl es to th a e r a e

di met er H e r e th en w e h ve a cas e of th e proof of exi st n c

a . a e e

by mean s of con st u cti on Th e con ic is in e ch c s con r . a a e

s truct e d by n di n g th e c on of which th e giv en c on ic is e a

s cti on
e Th e pr obl e m of n di n g the axi s of
. p arab ola nd a a

th e c n tr e an d th e ax e s of a c en tr l c on ic wh en th e con ic (a nd
e a

n ot m e r e ly th e ele men ts s h e r e) is giv en c omes l a t e r (in II

Z , a .

44 wh e r e it i ls o prov d (II 4 8 ) that no c en tral con ic

s a e .

can h av e mor e th n tw o x es a a
1 48 A PO LLO N U S O F P ER GA I
I t h as b ee n
bj ec t by me ans of the bov d et il ed
my o ,
a e a

a ccoun t of Book I to s how n ot mer ely wha t r es ult s ,

ar e

obt i n ed by A p oll on iu
a bu t th e w y n which h e w en t to s, a i

work ; nd it will h ve b en r eali ed h ow n tire ly s ci en tic

a a e z e

a n d g n e r l th e m th od i
e a W h en th fou n d ati on is thu s l id
e s . e a ,

a n d th fun damen tal pr op erti s est abl i sh ed A pollon iu s i ble

e e ,
s a

to d e v el op th r e t of th s ubj e ct on li n e
e mor s i mil r to
s e s e a

th o e foll ow ed in ou t x t b ook s My d e s cript ion of th r es t

s r e -
. e

of th e w ork can th er e for fo th mos t p art b e c on ne d to a e r e

s u mmary of th e c on t e n t s .

Book II b egi n s with s e c ti on d e v ote d to th e prop e rti s of a e

th e s y mp tot es
a Th ey e c on truct e d in II
. 1 in thi s w ay ar s . .

B gi nn i n g
e u s u al with a n y di m t er of r efe r en ce n d the
,
as ,
a e a

c orr s p on di ng p r m t r n d i ncli n ti on of ordi n ates A p ol

e a a e e a a ,

l on iu s dr w s t P th v e rt x (th e xtr mi ty of th e di ame t er)

a a e e e e

a ta n g en t to th e hyp rb ol ts off long i t l ength s P L P L

nd e a a se a ,

on e i th er s i d e of P uch th t

p PP s a

wh r p is th e param t r H e th n proves th t CL CL p o
e e e e . e a ,

r

d u ce d will n ot m ee t th e curv e in any n it p oi n t an d e th e r e e ar

for as ymptotes II 2 prov s furth e r th t n o s tr aight li n

e . . e a e

through S withi n th e ngle be twe en th s ym pt otes c n i t elf a e a a s

b e an s y m pt ot e
a II 3 pr ov es th a t th i n t rc pt mad e by the
. . e e e

as ymptote on th e t ng en t t ny p oi nt P i bi ct e d at P and
s a a a s se ,

th t th e s qu r e on each h lf of th e i n tercept is e q u l to one

a a a a

fourth of th e gur c orr s pon d in g to th e di met r through

e e a e

P (i e on e fourth of th r e c tan gl c on t i n e d b y th e r ect

. .
-

e e a e

s id th e l tu s r ectu m o par met er corr s p on di n g to the

e, a r a e

di m et r an d th e di m t r i t lf); thi s prop rty is u d s

a e , a e e se e se a a

m an s of d r w i n g a hyp erb ol wh e n th e as y m pt ot es an d on e
e a a

poi n t on th e curv a given (II II 5 7 r prop o iti ons

e re . .
a e s

a bout a t n g n t at th e xtr emity of di am te r b ei ng p arall el

a e e a e

to th e ch ord s bi e ct e d by it A p oll on iu r turn s to th e

s . s e

as ym ptotes in II 8 nd II 8 1 4 giv th e oth r ordi n ry .

, a . e e a

prop rti e w i th r f ren c to th e sy mptot e s (II 9 is con

e s e e e a . a

v rs of II
e e th e qu ality of th in terc pt s b tw een th e
. e e e e

s y m ptot s n d the curv e of n

a e
y ch ord (II
a th e e qu ality of a .

th r ect ngl e con t ai n d by th e di s t an c es b e tw een ith e r p oi n t

e a e e

in which th e ch ord m eet s th e curve an d th e p oi n t s of i n t er

s e cti on with th e s y mpt ot es to th e s qu ar on th e p rall el
a e a

s e mi di am e t e r (II
-
th l att er prop e rty with r e fe r en c e to
. e
 TH E S ON I S S ,
B OO K II 1 49

th e p or ti on s of the as ym ptotes which i n clud e betw een th em

a br an ch of th e c onju gat e hyp rb ol a II th e c ons t an cy of
( e .

th e r e ct an gl e c ont ai n e d by th s traight li nes dr aw n from any e

p oi n t of th e cur ve in x e d dir ecti ons to meet the as ymptotes

(e quival en t to th e C art es i an e qu ati on with re fe ren c e to th e
as y m pt ot es x con s t ) (II an d th e fac t th t th e cu ve
y , . . a r

an d the as y m p tot es proc ee d to i n n ity and a pproach con

tin u ally n ear er to one an oth e r s o th at th e di s tan c e par ti n g ,

se a

them c n be made s mall er th an any gi v en l ength (II

a II 1 5 . .

proves th at th e two oppos it bran ch es of a hyp erbol a h v e th e e a

s am as y m pt ot es an d II 1 6 prov e s for the ch ord c onn e cti n g

e .

p oi nts on two br anch es th e prop erty ofII 8 II 1 7 s how s th at . . .

conj ugat e opp os it es (two c onjugate double br an ch hyp er

-

bol s ) h av e th e s ame as y mptot es P ropos iti ons follow ab out

a .

c onjug te hyperbol as ; an y tan gen t to th e conjug te hyp r

a a e

bol a will meet b oth bran ch es of th e origi nal h yp rbol a e

and will b e bis e ct e d at th e p oi n t of c on ta ct

(II if Q be .

an y p oi n t on a hyp e rb ol n d S E p ar all e l to th tan g n t a, a e e

a t Q meet s th e c onjug t hyp e rb ol a in E th e t an gen t at a e ,

E will be p ar all el to C Q n d S Q CE will b e c onjugate a ,

di met r s (II
a e W hil e th t n g en t s at Q E will mee t on one
. e a ,

of th e as y m pt ot es (II if a ch ord Qq in one br an ch of

.

a hyp e rb ol a mee t th e as y m pt ot es in R r and th e c onjug at e ,

hyp erbol in Q q t hen QQ Qq 2 SB (II

a

,

,
O f th e

.
Z
.

res t of th e propos iti ons in thi s p art of the Book th e follow in g

m y b e m en ti on e d if TQ TQ a e two tangent s to a con ic

a : ,
r

an d V i s th e m iddl e p oi n t of Q Q TV is a di am t er (II 2 9

,
e .
,

30 ,
if tQ tQ be t ang en ts to opposit e bran ch es of a hyp r
,

e

b ol R R the ch ord thr ough t p ar ll el to QQ v th m i ddl e

a,

a

,
e

p oi n t of QQ th en vR vR a e t ang ents to th e hyp erbol a

, ,

r

( II . in a c on ic or a circl e o in c onjugat e h y p e rb ol s if
, ,
r a ,

tw o ch ord s n ot p as s i n g thr ough th e c en tr e i n t er se ct th ey d o n ot ,

bis ect ch oth er (II 2 6 4 1

ea 1 1 4 4 7 s h ow h ow to nd
. , ,
.
-

a diam e t e r of a c on ic an d th e c en tre of a c e n tr al c on ic th e ,

a xi s of a p a r ab ol a and th e a x es of a c en tral c onic Th e B ook .

con cludes with problems of d r wi ng tangents to con ics in a

c ertain w ays th rough any p oin t on or ou ts ide th e cur v e

,

( II . m aki n g wi th th e axi s an an gl e e qu al to a giv en acut e

angl e (II .maki ng a gi ven an gle with the di amet e r through

th e p oi n t of c ontac t (II 5 1 5 3 ) II 5 2 c on t ai n s a .
for ,
.
1 52 A PO LLO N U S I O F PER GA

A ddi n g th e qu adr i l t r l h v

a e a C E H T we ,
a e

AH E Q
an d s i mi l arly

By s ubtr cti on a

E H HE

H TU R

H TUR :

A dd i ng H I R H to

ea ch s id e , we h av e
I UU R

E IRE .

If ea ch of th es e qu dr i l t er l
a a a s is s ubtr cted from a IJ ,

J U UR

EJR E .

Th e corr pond i n g r es ult a pr ove d in III 5 1 1 1 2 1 4

es s re .
, , ,

fo th c s wh er e th ord i n t s thr ough R R dr w n to

r e a e e a e ar e a

a econd a r y d i am t r an d in III 1 5 fo th
s c s e wh er e P Q
e e ,
. r e a ,

on th e or i g i n l hyp rb ol a R on th e c onj ug t

ar e nd R a e a ,
a e

hyp rbol e a .

Th i mp ort n c e of th es e prop o i t i ons l i es in th f ct th t

e a s e a a

th y a e i mm ed i t ly u s d to prov th e w ll k n ow n th or ms
e r a e e e e -
e e

about th r ect n gl e c ont i ned by th e egm en ts of i nte rs ect in g

e a s a s

ch ord n d th h r mon i c prop ert i s of th e p ole an d p ol r

s a e a e a .

Th for m er qu s t i on is d e lt w i th in III 1 6 2 3 which g i v e

e e a .

,

a gr t v ri ty of p rticul r c e W will giv e th e pr oof

ea a e a a as s . e

of on c to th e effe ct th at i f OP OQ b
e as e , tw o t n g en t s , ,
e a

to an y c on i c nd R r
y tw o ch ord s p rall l to

R be n a , r a a e

them r es pectiv ly nd i nt r secti ng in J n i n tern l o xt rn l

e a e ,
a a r e e a

p oi n t ,

R J Jr . : R J Jr . OP 2 OQ2

We h ave
R J Jr = R . W 2 ~ J W2 ,
an d R W 2
: JW 2
AR U W: A J U

W;
th re for e
e

R J Jr . : R W 2
= (R W2 ~ J W2
) : R W 2
J U UR

A R UW .

R W2 : OP 2 = A R UW : A OP T ;

th r f r
e e o e, ex ae u a li ,
q R J Jr OP 2
J U UR

A OP T .
 TH E co m es ,
B OO K 111 1 53

S i m il arly R M
2
JM
z
AR

FM
A JEM

,

wh c en e R J Jr

. E M
2
FJR F
:

R M oe FM
'
Bu t
2 2
A OQE ;

AR

th r e ef r
o e , ex a e u a
q l i , R J Jr

.

: oe z
FJR F

A OQE .

It follow s s i nce , EJR E

J U UR

,
an d A OP T A OQE ,

R J Jr 2
. : OP 2
R J Jr . : OQ ,

OP OQ2
2
Jr .

If t aken ch ord s R
w e h ad r R

r p arallel r es p ectiv ly to
l

e

O Q OP an d in t ers e cti ng in I
, , an i n tern al o ex tern l p oi n t r a ,

w e s h ould h ave in lik e m nn e r a

2
RI OQ OP
2
. Ir l
: R I . I r l .

As p a rticular c ase if P P b e a di ameter and R R b e

a ,

,
r ,

r

chord s p arall el res p ectiv ly to the tang ent at P n d th e e a

diam et r P P and i nt er s ecti ng in I th en (as is s p ar t ly

e

, e a e

pr ov d ) e

Th e co r e p on ding res ults

r s pr ove d in the c as es wh r ce rtain ar e e e

of th p oi n t s lie on th e c onjug t e hyp erb ol a

e a .

Th e s ix followi n g pr opos iti ons b out th e segments of i n t e r a

s ectin g ch ord s (III 2 4 9 ) r e fe r to tw o ch ord s in conjug t e

.
a

hype rbolas or in an e lli p se dr wn p rall el r es pe cti v ly to two a a e

c onj u gat e di ame ters P P DD nd th e r es ult s in mod rn form

,

,
a e

a e p e rh ap s w orth qu oti n g If R r R r be tw o ch ord s o

r .
,
s

draw n and i n ters ecti ng in 0 th en ,

(a ) in th e c onj ugat e hyp erbolas

R0 . 0r R 0

. 0r

(R 0
2
Or 2
) (R

O 2
Or
2

) CP 2
CD2

(b) in th e e llip se
2
Or

R0 2
Or 2
R O 2

2
CP 2 00
 TH E S ON I S S , BO O K III 1 55

To pr ove (1 ) we h av e
I R =H Q : QE = A H
2 2 2
R I 2
H TUR

z E Q: A H EQ :

(III . 2, 3 ,

A l so R T = A R UW,
2 2
TE R U : UR 2
2
:

an d E T
2
: TR = '
1 s2
N 7 2
A TI I
-

W
A TH W ,

th at W A TH W ~ A R U W

R T 2 2
TR

so : A TH

R I
2
IR2 ,
fr om ab ov e .

To prove (2 ) w e h av e
A R UW:
2 2
R V VR RU 2
R U
2
: :

an d a sol
2 2
HQ : QH A H EQz A H E

Q
so th at
RV 2
: VR
2
H TUR AR U

W

A TH W: A TH W

TWZ z TW
'

2
R0 OR
2
: .

P rop s . III
p r t ly with the p artic ul r cas e
. 3 0 6 de l a se a a e a s

in whi ch (a ) the tr an s v e r l is p r alle l to an as ymptote of th sa a e

hyp erbola or (b) th e ch ord of con tact is p arallel to an as y mp

tote i e where one of th e t n gen ts is an as ymptote which is
, . . a ,

th e t an gen t at i nni ty .

N e x t w e h av e prop os i ti on s b out i n t erc ept s mad e by tw o a

t ngen t s on a thi rd
a If th e t n gen t s at thr ee p oi nt s of a : a

para bol a form a triangl e all thr e t ng en ts will be cut by th e , e a

poin ts of con tact in th e s me pr op orti on (III if th t n a . e a

g en ts at the ex tr emiti es of a di amet er P P of a central c onic

e cut in r r by any oth er t n gen t P r P r S B (III 4 2 )

2
ar , a ,
.

if the t angen t s at P Qto a h y pe rbola meet the asym p totes in ,

Wh r qu d ril t r l
e e a. H T UR i th gur a cro qu d ri
a e a , as n e e, 1 8 a ss a

l t r l th r i of cour th d iff r c b tw th two tri gl

a e a , e a ea s se e e en e e een e an es

whi ch i t form H T W ~ R UW s , as
1 56 A P OLLO N I US O F PER GA

L L ,

an d M M ,

res p ecti vely th en ,
L M LM

,

ar e both par lle l a

to P Q (III .

Th e r s t of th es e prop os iti on s ass e rt s tha t if the ta ng en t s a t ,

three poin ts P Q R ofa parabol form a tri angl e pqr then

, ,
a ,

Pr z r q e Qp qp : pR .

Fr om thi s prop erty it i s e y to deduc e the C artes i n as a

e qu t i on o
af a p a r a b ol a r e f e rr e d to tw o x e d t an g en t s s a

c oord i n te axes Taki ng qR qP s x ed c oordinat e ax es w

a . ,
a ,
e

n d th e l ocu s of Q thu s Let x y b th e c oordi na t es of Q . ,

e .

Th en i f qp x ,q y q R h qP o w e h av e
t l ,
r
1 , , ,

x Q 7
'

y]
"

y k

bl
_

ml w Qp y 311
From th ese e quati ons w e d ri ve e

x
l
2
hx y1 ,
2
Icy ;

x
l
a s o, s1 nce
x1
we h ve
a l
x 27 1 l h

By s ub stituti ng for xl , y1 th e v lu es
a x / (ky)
o bt a n i

foc al p ope t of c en tr l con ics a e pr ov e d in

The r r 1 es a r

III 4 5 5 2 without any referen c to th e dir ectrix ; ther e i

.
e s

n o m e n ti on of th e focu of p r bol Th e foci r e c lle d s a a a a . a a

th e p oi n t s a ri s i ng ou t of th pplication ( d x s p

e a r e r r a a

ng f ) th e m e n i n g b ei n g tha t S S ar e ta k e n

Boh s y w p ev a e e a ,
a ,

on th e axi s A A s uch th at A S S A

%p A A .

a
.

o r SE tha t is in th phr s ology of a pplic ati on of re s

2
, ,
e a e a a ,

a r e ct angl e is appli e d to A A s b as e e qu al to on e fourth

a -

p rt of the gur e an d in the c s e of the hyperbola x

a

,
a e

ce ed in
g but in th e c as e of th e llip s e falli n g s h ort by a
,
e ,

s qu r e gur e
a Th e foci b ei n g thu s fou n d it i s prov e d th t
.
, a ,

i f th e t angent s A r A r at th e e xtr emiti e s of th e ax i s a e m et ,

r

by th e tang ent at any p oin t P in r es p ecti v ely r r s ubt en ds r ,

r

,

a r i ght angl e at S S nd th e angles r r S A r S ar e e qu l s ,

, a

,

a , a

a sl o a e th e angles r r S A r S (III 4 5
r It is n ex t hown
,
.
, s

th at if 0 b e the in terse cti on o f r S r S then OP is pe pen

,

,

, r

d icu lar to th e tangen t at P (III Th es e propos iti on s ar e .

 TH E S ON I S S , B O O K III 1 57

u s ed to prov e th at th e foca l di s tan c es of P mak e e qu l angl s a e

with th e tangen t at P (III I n III 4 9 5 2 follow th e . .

oth e r ordi n ry pr op e r ti es th t if S Y be p e rp en dicul ar to

a , a ,

th e t ang en t at P th e l ocu s of Y is th e circl e on A A s ,

a

di amet er th t th e li n es from S dr w n p rallel to th foc l

,
a a a e a

di s tan ces to me t th e t ngen t a t P a e e qu al to S A and th t e a r , a

th e s u m o differ en c e of th e f oca l di s tan c es of ny p oi n t is

r a

e qu al to A A

.

Th e l as t pr op os iti on of B ook III a e of u s e with r e fer en ce s r

to th e l ocu s with r e p e c t to thre or f our li n e s Th e y e s s e . ar a

foll ow s .

1 If P P b e di met er of a c en tr l c on ic nd if P Q P Q

. a a a , a ,

d r w n to n y oth e r poi n t Q of th c on ic m ee t th t n g n t s t
a a e e a e a

P P in R R r p e ctiv ely th en P R P R z 4 CD (III

2
, , es ,
.

2 If TQ TQ b e tw o t angen t s to a c on ic V th e m iddl p oi n t

, , e

th e p oi n t of c on ta ct of th e tang en t p rall el to QQ

O f QQ P

, a

an d R n
y oth r p oi n t on th e c on ic l et Qr p r ll el to TQ
a e ,
a a

m ee t QR in p ra llel to TQ me et QR in th en

nd Q r , a r a r

PT ?
(TQ TQ :
Z
(P V V
Q ) (1 1 1
2 2
Q Q r r : QQ ) . . 5 4,

3 If th e t n gents a e tan g n ts to opp os it br n ch s of

. a r e e a e a

hyp erb ol an d me t in t n d if R a a e t ak e n a be for e e ,

a ,
r ,
r

r s ,

while tq is h alf the ch ord thr ough t p r llel to QQ th en a a

(III
'

Q Q r r : QQ tQ tQ : tq2 . .

con d of the e pr opos i ti on s leads t once to the three

The se s a

li ne l ocus an d from thi s w e s ily obt in th e C rtes i n

,
ea a a a

e quati on to a con ic with re fe ren c to tw o x e d tangen t e s as

axes wh e re th e l en gth s of th e t an g en t s a e h k
,
i r , , v z .

Book I V is wh ole dull an d n d not b e n otic ed t on th e ,

ee a

length Pr op 1 2 3 prove th con ve r s e of th pr opo iti on s in

. s .
e e s

B ook III ab out th h r m oni c prop erti s of th e p ol e and p ol r e a e a

fo larg e n u m ber of p rticul a r cas s One of th e pr op os i

r a a e .

ti on s (I V 9 ) giv es a m th od of dr wi n g tw o tangen ts to
. e a

a c on ic fr om an x t rn l p oi n t T Dr aw ny tw o tr ight e e a . a s a

li n s through T cutti n g th con ic in Q Q nd in R R espec

e e ,

a ,

r
 TH E S ON I S S , B OO K S I V V 1 59

mos t remark abl e of th e ext n t Book s It deals with n ormals a .

to c on ic s r eg ar d e d as m a xi m u m an d mi n i mu m tra ight li n es s

draw n from p rticular poi n t to th e cu rve I ncluded in it a e

a s . r

a s eri es of pr op os it i on s whi ch th ough w orke d ou t by th e ,

pur es t geome tric l me th ods ctu ally lead immedi tely to th e

a ,
a a

determin ti on of th e e volute of ach of th e thr ee c on ic s th at

a e

is to ay th e C rt es i an e qu ati on s to th e ev olut es can be eas ily

s , a

de duced fr om the r e ults obt i n d by A polloniu s Ther e c n s a e . a

b e n o d oubt th t th e B ook i al most wh olly origi n l an d it is

a s a ,

a v e rit abl g eom etric l tou r d e for ce

e a .

A p oll on iu s in thi s B ook c on s id r s v ri ou p oi n ts an d cla ses e a s s

of p oi n t s with r e f er en c e to th e m xi m u m o m i ni mu m tr aight a r s

lin s which it is p o ible to draw from th m to th e conics

e ss e ,

i e s th feet of n or mal to th curve H b gi n n tur lly

. . a e s e . e e s a a

with p oi n t s on th e a xi s n d h t k e r t th e poi n t E wh ere ,

a e a s s

A E m s ur d lon g the x i from th e v rte x A is p p b ei n g

ea e a a s e ,

th pri n cip a l p ar am ete r

e Th e r s t thr e prop os iti ons prov e
. e

g en r lly n d fo ce rt i n p rticul r c ses that if in an ell i p se

e a a r a a a a ,

or a hype rb ol A M be dr wn t r i ght ngl to A A and e qu l

a a a a es

a

to p an d if CM m ee t th e o d in ate P N of any p oi n t P of th e
,
r

curve in H th n P N 2 (qu adr i l t er l M A N H ); thi s i a

, e
2
a a s

l emma u s d in th e proofs of l ter prop o iti on s V 5 6 &c

e a s , .
, , .

N ext in V 4 5 6 h e pr ov es th t if A E
, .
, , ,
then A E i th a ,
s e

mi n i m wm s tr ight li n e fr om E to th e curv e an d if P b e an y
f
a ,

othe r p oi n t on it P E i n cr ses s P m ov e
,
farth er w ay from ea a s a

A on e ith r s id e h e pr ov e s in f ct th at if P N be th e ordin t
e a ,
a e

fr om P ,

( )
1 in th e c se of th e p a r ab ola P E A E + A N a
2 2 2
,

2 ) in th e c as e of the hyp rb ol a or ellip se e

AA i p
PE 2 A E2 + A N 2
AA

wh er e of cour s e p an d th e r e for e (A A + p) A A

is e quiv l en t to wh t w e c all e th e qu r e of th e e cc en tricity

a a
2
,
s a .

It is al o pr ov ed th at E A is the maximu m s traight li n e from

s

E to th e curv It i s next prove d th at if 0 b e n y p oi n t on

e .
,
a

th e xi s b etw een A an d E OA is th e m i ni mu m tr aight li n e

a ,
s

from O to th e curve an d if P i ny oth e r poi n t on the curve ,

s a ,

OP i n cre a es P mov es f rth er fr om A (V

s as a .
1 60 I
A PO LLO N U S O F PER GA

N ext A p oll on iu s tak es p oi n ts

xi s at di s t n ce G on th e a a a

from A gr ter th an ea an d h pr ov es that the mi n i mu m e

s tr ight li n e fr om G to the curv

a (i e th e n or mal ) i GP e . .
s

wher e P is s uch a poi n t th t a

(l ) in th case of th e par bol N G

e a a

( 2 ) i n th e c se of th e c e n tral c on i c N G S N p fl ;
a t
'

an d if P is n y oth e r poi n t on th e conic P G i n cr ases a P

a e s
, ,

mov es way from P on eith e r s id ; thi s is prov ed by s how

a e

ing th t a

( 1 ) fo th e parabol a P G P G + NN ;
2 2 2
r

for th e c entral con ic P G2

P G2 NN 2

As th propos ition s con tai n th e fun damen tal prop rti es of

es e e

th e s ubn ormal s it is w orth whil to re produc e A pollon iu s s

,
e

proofs .

I n th e p arab ol a if G b e n y p oi n t on th e axi s s uch th a t

( )
1 ,
a

p me as ur e GN t ow ard s A e qu al to p
.

AG , L t P N be . e

the ord ina t e thr ough N P n y ot h er p oi n t on th e curv e

, a .

Th en s h ll P G be th e mi n i m u m li n e fr om G to th e curv e &c
a , .
 TH E S ONI S S , B OO K V 161

We hav e
an d

a ccordin g to the p osition of N

.

Th e r e for Z NS A N + NG NN
2 2
P G e

2
+ NN
2
PN + N G2

an d th e prop os iti on is pr ove d .

(2 ) I n th e cas e of th e c en tr l c onic tak a ,

e G . on xi s s uch
th e a

th at AG %p , an d m e s ur e GN tow rd s
a a A s uch th t a

Draw the rdi n t e P N through N nd l o the ordi n t e P N

o a ,
a a s a

from any oth er poin t P

.

W h ve rs t to prov e th e l mm (V 1 2 3 ) th at if A M b
e a , e a .
, , ,
e

draw n p erpendicular to A A n d equ al to p an d if S M

a , ,

produc d i f n e c es s ry m e t P N in H th en

e a , e ,

PN 2 (qu adril at e r al M A N H 2

Thi s is eas y fo if A L 2 A M ) b e th p ar m t e r

,
r ,
nd A L e a e , a

m et P N in R th n by th e pr op rty of th e curv
e ,
e ,
e e,

2 (qu a dril at era l M A NH

Let S H pr oduc e d if n e c es sary m eet P N in H From H

, ,

dr aw H I p erp en dicul ar to P H
.

Now ,
i c by hypoth es i s
s n e, ,
N G ON p:AA

A lli : A C

H N : NS .

NH NG ,
wh en ce als o H N

N G

.

T h er efore NG 2
2A H NG N G ,
2
2AH

N G

.

PN2 2 (MA N H );
th er efor e PG 2
N G2 PN2 2 (A M H G) .

M
 TH E co m es ,
BO O K V 1 63

if P be any oth er poi n t on it P g d i mi n i s h es

,

as P

mov es
farth e r from P on eith er s id e to B o B an d r

,

,
CA 2 _
03 2

P 92 4 2
M

If O be y o n on P g
an p i t produc d b eyon d the minor xi s P O e a ,

is th e m a x i mu m s a tr ight li n e fr om O to the s m e part of th e a

e llips e for which P g is a m ximum i e th e semi ellip s e B P B a , . .

-

,

&c .
(V . 20
it is prove d th at if g is on th e m i n or xi s nd gP
In V 23 .
, a ,
a

m ax i m u m s traight li n e to th curv n d if P g m ee t s A A

a e e, a

in G th en S P is th e m i n i mu m s tr ight li n e fr om S to th e
, a

curv e ; thi s is prov ed by i m ilar tri an gl es On ly on normal s . e

c n b
a dr w n from ny on e p oi n t on a con i c (V
e a Th e a .

n or m l at n
y p oi n t P of a c on ic wh th e r r g rd e d s
a a , e e a a a

m i n i mu m tr ight li n from G on th e m j or xi s or (in th e

s a e a a

c s e of th e llip se)
a m x i m u m s traight li n e from g on th e
e as a a

m i n or xi s is p erp n d icul r to th e t n g en t at P (V 2 7 3 0 )
a , e a a .

i gen r l (1 ) if 0 b e an y p oi n t withi n con i c an d OP b

'

h e a a e

m axi m u m o a m n m u m s tr ight li n fromO to th c on ic

,

a r i i a e e ,

th tr ight li n through P p erp n dicul r to P O touch th

e s a e e a es e

coni c n d 2 ) if 0 b any p oi n t on OP produc d out s id th

,
a

e e e e

conic O P i th e m in i mu m s tra i ght li n e from O to th e con ic

,

s

,

&c .
(V . 31

N u m ber o f n or m als fr om a
p oi n t .

We come to pr opo iti on s about tw o o mor e norm l

n ow s r a s

m eetin g t p oi n t If th n ormal at P me t th xi s of
a a . e e e a

a p r b ola o th e axi s A A of hyp rbola o llips in G the

a a r

a e r e e ,

an gl e P S A i n cr e es s P o S mov s f rth e r a w ay from A

as a r e a ,

but in th e c s e of th e hyp erb ol th e angle will lw ays b les s

a a a e

th n th e com pl em n t of h alf th e angle betw een th y mptotes

a e e as .

Tw o n or ma l s at p oi n t s on th e s am e s id e of A A will m ee t on

th opp os it e s id e of th t ax i s ; n d two n or ma l s at p oi n t s on
e a a

th e s me qu a dran t of n ellip s e s A B will meet t a p oi n t

a a a a

within the angl e A S B (V 3 5 I n a p r ab ol a o an

. a r

ellip se n y n or m al P C will m e t th e cur ve ag i n ; in th e

a e a

hyp erbola (1 ) if A A be n ot greater th n p n o nor m l can

,

a , a

meet th e curv e at a s e con d p oi n t on th e sam e br an ch bu t ,

M 2
164 A P O LLON IU S OF P ER GA

(2 ) if A A p s ome n ormal s will meet th e same br n ch ag in

,
a a

n d oth er s n ot V 4 1
a
( .

If P S P S be norm l at p oin ts on on s i d of th e xi s of
1 1 , 2 2
a s e e a

a conic meet i n g in O n d if O b j oin ed to ny oth r p oin t P , a e a e

on th c on i c (it b ein g furth er s upp os d in th e cas of th e

e e e

e ll i p s e th at ll thr ee li n es S P OP OP cut th e s me h alf of

a a
l , 2 ,

th e ax i s ) th en ,

(1 ) OP c nn ot b e n or m l to th e curv e ;
a a a .

(2 ) if OP m et th xi in K an d P G be th n or mal t P A G
e e a s ,
e a ,

is l o gr e t r th n A K a cc ord i n g s P d oes o d oes n ot lie

ess r a e a a r

b tw een P n d P
e
I
a
2
.

From thi s pr op os i t i on i t is prov e d th t (1 ) thr e n or m l s at a e a

poi nt on on e qu dr n t of n ell i p se cannot meet at on poi n t

s a a a e ,

an d (2 ) f our n ormal at p oi n t on on m i ell i p se b ou n d e d by s s e se -

th m j or xi s c nn ot m eet t on p oi n t (V 4 4
e a a a a e .

I n ny c onic if M b
a n
y p oi n t on th e xi s uch th t A M
,
e a a s a

i not gr t e r th n % p n d if O b e n y p oi n t on th e d oubl
s ea a ,
a a e

ord i n t thr ough M th n n o tra i ght li n e dr w n to an y p oi n t

a e , e s a

on th e curv on th oth r i d of th e e x i fr om O an d m ti ng e e s e a s ee

the xi b e tw n A an d M c n b a n or mal (V 4 9
a s ee a e .
,

P r opos i ti on s lea d i n g i m m ed i a tely to the dr ter m i n a ti on

of the e o e of a on ic v lut c .

h e e gr at prop o i ti on s a e V 5 1 5 2 to th e foll owi ng

T s e s r .
, ,

eff ct e
:

If A M meas ur d lon g th xi b gr e t er th n p (but in e a e a s e a a

th c e of th e e ll i p
ase l s th n A S ) n d if M O b e dr w n pe se es a ,
a a r

p n di u l
e to th e x i s th e n
c ar c rtai n l en gth (y s y ) n b a , a e ,
a ca e

ass ign d uch th t e s a

( ) i f OM > y n o n or mal c n b e dr wn through 0 which cut

a , a a s

th e x i s ; but if OP be n y tr ight l i n e draw n to th curve

a , a s a e

cutti n g th xi in K N K N S whe re P N is the ordi n t

e a s , , a e

an d P S th n or mal tP ; e a

(b) if OM y on ly one n or mal c n b o dr w n thr ough O

, a e s a ,

n d i f OP be an
a , y oth r s tra i ght l i n e dr w n to th e curv e an d e a

cutti ng the xi in K N K N G a b efore a s , , s

(c) if OM y tw o n or m al s n b e o dr aw n thr ough O

, n d if ca s
,
a ,

OP be ny oth e r s traight l i n e dra w n to the curv e N K is

a
,
 TH E ,
S ON I SS ,
B OO K V 1 65

gr e t e r o less th n N G accordi ng a OP is or is not i nter

a r a s

me diate b etw ee n th e tw o n ormal (V 5 1 s .

,

Th e pr oofs a e of cour se l on g and c om plic at e d

r Th e len gth .

y is d et e r mi n e d in thi w ay s :

(1 ) I n the case of th e par b ola me s ure MH t ow ard s th a ,

a e

v ertex e qu al to &p nd d i vide A H atN s o th at H N 2N A

, a
1 l 1
.

Th e l en gth y i s th en t ak en s uch th at

y z p l Nl N l z M ,

wh ere P N I
rdin t p as s ing thr ough N
1
is th e o a e
1

(2 ) I n th e c ase of th e hyp e rb ol an d ellip e we hav e a s ,

A NI > p s o th at S A A M A A p th e r efore if H b e tak n

-

, :

,
e

on A M s uch th t SH H IlI A A p H will fall b tw en A

a ,
e e

an d M .

ke two mean proporti on al S N SI be tw een

Ta s
1 ,
SA an d CH ,

an d le t P N b th e ordi n a t e thr ough N

I 1
e
1
.

Th e le n g th y is th e n t ak en s uch th t a

y : P I IV1 (S M : MH ) (H IV1 Nl S) .

I n th e c as e (b), wh er e OM y 0 is th e p oi n t of i n te r s e cti on ,

of c on s e c utive normals i e O is th e cen tre of curva ture a t th e , . .

poin t P ; an d by c ons iderin g th e c oordi nat es ofO w i th re feren c e

,

c rdi nate ax es w c n der i ve th C rtes i n qu ti on

to tw o oo ,
e a e a a e a s

of th e e v olut es E g (l ) in th c of th e p r bol a l et th e
. . . e as e a a

coordi n ate ax e b e the axi and th e t angen t t the v er tex

s s a .

Th n A M
e x OM y Let p
z : 4 ; th e n ,
. a

HM A Nl Za
: 2 a, N I H :
%( x 2a ) ,
an d z
(
x
) -
.

y
2
: P 1 N1 2 NI H Z : E M 2 , by hypoth es i s ,

y
2
z 4a . A N1 N1 H 2
: 4a ; 2

th er efor e a
y
2
A NI N1 H 2
,

x 2a
3
( )
4
,

(
2 3
2 7 ay 4 x 2 a) .

(2 ) case of th e hyperbola or ellip s e we n atur lly t ke

I n the a a

CA CB,
x es of x an d y The w ork is h ere r athe r more
as a .

complic te d bu t the re i n o di fculty in obtai ning as the

a ,
s ,

l ocus of O the curve ,

i b g b 2
( )
2
t 0 ( y) (
a i )
 TH E S ON I SS , B OO K S V , V I 1 67

tiv el y with the con ics give th e points at which the normals
pass i n g thr ough 0 ar e norm al s .

P ppu s critici z es the u e of th e r e ctan gular hyp erbola in

a s

th e cas e of th e par ab ola s n unn e c e s sa ry re sort to a s olid

a a

locu s ; the meani n g ev idently is that th e same poi nt s of

'

i nters e cti on can b e got by mean s of a certain circle t aki n g

the pl a c e of th e r e ct angul ar h yp e rb ol a We can in fa ct from .
, ,

th e e qu ati on (1 ) ab ov e c ombi n e d with y px obtai n th e

2
,

circle
2 2
( +y )
w -

p)w
% yl y 0~

Th e Boo k concludes with oth e r prop os iti ons about maxi ma

an d mi n i m a . I n p a rticula r V compare the lengths of.

tan gen ts TQ TQ where Q is n ea re r to the axi s th an Q

,

,

.

V 7 2 7 4 compar e th e l e n gth s of two nor mal s from a p oin t

.
,

0 fr om which on ly two c n b e dra w n and th e l en gth s of oth e r

a

s tr ight li n es from O to th e cu v e ;
a V 7 5 7 c omp ar e th e r .

len gth s of thr ee normal to n e llips e drawn from a poi n t

s a

0 b el ow th e m aj or axi s in r el t i on to th e l en g th s of oth r
,
a e

s tr i ght li n es fr om O to th e curv e
a .

Book V I is of much l e s i n t e res t Th e r s t p art (V I 1 2 7 )

s . .
-

r el tes to e qual (1 e con gru n t) o s i milar conic s and s eg men t

a . . e r s

of c on ic s ; it is natur ally pr e c e d d by s ome d en iti on s in clud e

in g th ose of e qu al an d s m ila as a ppli e d to c oni c s

nd

1 r a

s e gme n ts of c oni c s C oni cs a . sa i d to b e s i milar if th e s m e

r e , a

n um be r of ordi nate s b e i n g dr w n to th e ax i s at prop orti on l

a a

di s tances fr om th e v ertic s all th ordinates ar e r es pectiv ely

e ,
e

proporti onal to th e cor res p on din g b s ci ssae Th e deni ti on of a .

sim il ar s egmen t s is th e s m with di ameter s ubs titute d fo

a e r

axi s an d with th e
,
add i t i on l c on diti on th at th e ngles
a a

betw een the b ase and di am et r in each ar e e qual Two e .

par bol as ar e equal if th e ordin at es to a di amet er in each e

a ar

i ncline d to the r es p ective di m et rs at equ al angles an d tha e e

corr es pon din g paramet er s a qu al ; two ellip ses or hyp r

r e e e

bol s ar e equal i f th e ordi n t es to a diameter in each a

a a re

e qu lly i n clin e d to th e r es p e ctiv e di me t e r s an d th e di ame t e r s

a a

as w ell as th e c orr es p on din g p ar am et er s ar e e qu al (V I 1 . .

H yperb olas or e llips es e s i m il a r wh en th e

ar gure on a

di met er of one is s imilar (ins t d of e qu al ) to the gure on

a ea

a diam et e r of th e oth e r n d th e ordi na t e s to th e di ame t e r

,
a in s
1 68 A POLLON U S I O F P ER GA

ea ch mak e e qu l
gl es w i th th m ; ll p r abol as a e i mil r
a an e a a r s a

(VI 1 1 . N o c on ic of on of th e thr ee k i n d s (para

,
e

b olas hyp rb ol s o ellip s) can be e qu l o s imil r to a conic

,
e a r se a r a

of e i th er of the oth r tw o ki n d Let QP Q

(V I 3 1 4 e s .
, , ,

gp g be tw o s eg m n t of s i mil r c on ic s in wh i ch QQ qq r e

e s a ,
a

th e b ases and P V pv a e th e d i m e t er s bi se cti n g th em th en

,
r a ,

if P T pt b e th e tang n t t P p an d mee t th ax es at T t t
,
e s a ,
e ,
a

e qu al n gl es n d if P V P T
a
pv pt th e s gm ent s
,
a e s i m il r ,
e ar a

a n d s i m il rly itu ated an d con v rs ely (VI 1 7

a s If tw o ,
e .
,

ord i n t s be dr w n to th e x es oftw o p ar abol as o th e m j or o

a e a a ,
r a r

c onjug te x of tw o s i mi l r cen tr al con ics s P N P N nd

a a es a ,
a ,

a

p n p n r e p ct i v ely s uch th t th r at i os A N a n n d A N a n

, s e ,
a e : a :

ar e e ch e qu al to th
a r ti o of th r e p ctiv l te a cta the e a e s e e a r r e ,

seg m n t P P
pp will b e s i m il r ; al o P P will n ot be s i mil r

e s ,
a s a

to n y eg m en t in th e oth er c on i c cut off by tw o ordi n at es

a s

other th an pn p n n d c on v e r s ly (V I 2 1 If any c on e

, , a e .
,

be cut by tw o p arall l pl n es maki n g hyp erb olic o ell i pt i c e a r

se cti on th s cti on s w i ll be i m i l r but n ot e qu al (V I 2 6

s, e e s a .
,

Th e r em i n d er of th e Book c on s i t of pr obl em of con

a s s s

s truct i on ; w e a how n h ow in giv n r i ght c on e to n d re s a e

a par bol i c hyperb ol i c o llipt i c cti on qu l to a given

a ,
r e se e a

p r b ol hyp rbol o ll i p
a a a, ubj ect in th c e of th a r e s e, s e as e e

hyp rb ol to c rt in S p l bs o c on d i ti on of pos ibi l i ty

e a a e a ta le a
-
:
r s

(V I 2 8 . l o h ow to n d right con i mil r to g i v n

a s a e s a a e

con and con t i n i ng g i v n p r b ola hyp rb ol o llips e

e a a e a a , e a r e as

a s e ct i on of it ubj ct g in in th e c s of th hyp rbola to

,
s e a a a e e e

a c rt in e a(VI 3 1 Th s pr obl ems r e c ll th . e e a e

s ome wh t i m i l r pr obl em in I 5 1 9
a s a s .
.

B ook V I I b gi n s with thr ee pr op os iti on s giv i ng e xpress i on s

e

fo A P
r A N + P N )in th e same for m s th os e fo P N in
2 2 2
a r
2

th s t t m n t of th e ord i n ry pr op erty
e a e e I n th e p r b ol A H a . a a a

i me s ur e d al ong th
s a x i s pr oduc ed (i e in th e opp os it e dirc e e a . .

t i on to A N ) an d of l ength qu l to th la tu ectu m an d it is e a e s r ,

prove d th t fo any poin t P A P a , A N N H (VI I r In ,

2
. .

th c ase of th c n tr al c on ic s A A i s div i d e d a t H i n t rn ally

e e e

, e

fo th e hyp erb ol a n d xt rn lly fo th e ellip se A H b ei n g th

r
( a e e a r e

se g ment dj cen t to A ) s o that A H A H p A A wh r e p

a a :

, e

i s th e p rame t r c orres p on di ng to A A o
a BBe A A an d

r
2
p , ,

i t is prove d th t a

AP 2
A N NH

AA

: . : A H .
 TH E SON I S S ,
B OO K S VI ,
VI I 1 69

Th e sa tru e if A A is th e m in or xi s of n ellips e an d p
me is

a a

th e corr e s p on di n g par ame t er (V I I 2 .

,

If A A be divided t H s w ell as H (i nt ern lly fo the

a

a a r

hyp erb ol a n d ext er nally fo th e ellip s e) s o that H is adj cen t

a r a

to A an d H to A an d if A H A H

, AA p z : ,

the li n es A H A H (c orr e s p on di n g to p in th e proporti on ) e

,
ar

calle d by A p ollon iu s homologu es an d h e mak s con s id er able ,

e

u s e of ux i l i ary poi n ts H H in l at er propos i ti ons fr om

th e a ,

V I I 6 on w ards
. M e n ti m h prove s tw o more prop os i t i on s
. a e e ,

wh i ch lik V I I 1 3 a e by w y of l m m s Fir s t i f S D b e
,
e .

,
r a e a .
,

th s em i di am t er p ar a ll l to th e t n gen t
e -
e t P to a c en tr al e a a

con ic and if the t n g n t meet th e xi s A A in T th n

,
a e a

, e

(VI I .

Dr aw A E TE ,
at r ight angle s to S A to meet S P and let A E ,

m ee t P T in 0 Th en if p b e th p r m e te r of th e ord i n t es

.
,
e a a a

to SP , we h av e
PTz OP PE (1

p 1
-

P T : P E,

p . P F
P T 2
. _ .

T her efor e PT 2
CD 2 1

2
-

p PE : .
p

. SP
 TH E S ON I SS ,
BOO K VI I

MH

(V I I

: AA : AH . 2, 3)

AA : A H

A H ,

so th at alt ern t ely

, a ,

A H

MH : MH ab ove ,
2 22 2
1 1 0 11 ,
as

wh en ce PP

: DD

MH

:
4l
an d MH { MH i
2
:

(1 ) ab ov e foll ow s fr om thi s re lation an d (or) ex aequ ali

(2 ) foll ow s fr om (oz ) a n d (y ) ex a equ ali an d (3 ) from (a) ,

We btai n i mme di t ly th e i m p ortan t prop os it i on that

n ow o a e

P P + DD is c on s t n t wh at ev r he th e p o it i on of P on an
2 2
a ,
e s

ell i p s e o hyperbola (th e upp e r s ign re ferri n g to th e ell i ps )

r e ,

an d i s qua l to A A i B B (V I I 1 2 1 3 2 9
e
2 2
.
, , ,

For 2
BB
2
AA

AA z :
p A H : AH

by cons truct i on
th er for e e AA
2
: AA
Z
BB
2
A H : HH ;

l
a s o, from (or) bove a ,

ME ;

A H
2 2
AA : PP :

an d , by mea ns of (B),

PP
2
MH
: MH + ME

Ex ae u a li ,
q fr om th e las t two r la t i on s e , we h av e

A H z HH

fr om bov e
a ,

wh en ce PP
2

1: DD
2
AA
2

i BB
2
.
17 2 A PO LLON U S I O F P ER GA

A umb r of oth r ratios

n e e ar e e xpres s e d in t erms of th e

s traight lin es term i nati ng at A , A

,
H ,
H

,
M M ,

as foll ow s
(V I I . 14

ll i p s e A A Z OM ,
2
DD A H
2 2
I n th e e PP :

an d in th e hype rbol a or e ll i p s e (if p be th e p ar a me te r of th e

o rdi n te s a to P P

)
AA
2
15
2
A H

. MH
: M11 2 ,

(M H i M )

ME
E 2

A H
Z 2
AA (p p) . ,

A H z MH ,
Q
AA z PP .
p

an d A H

p ll u is now in
A o on i p os i ti on by mean s of ll th s e
s a ,
a e

r l t i on res ting on th e u s e of th ux i li ary poi n t s H H M

e a s, e a ,

, ,

to c omp re d i ffe r n t fu n cti on s of ny c onjuga t

a di m et r s
e a e a e

w i th th me fu n ct i ons of th e ax es
e sa n d to s h ow h ow th ,
a e

form r v ry (by w y of i n cr eas e o di mi n uti on) as P m ov es

e a a r

aw y from A Th followi ng is li s t of th e fun cti on s com

a . e a

p re d wh er e fo brev i ty I h ll u s e a b to r epres en t A A BB ;
a ,
r s a ,

,

b to r pr es en t P P DD ; an d p p to r pr sen t th e p ar

a e , ,
e e a
,

m t r s of th ord i n t s to A A P P r es p e ctiv e ly

e e e a e ,
.

In hyp erbol ccord i n g s a or b a o b and the

a a, a a ,

r

,

r t io a b decr e s o i n creas es s P mov s fr om A on

a

:

a es r a e

ei th r s i d ; l o if
e b e b (V I I 2 1 a sin n e llip e
,
a , a

. a s

a ;
a
b b n d th latt r rati o d im i n i s h s P mov es from
a :

,
a e e e as

A to B (V I I .

hyp rbola o llips e a + b < a + b n d + b in th e

In a e r e

,
a a

hyp rbol a i n cr s s c on tin u lly s P mov es f rth e r fr om A

e ea e a a
'

a ,

but in the ell i ps i n crease t i ll a b tak th e pos it i on of th e e s

,

e

equ l conjugate di am t rs wh en i t is a ma ximu m (VI I

a e e .

25,
In a hyp e rbol
which a b a e un equ l or in n ellips in a , r a , a e,

d imini s h s s P moves w ay fr om A
an d a

~ b

e a a ,

in th hyp rb ol a c on ti n u lly an d in th e e llip s e till a b

e e e a , ,
ar

th e qu l c onjugat d i ame t rs (V I I
e a e e .

a b an d a b i n creas e s as P m ov es a w y from A in th e

ab , a ,

hyperbol con tin u lly an d in th e ellips e till a b c oin cid e w i th

a a ,

,

th e qu al c onjug t di am et er s (VI I
e a e .

V I I 3 1 is th e i mp ort an t prop os iti on th a t if P P DD r e

.
, ,
a
 TH E co mes ,
3 0 0 3: WI 17 3

conj ugat e di amet er s in an ellip e or conjugate hyp rbol a nd s e s, a

if th e t ng ents at th eir extremi ti es for m the par ll elogr am

a
a
LL MM th en

,

th e p r llelogram LE M M
a a

re ct . AA

. BB

.

Th e
pr oof is int eres ti ng Let the tange nt s at P, D r es
pec
.

t vely me t the maj or or tr an s ve r s e ax i s in T

1 e T

,

N ow (by V I I 4 ) P T SD .
2
NT z SN ; :
2

th er for e
e 2 A SP T : 2 A T

DS N T: SN .

But 2 A CP T P T : SD ,

SP : DT
'

, by s imilar tri n gles a ,

DS

(CL) 2AT .

Th at is , (CL) is a mean proporti onal betw een 2 A SP T an d

DC
'
2A T .

Th er efore s i n ce , (N T S N ) is a . mean pr oportional betw een

 TH E S ON I S S , B OO K VI I 17 5

A s we ha v e
id Book V III is los t Th e n atur e of its
sa , .

c on ten t s can on ly be c onj ectur e d fr om A pollon iu s s ow n

rem ark th t it c on tain e d d eter mi n ate conic pr obl em fo

a s r

which Book V I I w u ful p rticularly in d et r mi n i ng as se ,

a e

li mit s of p os s ibility Un fortu nat ly the l emmas of Pappu s

. e ,

d o n ot en bl e u to for m an y cl ear er i d ea
a s Bu t it i s proba bl e .

e n ough th t th e B ook c on ta in e d
a n u mb e r of pr obl em s h a vi n g a

fo th e ir obj e c t th e n di n g of c onju g t di me te rs in
r
giv en a e a a

c on i c s uch th t c r ta in fu n cti on of the ir length h av e giv n

a e s s e

valu es It wa s on thi ass u mpti on that H alley ttempted

. s a

a r s t or ti on of th e B ook
e a .

If it be th ought that the above a ccoun t of the S on i cs is

di s prop orti on at ely l ong fo w ork of thi kin d it m u s t be r a s ,

r m emb r d th t th e treat i s i a gr eat cl ss ic which d erves

e e e a e s a es

to b e mor e k n ow n th n it is Wh t m ilit at g i ns t its

a . a es a a

b i n g re d in i ts or i gi n l form is th gre t e xten t of th

e a a e a e

e xp o iti on (i t c on t i n s 3 8 7
s p r t pr opos iti on s ) d u partly
a se a a e ,
e

to th e Gr ee k h bit of pr ovi ng p rt i cul r c s

a of gen e r l a a a es a a

propo i ti on s p ar t ely from th e prop os i ti on its lf but mor to

s e a e ,
e

th e cu mbr ou s n s of th e n u n ci at i on of c om pl i c t d pr op os i
es e s a e

t i on s in gen er al terms (with out th e h elp of l tter s to d n ot e e e

p rticular poin t s ) an d to th e el bor t n es s of th Eucl i dean

a a a e e

form to w hi ch A pollon iu dh eres thr ough out

,
s a .

O th er w or ks by A poll on iu s .

Pa ppu s m en ti on s
giv s h ort i n di cat i on of th con
an d e a s e

tent s ofs ix oth er w ork s ofA pollon iu s which form d p rt ofth e e a

T easu y of A n a lysi s l Thr e of th e e s hould be m en ti on d

r r . e s e

in cl ose c on n e xi on with th e S on ics .

(a ) On the C u tti ng of -
o f a R a ti o (A by ou dvr o
r opri)
-
,

tw o Boo ks .

w ork alon e of th e s ix men ti on ed h s urvived n d

Thi s a s ,
a

that only in th e A r abic ; it w s publi s h ed in L tin tr an s a a a

l ti on by Ed m un d H lley in 1 7 0 6 I t deal s with th e g en r l

a a .
e a

problem Gi ven two s t a ight l in es p allel to on e n other or

,
r ,
ar a

x ed h li n e to d r a w thr ou gh
i n ter secti n g, a nd a poin t on ea c ,

1
P a ppu s , vii , pp 6 4 0 8 6 6 0 7 2
,
. .
17 6 A P OLLON I U S O F PER GA

m en ts fr om
a g i ven p oi n t a str a i gh t li n e whi ch s ha ll cu t o f s eg
ea ch li n e (meas u r ed f r om the x ed o i n ts) bear i n g a gi ven
p
Thu s l et A B be x ed p oi n t s on th e

r a ti o to on e a n other

.
, ,

tw o giv e n s traight lines A S BK an d let 0 b e th e giv e n , ,

poin t It is r equired to dra w thr ou gh 0 a s tr aight lin e

.

cutt in g th e gi ven straight l in e s in points M N res pe cti ve ly ,

such th t A M is to BN in gi v en r ti o Th e tw o Books of
a a a .

th e tr t i se di s cu ssed th e v ri ou p os s ibl e c as es of thi s p o

ea a s r

bl m wh i ch ari se accordin g to the r elati ve p os iti on s of th e

e

giv n s tr ight lin es an d point n d al so the n ece sary con di

e a s, a s

ti ons n d li mits of pos sibi lity in c ses wh ere a s oluti on i n ot

a a s

a lw ys pos s ibl e The rs t Book begins by s upp o i ng th e

a . s

giv n l in s to be parall l n d dis cu s ses the di ff r n t c es

e e e ,
a e e as

which ri se ; A pollon ius th en p s s to th e cases in which the

a as e

s tr ight lin es i n t er sect but on e of th e giv en p oi n t s A o B is

a , ,
r ,

a t th i n t r secti on of th e tw o li n es
e e Book II proc ee ds to th e .

g ner l c se s how n in th b ov gur e and r s t pr ov s th at

e a a e a e , e

th e g n er al c ase can b e r educe d to th e c as e in B ook I wh re

e e

on of th e gi ven p oi nt s A o B is at th e i n t er s cti on of th e
e , r , e

tw o l i n es Th e r e ducti on is
. y For j oin OB meeti ng A S e as .

n d dr aw B N par ll l to B N to meet OM in N Th en

in B

,
a a e .

th rati o B N B N b ei n g qu l to the r ati o OB OB is con

'
e ,
e a : ,

st nt
a S i n ce th er efor e E N A M is a gi v en r ati o th e r ati o
.
, , : ,

B N A M is al s o giv en

.

A p ollon iu s proc ee d s in ll c s es by th e orth od ox m th od of a a e

a n ly ia n d s yn th es i s
s s a S upp os e the pr obl em olv e d nd
. s a

OM N dr aw n thr ough 0 in s uch a way th at B N A M is a

:

given r at io A say , .
 ON TH E C UTTI N G OFF OF A -
R A TI O 17 7

Dr aw OS parallel to BN or B N

to mee t A M in S . Tak e
D on AM s uch th at OS A D z A

AM AD

BN

: : OS
B M SM

AI D A D

B S S ill ,

S M MD AD B S

,
a given r ectangle .

H en ce th e pr oblem is r educe d to on e of pply in g to C D a

a

r ecta n gle (S M M D) equ al to a gi ve n r ecta n gl e (A D B S

) bu t

. .

fa lli ng s hor t by a s qu a r e gur e I n th e c as e s dr w n wh at . a a ,

e v e r b e th e v alu e of A th s oluti on is alw ay s p os s ibl e b e c au s e

, e

th e giv en r e ct an gl e A D S B is alw ays l ess th an S A A D n d

,
a

th er efore alw ys l es s th n i S D one of th e po iti ons of

a a
2
s

M f ll s be tw e en A n d D b ec au e CM M D < S A A D
a a s .

Th e pr op os iti on III 4 1 of th e S on i cs b out th e i n t erc e pt s

. a

m a d e on tw o t n g en t s to a p r b ol a by a third t ng en t
a a a a

(pp 1 5 5 6 bov ) s ugg es t s n obvi ou s applic ti on of ou r p o

.

a e a a r

blem We h d with th e n otati on of th at pr opos iti on

. a , ,

Pr : r q r Q: Qp q pR .

S upp os e th t th e tw o t ang ents qP qR e giv n s x ed

a ,
ar e a

t n gen t s with the ir p oi n ts of con tact P R Th en we can

a , .

draw noth er tang en t if w e c n dr w a s tr ight lin e

a a a a

i n ter secti ng qP qR in s uch w y th t P r q q

, s o a a a r z r

P q qr :
q R p R i :r
q p R q q R , ( .c on s t n t r ti o) ;
e . : a a a

i e we h ve to dr aw
. . a s tr ight lin e s uch th t th e i n t erc ept by
a a a

it on qP me as ure d from q h as gi ven r ti o to th e in t rc ep t a a e

by it on qR me sur ed from R Th i s is a p articul r case of

a .
a

ou pr obl e m to which
r s a matt er of fa ct A p oll oni u s d e v ot e s
, a ,

s p e ci al att e n ti on I n th e an n e x e d gur e th e l ett ers h v e th e

.
a

me mean i n g as b e for e an d N M h as to be draw n through O

sa ,

s uch th a t B N : AM

A I n thi s c ase th er e a r e li mit s to .

N
 ON TH E C UTTI N G OFF OF A -
R A TI O 17 9

Furth er if we put for A th e rati o b etw een th e l ength s

, , ofth e
two x e d tangen t s th en if i b e th os e l ength s
, t, ,

k g
h h+a 2 ~
/ hx

which can eas ily be re duc ed to

t
(13)
a:

th e e qu ati on of the parabola r e ferre d to the two x e d tangent s

as a x es .

(B) On the in f f an mar omi)

cu tt (xcoptov
g
-

f o
o ar ea a
l ,

two B oo ks .

w ork al s o in tw o Book s d ealt with a s imilar pr oblem

Thi s , , ,

with the differ enc e th at th e i n terc epts on th e gi v en s traigh t

li nes m eas ured from the gi en p oi n ts a e r equir ed n ot to v r ,

h a ve a giv en rati o but to con tai n given r e ctangle H alley

,
a .

i n cluded an attem pte d r estorati on of this w ork in his e diti on

of th e De s ecti on e r a tioni s
'

Th e gen eral cas e can h er e agai n be r e duce d to the mor e

s p e ci al on e i n w hi ch on e of th e x e d p oin t s is at th e i n t e r

s e cti on of th e two giv en s tr igh t li n e s U s i n g th e s ame a .

gur e as b efor e but with D t aki ng the po i ti on s h ow n by

,
s

in th e gur e w e t ak e th at p oi n t uch th t
,
s a

0 0 AD th e gi v en r e ct angl e .

We h av e th en to draw ON M

thr ough 0 s uch that
OO A D .
,

B N ADzAM

00
'
.

Bu t,by parall els ,

B N

00 B M OM

th er e for e

sothat B M MD

AD B O

.

H en c e as b efor e
, ,
th e pr obl em is r educe d to an applicati on
of a rectangl e in th e w el l know n manner Th e c ompl ete
-
.
,

N 2
1 80 A 150 LLO NI U S or PER GA

r t
t ea men t of thi s probl em in all its p articular c ases with th eir
d opumo c oul d pr es en t no difculty to A p oll oniu s

z i .

If the two s tr aight li nes p ar allel the s oluti on of th e ar e ,

pr oblem gives a means of dr w i n g any n umb er of t n g en ts a a

to an lli p se wh en two p ar ll el t n gen ts th eir p oi n t s of on

e a a ,
c

ta c t n d th e l ength of th p r ll l s emi di ameter a giv n

,
a e a a e -
re e

C i cs III I n th e c of th e hyp erb ol (III 4 3)

(s ee on ,
. as e a .

th i n te rc pts mad e by any t n ge n t on th e as ym pt ot es c on t i n

e e a a

a c on t n t r e c tan gl e
s a A cc ord i n gly th e dr awi ng of t ang en t s .

d ep en d up on th e p articul ar c e of ou r probl em in which b oth

s as

x ed poi n ts a e the i n ter secti on of th e two x ed li nes

r .

(y ) On d eter n
i i nate mi) twoBooks f
section To ,
.

Th gen er al probl em h er e i Gi v n f our p oi nt s A B O D on

e s, e , , ,

a s tr i ght li n e to d e te rm i n
a n othe r p oi n t P on th e s m e
,
e a a

s tr ighta li n e s uch tha t the r ti o A P OP BP DP h as a . : . a

g v en v lu e It is clear f om Pappu s accou n t ofth c on ten t

i a . r s

1
e s

of thi w ork and fr om his e xt en iv e c oll ecti on of l emm

s ,
to s as

the d i fferen t pr op os iti ons in it th t th e qu es ti on w as v ery ,

a

e xh u s t i v ely di s cu ss e d
a To d et er mi n e P by mean s of th e .

e qu ati on

wh re A B C D A ar e given is in itself an eas y m tter s in ce

e , , , , , a

th e probl em can at on ce b e put i n t o th e for m of a qu a dr tic

'

e qu t i on an d th e Gr ee k s w ould h v e no dif
a , culty in r e duci n g a

it to th e u u al appli cation ofa eas If h owe ver ( s w e may

s r .
, a

fai rly uppose) it was i n ten ded fo applicati on in fur th er

s , r .

i n v e t igati ons th e compl ete d i s cus s i on of it w ould n tur ally

s , a

i nclude not only th e ndi n g of soluti on but al o th e d ter a , s e

min ati on of the li mit s of p os ibil i ty an d th e nu mb er of p oss ibl e s

s oluti on s for diff er ent p os iti on s of th e p oi n t p air s A O an d -

B D fo the c ases in w hi ch th p oi n t s in eit her p air coi n cid e

, ,
r e ,

o in w hich on e of th e p oi n t s i s i n ni t ely di s tan t an d s o on

r , .

Th i grees with what w e n d in Pappu s who mak es it clear

s a ,

th t th ough we d o not meet with any ex press men tion of

a ,

s er i s of p oi n t p airs d e t rm i n e d by the e qu ati on fo di f

e -

fe r en t e r

v alu es of A
yet the treati con t i n ed w hat amou n ts to a com
, se a

1
P appus , vii ,
pp 6 42 4. .
 ON DE TE R MI N A TE S E CTI ON 181

pl ete Theor y ys th t the s ep arat

f I n vol ati on
o '
. P appus sa a e

cas es w er e d ealt wi th in which th e gi ven rati o w as th t of

,

eith e r (1 ) th e s qu are of on e bs ci ss m eas ure d fr om th e a a

r e quir ed p oin t o (2 ) th e r ctan gl c on t i ned by tw o s uch

r e e a

ab s ci s s to n y on e of the f ollowi n g ( 1 ) th e s qu r of one

ae a : a e

a bs ci ss (2 ) th e r e ct ngle con t in e d by one bs ci s and

a, a a a sa

an oth er s e p r t e li n e of giv n l n g th i n d e p en d en t of th e
a a e e

p o iti on of th e r q u ir e d poi n t (3 ) the r e ct ngle con t i ne d b y

s e , a a
'

tw o b s ci s s a
a We l earn l s o th at m xima n d mi n i m w r e
e . a a a a e

i n v es tigat e d Fr om th l emmas too w m y dr w oth er

. e , ,
e a a

con clu s i on s e g , . .

(1 )th t in th e c s wh r
a , a e e e A 1, or AP DP . CP BP .
,

A p oll on iu s u s d th r elat i on e e BP DP A B B C : A D DC ,

(2 ) tha t A p oll on iu s pr ob bly ob tai n d double p oin t E of th e a e a

i n voluti on d ter min e d by th poin t pair A C n d B D by

e e -

s ,
a ,

me n s of th r el ati on
a e

A B B C : A D DC . BE z z DE 2 .

poss i bl pplic ti on of th e pr obl m w th e d te rmi n ti on

A e a a e as e a

of th p oi n t s of i n t er ct i on of th
e giv n tr ight lin w i th se e e s a e a

conic determ i n e d s four lin e l ocu s s m c A B C D a ain -

,
e

, , ,
ar e

fact th p oi nts of i nter s ecti on of th e g i ven s traight l in e with

e

th e four li n s to whi ch th e l ocu s h s r e fe r en c e

e a .

8

O n Con ta cts or Ta n9 en cies
, e7 r a at two Book s .

ppu s gai n com pr hen ds in on e nu n ci ation th e vari eti es

Pa a e e

of pr obl ms d ealt w i th in th e tr e ati s e which w e m y r epr o

e ,
a

duc s foll ow s Gi ven thr th in gs ea ch of whi ch ma y be

e a : ee ,

e ither a p oi n t, a ght li n e or a ci r cle to d r

s tr a i , aw a ci r cle

whi ch sha ll p a ss thr ou gh ea ch of the gi ve n poin ts (s ofa r as it

is p oi n ts tha t a r e gi ven ) a nd tou ch the s tr a i g ht li n es or

ci r cl es . po ibiliti es as r eg ard th e d i ff r en t d t ar
1
Th e ss s e a a e

t n e . We m ay h v n y on e of th e foll owi n g
a (1 ) thr ee
e a :

p oin ts (2 ) thr ee s tr i ght l i n e (3 ) tw o p oi nt s n d a s tr ight

, a s, a a

li ne (4) tw o s traigh t li n es an d a p oi n t (5 ) tw o p oi nts nd

, ,
a

a circl e (6 ) two circles an d a p oi nt (7 ) tw o s traight lin e an d

, ,
s

1
P appus , vn , p.6 44 , 2 5
8 .
 ON C ON TA CTS on TA N GE N O'I E S 1 83

so lve d i e s uppose DA EA dr aw n to the circle cutti ng

, . .
, it in
p oi nts B C s uch that B C produc ed p ass es through E
, .

Dr w B G p arall el to DF; j oin C C

a

and produc e it to mee t DE in H .

Th e n
A BA C A B GC

A CH F
s upplemen t of L CH D
the re for e A , D , H C lie on a circl e an d
, ,

o H K 5

N ow A E E C is gi v en b e i ng e qu al to the s qu ar e on th e
.
,

t angen t from E to the circl e ; an d DE is giv en ; th er e for e H E

is giv en an d th e re for e the p oi n t H
, .

But F is also gi v en ; th e re fore th e problem is re duc ed to

drawin g H C FC to meet th e circle in s uch a way that if
, ,

H C FC pr oduc e d meet th e circle g in in G B the s tr ight

,
a a , , a

lin e B C is p arallel to H F probl em wh ich P ppus h s : a a a

pr evi ou s ly s olv ed .
1

S upp os e t hi s d one an d dr w B K the t angen t at B m e t i n g

, a e

H F in X Th en .

A K BC L B GC in th e alt er nat e seg men t , ,

A CH F .

ls o th e angl e CFK is common to th e two tr i an gles K B F

A ,

CH F th er efor e th e tr i angles a e s imilar and r ,

N ow B F EC is . giv en ,
an d s o is H F ;
th erefor e EX is giv en and th er efor e K is gi v en ,
.

Th e s y n th es i s i s a s f oll ow s T k e a p oi n t H on D E s uch . a

th t DE E H is e qu al to th e s qu are on the t angen t from E to

a .

th cir cl e
e .

N ext ta k e K on H F s uch th at H F EX th e s qu ar e on th e .

tangen t from F to the circl e .

Dr w th e t an gent to th e circl e from K and let B be th e

a ,

poi nt of contact Join B F mee ti ng the circl e m C and j oin

. ,

P ppu pp 83 0 2 a s , vi 1 , .
-
.
1 84 A P OLLON I U S O F P ER GA

H C me e ting th e circl e gain in G It is th en easy to p r ov e

a .

th t B G is p r ll l to DE
a a a e .

N ow j oi n E C nd produc e it to m eet th e circle ga n at A

,
a a i

j oin A B .

We h av on ly to prov th t A B B D a e in on e s traight lm e
e e a ,
r .

S i n c DE E H
e A E E C th e p oi n t s A D H C
. .
e con
, , , ,
ar

cyclic .

N ow th e an gl which th uppl emen t

e e s

is e qu l a to th e th er efor e to th e
an gl e
Th er efor e th e n gl BA C i equ l to th e uppl m en t of
a e s a s e

a n gl e D H C s o th t th e,
n gl B A C i e qu l to th e
a a n gl e D A C
e s a a s

a nd A B B D e in a s tr aight li n e
,
ar .

Th pr obl em of A p oll on i u s is now eas y

e We will t ake th e .

c s e in which th e r equir ed circl e t ouch es all th e thr e giv en

a e

circl es externally as s h own in th e gur e Let th e r adii of th e .

 ON C ON TA C TS O R TA N GE N CI E S 1 85

giv en circl es be a b c nd th eir centr es A B C Let D E F , , a , ,

.
, ,

b e th e e xt e rn l c en tr es of s i militud e s o that B D DC = b c &c

a , .

S upp os e th e pr obl em s olv e d an d let P Q R be th p oi n t s , , , e

of c on ta ct Let P Q produc ed m ee t th e circl es with c en tr es

.

A B g i n in I f L
, a a Th en by th pr opo iti on (1 ) b ov e th e
, .
, e s a ,

s egmen t s K GP OH L a e b oth s i m il ar to th e s eg m en t P YQ;

, r

th er e for e th ey e s i mil ar to on noth e r It foll ow s th at I Q

ar e a .

produc d b ey on d L p ss es through F S i milarly QR P R

e a .
,

produce d pas s res p ctiv ely throug h I) E e , .

Let P E QD m e t th e circl e wi th c en tr e C gai n in M N

, e a ,
.

Th en th , se g m en t s P QR
e R N M bei n g s i m il r th e an gl es , a ,

P QR R NM , e e qu l n d th r e for e M N i
ar par all l to P O a , a e s e .

P roduc e N M to m ee t E F in V .

Th en
th er e for e the p oi n t V i giv en s .

A cc ordi n gly th e pr obl e m r du ces i t s lf to thi s Giv n three e e : e

p oi nts V E D in s tra ight l i n e it is r equire d to dr w DR E R

, , a ,
a ,

to a p oi n t B on th e c i rcl e w i th c en tr C o th at i f DR E R m e t e s , ,
e

th e circl e ag i n in N M N M pr oduc e d h ll p ss thr ough V

a , ,
s a a .

Thi i th e pr oble m of P appu ju s t olv d

s s s s e .

Thu s R is foun d an d D R E R produc e d m ee t th circl s , ,

e e

with c ntr e B n d A in th e oth er r equi r d p oi n ts Q P

e s a e ,

r es p ectiv ly e .

(6 ) P la n e loci , tw o B ook s .

Pappu s g i v es pretty full cc oun t of th e c on t nt of thi s

a a e s

w ork w hi ch h as s uffi c d to en abl r es tor ti on of it to

,
e e a s

b e ma d by th ree d i s tingui s h e d g eomete rs Fermat

e n , ,
va

S ch oot en an d (mos t c om pl et ely ) by R ob rt S i m on

,
P ppu s e s . a

pref ces his accou n t by

a cl as ic ti on of l oci on tw o a s a

di ffer en t plans Un d r th e r s t clas s ic t i on loci

. of thr e e a ar e e

ki n d s (1 ) : [ hold i n gi n o xed ; in th i c as th
6 K T LK O ,
r s e e

l ocu of a p oin t is p oin t of a l i ne li n and of a Sol i d

s

a ,
a e,

a s oli d wh e r e pr es u m ab ly th e li n
, o s olid c n on ly m ov e on e r a

its elf s o th t i t does n ot ch ang e it pos iti on (2 ) d go

a s : ia

d of p a ssi n g a long thi s is th ordi n ary s en s e of a l ocu s

uc ,
-

: e ,

wh er e th e l ocu s of poi n t is li n e an d of a li ne s ol i d : a a ,
a

(3 ) d pogbmo m ovi n g backwa r d s a n d fo war d s

ua a r

c, it w er e r ,
as ,

in which sen s pl n e m y be the locu of poin t n d s olid

e a a a s a a a
 P LA N E LOCI 1 87

ot h r ex tr emity will
e a sol lie on a s tr igh t li ne giv en
a in
p os ti on 1 .

(Tha t is , c
t a or
y b in C art es i an coordi nates r epr es ents a

s traight li n e ) .

6 .
If from an y poi nt s tr ight l in es b e draw n to meet at giv en

a

gl s two s tr ight lines eith er par all e l or i n ters ecti ng n d if

e a
,
a
th s traight li n es s o d a wn h v e a gi e n r ti o to on e noth er
e r a v a a
or if th e u m of on e of th em n d a li n e to whi ch the oth e r h as
s a
a giv n r ati o b e giv e n in l en gth
(
e
) th en th p oi nt will lie on , e a
s tr ght l n e giv n in p os it ion
ai i e - .

(Thi s i n cludes th e quival en t of s yi ng th at if cc;

e a , y b e th e
coordi n ate s of th e p oi n t ea ch of th e e qu at i on s
, c
c my ,

ar + my 0 r e pres en t s a s traigh t li n ) e .

7 If ny n u m b r of s tr i ght lin es be giv en in p os iti on and

.

a e a ,

s tr ight li n b e draw n from p oi n t to m eet th m at g i ven

a es a e

a n gl s an d if th e s tr ight li n es
, o dr w n b e uch th t th
e a s a s a e

r ect an gle c on tai n e d by on of th em nd given tr ight l i ne e a a s a

a dd e d to th e r ect ngle con t i n e d by noth er of th em nd a a a a

( n oth r) giv n s tr ight l i n e is e qu a l to th r e ct n gl con

a e e a e a e

t in d by
a third n d a (third) given s tr ight l i n e an d s i m i
e a a a ,

l a ly with th e oth er s th e p oi n t will li on

r s tr aight li n giv en ,
e a e

in p os iti on

.

(H er e w e h av e trili n ar o m ul til i near c oordi n at e propor e r s

tion l to th d is t an c es of th e vari a bl e p oi n t from e ch of th e

a e a

three o mor x d li n s Wh n th ere e thr x e d l i n es

r e e e . e ar ee ,

th e s t at em en t is th t a m+ by 0 r pr e n ts a tr ight li n e a 2 e se s a .

Th e pr e ci s e m ean i n g of th e w ord s an d s i m il arly with th e

th e oth er of th e oth e r 2 3 A u w ch oi s is

e

o s r s K a 7 0 V c r c

un c rt i n ; the w ord s s eem to i m ply th at wh en there w er e

e a ,

m ore th an thr ee r e ct n gl s acc by cz two of th e m w r e a e , ,

e

t ken to be equal to th e s u m of ll th e oth ers but it i quite

a a s

p oss ibl e th t P ppu s me n t th at an yli n e r e qu ti on betw e n

a a a a a e

thes e re ctangl es r epr es ent ed s traight li n P r ci s ly h ow a e . e e

f A p oll on iu s w en t in gen er ality w

ar r e n ot in p os iti on to e a a

judg e ) .

Th e l a t en u n ci ati on (8 ) of Pa ppu s r eferri ng to Book I s

s t at es th at ,

If from any poi nt (tw o) s tr ight lin es be draw n to m eet (two) a

parall el s traight lin es giv en in pos iti on t given angles and a ,

1 88 A PO LLO N U S O F P ER GA I
cut off from th e par llel s str igh t li nes m e s ur e d from g en a a a lv

p oi nt s on th m uch th t ( ) th ey h ve g en r t
e
o o s a a a a 1v a i r

6
( ) th ey c on t i n giv n r e ct an gl o ()
c th e sum o d f
fe en ce
a a e e r r 1 r

of gur s of giv en p ci d es crib ed on them es peet ely s

e s e es r l v i

e qu l to giv n re th p oin t will h on a s t a gh t h n e

_

a a e a a, e e r l

g i v n in pos i ti on
e .

1

Th e con tent of Book II e qu lly i nt er s ti ng S om of s ar e a e . e

th n u n ci ti on s h all fo br v i ty b giv en by m ean s of l e tt r

e e a s r e e e s

i n s t ead of in g en r l t er m If fr om tw o giv en p oi n t s A B e a s . ,

tw o tr ight li n s b
s a i n fl ct e d ( A o c w ) to a p oi n t P th n
e e

e K a c ,
e

if A P BP i giv en th l ocu s of P is
2 str i ght l i n
2
'

s e a a e
,

( )
2 if A P BP i n giv e,
n r ti o t h e l ocu s i s s tr i ght l i n e
ar e a a ,
a a

o r acircle [th i is th propos i t i on qu ot e d by Eu tociu in h is s e s

c omm n t ry on th e Con i s but alr e dy know n to A ri totl e]

e a c ,
a s

( )
4 if A P i s gr t e r by giv
2
en r ea th an in

g i v en r ti o
ea a a a a

to B P i e if A P Z
a + on B P th l ocu i circl giv n in
2 2 Q

e s s a e e
, . .
,

p o it i on A n i n t r ti ng prop o i t i on i s (5 ) th t If fr om n y
s . e es s

a ,
a

n u m be r of g i v en p oi n t s wh t e v r tr i ght li n es b i n fl ct d to a e s a e e e

on e poi n t n d th e gur s (g i v en in s p c i es ) d es crib d on

, a ll of e e e a

th m be tog eth er e qu l to giv en r e th e p oi n t will li e on

e a a a a,

a circu mferen ce (circl ) giv n in p o i ti on ; th t is to s y i f e e s

a a ,

a giv e n ar a (wh r e 8 y e e a, , ,

ar e co n t n t ) th e l ocus a of P i s circl e (3 ) t t s th t i f
s ,
s a . s a e a ,

A N be x d s tr ight l in e an d A x d p oi n t on it an d if
a e a a e ,

A P be n y tr ight li n dr w n to
a poi n t P s uch th t if P N
s a e a a a ,

is p erp n dicul r to A N A P
e AN o a B N wh e r a is ,
2
a r a , e a

gi en l ngth n d B is anoth er x e d p oi n t on A N th en th
'

v e a , e

locus of P i circle giv n in p os iti on ; th i s is e quiv alen t

s a e

to th f ct th t ifA b th e or i gi n A N th e xi s of a
e a a ,
nd e ,
a
'

, a

o
; AN y P N b th e c oor di n t s of P th e l ocu s 91
, y ax e a e ,
2 2

o r a ( =
b is
) circl e (6 ) is som ewh t obs cur ely
a a . a

n u n ci t e d If fr om two giv n p oi nt s s tr i ght li n e b e in

e a : e a s

fl ecte d (to p oi nt ) an d fr om th e p oin t (of con cour ) a s tr aight

a ,
se

li n e be dr w n p r ll l to s tr i ght li n e giv en in p os iti on nd

a a a e a a a

cutti ng off from anoth r tr ight li ne giv n in p os it i on n e s a e a

i nt rc ept meas ur ed from giv n poi n t on it n d if th e u m of

e a e , a s

gur es (giv n in s p eci es ) d s crib d on the tw o i nfl cte d li n es

e e e
_
e

b e qu al to th e r ectangle cont i n d by giv n s traight l i n e

e a e a e

a n d th e i n te rc pt th poi n t t which the tr aight li nes e ,

e a s ar e

P pp vii p 6 6 6 7 1 3 a us, , . .
.
 P LA N E LOCI 1 89

i ne cted li es
circle given in positi on The mean ing
on a .

s eems to b e thi s Given two x e d p oi n t s A B a l en gth

: , , a,

a s tr aight li n e O X wi th p oin t 0 xe d up on it and a dirc e a ,

ti on r epr esente d s ay by ny s traight li ne OZ thr ough 0 th en

, ,
a
, ,

if A P B P b e dr aw n to P an d P M par all el to OZ meet s OX

, ,

in M th e l ocu s of P will b a circl e giv en in p os iti on if

,
e

wh ere B ar e c on s t an t s
a, Th l s t two loci ar e agai n . e a

ob s cur ely e x pr es se d but th s en e is thi s

(7 ) If P Q be an y
, e s :

chord of a circle p ass in g through a x ed i n tern al poin t 0 and ,

R be an e xte r n al poi n t on P O produce d s uch th at e ith e r

(a ) OR P R R Q o (b) OR + P O OQ= P E R Q th e locu
2
. r
2
.
,
s

ofR is a s tr ai ght lin e giv n in p o iti on 8 ) is th e r e cipr ocal e s .

of thi s Gi v en th e x e d p oi n t 0 th e s traight li ne which is

: ,

th e l ocu s of R and l s o th e l ti on (a) or (b) the locu s of

,
a r e a ,

P Q is a circl e
,
.

( Ver gi n gs or I n cli n ati on s ), two Boo ks .

h av e se en th e probl em in a s is to pl ace
A s we , ve a i

b etw een tw o s traight l i nes s tr igh t li n e an d a curv e or , a a ,

two curv es a s tr aight li n e of giv en l ength m s uch a way

,

th at it ver ges tow ard s a x e d p oi nt i e it will if p o , . .

,
r

d uced p as s thr ough a x e d p oi nt

, P a ppu s ob s erv es that .
,

wh en we come to p a t icul ar c as e th e probl em will b e r s,

plane soli d o li n r accordi n g to th e nature of the

,

r

ea

particul ar hyp oth es es ; but a s ele cti on h ad been made from

th e cl as s which c ould b e olv d by pl an e m eth od s i e by s e ,
. .

mean s of th e s traight li n e an d circl e th e obj ect b eing to gi v e ,

those which w ere more gen erally u se ful in geometry The .

followi ng w ere the case thu s e lect ed and prov ed s s .

1

1 . Gi ven (a) a s emicircl e a nd a s tra ight lin e at right angl es

to th e b ase , or (b) tw o s em icircl es w i th th eir b as es in a s tr aight
lin e ,
to i ns ert
a s tr aight lin e of giv en l en gth v ergi n g to an

angl e of th e semicircl e o of on e of th e s emicircl es ]

[ r .

II Gi v en a rhombu s with on s id e produc ed to i ns er t

. e ,

a s tr aigh t line of gi ven l en gth in th e ext er nal angl e s o th at i t

v e rg es to th e opp os it e an gl e .

P ppu ii pp 6 7 0 2 1
a s, v , . .
 N E TEE I E ( VE R GI N GS OR I N CLI NA TI ONS ) 191

Th e r efor e th e tri an gl es B EK , K EC ,
which h av e th e an gle
B EK c omm on ar e s i mil ar , an d ,

A CBK A CK E A CH E (from a b ov e) .

A H CE A A CB A B CK .

T h r efor e in th e tri angl s CB K CH E two ngles e

e e , a ar

r es p ectiv e ly e qu al so th t A CE H A CK B al s o
,
a .

Bu t s i n ce A C K E A C H E (fr om bov ) K C E H e a e , , , ,
ar

c on cyclic .

H en c e A CE H A CK H (tw o right angl es )

ther efor e s i n c , A CE H e A CK B ,

A CK B A CK H (two r i ght an gl es ) ,

an d BK H is a s tr aight li n e .

I t is c ert ai n fr om th e n atur of thi s l emm a th t A p oll on iu s

, e , a

m ad e h is c on s truction by d r wi ng th e circl e s h ow n in th e a

gure .

H e w ould n o d oubt arri v e at it by n aly s i s s om e wh at as a

follow s .

S upp os e th e probl em s olv ed nd H K i ns ert ed as e ,

a r

quire d k) .

Bi se ct H K in N an d dr w N E at right n gl es to K H
, a a

mee ting BC produc e d in E Dr w K M p erp en dicul ar to B C . a ,

an d produc e it to m ee t A C in L Th n by th pr op rty of . e ,
e e

th e rh ombu s LM MK and s i nc e K N N H ls o MN is
, , ,
: a ,

paralle l to LH .

N ow s in c e th e an gl es at M N a e r i ght M K N E
,
e ,
r , , , , ar

con cyclic .

Th e r efor e A CE K A M NK A CH K s o th at C K H E , , , ,

ar e c on cyclic .

Th er e for A B CD s uppl e m en t of K CE
e AE H K AEK H ,

a n d th e tri an gl es E K H D CB a e s i m il ar ,
r .

Las tly ,

A E BK z A E K H A CE K r - A EH K

th erefor e th e tri an gl es E BK , E K C ar e s i mil ar , an d

BE : E K EK z EC ,

BE E C . EK 2
1 92 A PO LLO N US I O F P ER GA

Bu t ,
by si milar t1 iangle s E K H DfB

EK : K H = DC z C B ,

an d ,
i c
s n e th e r ati o DC : CB ,
as w e ll as KH , is g i ven ,
EK
is given .

Th e cons tructi on th en is s foll ow s a .

If h b th e given l n gth t k e a tr i ght li n e p s uch th at

e e ,
a s a

p z lc z A B z BC ;

a pply to B C r ect n gl BE E C equ l to p and exceedi ng by

a a e . a
2

a s qu r e ; th en w i th E as c e n tr e n d radiu s
a qu al to p d es crib e a e a

c i rcl cutti ng A C pr oduc ed in H n d CD in K H K is th en

e a .

e qu al to I n d by Pappu s s l emm a v e rges t ow rd s B

t a , ,
a .

Pappu s adds n i n t er es ti ng s oluti on of th e s am e pr obl em

a

w i th r e fer en c to a s qu ar e i ns t ad of rh ombu s ; th s oluti on

e e a e

is by on H eraclitu s an d d p en d s on a l emm which P ppu

e e a a s

a l s o g i v es .
1

We he ar of y et o th r l o t w ork s by A p ollon iu s
e s .

Compa r i son of the d od eca hed r on w ith the i cos ahed r on

(7 7 ) A .

Thi s is men ti on ed by H yps icles in th e pr e fa c e to th e s o c all e d -

B ook XI V of Euclid Li k e th e Con i cs i t app ear e d in two .

,

e d i t i ons c d of which con tai n ed th e prop os iti on th at

,
th e s e on ,

i f ther b e a dod ec h dr on n d an ic os ah edr on i n s crib e d in

e a e a

on e an d th e sam e s ph er e th e s urfac es of th e s ol id s a e in th e , r

s ame r ati o as th e ir v olu mes ; hi s w as s t bli s h d by s h owi ng

t e a e

th t th e p erp en dicular s from th e cen tr e of th e s ph r e to

a e

a p en t ag on al f ac e of th e d od e c ah e dron an d to a tri an gul ar

face of the icos ah edron a e equ al r .

(0) Mari n u s on Eucl i d s Da ta p e aks of a Gen er a l Tr ea ti se

s

( 0 6o
Ka in which A p oll on i u s u s ed th e w ord
ass ig ned ( y/ o ) as a c ompr eh n s iv e t e r m to d e s crib e th e
r er a r v v e
-

d a tu m in g en er al It w ould app ear th at thi s w ork mu s t

.

h ave d e lt with th e fu ndament l pri n ciples of math ematic s

a a
,

d enitions xi oms &c and th at to i t mu s t b e r e fe re d th e

, a ,
.
, 1

vari ous r emarks on s uch s ubj cts attribute d to A pollon iu s by e

P oclu s th e eluci d ati on of th e n oti on of a li n e th e d e niti on

1 , ,

P app u s, v ii, pp 7 8 0 4. .
 OTH ER LO S T WOR K S 1 93

of pl an e an d solid an gl es an d his attempts to prov e th e axi oms ,

it mu s t al s o h a v e i n clud e d th e thr ee d e n iti ons (1 3 1 5 in

)

E uclid s Da ta which accord i n g to a s ch oliu m w er e d u e to

, ,

A p oll on iu s an d m u s t th er e for e h a v e b een i n t erp ol at d (th ey e

ar e d e n i ti on s of ny p n imyyp w] an d th e el liptic l
'
Kar a

v ,
c e ,

phr as e r pa 6 6 m which means p ar all e l to a str ight li n e

7 a 0 ,

a

giv n ine Pr ob a bly th e s am e w ork al s o cont i n e d a

A polloniu s s lt ern tiv e c on s tructi ons fo th e pr obl ems of

a a r

Eu l I 1 0 1 1 an d 2 3 g i ven by Pr oclu s
c . .
, P appu s s p eak s .

of a men ti on by A p oll on iu s b e for e h is own el em en t s of th e

cl as s of l ocu s c all e d q xn xg an d it m y b e that th e tr ati s e

e e , a e

n ow in qu e s ti on is r e f err e d to r ath er th an th e P la n e Loci

its elf .

w ork O n the Cookli as w s on th e cylin dric al h eli x

(1 ) Th e a .

It i n clud e d th e th eore t i cal gen erati on of th e curv e on th e

s urf c e of th e cyli n d e r
a an d th e pr oof th a t th e curv e is ,

hom oeom e i c o u n ifor m i e s uch th at ny p art w i ll t up on

f
l r , . . a

o c oi n cid e w it h n y oth e r
r a .

w ork Un or d er ed i on a ls is m ent i on e d by
'

(K ) A on Ir r at

Pr oclu s , ch ol i u m on Eu cl X l e xtr act e d fr om P appu s s

an d a s

. .

commen t ary r em ark th t Euclid did n ot d eal w i t h all s a

r ti onals n d irr ti on als but on ly with th i mpl es t ki n ds by

a a a ,
e s

th e c ombi n ati on of which n i n n it n u m b r of irr ati on l a e e a s

e f or me d of which l att er A p oll o n iu s al s o g v e om e

'

ar ,
a s .

To lik e ffe ct i
a p ss age of th e fragm en t of P ppu s s
e s a a a

c ommen t ry on Eu cl X dis cov r e d in an A r abic tran s l t i on

a . e a

by Woepck e it w s A p olloniu w h o b es id e th e or d e ed
:

a s ,
s r

irrati on l m gn itud es s h ow e d th e e xi s ten ce of th e u n or d e ed

a a ,
r ,

an d by a ccu at e m e th od s s t forth great nu mb er of th em

r e a .

Th e hi n t s giv en by th e uth or ofth e c om m en t ry s eem to i m ply a a

th at A pollon iu s s exten s i on s of th e theory of i rr t i onal s took

a

two dir e cti on s (1 ) g en e r li i n g th e m edi l tr a i ght li n of

,
a z a s e

Euclid on th e b a i s th at b etw een tw o li n es c omm en s ur abl e in

, s ,

s qu r e (on ly w e m ay t ak e n ot on ly on s ol m edi al li n e but

a
) ,
e e

thr e o four an d s o on a d i nn i tu m s i n c e w can tak e

e r , ,
e ,

be tw een an y tw o gi v en s tr igh t li n es as m ny l i n es s a ,
a a

w e pl eas e in c on ti n u e d pr op orti on (2 ) for m i n g c omp ou n d ,

irr ti on al s by th e ddit i on and subtr acti on of more than tw o

a a

ter m s of th e s ort c om p os i n g th e bi nomi a ls apotomes &c , , .

0
 OTH ER LO S T WOR K S 1 95

A str on omy .

We told by Pt olemaeu s C h ennu s th at A pollon ius was

ar e 1

fame d for hi s as tronomy an d wa s called (Eps ilon ) beca us e , 6

th e for m of th at l ett e r is s s oci t d with th at of th e moon to a a e ,

which his accurate res earch es pri n cipally r elated H ippolytus .

say s h e ma d e th e di s t an c e of th e moon s circl e from th e s u

r

face of th e earth to be 5 0 0 myri ad s of s tades Thi s gur e .

11

can h a rdly be righ t fo th e di ameter of th e earth b ing , r ,

e ,

acc ordin g to Erat os th en es s e valu ti on ab out e igh t m yri ad s of

a ,

s ta d es thi s w ould mak e th e di s t an c e of th e moon fr om th e

,
.

earth ab ou t 1 2 5 ti mes th e earth s ra diu s Thi s is an u n lik ely

.

gur e s eei ng th at A ri s tarchus h d gi v en limits fo the r at i os

,
'

a r

b e tw een th e di s tanc e of th moon and its di ameter an d e ,

b etw een the di ameters of th e moon and th e earth which lead ,

to a b ou t 1 9 as th e r atio of th e moon s di s t an ce to th e e rth s

a

r a diu s Tannery s ugges ts th a t p erhaps H ippolytu s m de a

. a

m is ta k e in c opy i ng from his s ourc e and took th e gur e of

s tad es to b e th e l en gth of th e r adiu s in s t d of th e ea

d i a m eter of th emoon s orbit

.

Bu t w e h av e b ett er e vid en c e of th e achi ev emen ts of A p ol

lon iu s in as tr onomy I n P t ol emy s S ynta ccis h e app ear s as 3

-
.

an a uth ority up on the h yp oth eses of epicycl es an d e cc en tric s

d s ign ed to accou nt for th appar en t moti on s of the pl an et

e e s .

Th e pr op os iti ons of A p olloni u s qu ote d by P tol emy con ta in

e x act s t at em en t s of th e alt e n ativ hypothes es and from thi s r e ,

fact it w as at on e ti me con clude d that A polloniu s inv en t e d

th e tw o hypoth es es Thi s h ow e v e r is n ot th e c as
. Th e , ,
e .

hypoth es is of epicycles w as lr eady i n vol v ed th ough w ith a ,

r s trict ed applic ati on in th e theory of H er aclid es of Pontu s

e ,

th at th e two i nferi or pl ane ts Mercury and V enus r ev olve in , ,

c i rcl es like s at ellites roun d th e s u n whil e the su n i ts elf ,

r evolves in a circl e r ou n d th e ear th ; th at is the two pl n ets ,

a

d es cribe e picycl es about th m te ri al sun as mov i ng cen tre e a .

I n orde to ex pl ai n the moti on s of th e s up eri or pl an ets by

r

m ean s of epicycl es it w as n e c es sa ry to c on cei ve of an epicycl e

a bout a p oi n t as mov i n g c en tr e which is not a mat eri al bu t

a m th ema tic al p oi n t
a It w a s ome time before thi s ex ten s i on
. s

of th e th eory of e picycl es t ook pl a c e and in th e mean ti m .

,
e

p d P h ot m C od p 151 b 1 8 d B kk r

1
a u iu , . cxc, .
,
e . e e .

2
H ippo] R fut i 8 p 66 d D ck r
. e . v
.
,
Pt ol my S ynt i
.
, ii 1
e . un e .
3
e , ax s , x . .

0 2
1 96 A P OLLO N I U S O F P ER GA

an o th er hypoth es i s th at ofeccen t cs was i nv ent ed to accou n t

,
1 1

for th e mov em ents ofth e s u pe io pl an ts on ly We ar e at thi s i r e .

s t age wh en we c om e to A p oll on i u H is en u n ci ati on s s h ow s .

th at h e un d ers tood th e th eory ofe p i cycl es l n all its gene rality ,

but he s t ates s p ecic ally th at th e th eory ofeccen tr ic s can on ly

b e appli ed to th e thr ee pl an et which can b e at any di s tan c e s

from th e s un Th e r eas on why h ays th at th e ecc en tr i c

. e s

hypoth es i s will not s erv e fo th e i n feri or pl an et s is th at in r ,

ord r to mak e it s erv e w e

e h ould h v e to s upp ose th e circl e
,
s a

d crib ed by the c en tr e of th e ecc entric circle to be gr eater

es

th n the eccen tric circl e it elf (E ven thi s g en erali ati on w s

a s . z a

m ad e l t er at or befor e th e tim e of H ipp archu s ) A p oll on iu s

a ,
.

fu rth er says in h is enun ci tion about th e eccen tric th at th e a

c en tre of the ecc entric circl e m ov s bout the cen tre of th e e a

z odi c in th e dire ct ord e r of th

a s ign s n d a t a speed equ a l to e a

tha t of the s u n whil e th e s t r m ov s on th e e cc en tric about

,
a e

its c ntre in th e i n v er s e ord r of th e s ign s an d at a s p ee d

e e

e qu al to th e an omaly It is cl r from thi s th at the th eory

. ea

of e cc en tric s w as i n v en t ed fo th p ci c purpose of ex pl i n r e s e a

ing th e mov em ent s of M ar s Jup i t er an d S atur n ab out th e , ,

s u n an d for th at purp ose al on Th i s e xpl an ati on c ombi n ed e .

,

with th e u s e of epicycl e bout th e su n as c entr e to accoun t

'

s a

fo th e moti on s of V en u s
r n d M ercury am ou n t e d to th e
a , .

s y s t em of Tych o B r ah e th t s y s t em w as th er efor e anticipate d

a

by s ome one inte m ed i t in d t e b etw een H er aclid es n d

1 a e a a

A p oll oniu s and p ob bly n r r to th e la tt e1 a or it m y ea e 1 , a

h v e been A polloniu s hi m elf w h o took thi s impo1 tant s t p

a s e .

If it was th en A pollon i u s c om in g after A ris tarchu s of

, ,

S m os w ould b e e x actly th Tych o B r ah e of th e C op e rn icu

a ,
e s

of an tiqu ity Th e ctu al pr op os iti ons qu oted by P tol m y as

. a e

pr ov ed by A pollon iu s amon g oth er s s h ow math emati c ally t a

wh at poi nts und er each of th e t w o hyp oth es es the app ar n t

, , e

f orw ard moti on ch ang es i n to pp ar ent r etr ogradati on n d a a

vic e v er sa or th e pl an et pp ear s to be stati on ar y

,
a .
 TH E S UCC ESS O R S O F TH E GR EA T GEO M ETER S

WI TH A rch i me d es an d A p ollon iu s Gr ee k geom e try r ea che d

its cul mi n atin g p oin t . Th er e r em ai n e d d et ai l s to be ll e d
in an d n o doubt in
, w ork s uch s fo ins t n c th e Conics
a a ,
r a e,

g om t er s of the r qui s it c libr e could h v foun d pr op os i

e e e e a a e

tion s c on tain i ng th e g r m of th eori es which w er e cap bl e of

, e a

i n d p en d en t d e v lopm n t But s p eaki ng g en er ally th e fur

e e e .
, ,
,

th er pr ogr s s of g eometry on gen eral li n es w as pr ctic lly

e a a

barr e d by th e r es triction s of me thod an d for m which w er e

i n s ep ar ble fr om th e cl s s ic al Gr ee k geometry Tru e it w s

a a .
,
a

op e n to g e om e t e rs to d i s c ove r n d i n v es tiga t e curv es of a a

high r ord er th n con ic s uch s pir al s c on ch oi ds nd th e

e a s, a s , ,
a

l i k B u t th Gr eeks c ould not g t v ry far ev n on th s

e . e e e e e e

li n es in th e bs en c e of s om e s y s t em ofcoord i n ates an d wi th out

a

fr eer m e n s of m ni pul ati on s uch s

a a af ford e d by m od er n a ar e

alg e br in c on tr ast to th e g eometric l lge br a which could

a, a a ,

on ly d e l wit h e qu ti on s c onn ct i n g li n es ar eas an d v olu m es

a a e , , ,

but i n volvin g n o high r d i men s i on s th an thr ee xc pt in s o e , e e

fa r s th u s e of pr op orti on s
a e llow ed a very p arti l x emp a a e

ti on fr om thi s li m it ti on Th th ore tical method s av ailable

a . e e

en bl e d qu adr tic cubic

a n d bi qu adratic e qu ti on s o th ei r
a ,
a -

a r

e quiv l n t s to b a e s olv d Bu t ll th s olut i on s w r e geometr i

e e . a e e

ca l ; in oth e r w ord s qu n t i ti es c ould on ly b e r e pr e

, n t e d by
a se

lin es r e s and v olu m s o r ti os b etw een them Th ere w as

,
a a e , r a .

n othi n g c orres p on di n g to op e r ati on s with g en e r al alg e br ic l a a

qu n tit i es irr s p ctiv e of wh at th ey r pr es en t ed Th er w r

a e e e . e e e

n o s ym bol s fo s uc h qu n tit i es r I n p articul r th e irrati ona l

a . a ,

w s di s c ov er e d in th e f or m of i n c ommen s ur bl e lin es ; h e n c e
a a

irrati on als came to b e r epre sen t d by s tr aight lin e s s th y e a e

ar e in Euclid B ook X an d th e Gr eek s h ad n o oth er w y of

, ,
a

r epr es enti ng th em It follow e d th t product of tw o irr

. a a a~

tion als c ould on ly be r e pr es en t ed by a r ecta n gle an d o on , s .

Ev en wh en Di oph an tu s c am e to u s e a s y m bol for n u nkn ow n a

 N I C O MEDES 1 99

ta tor s , p eci lly by P ppus an d Eutociu s S ome of

an d es a a .

th es e r e v e ry in t er es ti n g n d it is e viden t fr om th e
a , a

e xtr a ct s from the w orks of s uch writ er s as Di ocles an d

Diony s od or u s th at for s ome time aft er A rchi m ed es an d ,

A p oll on iu s m ath em tici an s h ad a th or ough gras p of the

,
a

cont en t s of th e w orks of th e gr e t geometer s n d w ere able a ,

a

to u se th e pri n cipl es an d m et hod s l aid d ow n th e r e i n with

eas e an d s kill .

Tw o g eome t ers prop erly b e l on gi ng to thi s ch pt e r h av e a

a lr ea dy b een d ealt with Th r s t is N I C OM E DE S th e i n v en t or . e ,

of th e c on ch oid w h o w a s bout int erme diat e in d t betw een

, a a e

Er at os th en es an d A p oll on iu s Th c on ch oid h s a lr e dy b een . e a a

des crib d bov e ( ol 1 pp 2 3 8

e a It g v gen er l method
v .
, . a e a a

of s olvi n g an y o g wh e r e on e of th e li n es which cut of

ve
-
f n
L a

i nte rcept of giv en l ength on th e lin e v ergi ng to given poi n t a

is s tr igh t li n e ;
a a n d it was u s e d b oth for th e n d i n g of tw o
a

m ean pr op orti on a l an d fo th tri se cti on of ny an gl e th ese s r e a ,

problems b ei n g alik e re ducibl e to a il s of this kin d H ow ve at

.

far N c om e d es di s cu s s d th e pr op rti s of th e curve in it lf

1 e e e se

is u n c ert i n ; w e on ly k n ow from Pa ppu s th at h e pr ov e d two

a

prop rti (1 ) th at th e s o call d rul er in th in s tru m n t for

e es , -
e

e e

c on s tructi n g th e cu e is n as ymptot (2 ) that any s traigh t r v a e,

lin e dr w n in th e s pace be tw een the rul er or s ymptote nd

a

a a

th e c on ch oid m u s t i f pr oduc e d b e cut by th e c on ch oid

,
Th e ,
.
1

e qu ati on of th e curv e r e f err e d to p ol ar c oordi n at s is s we e , a

h av e s een r a + b s ec 0 A cc ordi ng to Eutociu Nicomed s

, . s, c

prid d hi ms lf i nord i n t ely on h is d i s cov ery of thi s curve

e e a ,

con tr sti n g it with Er atos th en e s s m ech an i s m for n di ng ny

a

a

n u mb e r of mean pr op orti on al s to w hi ch h e obj e ct e d form lly ,

a

an d t l en gth on th gr ou n d th at it was i m pr cticabl an d

a e a e

en tir ely out s id e th e s pir i t of g eom e try .

N icom e d cs is as s oci at e d by Pappu s with Dinos t tu s th ra , e

broth e r of Men aech mu s an d oth rs as h avi ng appli d to th ,

e e e

s qu ari n g of th e circl e th e curv e i n v en t d by H ippi as an d e

know n as th e qu ad a tr i ac which wa originally i n t nd d for r ,

3
s e e

th purp os e of tri s ecti n g any an gl e

e Th es e facts a e all th at . r

w e k n ow of Nicom e d es s achi ev emen ts

.

1
P ppu i p 244 2 1 8
a s, v, . . .

2
E to u o A rch i m d
c . O thn Sph d Cyl d A h im d e es , n e er e an zn ez , 1c e es ,
v ol iii p 98
. , . .

3
P ppu a pp 2 5 0 3 3 2 5 2 4
s , l v, C f ol 1 p 2 25 q
. .
. . . v .
, . s .
200 S U C C ESS OR S O F TH E GR EA T GEOM ETER S

Th e Se c on d name is th at of DI OC LE S We lr eady . h av e a

(v ol i pp 2 6 4 6 ) seen him a s th e di s c ov er e r
.
, .
of th e curv e

k n own as th ci ss oi d which h e u s d to s olv th e pr obl em

e ,
e e

of th e tw o m e n prop ort i on l s an d al s o (pp a 4 7 9 a b ov ) a ,

.
e

a s th a uth or of a m th od of s olvi n g th
e e qui va l en t of e e

a c rt i n cubic qu ti on by means of th i n t ers cti on

e a e a e e

of an ellip s e and a hyp e rb ol We a e i n d bt d fo ou a . r e e r r

i n formati on on b oth th es e s ubj ect s to Eu tociu s w h o t lls ,

1
e

u s th at th e frag m en t s which h e qu ot e c m fr om Di ocles s

s a e

w ork pi p i w On bu n i ng mi r o s Th e c on n exi on of
7r nv e a ,
r r r .

th tw o thi n gs with th s ubj ct of thi s tr t i s is n ot obvi ou s

e e e ea e ,

a n d we m
y p rh p s i n f r th t it w as
a w ork of c on i d er abl e
e a e a a s

s cop Wh t ex ctly w er e th e for ms of th e burn i ng m i rror

e . a a -
s

d i cu s d in th e tr eat i s e it is n ot p oss i bl to s y b ut it is
s s e e a ,

prob bly safe to ss u m th t m on g th em w r e c on c ve

a a e a a e a

mirror s in th for m s (1 ) of s ph er (2 ) of p r b ol oi d n d
e a e, a a a ,
a

(3 ) of th e s urf c d e crib d by th e r ev olu ti on of n llips e

a e s e a e

a bout its m j or xi s Th uthor of th F agmen ta m m a the

a a . e a e r ~

ma ti ou m B obi en se y s th t A p ollon iu s in his book On the sa a

bu n i n g mi o di s cu s s d th e c s e of th e c on c v e s ph ric al
r -
r r r e a a e

m irror s h ow i n g about wh t p oi n t i gn i ti on w ould t ak e pl c e ;

,
a a

a n d i t is c ert ai n th t A p oll on iu s w s w r th at n ll i p s e h s
a a a a e a e a

th e pr op rty of r efle ct i ng all r y thr ough on e focu s to th e

e a s

oth er f ocu s N o is i t l i ke ly th at th e c orr s p on d i n g pr op erty

. r e

of par bola w i th r efer n ce to ray s p r ll el to th e xi s w as

a a e a a a

un know n to A p ollon iu s Di ocl s th r efor e writi n g c entury . e e , a

o mor
r l t r th n A p olloniu s could h rdly h a v e fail ed tp
e a e a , a

d eal w i th ll thre cases Tru e A n th miu (di e d a bout

a e .
,
e s

A D 5 3 4 in h is fr ag men t on bur n i n g m i rr or s y s th at th e
. .
) -
sa

an ci en t s wh i l m n ti on ing th e u s u al burn i ng m irr or nd

, e e -
s a

s ay i n g th a t uch gur s con ic s cti on s om i tt e d to s p ecify

s e ar e e ,

which c onic s e cti on s an d h ow pr oduc d n d gav e n o geo , e , a

m trical pr oofs of th eir prop e rt i es

e B u t if th e pr op rti es . e

w r e common ly know n nd qu oted it is obvi ous th t th y

e a , a e

mu s t h v e b een prov ed by th e an ci en t s an d th e e xpl an ti on

a , a

of A n th miu s s r em rk is pr s u m bly th a t th e origi n l w ork s

e a e a a

in which th ey w er e pr ov e d (e g th os e of A p olloniu s and . .

Di ocl es ) w er e alr eady l os t wh en h e wr ote Th e r app r s to . e ea

b e no tra c e of Diocl es s w ork l e ft e i th e r in Gr eek or A rabic

1
E utociu s , loc . ci t , .
p 66 8
. . sq .
, p 1 60 3
. . s q.
 DI OC LES 20 1

unl ess w e hav efrag men t fr om it in th e Fr agmen ta m

-
a

ma themati cu m B obi e nse Bu t Mos l em w 1 iter s r egard e d Di ocl es

.

a s th e di s c ov e r er ofth e p ar ab olic burn i ng mirror n ci en t s

; th

-
e a ,

s ys
a l S i ngari (S ach awi
a mad e mirrors of pl an e
,

s urf ac s eS ome mad e th em c on c av e (i e s ph e ric al ) u n til

. . .

Diocl es (Diuklis ) s h ow e d an d prov e d tha t if the s urf ce of ,

a

th es e mirrors h as its cu 1 atu r e th e form of a p arabola they

v 1 11 ,

th en h av e th e greates t pow e r an d burn mos t s t1 0 ngly Th re . e

is a w ork on this s ubj e ct c omp os e d by I bn al H aith m Thi s a .

w 0 1 k s urvi v es in A r abic an d in Lati n trans l ati on s nd is ,

a

r produc e d by H e ib erg an d Wi edemann ; it d oes not h ow

e 1
,

e v e r me n ti on th e n ame of Di ocl s but on ly th ose of A rc h i

, e ,

m ed es an d A n th emiu s I bn l H aith am s ay s th t famou s

. a a

men li k e A rchi me d es an d A nth mius h ad u s e d mirrors mad e e

up of n u mb er of s ph erical rings ; afterw ards h e a dds th ey

a , ,

cons id e re d th e for m of cu ves which w ould r ee ct r ys to on e

r a

p oin t and fou n d tha t th e c on c v e s urface of a par boloid of

, a a

r evoluti on h as thi s prop rty It is curious to n d I bn al e .

H ith am s ayin g th at th e n ci en ts h ad not s et ou t th e proofs

a a

s ufci en tly n or th e me th od by which th ey di s c ov r e d th em

, e ,

w ord s which almos t ex actly r call thos e of A n th emius hi ms lf e e .

N e v erth e les s th e wh ol e c our s e of I bn al H aitham s pr oofs is

-

on th e Gr ee k model A p oll on iu s b ei n g a ctually qu ot d by n am e

,
e

in th e pr oof of th e m ai n pr op rty of th e p arab ol r qui r e d e a e ,

n am ly t h t th e t an gen t
e a t any p oin t of th e cur v mak s a e e

e qu l a n gl es with th e f oc l di s t an c e of th e p oin t
a n d th e
a a

s tr ight li n e dr aw n thr ough it p r all e l to th e a xi s

a A proof a .

of th e pr op e rty a ctu ally s urvi ves i n th e Gr eek Fr agmen ta m

m athem ticu m B obi en se which vid en tly c ame fr om s ome

a ,
e

tr eati se on the p ar ab olic burn in g mirr or ; but I bn al H ith m - -

a a

do s n ot s eem to hav e h ad e ven thi s fr ag men t at his d i s p osal

e ,

s in c ehis pr oof t ak es a d i ffer en t c our se di s ti ngui s hi n g thr ee ,

differ en t cas es r educi ng th prop erty by analy s i s to the

,
e

known prop erty A N A T and then w orking out the s yn :

,

th es i s Th e proof i n the Fr gmen ta m i s w orth gi vin g It I S

. a .

s ub s t n ti ally as foll ow s begi n n i n g with th e pr e li mi nary l emm

a ,
a

t h t if P T the t angent at n y p oi n t P meet s th e axis at T

a , ,
a , ,

an d if A S be meas ur ed a l on g th e a x i s fr om th e ve rt e x A .

e qu al to %A L w h er e A L is th e p ar met e r t h en SP
,
ST a ,
.

1
B ibli otheca mathematica, x, ,
1 9 1 0 , pp 20 1 3 7 . .
 DI O C LES . PER S EUS 203

a b ov s h ow n be p r ov ed to bri n g ab out igniti on at th e p oin t

e ,

i n dic t e d a .

H e ib erg h eld th at th e s tyl e of thi s fr agment is By n ti ne z a

an d th a t it is pr ob ably by A n th emiu s Cant or c onj e ctur e d .

that h er w e might a ft er ll h v e an ex tract fr om Diocles s

e , a , a

w ork H eiber g s s upp os iti on s eems to me un tenabl becau se

.

e

of th e uthor s u se 1 ) of th e an ci en t te rms s e ction of

a

a right ngled cone fo p rabola and diameter for axi s

-
a r a

(to s y n othi ng of th e us e of th e p ar amet er of which th er e is

a
,

n o w ord in th e g enui n e frag m en t of A n themiu s

) an d (2 ) of ,

th e m ix e d angl es of c on t ct N or d oes it seem lik e ly th at

a .

e v en Di ocl es li vi n g a c entury fter A p olloniu s w ould h av e

, a ,

s p ok en of th e s e cti on of a right an gled c on e i n s t ead of a

-

p r bol or u sed the mix d an gle of which th er e is only th e

a a a,

e

m r s t ur v i val in Euclid Th as s u mpti on of th e e qu lity

e e s . e a

of th e tw o angl es mad e by th e curv e wit h th e t n gen t on a

both s id s of th e p oi n t of con t ct r emin ds u s of A ri s totl e s

e a

as s u mpti on of th e e qu ality of th e angl e s

f a s egmen t of

o
i

a ci l as pri or to th e truth pr ov ed in Eucl I 5

r c e I am . . .

i n cli n d th ere for e to d t e th e fr g ment much earli er e v n

e , ,
a a e

th an Di ocle s Z euth en sugges t ed th at the property of th e ]

.

par b oloi d l mirr or may h ave b een di s c ov er ed by A rchi m d s

a a e e ,

w h o acc ordi ng to a Gr eek tr di ti on wrot e Catoptr i c

,
Thi s a ,
a .
,

how e ve r d oes n ot rec ei v e any con rmati on in I bn al H ai tham

,
-

or in A n th emiu s an d we can on ly s ay th at th e frag men t ,

t a

le s t goes back to an origi na l which w s probably n ot l te r

a a a

than A poll oniu s .

P ER S E U S is only k n ow n from a llu s i ons to him in P r oclu s 1

, ,

as th e di s c ove r e r an d i n v es tig t or of th e spi r ic s ecti on s Th y a . e

ar e c lass e d by P r oclu s amon g curv es obt ai n e d by cutti ng

s olid s an d in thi s r es p e ct th y
,
ass oci at e d with th e c on ic e ar e

se c ti on s We may safely i n f er th a t th ey wer e d i s cov ere d

.

aft r th e con ic section s an d on ly fter the th eory of c on ics

e ,
a

had b een cons id er a bly dev lop d Thi s w as alr eady th e c a e e e . s

in Euclid s time an d it is pr ob abl th e re for e that Pe r s eu s w s

e, , a
,

not e rli r th an Eucli d

a e On th e oth e r h an d by th a t ti me . ,

th e i n v es tig ti on of c on ic s h ad br ought th e e xp on en t s of th e
a

s ubj e ct s uch fame t h at it w ould b e n tur al for math e atici n s

m a a

to s e e wh e th er th er e was not an opp ortu nity for w i nn i ng a

Proclu o Eu l I pp 1 1 1 2 3 1 1 2 8 3 5 6 1 2 Of ol i p 2 2 6
1 v
s n c .
, . . .
, . . . .
,
. .
20 4 S U C C ESS OR S O F TH E GR EA T GE O M ETER S

lik r en ow n s dis cov er ers of oth er curves to b e obtai n ed by

e a

cutti ng w e ll kn ow n s olid gur es oth er th an th con e an d

-
e

cylin d er A p rt i cular c s of on e s uch s olid gur th

. a a e e, e

on ip e h d lr eady b een mpl oy e d by A rchyt as an d th e m or e

a, a a e ,

g en eral for m of i t w ould n ot u nn tur lly b th ought of s a a e a

l i kely to give s cti on s w orthy of in v s tig ti on S i n c G mi n u

e e a . e e s

i s P r oclu s s u th o ty P er s eu s m ay h v e l i v e d t ny d at e from

a 1 1 ,
a a a

Eucl i d s ti me to (s y ) 7 5 B C but th e m o t pr ob abl e s upp os i

a . s

t i on em s to be th t h cam b efor e A poll on iu s an d n e r to

se a e e a

Eucl i d in d t e a .

Th e spi e in on of its form s is wh at w c ll a tor e o

r e n e a ,
r a

a n ch or r i n g
-
It is g en rated by th e r e v oluti on of a circle
. e

ab out s tr a i ght li n e in i ts pl n e in s uch

a w y th at th pl an a a a e e

of th e circl e lw y s p s thr ough th e

a xi s of re voluti on It
a as s e a .

t k es thr for ms accordin g s th axi s of r e voluti on is

a ee a e

(a) lt oge th r outs id th e circl e wh en th s pir is open

a e e , e e

(S xg) (b) t n g n t to th circl e wh n th s u r f ac e is con

te ,
a a e e , e e

ti n u ou s o (c) ch ord of the circle wh en it is i n ter

r a ,

laced or cr oss i ng -
i tself an

a ltern ativ n m fo th e s urf ce w s p os

e a e in g r P r eu s a a K

LK

,
a r . e s

c el ebr at d his d i cov ery in an epigr am to th e effect th t

e s a

P er s e u on h is di s cov ery of thr ee l i n e (curv ) up on e

s s es v

s e ct i on s ga v th n k s to th e g od th r for Th er is s ome

1
e a s e e . e

doubt b out th e m an i n g of thr ee li n es u pon secti on s

a e

ve

W g ath r from P oclu s s

( p i s y p / pas n i n op is)


T e a r e ur e T a . e e r

a ccou nt of thr e s cti on s di tinguis h ed by Pe rs e u th t the

e e s s a

pl n of s ecti on w s lw ays p r all l to th e xi s of r e voluti on

a e a a a e a

o p erp n d i cul ar to th e pl n wh ich cut s th e t or

r e
y mm et i a e e s r

cally lik e th e divi s i on in s pl i t ri ng It is difficult to i n ter a -

.

pr et th phr se if it me ns thr e curves mad by e di ffer ent

e a a e e v

s cti on s
e P r oclu i n d e d i mpli es th t th e thr ee curv e w er e
. s e a s

s e cti on s of th e thr ee ki n d s of t or e r es p e ctiv ly th e op en th

( e ,
e

clos ed an d th i n te rl ced) but th i s is e vid n tly a s lip

,
e a , e .

Tann ery i n t erpr et s th e p h r s e a s m ean i n g three curv es i n a

a d d i ti on to s e cti on s Of th es e th e e s e cti on s b el ong

ve v

to th e op n t or in which th e di s t an c e (0 ) of th e c en tre of th
e e, e

g en r ti ng circl fr om th e axi s of r ev oluti on is gr eat r than

e a e e

th e r diu s (a ) of the g n er ati ng circl

a If d be th pe pen e e . e r

Procl o E
1
l I p 112 2 us n uc .
, . . .

S T ry M moi
2
i tiq
ee I I pp 2 4 8
ann e , r es s c en nes , , .
.
 PER S EU S 20 5

d icul ar d i s tan ce of th e pl an e of secti on fr om th e i

ax s of r ot a

i
t on , w e can di s ti ngui s h the foll owi ng c as es

(1 ) c He r e th e curv e is an o a v l .

(2 ) d tran s iti on fr om c as e (1 ) to th e next cas e

0 : .

(3 ) c d > c Th e curv e is n ow
acl osed curve n rr ow es t
. a a

i n th e m i ddle .

(4 ) d c a . In thi s cas e th e cur ve is th e hippoped e

(h or s e f tt r) a curv in th e s hap of th e gure of 8 Th
e e
,
e e . e

l mn i s cat of Ber n oulli is a p arti cul r c e of thi s curv e th t

e e a as
,
a

n m ly in w h ich c
a e 2a .

(5 ) c In th i s c as e th e se cti on cons i s ts of tw o
v l y mm etrical with
o a s s on e an o th er .

Th e thr ee curv es s p eci d by Pr oclu s

e ar e thos corr es pon d
e

ing to (3 ) an d
W h en t ore is c on tin u ou s o closed 0 a n d w h v
th e
r , ,
a e a e

e ct i on c orr e p on di ng to
s s
(2 ) n d (3 ) on ly ; (4 ) r e duc es to
s a

tw o circl es t ouchi n g on e n oth er a .

B u t Tann e ry n d in th e third th e i n t erl c ed form of t or e

s , a ,

thr ee n e w sect i on c orres pon di ng to (1 ) (2 ) s ea ch with n a

ov l in th e m iddl e
a Th i s w ould m k thr ee curv . in addi a e es

t i on to th s ecti on o e i ght curves in all W cann ot b

e ve s, r . e e

c rt i n th t thi s is th e tru expl n t i on of th e phras e i n th e

'

e a a e a a

e pigr am ; but it e em to b e th e b s t s ugg es t i on th t h s

s s e a a

been mad e .

A cc ordi n g to Pr oclu s P e r se u w ork e d ou t th e prop rty of ,

s e

h is curv e s as N icom ed cs d i d th t of th e c on ch oid H i ppi s

,
a , a

th t of th e qu a d r at i
a n d A p oll on i u s th os of th e thr e
r c
e, a e e

c on ic s ecti on s Th at is P r s u m u st h av g i v en in s om
.
,
e e s e , e

for m th e quiv l n t of th e C art e i n e qu ti on by which w e

,
e a e s a a

can r e pr es en t th e di ffe r en t curv e s in qu e t i on If we r e fer th e s .

t ore to thr ee ax es ofcoord i n ates at r i ght ngl es to on e noth er a a

with th e c en tr e of th e t or e s origi n th x i s of y b ei n g t k en a ,
e a a

to b e th e x i s of r e v olut i on
a n d th os e of b ing p p n ,
a z ,
as e er e

d icu la to it in th plan e bi s e cti n g th e t ore (m ki n g it

r e s plit a a

rin g) th e e quati on of th e tor e is

,

a2 2
 I S OPER I METR I C FI GUR ES . Z EN ODOR US 207

th emsel ves s o that w hile they got a reputati on for great e r

, ,

h on es ty t hey in fact took m or th an th eir s h ar e of th e

, e

produce S ev er al r emark by an ci en t a uth ors show th e

.
1
s

pr ev al en ce of the same mi s c on ce pti on Thucy clid es es timates .

th e s i z e of S icily a cc or di ng to th e t i me r equir ed for circu m

n av ig ati n g it A b ou t 1 3 0 Polybiu s ob s er ve d that t her e
.
2

w er e p eople who could not un d er s tan d th at c amp s of the s ame

p eriphery might h av e differ en t c ap citi es Qui ntili an has a a .
3

s i mil a r r ema rk and C an t or thi n k s h e ma ,

y hav e h ad in his
mi n d the c alcul ations of P li n y w ho c omp ar es th e s i z e of
'

different p arts of the earth b y ddi ng th eir l ength s to t heir -

br ea dth s .
1

wrot e at s ome d t betw een (s ay) 2 0 0

Z ENODO R U S an d ,
a e

A D 9 0 a tr eati se n On i sometr i c
pi ioop pm o
'
. .
, e er v

gu r es A n u mb er of prop o i ti on s from it ar e pr eserve d in

. s

th e c ommen t ary of Th eon of A le x n dr ia on B ook I of a

P t ol emy s Syn tazcis ; and th e y e r pr oduc e d in Latin in th e

ar e

third v olume of H ul tsch s dit i on of Pappu s for the purpose

e ,

of c omp ari s on with P ppu s s ow n e xp os iti on of th e same

a

prop os iti on s at th e begi nn in g of h is Book V whe re he app ear s ,

to h av e foll ow e d Z en od o u pr e tty cl osely while maki n g s ome r s

ch ang es in d etail Fr om th e clos n ess with which the s tyl e

.
5
e

of Z enod or u s follow s th at of E uclid an d A chimed es w e may 1

j udge th at hi s dat e wa s n ot m uch l ater th an th at of A chi 1

m e d es wh om h e men ti on s as th
,
uth or of the p1 opos ition e a

(M ea su 1 emen t ofa C ir cle P r op 1 ) th t th e area of a circl e ,

. a 1s

h alf th at of th e r ect n gl e con t ine d by the p eri meter of the a a

circle an d its radi u s Th e i m por t n t propos itions proved by . a

Z enod o u s a nd P appu s i n clud e th e foll owi ng

r (1 ) Of a ll :

r egu lar polygons o fp equ a l er i m eter , that i s the gr eates t in

ar ea which ha s the mos t a n gles
(2 ) A ci r cle is gr eater tha n .

a n y r egu la r polygon of equ a l con tou r (3 ) Ofall p olygons of .

the same n u mber ofsid es a n d equ a l per imeter the equ ila ter a l
a n d equ i a ngu la r polygon i s the gr ea tes t i n a r ea Pappu s .

add e d th e furth er pr op os iti on th a t Of a ll segments o f a cir cle

havi n g the same ci r cu mfer en ce the s emici r cle i s the gr eatest i n

1
r clu on E l
P o s uc . I , p 4 03 5 sq
. . .
2
T huc . vi: 1 .

3
Polybi u ix 2 1 s, . .
4
P li yn ,
H is t . nat vi
. . 2 08 .

p 308 sq
5
Pappu s , v, . .
 S U C C ESS O R S O F TH E GR EA T GEOM ETER S
'

208

ar ea . Z en od or us tr eati s e w s not confin ed to prop os iti ons

s a

a bout pl an e gur es but ga v l s o th e th or em th a t Of a l l

,
e a e

a r e equ a l , the sp her i s the

s olid
figu r es the su r f a ces o fwh ich e

gr ea tes t i n s oli d con te n t .

We will bri ey in dicat e Z en od or u s s m ethod of proof To

.

beg i n w ith (1 ) l et A B C DE F be e qu i l at er al an d e qu i angular ,

polygon s of the s me p ri meter DE F h vi n g mor ngl

'

a e a e a es
,

th an A B C Let G H b th centr es of th e c i rcums crib in g

.
,
e e

c i rcl s GK H L th e p rpen d i culars fr om G H to th s id

e , ,
e ,
e es

A B DE o th t K L bi ct th os e s id s
, , s a ,
se e .

S in c e th e p er i m t rs e e ar e e qu al ,
AB DE ,
an d AK DL .

M ak e K M e qu l to DL
j oi n GM a an d .

S i n c A B i th e am e fr ct i on of th
s p ri met r th t th
e s a e e e a e

an gl A GB i s of four r i ght an gl es n d DE i th e
e me fr ct i on , a s sa a

of th e s m p r im et er th t the n gl DH E is of four right

a e e a a e

an gl s it foll ow s th t
e ,
a

A B z DE : A A GB z A DH E ,

th at is ,
AK : MK : A A GK A DH L .

Bu t AK z M K > A A GK z A IlI GK

(thi s ily pr ov d in
is lemm followi n g by th e u ual
ea s e a a s

m th od of dr aw i n g an
e c of circl w ith G s cen tr e nd GM ar a e a a

as r d i u s cutti n g GA
a n d C K pr oduc e d Th e pr op o iti on is of a . s

cour equiv len t to tan or t n 6 or / B wh er % n or B)

se a a , e .

Th r e for e A M GK A DH L
e ,

an d c on s e qu en tly A GM K A H DL .

M k e th e ngl NM K qu al to th e an gl e H DL s o th t MN
a a e e , a

mee ts K G pr oduce d in N .
 Z EN O DOR U S 9

Th e tri angl es N MK H DL r e n ow e qu al in all r es p ect s an d

, a ,

N K is e qu al to H L s o th at GK HL , .

B u t th e ar ea of th e p olyg on A BC is h alf th e r ect ngl e a

con t in e d by GK n d th e p erimet er while th e r ea of th

a a , a e

p olyg on DE F i h alf th r ectan gl e cont i ne d by H L n d

s e a a

th e sam p eri m t r e Th er e for e th e ar e of th e p olygon DE F

e e . a

is th e gr eat e r .

'

(2 ) Th e proof th at a circl e i gr eat er th an an y egu l s

r ar

p olygon with th e same p erimet r is d duce d i mmedi t ely fr om e e a

A rchi me d es s pr op o iti on th t th e rea of a circl e is e qu l

s a a a

to th e right n gl d tri n gl e with p erp end icul ar s id e equ l to

-

a e a a

th e r a d i u s n d ba e qu al to th
a p erimeter of th e circl e ;
se e

Z en od o u s i n s ert proof in eccten s o of A rchi med e s p o

r s a s r

p os iti on with prel i min ry l mma Th e p erp en dicul r fr oth

,
a e . a

th c en tr e of th e c i rcl e circu m s cr i bin g th e p olyg on i e s ily

e s a

pr ov ed to b e l es s th an th e r d i u s of the giv en c i rcle with a

p ri meter equ al to that of th e polyg on wh en c e the prop os iti on

e

follow s .

(3 ) Th e pr oof of thi pr op os iti on d p en d on s om e p e s e s r

li mi n ary l mm as Th e r s t pr oves th t if th er e be two

e . a ,

tri ngles on th e same b as e n d w i th th e

a a

s m
a p r i meter on e b ei ng i so cel es an d
e e ,
s

th e oth e r s c l en e th e i s os c el es tri an gl e
a ,

h as th e gr e at er r e (Giv en th e s c l en e
a a . a

tri an gle BB C on th e base B C it is s y to ,

ea

draw on B C as bas e th e i s o cel es triangl e s

h vi ng th e same per i meter We h v

a . a e

on ly to t k e B H e qu al to
a DC ) ,

bi s ect BC at E nd erect t E th e pe ,
a a r

p en dicu l a A E uc hrth t A E E sH BE ) a
2 2 Z
.

P r oduc e BA to F s o th at B A A F n d j oi n A D DF ,
a , .

Th en B D + DF B F i e BA + A O i e B D + D C by hyp o , . .
,
. .
,

th e i ; th er efor e DE DC wh enc in th e tri ngles FA D

s s ,
e a ,

CA D th e ngl e FA D a th an gl e CA D e .

Th er efor e A FA D A FA C

A B CA .

Mak e th e gle FA G e qu l to the ngl BOA or A BC

an a a e ,
so

that A G is parallel to B C ; l et BD pr oduc ed me et A G in G,

an d j oin GC .

1 52 3 2.
 Z EN O DO R U S 211

N ow , by hyp oth es i s, DB BA GB BF ;
th r e for e
e DB BA HB BF HF .

By an ea s y l emma si n c e the tri ngl es DE

, a A BC ar e s i mil ra ,

(DB BA ) (DL AK )
2
(B I; BK )
2

(DL
2 2
AK ) LK .

T h er efore (DL AK 2
) LK 2
H F2

wh enc e DL AK GL FK ,

an d it f oll ow th at s AF GD .

But BK th ere for e A F BK GD BL

BL . .

H en c e th e h ollow n gl e d (gu ) (

Aoy bw o ) A B FC
-
a re

K Ot c v is
greate r th an the h oll ow an gl e d (gur e) GE DB -
.

A ddi n g A DE B A BFC to e ch w e h av e a ,

A DE B + A A B C A GE B + A FB O .

b ov e is th e on ly c as t k n by Z en od o u s The proof
Th e a e a e r .

s till h old s if EB B C s o th a t BK BL B u t i t f i l s in th e
,
. a

c se in w hi ch E B BC and th e vertex G of th e tr i ngle EB

a a

bel ongi ng to th e n on s i m ilar p i r is s till ab ov e D n d n ot

-

a a

below it (as F is b elow A in the pre ced i n g c se) Thi s w as a .

no d oubt th e r eas on why P ppu s g v a proof i n t en d e d to a a e

apply to all th c s s w i th out d i s ti n cti on Th i s proof is th

e a e . e

s am as th e
e bove proof by Z en od o u s up to the p oi nt wher
a r e

it is proved th at
BL + A K GL + FK ,

but th er e d i ve rges Un fortunat ely th e t ext is b d n d gives

. a ,
a

no s uf
c i en t i n dic ti on of th c our s e of th e pr oof ; but i t w ould
a e

se em th at P appu s u s e d th e r e l ati on s

DL GL : A DE B z A GEB ,

AK 2
z DL2 : A A B C : A DE B ,

c ombin ed of cour s e with th e f ct th at GB + B F a DB + B A ,

in ord r to prov e th e pr op os iti on th at

e ,

acc ordi ng as DL + A K o GL + FK r ,

A DE B + A A B C or A GE B + A FB C .

P 2
21 2 S U C C ES S O R S O F TH E GR EA T GE O ME TER S

Th e pr oof of h is pr o p o s it i on wh t e v e r i t w as P ppu s
,
a ,
a

i n dic t s th t he w i ll giv l at er ; but in th e t ext as w e h a ve t

a e a e
1

th e promi s e is n ot fulll d e .

h
T e n f oll ow s th pr oof th t thee m x i m u m p olyg on of giv en
a a

p ri m t r is b oth e qu i l t r l an d
e e e a e a

e qu i n gul r a a .

( 1 ) It is qu i l t r l e a e a .

Fo i f n ot l t tw o id of th

r e s es e
, ,

m x i m u m p olygon s A B BC b
a ,
a , ,
e

u n qu l Joi n A C n d on A C as e a .
,
a

b dr w th i o c l s tr i ngl A FC as e a e s s e e a e

s uch th t A F FC A B + BC Th a . e

re of th e tr i ngle A FC is th en
'

a a a

gr t er th n the r of th e tr i ngl A B C an d th e are of

ea a a ea a e ,
a

th e wh ol polygon h b n i n cr s d by th e con st uc
e as ee ea e r

ti on wh i ch i i m pos s ibl e
: s by hypoth es i th e r a i a ,
as s a e s

m xi m u m
a .

S i mil rly i t can b e pr ov ed th at n o oth r s i d is u n qu l

a e e e a

to ny oth r
a e .

(2 ) It is l s o eq u i ngu l r
a a a .

Fo i f p os s i bl e l t th
r , ,
polygon A B CDE (which
e e ma x i m u m
w h ve pr ove d to b e quil at er al) e a e

h v e th n gl t B gr e t er th n a e a e a a a

th e n gl e t D Th n B A C DEC a a . e , ar e

n on s i mil r i s os c e l es tri n gl es On -

a a .

A C ( E s ba e s d es crib e th e two

,
a s

i o c l tr i angles FA C GE O s i milar s s e es ,

to on e n oth er wh i ch h v e th e um a a s

of th eir p ri m t r e qu l to the e e e s a

s u m of th e p e r i me t e r s of BA C ,

DE C Th n th e s u m of th e re s of th e tw o i mil r i s os cel es
. e a a s a

tr i ngl es is gr eate r th n th e su m of th e re s of th e tr i angles

a a a a

BA C DE C ; th e r e of th e p olyg on is th e r e for i n cr eased

,
a a e ,

w hich is c on tr ry to th e hyp oth es i s

a .

H en c n o tw o n gl es of th e p olyg on can b e u n equ al

e a .

Th e max i mu m p olyg on of gi v en p eri met er is th er e fore both

equil t eral nd equi angul r
a a a .

Dealin g with th e s ph ere in r elati on to o th er so lids having

 Z EN O DO R U S . H Y P S I C LES 213

the ir s urfac es e qual to th at of th e s ph er e Z en od o us conn ed , r

hi ms e lf to pr ovin g ( 1 ) th at th e s ph ere is gre ter if the other a

s oli d wi th s urf c e e qu al to th t of th e s ph e r
a is s olid for me d a e a

by th e re v oluti on of r egul r polygon abou t di meter a a a a

bi se cti ng it s in A rchi me des O n the Sphe e a n d Cyli n d

.
a , r er ,

Book I an d (2 ) th t th e s ph er e is gre t er th n n
,
y of a a a a

th e r egula r s olid s h vi ng its s urf c e e qu l to th t of th a a a a e

s ph e r e .

P ppu s s tre t men t of the s ubj ect is mor e c ompl et in th t

a a e a

h e pr ov es th at th e s ph r i s gr e ate r th n th e c on o cyli n d r e e a e r e

th e s ur fac of which is e qu l to th t of th s ph r e n d fur th r

e a a e e , a e

th at of th v e r egular s olid which ha v th e s ame s urf ce

e s e a

th at which h as mor e f ces is th e greate r a .

1

H YP SI C L ES (s e con d
h alf of s econ d c n tury B C ) h s lready e . . a a

b een m en tion e d (v ol
i pp 4 1 9 2 0 ) th e au th o of th e con .
, .

as
'

tin u tion of th e E leme nt k n ow n as B ook XI V

a H e is qu ot d s . e

by Di oph an tus as h vi ng given a d en i tion of a polygonal a

n u m b e r as f oll ow s :
1

If the r e e m n y n u m b e rs as w pl e s b gi nn in g from
ar as a e a e e

1 an d i n cr e s i n g by th e s am e com m on die n c th en wh n '

a re e, ,
e

th e c omm on d i ff r en c is 1 th e s u m of ll th e n u mb e r is
e e , a s

a tri ngul r n u m ber ; wh en 2 a qu r ; wh n 3 p en t gon l

a a ,
s a e e , a a a

n u m b er
[ n d s o on ] A n d th e n um b r of n gl es is c ll ed
a . e a a

afte r th e n u m b r whi ch ex ce ed tl comm on differen ce by 2

e s _
1e ,

s id e a ft e r th e n u m b e r of t e rm i n cludin g l

an d th e s .

Thi s deni ti on amou n ts to s y i n g th at the nth a gon l nu m a -

a

b e (1 c ou n ti n g s th e r s t) is $ 1 { 2 (n 1 ) (a If s is
'

r a .
, a

pr ob bl H yps icles wrote tr eati se on p olygonal n umbers it

a e, a ,

h s n ot urviv ed
a On th e oth er h an d th A opm 6 s~ (A s cen
s .
,
e ua

s i on es ) k n ow n by h is n m e h s s urviv e d in Gr ee k w ell as in a a as

A r bic a nd h s b e n e dit e d wit h tr an s l ti on

,
a a Tru th e
e a .
2
e,

tr eatis (if it r lly b by H y ps icles n d not clu m y ffort

e ea e ,
a a s e

by a b egi nn e r w orkin g from an origi n l by H ypsicles) a

d oes no cre di t to its uth or ; but it is in s ome r s p ects a e

i n ter s ti ng n d in p rticul r be c au s e it is th e r s t Gre k

e ,
a a a e

1
u
Papp s , v, r
P ops 1 9 , 38 5 6 . .

2
M i ti an u s , D es H yp s ikl es S ch r ift A n ap h or tkos , D r esd en , Leh man ns ch e
Bu ch druck r e ei , 1 8 8 8 .
 H Y P S I C LES 215

na tural di vide each of th e s ixth p arts i n to e ithe r 1 0 or 6 0

to
p ar ts ; the former di vi s ion w ould accou nt for th e attest ed
di v is i on of th e d ay i nto 6 0 h ours whil e the l atter divis i on on ,

th e s e x ag es i mal s y s tem w ould giv e th e 3 6 0 ti me degre es each

( -

of 4 mi n ut es maki ng up th e d a of 2 4 h our s Th e pur ely

) y .

arith m e tic a l ex pl an ati on is d e fe cti v e i

n th t th e s e ri es of a

nu mbe r s for which th e B byl on i ns h ad s p eci al n am es is not a a

6 0 3 6 0 3 6 0 0 but 6 0 S os s 6 0 0 N er
( ) and 3 6 0 0 o 6 0 (Sar )
2
, ,
) ( , ,
r .

O n th e w h ole aft er all th t h as b een s a id I k now of n o

, a ,

b ett r s ugges tion than th t of T nn ery It is c ertain th at

e a a .
1

b oth th e divi s i on of the e cliptic i n to 3 6 0 d egr ees n d th at of a

th e xdu po i nto 3 6 0 t i me d gr e es w er e adopt d by th e

yv e v e e
-

Gre k s fr om Ba by lon
e N ow th e earli es t divi s i on of th e
.

ecliptic wa s i n t o 1 2 p art s th e s i gn s an d th e qu es t i on is h ow , , ,

w er e th s igns s ubdi vid e d ? T nnery obs erves that ccord

e a

, a

ing to th e cu n e ifor m i ns cripti on s as w ell as the t es ti m on y of ,

Gre k a uth or s th e s ign w s divide d i n to par ts on e of which

e
,
a

(d a ga tu ) w as doubl e of th e oth r
r th e for me r b ei ng e

1 s oth th e oth e r (c al l ed s ta d i u m by M aniliu s 1 6 0 th ofth e

,
.

) / ,

S ig n ; th form er di v i s i on w ould giv e 3 6 0 parts th e l atte r 7 2 0

e ,

p arts fo the wh ol e circl e Th e lat ter di v i s i on w s mor e

r . a

natur al in V i e w of th e l on g e t bli s h e d sy s t em of s ex g es i mal

,
-
s a a

fr acti on s ; it al s o h d th e a dv n t ge of c orrespon di ng toler

a a a

a bly cl os e ly to th e a pp ar en t di am t e r of th e s un in c om p ari on e s

with th e circumference of th e s u n s apparen t circle B ut on

.
,

th e oth e r h an d th e d oubl e fra cti on th e 1 /3 oth was c on tai n ed

, , ,

in th circl e of th e z odi ac a ppr oxi m at ely th e s am e n u m b r of

e e

ti mes as th er e ar e days in th e y ear and c ons equen tly corr e ,

s pon d e d n early to th e di s tan c e d es crib e d by the su n along the

z odi a c in on e d a I t w ould s eem th at thi s a dv n t g was a a e
y .

suf ci ent to turn th e s cale in f vour of di v idi ng each s ign of a

th e z odi ac i n t o 3 0 p arts givi n g 3 6 0 p arts for th e whol e ,

circle While th e C h aldaean s thus di vide d th e ecliptic in t o

.

3 6 0 p rts it d oes n ot app ea r th t th e y appli e d th s me di v i

a ,
a e a

s i on to th qu ator or any oth er circl e Th ey m eas ur ed angl es

e e .

in g ene r l by ells an el l r epr e en ti n g

a ,
s o th at th e c ompl et e s

circle contain ed 1 8 0 not 3 6 0 parts which th ey c all ed ells , , ,

.

Th e ex pl ana ti on may p erh a p s be th t the C h ald aean s divid ed a

1
T ry L c o d tro omiq t l e ci nn d i i i o d u
ann e ,

a u e as n ue e s an e es v s ns
c rcl (M moi
e e i tiq

e ii pp 2 5 6
r es s c en ues , ,
.
216 SUC C ES S O R S O F TH E GR EA T GEO M ETER S

th e d i ameter of th e circl e in to 6 0 ells in acc ordanc e with th eir

u s ual sex ages imal divi i on n d th en came to di vid e the cir s ,
a

cumfer en ce i nt o 1 8 0 s u ch e ll s on th e grou n d th at th e circu m

fer enc e is roughly three ti m s th e d i ame ter Th e measur e e .

ment in ells and d actyli (of wh i ch th er e w ere 2 4 to th e ell)

s ur v i ves in H ipp archu s (On th e P h ae nom en a o f E u d or
c u s a nd

A r a tu s) and s ome m eas ur m n ts in t er ms of th e s ame u n it s

,
e e

a e given by P tol emy

r It wa s H ipparchu s w ho rs t divid ed .

the circl e in gen eral i n t o 3 6 0 p rt s or d egree s and th e a ,

i n troduction of thi s divi s i on c oi n cide with h is i n ven tion of s

trigonometry .

The cont en ts of H y ps icl s tr ct n ee d n ot det ain u s long

e s a .

Th e probl emis If we kn ow th r ti o which th e l ength of th e

: e a

l ong es t d ay bears to th l en g th of th e s h ortes t d ay at any e

gi v en pl ac e to nd h ow m an y ti me d grees it takes any gi ven

,
-

s ign to ri s e ; an d a ft e r th i s h as been fou n d th e auth or nd s

, ,

what length of ti me it tak es an y g iven degr ee in any s ign to

ri se i e the i nt erval b etw een th r i in g of on e degr ee point on
,
. . e s -

th e e cliptic and th at of th e n ext followi n g It is e x plai ned .

th at the longes t d ay i th e t i me dur i ng which one h alf of the s

z odi ac (C an cer Le o V irg o Libr S c orpi o

, , ,
a, ,

an d th e s h ort es t d
y th ti me duri n g which th e oth er h alf a e

(C apricornu s A qu riu s Pi s c s A ri s Tauru s Gemi ni ) rises

,
a ,
e ,
e , ,
.

N ow at A l ex an dri a th e l on g es t d ay is to th e s h ort es t as 7
to 5 ; th e l ong es t th r for c on t i n s 2 1 0 ti me d egre es the
e e e a -

s h ortes t 1 5 0 Th e two qu adr n t s C n c er V irg o a nd Libra

. a a

S agitt arius tak e th e s m t i me to ri s e n amely 1 0 5 ti me

a e ,

d egrees and the two qu adr n ts C pricorn us P i s ces and A r i es

,
a a

Gemi ni each take th e s me ti me namely 7 5 ti me d egrees a ,

-
.

It is furth er ass umed that th times tak en by V irgo Leo e , ,

C anc e r Gemin i Taurus A ri es

, e in d es c e n di n g arithmetic al
, , ar

progression while th e ti me t ken by Libr a S corpi o Sagit

, s a , ,

tar i ns C apricornu s A quariu s Pi s ces con tin u e the s ame d e

, , ,

s c en din g arith me tic a l s e ri e Th foll owi ng l emmas ar e used s . e

an d pro e d v

I If. a
, , a2 a
n , an
, an + 2 a
,
is a des c en di ng ar ithmeti
cal
pr ogr es s1 on of Z n t erms with 8 a
l
a
2
a 2 a3
as common di fferenc e ,

a
, + a +a ,

+ a2 n ) 71
2
8
 H YPS I C LES 217

II If. a
] , a, is a d e s c en di n g a rith me tic l p o a r

gr es s ion of 2 n 1 ter ms with 8

. as common di fferenc e an d a n
1 8 th e m e e m, iddl t r then
al + a
g + (2 1i
III If a a
.
l , 2 . 1s a d es cen di ng rith me tic l a a

pr ogres s i on of 2 n terms th en ,

n ( a
l
-

l
-
a
z u )
(a n
66 11 +

N ow l e t A , B C be th e d e s ce n d i ng ser i es th e s u m of which
,

is 1 0 5 a n d D E F th e n ext thre e t e rms in th e s ame s e ri e s

, , ,

th e su mwhich of is 7 5 , th e c ommon diff ren c b i n g e e e 8 ; we

th en h a ve by (I ) , ,

A +B+C 9 8, or 30 9 8,

an d 8

N e xt , by (II ) , A +B+C : 3 B , or 3B : 1 05, an d B : 35

'

th r for e A , B C D E F r e equ l to
e e , , 35 , 2 8 31 2 5, a a , , ,

2 1 5; ti m e d egr ee r es pe ctiv ly which th e auth or of th e tr ct

2 -
s e ,
a

express es in ti m d gr s n d mi n utes s 3 8 t e -

3 5t 3 1
e ee a a ,

2 8 21 W e h v e n ow to c arry through th s m a e a e

pr oc dur fo e ch d gr in each s i g n If th d i ff ren ce

e r ea e ee . e e

b etw een th e ti m es tak en to ri s by on e s i gn n d th n ext e a e

is 3 1 wh t is th e differe n c fo ach of th 3 0 d grees in

a e r e e e

th e s ig n 2 W e h v h e r e 3 0 t e r ms foll ow e d by 3 0 oth er t r m
a e e s

of th s ame d es c en d i n g
e rithm ti c l progres i on an d th e a e a s ,

for m ul a (I ) gives (3 O) d wh er e d is th c ommon

2
,
e

d i ffer en ce ; th er e fore d 1 Las tly

35 x 3 O 0 13
9
.
,

t k e the s ign corr es p on di ng to 2 1 t

a Th i s is th e s u m of
a des c en ding rithme tical pr ogress i on of 3 0 t er ms a
a a
, ,
a
2

with common diff r n c e Th r efor e by (III )

e e e , ,

21 2 wh n c e a + a o
I t 2
6 40 Now e
l s
:

,

sin ce th r e a e 3 0 t r ms a a
e r a w h ve e
, , 2
e a

t
s gd 0 6 26 . 40

I t foll o
w th t s a a 0
an d a
,
0 t
46

33 20
 DI O NY S O DOR U S 219

gen er tes th e tor e

a , an d c th e distan c e of its c entre from th e
a xi s of r e v olu ti on ,

( lu m e of t or e) 0 l % d % cd
2 2
vo : 1r . ( 1r ,

th at is , (v olu m e of tor ) % cd e 7r
2 2
,

which is of c our s e th e pr oduct of th e r e of th e generati ng a a

cir cle an d th e l en gth of th e p ath of its c en tr e of gravity Th e .

form in which th e r s ul t is t t d n m ly th t th e t ore is to

e s a e ,
a e a

th e cyli n d er with h eight d an d r diu s 0 s th e g en e r ti ng a a a

circle of th e t or e is to h alf th e p r allel ogr m cd i n dic tes a a ,

a

qui te clearly th t Diony s od o u s prov d his r es ult by th e s ame

a r e

pr oc dur e s th t m ploy d by A rchi m d es in th e M ethod an d

e a a e e e

in th e b ook On Conoi d s nd Spher oi ds , an d i n d ee d th proof a e

on A rchi m d e n li n es is n ot difcult
e a .

Befor e pas i ng to th m ath matici n s wh o a e ident i ed

s e e a r

with th e d i s c ov ery n d d e v l op m n t of trigon ometry it w i ll

a e e ,

b e c on v en i n t I thi n k to di s p os e of tw o mor e m ath em tici n s

e , , a a

b elongi n g to th e l s t c en tury B C lth ough thi s i nv olv s

a . .
, a e

a s l i ght d e p artur e fr om chr on ol ogic l ord r I me n Pos idon i u a e a s

an d Ge min u s .

P OSI DONI US
S toic , th e t ea ch e r of C i c e r o, is k now n a s
,
a

P os id on iu s of A p a m e a (wh er e h e w a s b or n ) or of R h od e s
(wh e r e h e taught ); h is d at e may be tak en as approx i m at e ly
1 35 51 B C I n pur e m a th e m a tic s h e is m ai n ly qu ot e d as th e
. .

a uth or of c ert i n d n iti on s o fo vi ew s on technical t erm

a e ,
r r s,

e
g .
th
. e or em an d pr obl e m n d s ubj ct s b el on g i n g to l

,
a e e e

m entary g e om e try M or e i m p ort an t w r hi c on tributi on s

. e e s

to m a th m atic l g ogr phy an d as tron omy

e a e H e g av h is
a . e

gr eat w ork on ge ography th e titl e On the Ocean u s i ng th , e

w ord which h d lways had s uch a fas ci n ati on fo th Gr ek

a a r e e s

its con t e n t s a e kn ow n to u s thr ough th c op i ou s qu ot ti on

r e a s

from it in S tr bo it d eal t wi th phys ic l s w ell as math e

a a a

m tical g eogr phy th e on s th e tid e s an d th eir c onn exi on

'

a a ,
z e ,

with the m oon e th n ography an d all s orts ofobs erv ati ons m de
,
a

duri n g ex t en s iv e tr v l s H is as tr onomic l book bor th

a e .
a e e

titl e M eteor ologi ca o p 2 u p w nd whil e

r Gem in u s
7r e
,
er ec a ,
a ,

wrote a commen t ary on o exp os iti on of this w ork w e m y r ,

.
a

as s ign to it a n u m b e r of vi w s qu ote d from Pos i d on iu s in e

2 20 S U C C ES S O R S O F TH E GR EA T GEO M ETER S

C le omed es s w ork De motto ctr cu la r i cor po u m caelesttu m

r .

Pos id oniu s al s o wrot e a s p ar at e tra ct on th e s i of th s u n e z e e .

Th two thi n g which a

e suf ci n tly im p ortant to de rv e
s r e e se

m en tion h er e a e ( 1 ) P os idon iu s s m e s uremen t of th e circu m

r a

fer en ce of th e earth (2 ) hi s hypoth s i s s to th di s tan c e and , e a e

s i e of th e s u n
z .

( 1) ti m Het d t h e circu
es m f e r n c e of th e earth in thi s
a e e

w ay H a s u m e d ( ccordi n g to C l eom ed es ) th t wh e r s
. e s a
1
a ,
ea

th e t r C nopu s i n vi s ibl e in Gree c e was ju s t s een to gr

s a a ,
th ,
az e e

hori on t R h odes ri i ng and etti ng g i n imm di t ely th

z a ,
s s a a e a , e

meridi n lti tud e of th e am e s t ar at A l e xan dri w s a fourth

a a s a a

part of a ign th t is on e forty eighth p rt of th e odi c

s , a ,
-
a z a

circl e

nd h ob s rv d th t th di s tan c be tw een
a e e e a e e

th two pl c s (s upp os d to li on th e s ame m e rid i an ) w s

e a e e e

a

con s i der ed to b st d s Th c i rcu m f r n c of th

e a e

. e e e e e

ea rth w s thu s m ad e ou t to b e
a s tad e U n fortu n t ly s . a e

th e ti m t of th e diff r en c e of l at i tud 7 g , w s v ery far

es a e e e, a

from corr ct th e tru e d i fferen c e bei n g 5 , on ly ; mor over

e , 7
1 o
e

th e s ti m t
e of s t ad e
a e fo th e di s t n c e w as i n c orr e ct s r a ,

b in g on ly th e m xi m u m s ti m t pu t upon it by m ri n rs
e a e a e
'

a e .

whil s om put i t t 4 0 0 0 n d Er to th n es by obs erv ti on s

e e a a a s e , a

of th s h d owe of gn om ona fou n d it to b

s t d e only s, e s a s .

S tr bo on th e oth e r h an d s ys th t Pos i don i u f v our d th e

a , , a a s a e

l t es t of th meas ur em nt which g ve th e m ll s t di men

a e e s a s a e a

s i on s to th r th n am e ly about e ea st d s,
Thi is a e

.
2 ~
s

e v i d n tly 4 8 ti m e
e s o th at P o i d on i u c om bi n d Er to
s s s e a

s th en es gure of

s t d w ith th i n c orr ct es ti m t e s a es e e a

of 7 fo th d i ffer n c e of l t i tud e alth ough Er at o th enes

r e e a , s

pr e u m bly obt i ne d th gur of 5 0 s t d s from h is own

s a a e e a e

e s ti m t a e o of th e c i rcu m f r e n c of th e ar th
r e e e

comb i ned w i th n es ti mate of th e diff r en c e of l ti tud e which

a e a

w s ab out
a n d th e r for n r th e truth
a e e ea .

(2 ) t ell s u s th t Pos id on iu s s upp os e d the circl e

l
C eom e d e s
3
a

in which th e s u n pp r ently mov es rou n d th earth to b a a e e

ti mes th s i e of circul r cti on of th e earth through

e z a a se

its c en tr e n d th at with th i s as s u m pti on h e c om bi n e d th

,
a e

1
C l eomed es De motu ci r cu la r i, i 1 0 , pp 92 4
, . .

tr
.

2
S ab o, ii 0 95 . . .

3
Cl eome d e s 0p cet ii 1 , pp 1 446 , p 98 1 5

-
.
, . . . . . .
 P OS DO N U S I I 221

t t men t of Erat os th ene s (bas e d app ar en tly upon hear say )

s a e

that at S y en e which is u n d er th e s u mmer tr opic n d , ,

a

thr ough out a circl r oun d it of 3 0 0 s t d es in di ame t r th e e

' '

a e ,

u pright gn om on thr ow n o s h ad ow at n oon I t foll ow s fr om s .

thi s th t th e d i met er of the s u n occupi es a p orti on of th e

a a

s u n s circl s t d es in l e n g th ; in oth e r w or d s th e

e a ,

di amet r of th s un is e st d s
e Th e ass u mpti on th t a e . a

th e s u n s circl e i ti mes as l rg e s gr t circl of th

s a a a ea e e

earth w as pr s u m bly t ak n fr om A rch i m d

e w h o h a d pr ov d
a e e es , e

in th e S a n d ec/ oner th t th di m t r of th e s u n
-
r c or bi t is a e a e e

s

less th n ti mes th at of th e earth ; Pos i d oniu s in f ct

a a

took th m x i mu m valu e to b th e tru e valu e ; but his es ti

e a e

m at e of th s u n s s i e is f n ear er th e truth th n th e es ti mat e

e

z ar a s

of A ri s t archu s H ipp archu s n d P tol e my

, Expr e s e d in t er ms , a . s

of th e m ean d i m et e r of th e rth th e es t i m at e s of th es e
a e a ,

as tr on om e r s giv e fo th d i me ter of th e s u n th e gur es r e a

n d 5 % r es p e ctiv ely ; P os id on iu s s es t i m t e giv e

1
1 2 15 ,
a th e a s

tru e gu r e b e i n g 1 0 8 9 -

I n el em en t ary g om etry P os id on iu s is cre dit d by P r oclu s e e

with c ert i n d en i t i ons H d n d gur

a s c on ni ng . e e e

e

a

l i mit (n p g i y k fo ) n d p r all l as th os e li n es which

a (r f x e u
1
a a e s ,

b i n g in on e pl an n e i th r con v erg e n o div erg e bu t h av e all

e e, e r ,

th e p e rp en dicul r s e qu l which a e dr w n from th e p oi n t s of

a a r a

on li n e to th e oth e r
e (Both th es e d e n iti on e i n clud e d s ar

in th e D ni ti on s of H e r on ) H e l o di s ti ngui s h e d s e v en
e . a s

s p e ci es of qu adril t e r al s an d h ad vi e w on th e di s ti n c ti on
a ,
s

b tw en theor em n d p oblem A noth e r n dic ation of his

e e a r . i

i n te r es t in th e fun d m n tal s of l em en tary g eometry is th a e e e

f ct th t h e wrote s ep ar te w ork in re futati on of th

a
3
a a a e

Epicur e n Z e no of S id on w h o h d obj ect d to th e v ery b egi n

a ,
'

a e

n in gs of th e E l m en ts on th e gr ou n d th at th e y c on t a i n e d u n
e

prove d as s u mpti on s Thu s s id Z eno v en Eucl I 1 r equ i res it . a ,

e . .

to b e ad m itt e d th t tw o s tr ight l i n es c ann ot h v e c ommon

a a a a

s e g m en t ; s r eg rd th e pr oof of thi s f act d educ e d

nd

a ,
a a s

from th e bi s e cti on of circl e by its di am ete r h e w ould obj ect a ,

th at it h as to be a s u med th at two arc of circl es cann ot h ave s s

a c ommon part Z en o argu e d g n er lly that ev en if w e . e a ,

a d mi t th fu n d amen tal pri n cipl es of g eometry th e d eduction

e ,
s

1
P o r cl us on Eu cl I , p 1 4 3 8 . . . .
2
I h , p 1 7 6 6 10
. . . .

3
I b , pp 1 99 1 42 0 0 3
. . . . .
 GEMI N U S 223

An upp e r li mi t for his dat e i fur ni h e d by th e fact th at h s s e

wrote a c ommen tary on o e x p os ition of Pos i d oniu s s w ork r

w pi p e pw ; on th e oth e r h an d A l ex an d er A h odis ien s is

er e u r
p ,

(ab out A D 2 1 0 )quotes an i mp ort ant p s g from n epitom e

. .
a sa e a

of thi s
gy nm s by Gemi n us Th e vi ew m os t g n r lly

e
. e e a

a cc e pt e d is th at h e w as a S toi c phil os oph r b r n pr ob ably

e o ,

in th e i s l n d of R h od es n d a pupil of Posidon iu s an d th at , a a ,

h e wrot e ab out 7 3 6 7 B C . .

O f Ge mi n u s s w ork s th at which h as mos t i n te r es t fo u s

r

i a c om pr eh e ns i v e w ork on m th e matic s
s Pr oclu s th ough a .
,

h e m a k es gr eat u s of it d oe n ot m en ti on its titl e u n l es s e , s ,

in d ed in th e pass age wh er e aft r quoti n g fr om Gemi n us

e , , e

a cl as s i c ati on of li n e s wh i ch n e v r m ee t h e s ay th es e e s

,

r emark s I h ave s l ected from th e (p h A of Geminu e L OK a

ta s

,
l

th e w ord g titl o an lt ernati v title P ppu s

b h ox h is t a ta a e r a e . a ,

h ow e v r qu ot es a w ork of Gemi n u s on th cla i cat i on of

e ,

e ss

th e m ath em at i c s

p2 g 6 p d np i m af s) 1r e T 7 V a r r r/ r e ,

W hil e Eu tociu s qu ot es fr om th s ixth b ook of th e doctri n e of

e

th e m ath e m tics
'

P S 63 u d ny f w d mp g)
'
a GK T C
r

7 V a ar a

e ta .
l

Th e form e r t i tl e corr es p on d s w e ll en ough to th e l on g extr ct a

on th e div i s i on of th e m th e matic al s ci n c es i n t o arith metic a e ,

geometry me ch n ic s as tr on omy optic geodes y can on ic

, a , ,
s, ,

(m u s ic al h arm on y ) an d l ogi tic wh i ch P roclu s giv s in h is s e

r s t prol ogu e an d ls o to th e fr g men ts contai n ed in th

, a a

A n on ym i v r i a c colleeti on es publi s h e d by H u lts ch in his

a

e diti on of H e r on ; but it do s n ot s ui t mos t of th e oth er e

p ass ag es b orrow e d by Pr oclu s The corre c t titl e w s m o t . a s

prob ably th at given by Eu toci u The Do t i n o Th o y s, c r e, r e r ,

f the M a thema ti s ; n d P ppu s prob bly r ef rs to on e

'

o c a a a e

p articul r s e cti on of th e w ork say th e rs t Book I f th e

a ,
.

s i xth Book tr t ed of con ic as w e m ay conclud e from

ea s,

Eu tociu s s r fer en c e th er e mu s t h ve b een mor e B ook s to

"

e ,
a

follow fo P roclus h a pres erv e d u s d etails bout h ighe r

r s a

curv s which m u t h av e c ome l ter If ag i n Gem i n u s

e ,
s a . a

n i h e d his w ork an d wr ot e wi th th e s ame full nes s ab out th e

s

oth e r bran ch e s of m th em tic s as h did abou t geometry a a e ,

th e r mu s t h av b e en a c on s id erabl e n u m b e r of Book s
e e

a ltoge th er It s eems to h av e b een des ig ned to gi ve com

. a

l ete vi ew of th wh o l e ci e n c e of m ath e matic s

e n d in fact s a
p ,

Procl o E l I p 1 7 7 24
1
us n uc .
,
. . .
2 24 S U C C ESS O R S O F TH E GR EA T G EO M ETER S

to h av e be en a s ort of n cyclop aed i a of th e s ubj ect Th e e .

qu otati ons of P roclu s from Gemi n u s s w ork d o not s tan d

a l one ; w e h av oth er coll e cti on s of extract om e m or e an d

e s, s

s om les s xtens iv n d s howi ng v r i eti e of tr diti on ccord

e e e, a a s a a

ing to th e ch n n el through which th y c m a down Th e e a e .

s ch ol i to Eucl i d s E lem en ts B ook I c on t i n con i d r bl

a , ,
a a s e a e

p art of th e comm en t ry on th e D n iti on s of Book I n d e a e , a ar

v lu bl in th t they g i v Gemi n us pur n d s i mpl wh reas

a a e a e e a e, e

P roclu s i n clud s xtr ct s from oth e r uth or s e Extr a ct s from

e a a .

Gem i n u s of c on s i d er bl l ength a e i n clud d in th e A r bic a e r e a

comm n tary by n N i i i ( bout A D 9 0 0 ) wh o got th m

e a a r z a e

through th e m d i um of Gr ek commen t ar i es on Euclid

-
. .

e e ,

e s p ci lly th t of S i m plic i u
e a It doe n ot pp e r to b
a s . s a a e

doubted n y long r th t A g ni in n N i i i i r ally

a e a

a s

a -
a r z s e

G mi n u ; th i i i n f rr d fr om th cl os agr eem n t b etw een

e s s s e e e e e

n N i i i s qu ot ti on from A g ni n d th e c orres p on d

a -

a r z a s a s a

in g p s g s in Proclu s ; th e d i fculty c u s d by th e f act

a sa e a e

th at Sim pli ciu c lls A g ni s s oc i u s n o t r i s m et by the

s a a

s e

s ugg t i on th t th p rti cul ar w ord OCi n s s e i th r the

es a e a S i e

r ult of th e doubl e tr n l t i on fr om th e Gr e ek o m e ns
es a s a r a

n othi n g m or e in th mouth of S i m pl i c i u th n coll gue

,
e s, a ea

in th s en se of e w ork er in th m e ld o a uthority e sa e ,
r ,

a

.

A fe w extr ct g i n e i n clud d in th e A non ym i

a s a a i ae ar e va r

coll cti on s in H u l tsch N os 5 1 4 giv e d e n iti ons of

e H on
e s er . .

g eom e try log i tic g eod sy and th i r s ubj ect matter r emarks
,
s ,
e e -

on b od i e s con t i n u ou s m gni tud e

s a th e thr e d i m ns i on s s a s, e e a

prin ci pl s of g om try th purp o of g om etry an d la tly

e e e ,
e se e , s

on opt i c s with its s ubd i vi s i on

, optic s pr op r Ca top t ic an d s, e , r a

o xn oy
p q
v m s c en e p ai n t i n g (a s ort of p er s p ctiv ) w ith s ome
a ,
-
e e ,

fun d men t l pri n cipl e of opt i c e g th at all l ight travels

a a s s, . .

a long trai ght lin s (which a e brok en in th e c ses of r cti on

s e r a e e

an d r fr cti on ) an d th e divi i on b e twe en opt i c s

e a , n d n atur l s a a

philosophy (th e th eory of light) it be i ng th e provin ce of th , e

l atter to i n v s tig t (wh t is a m tt r of i n di ffer en ce to opti cs )

e a e a a e

wh eth r 1 ) vi s u al r ys i s ue from th e ey (2 ) i m ges proce d

e a s e, a e

fr om the obj ect an d i mp i nge on th e ey o (3 ) th e i n tervening e, r

i is align ed o comp ct d with th e b e m like br eath or

a r r a e a -

e m n ti on from th e ey e
a a .

N os 8 0 6 g i n in th e same c oll e cti on gi ve th e Perip at etic

.
a a

e xpl n ti on of th
a a n am e math em atic s addi n g th at th e t erm
e ,
 GEMI N US 225

w as ppli e d by the early P yth agor ean s more particularly

a

to g eometry an d arith metic s ci en c es which d eal with th e pur e , ,

th e et er nal n d th e u n ch an g eabl e but w as e x ten d ed by l at e r

a
,

writ ers to c ov er wh at w e call mix e d o appli ed m th emati c s

r a ,

which th ough th eor etic l h as to d o with s n s ibl e ob jec ts g

, a , e , e . .

as tron om y an d optic s O th er extra cts fr om G mi n u s r e fou n d

. e a

in e xtan t m n u s cript s in c on n exi on with Damianu s s t e ti se

a

a
r
on optic s (publi s h e d by R S ch o n e B e rli n Th e d eni
'

.
, ,

ti ons of logi s tic an d g eometry l s o pp e r but with d ecid ed a a a ,

differ en c es in th e s ch oli a to Pl ato s Cha m id es 1 6 5 E Las tly

,

r .
,

i s ol at e d ex tra ct s pp ear in Eu tociu s (1 ) a r em rk r e pr oduc ed

a , a

i n th e comm en t ry on A rchim ed es s P l a n e
q i l b i u ms to
'

a a
-
z r

th e effe ct th at A rchi m e d es in th at w ork g v e th n am of a e e

p os tul ates to wh t r e e lly x iom s (2 ) th e sta t ment th t '

a a r a a , e a

b e for e A polloniu s s ti me th e c on ics w re pr oduc ed by cutti ng

e

di ffe r n t c on es (r ight ngl ed cute ngl ed n d obtu s e angle d)

e -

a ,
a -

a ,
a -

by e cti on s p erpen dicular in ach c as e to gen erat or

s e a .
1

Th e obj e ct of Gem i n u s s w ork w s e v i d en tly th e ex ami na

a

t i on of th rs t pri n cipl es th e logical bu i ld i ng up of m th e

e a

m ati es on th e b s i s of th os e dm
,

ai tt e d pri n cipl es an d th e a ,

d fen c of th e w h ol e s tructur e g ain s t th critici sms of

e e a e

th e en em i es of th s ci n c e th e Ep i cur an s an d S c ep tics om

e e ,
e ,
s e

of wh om qu s ti on e d th e u n prov e d pr i n cipl es an d oth er th e

e , s

l ogic l v alidity of the d e ducti on s fr om th em Thu in

a . s

g eometry Gem i nu s de lt rs t with th e prin c i pl es o hypoth eses

a r

( ipx fmod g ) n d th en with th e l og i c al d e ducti on s th e

a a c, ea ec a ,

th eor ems an d pr obl ems ( 2 p n t ipx i s ) Th d i ti n cti on

7 0 e a c . e s

is b e tw e n th e th i ngs which mu s t be t k n fo gr an t e d but

e a e r

a e i n c p bl e of pr oof
r a a n d th e thi n g s wh i ch m u s t n ot b a e

a s s u m e d but a e m att e r fo d mons trati on Th pri n cipl es

r r e . e

cons i s ti n g of d en iti ons p os tulat es n d xi oms G m i n u s , ,

a a ,
e

s ubj e ct e d th em s e v er lly to critic al ex ami nati on fr om thi s

a a

p oi n t of vi e w di s t i n gu i s hi ng c ar efully b etw een pos tulat s an d

,
e

a xi oms an d di s cu s i n g th e l egi ti macy o oth erwi s of th os

,
s r e e

for mu lat e d by Euclid in e ch cl ass I n h is n ot es on the d ni a . e

ti on s Gemi n u s tr eat e d th em h is torically givi ng th e v ri ou s ,

a

a lt er nativ e d en itions which h ad b e n s ugg este d fo ch e r ea

fu n d m en tal con c ept s uch s lin e s urfac e gur e

a a

n gl e &c n d fr e qu e n tly addi n g i n s tructiv class i c ati on s

a . a e
, ,

C omm on A pollon i us imt

ad
'
C on z cs ,
'

1
Eu toci u s , . s .

Q
 GEM I N US 2 27

A ttempt to pr ove the P a r a llel P os tu la te -

.

Ge mi n u s d e voted m uch att en ti on to th di s ti n cti on b etw een e

p os tul at es nd axi om givi n g th e vi ew s of earli er philo o

a s, s

ph e s an d ma th em tici n s (A ri s t otl e A rchi me d es Euclid

r a a , , ,

A p ol lon iu s th e S toic s ) on th e s ubj e ct as w ell as h is ow n

, It .

was i mp ort n t in vi e w of th e ttack s of th Epicur e ns n d

a a e a a

S c e ptic s on m a th e m tic fo (as Ge m i n u s say s ) it is as fut i l e

a s, r

to a tt empt to pr ov e th i n d emonstr bl e (a A pollonius did e a s

wh en h tri ed to prov e th e xi oms ) s it i i nc orr ect to s u me

e a a s a s

wh t re lly re quir es proof s Eucl i d did in th e fourth p o tu

a a ,

a s

lat [ th t ll right angl es a e e qu al] an d in th e fth pos tulat e

e a a r

[ e pa rall e l pos tul t ]

t h -
a e

Th e fth p os tul t e w s th e s p e ci l s tu m bli n g bl ock

a a a -
.

Ge m i n u s ob s rve d th a t th c on v e r se is actu lly pr ov ed by

e e a

Euclid in I 1 7 ; al s o th at it is c on clu s iv ly pr ov d th t n
.
e e a a

an gl e e qu l to right ngl is n ot n ec e s rily i ts elf a r i ght

a a a e s a

n gl e (e n gl e b e tw ee n th circu m f r n c es of two s e mi
a
g th . . e a e e e

c ircl s on two equ l s tr i ght li nes w i th c ommon extrem i ty

e a a a

a n d at right n gl es to on n oth e r) w c an n ot th e r e for

a d mi te a e e a

th at th e c on v e rs es a e i n capabl e of d mons trati on A nd r e .

2

we h a ve l earn d from th e v ery p i on ers of this cienc e n ot to

e e s

h v r g rd to m r pl us ibl i m gi n i ngs wh en it is a qu es
a e e a e e a e a

ti on of th e reas on in g s to be i n clud ed in ou g ome tric al r e

doctrin e A s A ri s totle s ay it is ju s tiabl to s k s ei en

. s, as e a

tic pr oofs fr om a rh et or i c i n as to cc e pt m ere pl au s ibil i t i es a a

from a g eomet r S o in thi c e (th at of th e p r ll l

e . s as a a e

pos tul ate) th e fac t th t wh en th e right ngles a e l es s en ed th e

a ,
a r ,

s tr i ght l i n es c on v e rg e is tru e
a n d n e c es sary ; but th t at e a e s

m en t th t s i n c e th ey c on v erg e mor e an d m or
a , s th ey a e e a r

pr oduce d th ey will omet i m meet i pl au ibl but n ot n eces

,
s e s s e

s ary in t e a b e n c e of s om e rgu m en t s h owi n g th at th i s is

,
h s a

tru e in th e case of s tr igh t lin es Fo th e f ct th at s ome li n esa . r a

e x i s t whic h ppr oach in d en itely but y t r emai n n on s ec n t

a e -

al th ough it s e m s i m pr ob bl e n d p ar d oxic al e a a a ,

is n e v rth e l es s tru e n d fully s c e rt ai n e d w i th r fer e n c e to

e a a e

oth e r s p e ci es of l i n es [th e hyp e rb ol a n d its as y m pt ot e an d a

th e c on ch oi d an d its as y m pt ot e as Ge mi n u s s ays l s e wh r e] , e e .

M y n ot th en th e s me thi ng be p os s ibl e in th e c e of
a a as

1
r cl
P o us on Eu cl I , pp 1 7 8 8 2 4 . . .
; 1 83 . 1 41 8 4 1 0 . .

2
I b , pp 1 8 3 2 6 1 8 4 5
. . . .
228 S U C C ES SO R S or TH E GR E AT GEO M ETER S

s traigh t li n e which h pp ens in th e case of th l i n r eferr ed

s a e es

to ? I n d d u n til th e s t t emen t in th e p os tul t e is cli n ch d

ee ,
a a e

by proof th e facts hown in th c of th e oth er li ne m y

,
s e as e s a

dir ect ou i m g i n ti on th oppo it w ay A n d th ough th

r a a e s e .
,
e

con trov r i l rgu m nt g i n s t th m t i ng of th s trai ght

e s a a e s a a e ee e

l i nes s h ould c on t i n much th t is urpri i ng is th r e n ot ll a a s s ,

e a

th m or r s on why w e h ould xp e l fr om ou b ody of

e e ea s e r

d octri n thi m r ly pl u ibl n d u n r eas on d (hyp oth i )?

e s e e a s e a e es s

It i cl r fr om thi th t w e m u s t s k proof of th pr s en t
s ea s a ee a e e

th or m n d th t it i li en to th s p c i l character of
e e ,
a a s a ~
e e a

pos tul t e a s .
1

M uch thi s m ight h v e b een writt n by

of m od rn a e a e

g om ter G mi n u
e e tt empt ed r em e dy w to s ubs titut
. e s s

a as e

a d eniti on of p ar llels like th t of P o id on i u b ed on th e a a s s, as

n oti on of qu i d i s t n ce A n N i i i giv s th e d e n ition as

e a .
-
a r z e

foll ow s P r ll el s tr ai ght l i n es a e s traight l in es s itu t d in

:

a a r a e

th e s m e pl n e n d s uch th at th e di s t an c e b etw een th m i f

a a a e ,

th ey e pr oduc ed wi th out l i mi t in b oth dir c ti on t th s me

ar e s a e a

t i m is ev erywh er th e s me to which Gemi n u s dd s th

e, e a

,
a e

s t at m en t that th e s i d d i s tan ce is th s h ort s t s tr i ght line

e a e e a

th t n b e draw n b etw en th m S t rt i n g from th i

a ca e e . a s,

G mi n u s prov ed to h i ow n
e ti f c ti on th e pr op os itions of s sa s a

E ucl i d r g rdi ng p r ll l s nd n ally th p r all e l pos tdl t

e a a a e a e a a e .

H r t g a v e th e pr op os i t i on s (1 ) th t th
e s d i s t n c b tw e n a e a e e e

th e tw o li n s s d e n ed is p rp en dicul r to b oth
e a n d (2 ) th t e a ,
a a ,

i f s tr aight l i n e i p erp en dicul ar to e ch of tw o s tr ight lines

a s a a

a n d m eet s b oth th e tw o s tr aight l i n s a p rall el and th e

,
e r e a ,

d i s tan c e is th e i n t rc pt on th e p rp en dicul r (pr ov e d by

e e e a

ed u cti o d a bsu r d m ) N xt c om e (3 ) Eucl i d s pr op os i ti on s

r a it . e

I 2 7 2 8 th t i f tw o li nes
.
,
par all l th ltern t ngl es
a ,
ar e e ,
e a a e a

m ad e by ny tr n v r l a e qu al &c (eas i ly pr ov d by
a a s e sa r e , . e

draw i ng th e two equ l d i s t n c e thr ough th e p oi n ts of a

a s

i nt ers cti on with th tr n v ers l ) n d (4 ) Eu l I 2 9 th e con

e e a s a ,
a c . .
,

v rse of I 2 8 wh i ch is pr ov e d by ed u ctio a d a bs u d u m by
e .
, r r ,

m n of (2 ) n d
ea s Gem i n u till n d s Eu l I 3 0 3 1
a s s ee c . .
,

( b out p r all el s ) an d I 3 3 3 4 (th e r s t tw o pr op os iti ons

a a .
, _

r el ati ng to p ar ll l ogr ms ) for h is n l proof of th p os tulat

a e a a e e,

which is to th e followi ng eff ct e .

L t A B CD b e tw o s tr aight li n e s m et by th e s tr aight line

e ,

1
P ro l c u s on Eu cl I , pp 1 9 2 5 1 93 3
. . . . .
 GEM I NU S 22 9

E E, a nd i n teri or angl s B E E E ED be toge th er l es

le t th e e , s

th n two right an gl es
a .

Tak e n y p oi n t H on ED an d dr aw H K p r all el to A B
a a

mee tin g E E in K Th en if w e bi e ct E E t L LE at 11
.
, s a , 1

an d s o on w e s h all t l s t h av e a l ngth
, s EN l es s a a e a
, ,

th an EX Dra w E G N OB p ar a ll e l to
. Pr oduc e E O to Q
, ,

an d l e t E Q b e th e s am e m ult i pl e of E 0 th a t EE is of

th en s h a ll A B CD m e et in Q , .

Le t S b e th e m iddl e p oi n t of E Q an d R th e m i ddl e p oi n t of
ES . Dra w thr ough R S Q r es p e ct i v e ly th e s tr aight li n es
, ,

R P G, S T U QV p ar all e l to E E
,
J oi n M R LS and pr oduc e .
,

th em to T V Pr oduc e E G to U
,
. .

Th en in th e tri a n gl es E ON R OP tw o angl es ar e e qu a l
, , ,

r es p ectively th e v ert i cally oppos i t e angl es E ON , R OP and

,

th e alt e r n a t e an gl es N E O P R O ; an d E 0 OR ; th er efor e ,

A n d EN P G in th e ,
p r ll el ogr am EN P G r e equ al ; th re
a a a e

for e R C Z EN EM (wh n c e M R is p r all l to E G o A B )

e a e r .

S i m ila rly w e pr ov e tha t S U 2 EM EL and LS i , s

p ar all el to E C or A B .

Las tly by th e tr i an gl es ELS QVS in which th e s id es ES

, , , ,

S Q e e qu al n d two ngl es a e r es p ectiv ely e qu al QV

ar a a EL r , .

Th er e for e QV LE .

S i n c e th e n E L QV ar e e qu al and p ar all el s o ae E Q LV
, ,
r , ,

an d (s ay s Gem i n u s ) it foll ow s th a t A B p as se s thr ough Q .

 GEMI N U S 23 1

an d mak e qu al angl s with it th e s tr aight li n es a e e qu l

e e , r a .
1

A s A p oll on iu s wr ot on th e cyli n dric l h elix an d prov d th e

a e e

fact of its u n ifor mity w e may fairly as s u me th at Gemin u s ,

w as h er e dr wi n g up on A p ollon iu s a .

Enough h been s id to s how h ow i n v alu able a s ourc e of

as a

i n form ti on Gemi n us s w ork fur n i s h ed to Pr oclu s an d ll

a

a

writ er s on th e hi s tory of ma th ematics w h o h ad acc e s to it s .

I n as tr on omy W e k now th t Ge m i n u s wrot e n

gy nm s of

a a e

P os id on iu s w or k th e M et or ol o i ca o w i
p w Thi

s e s
g r u e r eai
-
e a
p , ,
.

is th e ourc of th e fam ou s e xtr act ma d e fr om Gem i n u by

s e s

A l ex an d r A ph r odi i n s is an d r e pr oduc e d by S i m pliciu s in

e s e ,

his c om m n t ry on th P hysi cs of A ri s t otl e on which S chi a

e a e ,
2

pa elli r eli e d in his a tt e m pt to s h ow th at it w

r H aclid s of as er e

Pon tu s n ot A ri s t rchu s of S am os w h o r s t put forw rd th e

, a , a

h li ocen tr ic hyp oth es i s Th e extr ct i on th e di s t i n cti on

e . a s

b e tw een phys ic al n d as tr on omic l i n qu i ry as appli d to th e

a a e

h e v n s It is the bu i n s s of the phy s i c i s t to c on s i d r th

a e . s e e e

s ub s t an c of th e h av en
e n d s t rs th eir forc e an d qu al i ty
e a a , ,

th ir comi ng i n t o b ei n g n d d ec y n d h e i in p os i t i on to
e a a ,
a s a

pr ov e th facts about th eir s i s h pe n d arr n g m ent ;

e z e, a ,
a a e

s tr on om y th e oth e r h n d ig n or s th phy i c l s id

a on , a ,
e e s a e,

provi n g th arr n g emen t of th e h e v en ly b od i es by c ons i d er

e a a a

ti on s bas ed on th vi ew th at th e h v n i a r al 6 / 5 n d e ea e s e K 0 10

,
a ,

w h en it t ell s u s of th e s h ap es s i es n d d i s t an c es of th e rth ,
z a e a ,

s u n an d m oon of e clip n d c onju n cti on

s , n d of th qu l i ty se a s, a e a

a nd xt en t of th m ov em en ts of th e h eaven ly bodi es it is
e e ,

con n ect ed w i th th e math ematical in v tig ti on of qu n tity es a a ,

i for m o s h ap e n d u s es arith m tic an d g ome try to

s z e, , r , a e e

prove it con clu s i ons A s tr onomy d e l n ot with c u s e but

s . a s, a s,

with facts ; h en c e i t oft en proc eed s by hyp oth es es t tin g , s a

c er tai n e xp e di en t s by wh i ch th e ph en omena m y be ved a sa .

Fo ex m pl
r a why d o th e s u n th e moon and th e pl n t s
e, ,
a e

a pp ear to mov e i rr egul rly ? To expl i n th e obs erv ed f cts a a a

w e m y s u m e fo i ns t n c e th at th
a a s orbit s a e
,
cc en tric
r a ,
e r e

circl es o th at the s t rs d s cribe epicycl es on

r c rryi ng a e a a

circl e ; n d th en w e h av e to go far th e r n d ex amin e oth e r

a a

w ay s in which it is p oss ibl e fo th e ph en omena to b br ought r e

ab out H en ce we actu a lly n al a ce ta i n p er son [H clid es

. r er a

1
P o r clu
s on Eu cl I ,
pp 1 1 2 2 2 1 1 3 3 , p 2 5 1.3 1 1 . .
-
. . . .

2
Sim pl i n Phys , pp 29 1 2 , ed Di e s
. . . l .
232 S UC C ES S OR S O F TH E GR EA T GEO M ETER S

of Pon tu s ] co mi n g for war d an d s ayi n g tha t, even on the

as s u mpti on tha t the ear th m oves i n a .tai n wa y, while
cer

the su n is i n a cer tai n way a t r est, th e a

ppa r e nt i r r egu la r i ty
to the su n m a y be sa ved Ph i l ol ogic a l

wi th f
r e er e nce . con

s id erat i ons s w ell s th e oth er n otic s which w p os s ss a a e e e

a bout H e lid s make it pr cti c lly c ert i n th t H e a lid s

r ac e a a a a

r c e

of Pon tu s i s an i n t erp ol ti on n d th at Ge m i n u s id m y

a a s a

s i mply c rt i n p er on without ny n me th ough h e

,

a e a s

,
a a ,

doubtl es s mean t A ri s t rchu of S amos a s .

1

S i mpliciu s s y s th at A l x an d e r qu ote d thi s extr act froma e

th ep itom of th e g
e ym m by Ge m i n us eA th origi n l . s e a

w ork w s ppar n tly made th ubj ect of n bridg men t w e

a a e e s a a e ,

g th er that i t m u s t h av e b en of con s id er abl s cop It is

a e e e .

a qu es t i on wh th e r 2 5q m e ns c omm n t ary o e ex 5 7 a
'

e

r

p o iti on ; I m i n cli ned to th in k th at th l tt r i n terpret tion

s

a e a e a

i th c orr e ct one n d th t G m i n u r pr oduc d P o i d on i u s

s e , a a e s e e s s

w ork in its n ti r ty w i th eluc id t i ons n d comm n ts ; thi e e a a e s

s e m s to m
e to be s ugg s t e d by th e w ord dd d by S i m pl i cius
e e s a e

i mmedi tely ft e r th e extract thi s is th ccoun t given by

a a

e a

G mi n us o P os id oniu s i n G mi n u s of th e d i ffer n c e b etw e n

e ,
r e , e e

phy ics n d s tronomy wh i ch s ms to i mply th t Geminu

s a a

,
ee a s

in ou p s s g r e pr oduc ed Po i d oniu t e xtu ally

r a a e s s .

I n tr od u cti on to the P ha en omen a ibu ted to Gemi nu s

a ttr .

h er e r m in s the tre ti se purporti ng to b by Gem i nu s

T e a a , e ,

which h c om dow nto u s u n d r th e t i tl T y t o

as
y wy y
e e e e v v e tc a

v

Wh t i f ny is th e r l ti on of thi s w ork

2
GLS T aQ
O/ a LV LGV a . a , a , e a

to th e xp os iti on of P os id on i u s M teo ologi ca o th pitom

e s e r r e e e

of it ju t m n ti on ed ? On Vi e w is th at th e origi n l I agog
s e e a s e

of Gem i n u s an d th e g q s of P o id on iu s w r e on an d th

s e e e

s me w ork
a th ough th e I s gog as w e h av it is n ot by
, a e e

Gem n u s but by an u nk n ow n c om p i l r
i , Th e objecti on s to e .

thi a rs t th t it d oes n ot c on t i n th e e xtr act giv en by

s r e, , a a

S i mplic i u s whi ch w ould h av e c ome in us efully t th b gi n

, a e e

n i n g of n I n tr oduct i on to A s tron omy n o

a th e oth er extr ct , r a

giv en by A l xand er from Gemi nu s an d r el ti ng to th e r i nbow

e a a

wh i ch seems like wi s to h ve c ome from th e gq ; e a

1
C f A r is ta r ch us of S amos , pp 2 7 5 8 3
. . .

2
t
Ed i ed by Man i i u s (Teub n e r , t
3
l
A ex A ph r on A i s o e s M eteor ol og ica ,
. . r t tl iii . 4, 9 (l d el er ii .
, p 1 28 ;
.

p 1 52 1 0 , H ayd uck)
. . .
 GEM I NU S 2 33

c dly that it d oes n ot an ywh ere mention th e n ame of

s e on ,

Pos id on iu s (not p erh ap s n i n s up erable obj ecti on ); an d

, , a ,

thirdly th at th er e ar e vi ew s e xpr essed in it which a e n ot

, r

thos e h eld by Posidon ius but con trary to th em A gain the .

,

writ e r kn ow s how to gi e a soun d judgemen t as betw een v

dive rgen t v i ew s writ es in good s tyl e on the whol e n d can , ,

a

ha rdly h v e b een the m r e com pile r of ex tr acts f om Pos i

a

e r

d oniu s which th e V i e w in qu es ti on assumes hi m to b e It .

s e e ms in an
y c a se s afer to as s u m e th at th e I s agoge n d th e a

g y nm w er e s ep ar at e w ork s A t th e same ti m e th I s goge .

,
e a ,

as w h ve it contai n s error s which w e c annot attribut e to

e
'
a ,

G em i n u s Th e ch oic e th er ef or e s eems to lie b etw een two

eith er th e book is by Gemi n u s in th e mi n but
.
, ,

a lt e r n ativ s e : a ,

h as i n th e c our s e of c enturi es s uffe r e d d et eri orati on by i n te r

polation s mi s t ak es ofc opyi s t s an d s o on or it is a com pil ti on a

of e xtr ct s fr oman origi n al I sa go e by Gemi nu s with for ign

, , ,

a e
g
an d i n fe ri or e l emen ts i n tr oduc d e ith e r by th e c ompil e r h im e

se lf o by oth e r pren tice h an ds Th e r es ult is a toler bl ele

r . a e

m en t ary tr ea ti se s uitabl e fo t achi ng purp os es an d c on t ain i ng r e

th e m os t i mp ort an t d octri n of Greek as tronom y r epres n t e d es e

from th e s tan dpoint of H ipp rchus C hapter 1 tr ts of the a . ea

z odi c th e s ol ar y ea r th e i rr egul arity of th e s u n

a ,
moti on
,

s ,

which is e xplai n ed by th e e cc en tric p os i ti on of the s u n orbit

s

r l tively to the z odi ac the order nd th e pe ri od s of r volution

e a ,
a e

of th e pl n et s an d th e m oon aIn 23 w e ar e t old th t all . a

th e x e d s tars d o n ot lie on on e s phe rical s urfac but s om e

'

e,

a e f rth e r a w ay th an oth rs
r a doctri ne d ue to th e S toic e a s .

C h apt er 2 agai n tr eats of th e tw el ve s ign s of th

, ,
odi c e z a ,

ch pt r 3 of the c ons t ellati ons ch apter 4 of th e axis of

a e ,

th e u n iv er s e and th e p ol es ch pte r 5 of th e circl on th e ,

a es

s ph e r e (th e equ at or an d th e p rall e l circl es arctic ummer a , ,

s

trop i cal wi nt er tropical an t rctic the colur e circle th e odi c

,
-

,
a ,
-
s, z a

or clip tic the hori z on th e m rid i n nd the Milky W y )

e , ,
e a ,
a a ,

ch pte r 6 of Day and N ight th ir r elati v e lengths in differen t

a , e

latitudes their l ength eni ng and s horten i ng ch pt r 7 of

, ,
a e

th e tim e which th e tw elv e s igns ta k e to r i s e

s C h apt er 8 .

is a cl r i n t er es ti ng an d valu abl e ch apt er on th e c al en d ar

ea , ,

th e l en gth of mon th s an d y ear s an d th e v ari ous cycl es th e ,

oct et eri s th e 1 6 y ear s an d 1 6 0 y ear s cycl es th e 1 9 y ears

'

a
- -
-

, ,

cycl e of Euct emon (and Me ton) and th e cycle of C llippus ,

a
 S O ME H A N DB O O K S

des cripti on of the h n dbook on th el em en ts of

TH E a e

as tron omy e n titl e d th e I n t od u cti on to the P h n om en a an d

r ae

attribut e d to Ge mi n u s m i gh t prop e rly h a v been rese rv ed e

fo thi s ch apt er It w as h ow ev r c on v n i en t to d l w i th
r . e , e ea

Gemi n u s in clos e c onn e x i on with P os i don iu s ; fo Gemi n u r s

wrot n xp os iti on of Pos i d on i u s M eteo ologica r l te d to the

e a e s

r e a

origi n al w ork in s uch w y th a t S i m plic i u in qu oti ng a l on g

a a s,

p ss ag e from n e pit om of thi s w ork could attr i bute th

a a e , e

pas s ag e to eith r Gem i nu s o P os idon iu s in Gemi n u s

e n d itr

a

is e vid en t th at in oth e r s ubj e ct s too Gemi n u s dr e w fr om n d

, , ,
a

w s i n u n c d by P os id on iu s
a e e ,
.

Th e s m all w ork De m otu ci r cu la i cor po u m ca el ti u m by r r es

C L E OM E D E S (K h opdo s Au G wp ) in tw o B ook s is th

e v K vK c e ta e

pr oducti on of m uch l ss comp et nt p e rs on b u t i m uch m or e

a e e , s

l rg ly b sed on Po id on iu Th i is prov d by s e ver l r f r

a e a s s . s e a e e

en c s to P o id on iu s by n m e but i t i s s p e ci lly tru e of th

e s a , a e

v ery l ong rs t ch apt er of B ook II (n early h lf of th B ook ) a e

which s ems fo th e m os t p art to be c op i d bodily from

e r e

Pos id oni u s in ccordan c e with th e auth or r emark t th e

, a s a

e n d of B ook I th a t in givi n g th e r e fut ti on of th e E picur ean

,
a

a s e rti on th t th e
s u n is j u s t as l arg e
a it l ook n mely on e
s as s, a

foot in di am eter h e will gi v e s o m uch s s ufces fo s uch n

,
a r a

in troduct i on of th e p ar ticul r a rgu men t s u s e d by c e rt ai n a

a uth ors w h o h a ve writt n wh ol e tr eati ses on thi s on e t opi c

e

(1 e th e s i e of th e s u n ) amon g wh om i s Pos i d on i u s

. . z , Th . e

i nt er s t of th e b ook th en li es m i n ly in wh at is qu oted fr om
e a

Pos id on iu ; its m ath e matic l i n t r es t is l mos t i l

s a e a n .

Th e d at e of C leom ed es is n ot c ertai n ly s ce rt ai n ed but s a , ,

a

h e men ti ons n o a uth or l at er th an P os idoniu s it is p ermi s s ibl e ,

to s upp os e wi th B ult s ch th at h e wr ot e ab out th e middl e of

, ,
23 6 S O ME H A N DBOO K S

the r t c entury B C A s h s eems to know nothi ng of th e

s . . e

w orks of P tolemy h e can h rdly in ny c as e h ve li ved ,

a ,
a ,
a

l ater than th e begi nn i ng of th e s econ d cen tury A D . .

Book I b egi n s with a ch pt e r the obj e ct of which is to a

pr ove th at th e u n i v er s e wh i ch h as th s h ap e of a s ph er e ,
e ,

is limit e d and s urr ou n d ed by v oid ex t en di n g with out li mit in

all dir e c ti ons an d to r e fut e obj e cti on s to thi s V w T h
, i en e .

foll ow ch pters on th e e par llel circles in the h v en an d

a v a ea

th e on s
z habitabl and u nin h abit bl (cha p 2 ) on th e
e ,
e a e .

motion of th e x d s t ars and th e i n d ep n d en t (wpo p

) a t er aca t
-
e e

mov emen ts of th pl an e t in clu di n g th e sun an d m oon

e s

(ch ap on th e od i ac an d th effect of th e s u n s m oti on in

. z e

it (ch ap on th e i n cli nati on of th e ax i s of th e u n iv rs e an d

. e

its eff ct s on th e l eng th s of d y and night s t di ffer n t pl ac es

e a s a e

(chap on th
. i nequ ality in the rat e of in creas e in th e
e

l ength of the day n d nights ccordi n g to th e tim of y ear

s s a a e ,

th e di ff r n t l ength of th e s s on s d u e to th e m oti on of th e
e e s ea

s u n in n ecc e n tr i c circl e th di ffer enc e b tw een d ay an d

a , e e a -

n ight an d an e x ct r evoluti on of th e u n i v e rs e owi n g to th e

a

s e p a rat e m oti on of th e s u n (ch p 6 ) on th e h abit bl r egi on a . a e s

of th e gl ob e i n clud i n g Brit ai n n d th e i s l n d of Thul e s aid

a a

to h v e b een vi it ed by Pyth eas W h er e wh en th s un is in

a s , ,
e

C an c er nd vi s ibl th e d ay is a m on th lon g ; n d s o on (ch ap

a e, a .

C h ap 8 purport s to prove th t th e u n iv e r s e is
. ph ere by a a s

provi ng rs t th at th e earth i s ph er e n d th en th t th e ai s a ,
a a r

a b out i t n d th e , th er about th at mu s t n ec es s ar i ly make up

a e ,

larg r s ph er es Th e earth is proved to b e s ph er e by th e

e . a

me th od of exclu s i on ; i t is s u me d th t th e on ly p os s ibiliti a s a es

ar e th t it i s a
(a) t an d pl n e or (b) holl ow an d d ep 0 a a , e , . r

(0 ) s qu are or (d ) pyramid al o (e) s ph eric l an d th rs t four

, ,
r a , , e

hyp othes es being ucces s ive ly di s pos ed of on ly th e fth s ,

remain s C h ap 9 mai n tai ns th t th e e rth is in th e c en tre of

. . a a

th e u n iv rs e ; ch ap 1 0 on th s i e of th e e arth c on t ain s th e
e .
,
e z ,

i n t ere t ing r eproducti on of th d et ails of th e meas ur emen ts of

s e

th e earth by Pos id on iu s and E r at os th en s r es p e ct i v ely which e

hav e be n gi v en above in th eir prop er plac es (p 2 2 0 pp 1 0 6 7 )

e . , .

ch ap 1 1 rgu es th t th e earth is in the r el ati on of a poi n t to

. a a
,

i e is n gligibl e n Si e l n comp ari son w i th the u n i v er se o

. . e i z
, r

ev en th e s un s circl but n ot th e moon s circle (cf p 3 a bov e)

e, . . .

Book II ch ap 1 is e vid en tly th e pi ece d e r es is ta n ce con

, .
,
,
 C LEO M EDES 37

i ti ng of an el ab or ate r efutati on ofEpicuru s and his follow ers

s s
,

w h o h eld th at th e s u n is ju s t a l rg e as it looks and furth r s a

, e

ass ert e d a cc ordi n g to C le ome d es th t th e s t ar s ar e lit up as

( ) a

th ey ris e an d ex ti n gu i s h d s th ey s t Th e ch ap ter eem to e a e . s s

b al m os t wh olly t ak en from Pos i d on iu s ; it en d s with ome

e s

p g es of m r ely vulg r bu s e c ompar i ng Ep i curu with Th er

a e a a , s

sit with mor e of th e s me s ort Th e v lu e of th ch apter

es , a . a e

li e s in c ert i n hi s torical tr diti ons m en ti on ed in i t and in the

.
a a ,

a cc ou n t of P o id on iu s p e cul ti on s to th e s i e an d di t n c

s s s a a z s a e

of th e s u n which d o s as , m tt er of fa ct giv e r es ult s much

e , a a ,

n ear e r th e truth th n th os e obt i n e d b

y A ri s t archu s H ippa
a a .

, r

chu s n d P tol emy C leomed es ob s rv es (1 ) th t by m an s of

, a . e a e

w ter cl ock s it is fou n d th t th pparen t di meter of th s u n

a a e a a e

is 1 7 5 oth of th e s u n circl e an d that thi s me th od of

s ,

m eas urin g i t is s aid to h a v b e en r s t i n ven t e d by th e e

Egypti n s ; (2 ) th at H ipp archu is

a id to h ave fou n d th t s sa a

th un s
e s tim e th e e of th earth th ough as r gard s
i s si z e , , e

thi w e h a ve th e b ett r au th 0 ity of A d as tus (in Th on of

s, e 1 1 e

S m y rn a) an d of C h l ci d iu s ccordi ng to wh om H i pp rchu
a ,
a a s

m d th
a un n
e e rly e s ti m th i of th e th (both
a es e s z e e ai

gur s r e f r of cours to th e s oli d c on t en t) We h av e lr dy

e e e . a ea

d s crib d Pos idoni u s m th od of rr i v i n g at the s i e an d

e e s

e a z

di s t n c e of th e s u n (pp 2 2 0
a A fte r h e h s given thi s C l eo
. a ,

m d e pp ar en tly d e ser ti n g h is guid add s calcul ti on of

es, a e, a a

h is ow n r el ati ng to th e s i es n d di s t an c es of th e m oon n d z a a

th s u n wh i ch s h ow s h ow littl e h e w as c ap bl e of any scien

e a

tic i n quiry C h ap 2 purp ort to prove th t th e s u n i

.
1
. s a s

1
He (pp 1 4
says 6 1 7 1 48 27 . th t
. l
) a in an e c i ps e th e b ead . of th e r th
earth tt
s s h a d ow i s s a e d to b e tw o m oon b ea d h s ;

r t en e , h e s ay s , i h c t
s eem scr e d i b e (m en uu ) l th t
a th e ea rth t
is wi ce th e s i z e of th e m oon ( i s th
r ct ll
p a i ca y ass u m e s a t hth t
e b ear th
d o f th e erth
a

s s ad ow is e q u a to h l
th e d i am e e of th e e a h , or tr rt ath tth e con e of th e e a s s h a d ow is rth

a t
S in ce h en th e cir cu mfe 1 e n ce of th e ea h , acco d in g to rt r
t
E 1 a tos th en e s , i s 2 5 0 , 0 0 0 s ad es , an d its d i a me e trt h e e fo e m o e h an r r r t
80 , 0 0 0

(h e evi d en y akes 7 r tl t th e d iam ete 1 of th e m oon wi be ll

s ad es t rl
Now, th e m oon s ci c e b e ing 7 5 0 i mes th e m oon s
. t

tr r
d i am e e , th e ad i us of th e m oon s ci rcl
e , i e th e d i s an ce of th e moon

. . t
fr om th e ea rth ll , t
w i b e %th of h i s (i e 7 1 3 ) or 1 2 5 m oon d i ame e s ; . .

tr -

th e1 e for e th e m oon s d i s an ce is

t ts ad e s ( w i is m u c too h ch h
r t
g ea ) A g ai n , s i n e th e moo
. c n tr r r t
a ve s es its o b i 1 3 i me s to th e sun s

t
u r t t
on ce , h e as s u mes th at th e s n s o b i 1 s 1 3 i mes as lai ge a s th e moon s ,
'

an d c on s e q en y au tl th t
th e d ia mete 1 of th e s u n is 1 3 i me s h a of th e t t t
m oon , or t t
s ad es an d its d i s an ce 1 3 t im e s or
t
s ad e s
 TH EON O F S MYR N A 239

e dit ed by E H iller (Teu bn er 1 8 7 8 ) and nally with a French

.
, ,

tran s lation by J Dupuis (Pari s , .

,

Theon s d at e is a pproxi m t e ly x ed by two c ons id er ations

a .

H e is cl early th e p e rs on wh om Th eon of A l ex an dri a c ll d a e

th e old Th eon an d th er e is n o r e s on

w w h b O w , r c a at u a a,

a

to d oubt th at h e is th e Th e 0 n th e math ematici an

(6 po en

t

ar t x s) w h o i s credit d by P tol m y with four ob s e r v ati on

p e e s

of th e pl anet s Mercury n d V en u s mad e in A D 1 2 7 1 2 9 1 3 0

-
a . .
, ,

an d Th e lat es t writ rs wh om Th eon hi ms elf me n t i on s e

ar e Th r as llu s
y wh o liv e d in th e r eig n of Tib e riu
, nd s, a

A dras tu s th e Perip at etic w ho be longs to th e middle of th ,

e

s e c on d c en tury A D Th eon s w ork its elf is a curi ou s m edle y

. .
,

v luable n ot intri n s ic ally but for th e n umerou s hi s torica l

a , ,

n otic es which it con tai n s Th ti tle which cl ai ms th t th . e ,

a e

book c on tai ns thi ngs u s e ful fo th e s tudy of Plato mu t n ot r ,

s

b e ta ken too s eri ou s ly It w s n o doubt an el emen t ry . a a

i nt od ucti on or vad e m cu m fo s tud en ts of philos ophy but

r -
e r ,

there is little in it which h s pe cial r e fer en ce to th e math a s e

m atical qu es ti on s r ai s d in P l t o Th e c onn exi on c on s i s t s e a .

mos tly in th e l ong proem qu ot i n g th e v i ew s of Plat o on th e

paramou nt i mportan ce of m th ematic s in the train i ng of a

th e phil os oph er and th e m utu a l r el ati on of th e v e di f

, feren t
bran ch es ari thme tic g eometry s ter ometry astron omy n d
, , , e ,
a

m u s ic Th e w an t of c ar e h ow n by Th eon in th e qu ota ti on
. s s

fr om particular di al ogue s of P l to pr epar es u s for th e patch a

w ork character of th e w hol e book .

I n th e r s t ch apte r h e prom i es to gi v e th e math em tic l s a a

theor ems mos t n ecessary fo th s tud en t of P lato to know r e ,

in arith m etic mu s ic an d g eom e try with its a pplicati on to

, , ,

s t e r e ometry and as tr on omy B u tth e promi s e is by no mean s 3

.

k ept as reg ards g eometry a n d s ter eom etry i nd eed in : ,

a

l te r p assage Th eon s eem to xcu se hi mself from i n cludi ng

a s e

th eore tical g eometry in his pl n on th e groun d that all th os a ,

e

w h o a e lik ely to r ea d his w ork o th e writi ng s of Pl at o m y

r r a

b e s s u me d to h ave g on e thr ou gh an el emen tary c our s e of

a

th eore tical g eometry Bu t h e writ es at le ngth on gur d .

4
e

Th o of A l dri Comm o P tol my Sy t B l d it i o

e n exan a, . n e s n ax vs , as e e n,

pp 3 9 0 3 9 5 3 9 6
.
, ,
.

Pt ol my Synt i i
2
e 9 ,
1 2 ax s , x. ,
x .
, .

3
Th o of S myre n d H ill r p 1 1 01 7 n a, e . e ,
. . .

I h , p 1 6 1 7 2 0
. . . .
2 40 S OME H A N DBO O K S

n u mb ers plan e an d s olid which e of cours n alogous to

, ,
ar e a

th c orr e p on d i n g g om etric l gur s an d h e m ay h v e con

e s e a e ,
a

s id e ed th t h r w as in th i s Way s u f
a ci en tly fullli n g hi s
e

promi with r g rd to g om try an d s t r om try C rt in

se e a e e e e e . e a

g om tr i c l d n iti on s of p oi n t li n s tr ight li n th thr e

e e a e , ,
e, a e, e e

d i m ns i ons r ecti l in r pl an an d s olid gur s s p eci lly

e ,
ea e e ,
e a

p r lle logr ms an d p r ll l epip d l gur s i n clu d i n g cub s

a a a a a e e a e e ,

p l in thi des (s qu r br i cks ) n d d m s (b am ) an d sc len

a e a a e e s a e
,

gur w i th s id es u n equ al v ry w y
es Bon to i n th e e e a i
-
K at

cl ass i cation of s olid n u m b ers ) e dr gge d in l t r (ch p s ,

ar a a e a .

5 3 5 of th s cti on on m u s i c ) in th m iddl
-

e e of th di s cu s s i on 1
e e e

of pr op orti on s n d me n s ; if th i s p as sag e is n ot a n inter a a

pol tion it c on r m th e s uppos ition th t Th on i n clud ed in

a , s a e

h is w ork on ly thi li m it ed m ou n t of g om try n d s t e r eo s a e e a

m etry .

S ecti on I i on A rith m e tic in th e s m s en s s N icom ch u s s

s a e e a a

I n t od u ti onr A t th e b gi nn i n g Th eon ob s e rv
c . th at r i th e es a

m tic will b e foll ow d by m u i c

e O f mu s i c in its thr e e s . e

as p ct mu ic in i n tru m en ts ( opy d o s) m u i c in n um be r s
e s, s s eu

v z ,
s ,

i . m u s i c l i n t e rv l s xpr e s d in n u mb rs o pur th e or t i c l
e . a a e s e e r e e a

mu s i c n d th mu ic o h r m on y in th e u n i v r th r st
'

,
a e s r a e s e, e

kin d (i ns trum nt l mus ic) i n ot ex ctly s s en t i l but th oth r

e a s a e a ,
e e

tw o m u s t be di s cu s d i mm ed i at e ly ft r ar i th m etic Th con se a e .
2
e

t en ts ofthe ri thm tic l s e cti on h v b e n s u ffic i en tly i n dic t e d

a e a a e e a

i n th ch pt r on Pyth gor e n a rith m et i c ( ol i pp 1 12 1 3 )

e a e a a v .
,
.

i t d l s w ith th e cl ss ic t i on of n u mb r od d v en n d
ea a a e s, , e ,
a

th i r s ubd i vi i on s prime n u mb r com pos ite n umb ers with

e s ,
e s,

e qu l o aun equ l factor pl n n um b er s s ubd i v i de d i n to

r a s ,
a e

sq r obl on g tri ngul r n d p olygon l n u m ber with th e i r

u a e, ,
a a a a s,

r es p ectiv gnomon n d th e ir prop e rt i es

e

s th e s u m of s

a a

s ucc ss i ve ter ms of rith me tic l progr es i ons b egi nn i n g with

e a a s

1 s th
a rs t t er m c i rcul r n d s ph eric l n u mb r s s ol i d n u m
e ,
a a a e ,

ber wi th thr e f ctors pyr am i d l n u m b er n d trunc t e d

s e a ,
a s a a

pyr mi dal n um b r s p rf ct n u m b r s with th ir corr el tiv es

a e , e e e e a ,

th e ov er p rfe ct n d th -

dec i n t ; th i s is pr ctic lly wh at

e a e e a a

w e n d i n N icom ch u s B u t th e s p ci l valu e of Th eon

a . e a s

e xpos iti on l i es in th f ct th at it con t in an ccou n t of th e a a s a e

f m ou s i d e n d di m t r nu mb r s of th Pyth agor eans

a s a

a e e e e .
3

Th o of S my
1
e n d H i l l r pp 1 1 1 4 3
'

I b pp 1 6 2 4 1 7 1 1
r n a, e . e ,
. .
2
.
, . .

. .

3
Ih .
, pp 4 2 1 0 4 5 9
. .

. . Cf . vol . i , pp 9 1
.3
'

.
 TH EO N O F S MY R N A 24 1

I n the S e c ti on on M u s ic Th eon will rs t s p eak of sa ys he

th e two ki nd s of m u s ic th e udibl e or i n s tru men t al an d th e , a ,

i n te lligible o th eoretical s ubs i s tin g in nu mb er s after which

r
,

h e promi s es to d eal l as tly with r ati o as pre dic abl e of math e

m tical en titi es in g en er al an d th e rati o c on s tituti ng th e
a

harmon y in th e un ive rs e n ot s crupli ng to set out on c e g i n ,

a a

th e thi n gs di s c ov er e d by ou pr d ec ss or s j u s t s w e h v r e e , a a e

gi v n the thi ngs h an de d dow n in for me r ti mes by th e Py tha

e

go ean s with a vi e w to maki ng th m b ett e r kn ow n wi th ou t

r , e ,

our elv es cl i m in g to h a v e di s cov er e d an

y of th em Th en
s a

follow s a dis cu si on of audibl mu s ic the i nt ervals wh i ch

s e ,

gi v e h ar mon i es &c i n cludi ng s ubs t n ti al quotati on s fr om

,
.
, a

Th asy llu s
r n d A dras tu s aan d r f e r e n c e to vi ew s of A ri s , e s

tox en u s H ipp su s A rchyt as E udoxu s

, a nd Pl to
, With , a a .

ch p 1 7 (p 7 2 ) begi n the ccoun t of th e harmony in

a . . s a

n u m b er which turn in to a g en er al di s cu s si on of ra tios

s , s ,

proporti on s an d me n s with more quot ti on s fr om Plato a , a ,

Er t os th en es an d Th s y llus foll ow e d by Th

a
y llu s s d i vis i o
ra , r as

ca n on i s ch p ,
3 5 3 6 (pp 8 7
a s . A ft er pr omi e to apply
, . a s

th e l a tt er divi s i on to th e s ph e r e of th e u n iv ers e Th eon

'

purp orts to r eturn to th e s ubj ct of proporti on nd m n s e a ea .

Th i s h ow e v er d oe s n ot occur t i ll ch p 5 0 (p
, , th e a . .

i n terveni ng ch pter s be ing tak en up with a d i s cu s i on of

a s

th e d d s and p s (with
a l e v n applic ti ons of th
r er
'
aKr
-
e e a e

l tter) an d th e mys tic o curi ou s pr op erti es of th e n umbers

a r

from 2 to 1 0 ; h ere w e h av e p rt of th e theologu m n a of a a e

a rith m tic The dis cu ss ion of proport i on s n d th e di fferent

e . a

ki n d s of mean s fter Eratos th en e n d A dr s tu s is agai n a s a a

i nt rrupt ed by th e i n erti on of th e geome trical den iti on s

e s

alr ea dy r e fe rr e d to (ch p s 5 3 5 pp 1 1 1 fter which a .

, . a

Th eon r es u mes th e q ues ti on of mean s for more pre ci s e

tr e tmen t
a .

Th e S ecti on on A s tr onomy b egi n s on p 1 2 0 of H ill er s

.

e diti on H e r e ag ai n Th e on i
. m in ly d ep en d en t up on s a

A dr s tua from wh om h e m kes l on g quotati ons Thus on

s, a .
,

th e s ph ericity of th e ea rth h s ay s that fo the n eces , e r

s ary c on s p e ctu s of th e ar gu men t s it will b e s u f fici en t to

r fe to th e groun ds s tated ummarily by A dras tus I n
e r s .

x lain in
p g (
p 1 2 4 ) th at th e u nev enn ess es in the s urfac e of
.

Th on of Smyr1
d H i ll r pp 4 6 2 04 7 1 4
e na , e . e ,
. . . .

R
 TH EO N O F S MY R N A 2 43

to th e h eaven ly bodi es an d th e s ph er e of th e x ed s tar s

sev e n .

The wh ol e of thi s p as sag e (ch ap s 1 5 to 1 6 pp 1 3 8 4 7 ) is n o .

, .

doubt i n ten d e d as th pr om i s e d accou n t of the h ar mon y ine

th e u n iv er s e a lth ough at th e v e ry e n d of th e w ork Th eon

i mpli es th at thi s h s s till to b e xplai ned on th e b s i s of

a e a

Th asy ll u s s exp os iti on c ombi n ed with wh at h e h a alr eady

r s

gi ven hi ms lf e .

Th e n e x t ch apt ers d eal with th e forw ard m ov emen t s th e

'

s t ati on ary p oi n t s an d th e r e tr ograd ti on s ,s th e y r e s p e ctiv e ly a ,

a

a pp ear to u s of th e e pl n e t s an d th e sav i n g of th e ph en o
,
v a ,

mena by th lter n ti ve hyp oth es es of eccen tric circl es an d

e a a

e picycl es (ch p s 1 7 3 0 pp 1 4 7
a .Th es e hyp oth e ses a e

,
. r

e xpl in e d
a an d th e id en t i ty of th e mot ion pr oduc e d by the
,

tw o i s h ow n by A dr as tu in th e c s e of th e s u n (ch ap s 2 6 2 7
s s a .
, ,

pp 1 6 6
. Th e pr oof i i n tr oduc e d with th e i n t r es ti n g s e

r m rk th at H ipp archu s s ay s it i w orthy of i n v tig ti on

e a

s es a

by m th em tici an s why on tw o hypoth es es o differ nt from

a a , s e

on e an oth e r th t of e cc en tric circl s an d th t of c on c en tric

,
a e a

circl e w i th e picycl th e s me r e ults app e r to foll ow It

s es , a s a

.

is n ot to b e s upp os d th t th e proof of th e iden tity c ould be

e a

oth e r th an eas y to m th e matici an lik e H i pp archu s ; th e

a a

r emark p erh ps mer ely s ugg es ts th t th e two hyp oth e es w er e

a a s

di s cover e d quit e i n d p en d n tly n d it w s not till l ater th at

e e ,
a a

th e effe ct w s di s cov er e d to b e th e sa m e wh en of cours e th e

a ,

fa ct w ould s e m to b e curi ou s and a math ematical pr oof w ould

e

i m medi ately be s ought A n oth er pas sag e s ay s th t

. a

H i pp rchu s pr e ferr e d th e hyp oth e i s of th e epicycl e s b ei n g

a s ,
a

hi ow n
s If thi s me n s th at H ipp archu s clai med to h av
. a e

di s c ov er ed th e ep i cycl e hyp oth es i it m u t b e a misapp eh en -

s, s r

s i on ; fo A p oll on iu s alr eady u n d r tood th e th eory of epi

r e s

cycl es in all its g en eral i ty A ccord i ng to Theon th e e picycl e .

,

l1 y poth es is is mor e ccordi ng to n atur e ; but i t w as p es um

a r

a bly pr eferr e d b ecau se it was appl ic bl e to ll the planet a a s,

w h e r e s th e e cc e n tr i c hyp oth es i s wh e n origi n lly s ugges t e d

a -

,
a ,

a ppli d on ly to th e three s up eri or pl an et s ; in ord er to make

e

it pply to th e i n feri or pl an ets i t is n ec es sary to suppos e th e

a

c i rcl e d es crib ed by th e cen tre of th e eccentric to be gr eat r e

th an th e e ccen tri c circl e its elf which ex tens i on of th hyp o ,

e

th es i s th ough k n own to H ipparchu s d oes n ot s eem to h av e

, ,

occurr e d to A p oll on iu s .
 2 44 S O M E H A N DB O O K S

We nex t h ave (ch ap 3 1 p llu si on to th e s ys t ems

.
,
. 1 7 8 ) an a
of Eudox u s C allippu s and A ri s totl e
,
an d a d es cripti on ,

(p 1 8 0 s q ) of a s ys t em in which the carrying s ph er es

. .

(c all ed h oll ow h av e betw n th em s olid s ph er e s which by

ee

th eir own moti on will roll (d A go o ) th e carrying s ph er es in ue

r v
-

th e oppos it e dir ecti on b ei ng in c on t c t with th em Th e s e

,
a .

s olid s ph e r es (which c arry th e pl n e t x e d at a p oi n t on

a

th e ir s urface) act in practically th e s am w ay as epicycles e .

I n conn ex i on with thi s d es cr ipt i on Th eon (i e A dr as tu s ) . .

s p eak s (ch a p 3 3 pp 1 8 6 7
.
) of tw o ltern ti ve hypoth es es in
, .

a a

which by comparison with C h l idiu s w e re cogni e (after

, a c ,
1
z

e li mi n atin g e picycl es e rron eou s ly i m p ort d i n t o b oth s ys t e ms ) e

th e hyp oth eses of P l at o an d H e aclid es r es p e cti ve ly . It is r .

thi s p as s age which ena bl es u s to con clud e fo certai n tha t r

H er aclid es mad e V en u s an d Me rcury r e volv e in circl es ab out

th e s un lik e s at ellit es whil e th e s u n in its turn r ev ol v es in
, ,

a circl e ab out th e ear th centre Th eon (p 1 8 7 ) gi v es th e

as . .

max i mu m arcs s ep ar ti n g M rcury an d V en u s r es p e cti v ely

a e

from the s un as 2 0 an d th es e gur es bei n g the same as

th ose gi v en by C leomed es .

Th e l as t ch apt er s (ch a ps quote d from A dras tu s d eal .

,

with c onju nctions tr n s i t occult tions and eclip ses Th e

,
a s, a .

book c onclud es with a con s i d r bl e xtra ct from Der cyllid es e a e

,

a Pl at on i s t with Pyth agor an l ean i n s w h o wrot e b e f or e th e

( e g
,

ti me of Tiberiu s and p rh ap s e v en b efore V arr o) a b ook one

Pl ato s philos ophy It is h ere (p 1 9 8 1 4) th at we h av e the

. . .

pas sage s o often qu ote d from Eu d emu s :

Eud emu s r e l ates in his A s tr on omy th a t it w as O enopid es

wh o rs t d i s c ov e re d th e girdli n g of th e z odi a c an d th e r e volu

ti on (or cycle) of th e Great Y e ar , th a t Thal es was the r s t to
di scov er th e eclips e of th e su n an d th e fact th at the s un s

p eri od with res p ect to th e s ol s t i ce s is n ot alw ay s the same,

that A nax i mand er di s cov e r ed th at th e earth is (s u s p end ed) on
high and li es (subs titu ti n g K e Zr a z for th e readi ng of the manu -

s cript s , x w l a c mov es
) about th e c en tre of th e u n i v ers e and
,
,

th at A naximenes said that th e moon h as its light from the

s u n an d ( pl i d ) h w i ts e clip se s c ome ab out

n
e x a e o
(A naxi
menes is h er e appar en tly a m i s t ak e for A nax agor as
) .

i
id iu s , Comm c
S
g
al Ti maeus , 1 10 Cf A r is tar chus
on S amos ,
i g f
o
.
. . .

pp
.
 XV I I

TR GO N OM ETR YI H I PP A R C H U S ,
MEN E LA U S ,

P TOLEM Y

WE hav e th at Sphaer i th e geome try of the s ph r e

s een c, e ,

w as v e ry early s tudi e d b e c au s e it w r equ i r ed s o s oon , as as

a s tr on om y b e c m e m th em tic al ; wit h th e Py th g ore n

a th e
a a a a s

w ord Spha er ic ppli e d to on of th e ubj ect of th e qu adriv i u m

,
a e s s ,

a ctu lly m an t s tr on omy The ubj ct w s so far adv n c ed

a e a . s e a a

be for e Euclid s ti me th at th ere w as in xi s ten c e regu lar

e a

t e xtb ook cont i n in g th pri n cip l pr opo i ti on b out gr t

a e a s s a ea

a nd m ll circl
s on th
a ph re from which both A utolycus
es e s e ,

a n d E uclid qu ot d th propo i t i on s g en er lly know n

e e s s a a .

Th e se prop os i t i on with oth er of pur ly s tron omica l in s, s e a

t e t w r c oll ct e d ft rw rd s in a w ork en titl e d Sph er i ca

er s ,
e e e a e a a ,

in thr e B ook s by TnE onos w s

e , .

n otice O od m og which viden tly con

S u id as h as 8 v a ,
. . e c ,
e

fu s th e uth or of th e Spha r ica w i th an oth er Th eodos ius

es a e ,

a S c ptic phil o oph r i n ce i t call s him Th od os i u s philos o

e s e , s e , a

ph r n d ttr i but es to him b s ide the m th m t i cal w orks

e a a ,
e s a e a ,

S c pt i c ch pt e r n d a c ommen t ary th e ch pt ers of

e a s a 0 11 a

Th e udas N ow th e c ommen t t or on Th ud s mus t h v

. a e a a e

b el on ge d t th earl i es t to th e con d h lf of th
,
a e c on d , se a e se

cen tury A D wh er s ou Th odos iu s w as e r li er th an Men e

. .
,
ea r e a

l au s (fl about A D w h o qu ot h im by n m . .Th e n xt es a e . e

n ot i c e by S u i d i of y t n oth er Th od os iu as po t w h o
s e a e s, a e ,

c m from Trip ol i s H en ce i t w s t on e ti me s upp os ed th t

a e . a a a

ou Th e od os iu s w as of Trip oli Bu t V itruv i u s men ti on a 1

r s . s

Th e od os iu s w h o i n v en t d a s u n di l fo an y cli m at e ; an d

e a r

S tr b o in s p e k i n g of c rtai n Bi thy ni ns di s ti n gu i s h e d in
a ,
a e a

th eir p ar ticul r s ci en ces r e fers to H i pp rchu Th eodos iu

a ,

a s, s

an d h is s on s m ath em atici an s ,
We con clud th at ou Theo 2
. e r

D hi t t i 9 e ar c Str b o ii 4 9 p 56 6
ec u r a x . .
2
a , x .
, , . .
 TH EO DOS U S S S P H A E R I CA I
24 7

(Book s XI I XIII ) Euclid

in clud ed n o gen er al pr op erti es
an d

of th e s ph er e e xc e pt th e th eor em pr ov e d in XI I 1 6 1 8 th at .

,

th e v olu mes of tw o s ph er es ar e in th e triplic at e r ati o of th eir

di ameters ; ap rt from thi s th e s ph er e is on ly i n tr oduced in
a ,

th e pr op os iti on s ab out th e r egul ar solid s wh er e it is pr ov e d ,

that th ey a e s e ver ally i ns crib bl e in a s ph ere an d it w as doubt

r a ,

l ess with a v i ew to his proof s of thi s pr op erty in each case th at

h e ga v e a n e w d en iti on of a s ph r e as th e gur e d e s cr i b e d by e

th e r e v oluti on of a s em icircl e ab out its di amet er i n s t e ad of ,

th e m or e u s u al d en iti on (aft er th e m ann er of th e d e n iti on

of acircl e) as th locu s of l l p oi n ts (in s pa c e i n s tead of in
e a

a pl n e ) which ar e e quidi s tan t fr om x e d p oin t (th e c ntre)

a a e .

N o d oubt th e xclu s i on of th g eome try of th e s ph er fr om

e e e

th e E l em en ts w a d u e to th e f c t th t it was r eg arde d a s
s a a

b el on gi ng to s tr onom y r th er th n pur e geometry

a a a .

Th eod os iu d e nes th e s ph e r as a s olid gur e c on t ai n e d

s e

by on e s urfac e s uch th at ll th s tr ight li n e falli n g up on it a e a s

from on e poi n t among th o lyi ng withi n th e gur a qu l se e re e a

to on e n oth e r w hi ch i s x actly E uclid s d n i ti on of circl e

a , e e a

with ol i d i n s erte d b for gur n d s urfac e s ub ti tut ed

"
s

e e

e a

s

fo r li n
Th e e rly p art of th w ork is th en gen r lly
e a e e a

de v elop e d on th e li n es of Euclid s Book III on th circl

e e .

A n y plan e s ecti on of a s ph er e is circl (Prop Th e a e .

s tr aight lin from th cen tre of the s ph er to the cen tr e of

e e e

a circul r se ct ion i s p rp en dicul r to th e pl an e of th t s e cti on

a e a a

(1 Por 2 cf 7 2 3 ) thu s a pl an s ecti on erv es fo n di n g

,
. .
,
e s r

th c n tr e of th e ph r e ju s t as
e e ch ord does fo n di ng th at
s e a r

of acircl e (Pr op Th e prop os iti on s b out tan g n t pl n es

. a e a

n d th e r e l at i on b e tw een th e s i es of circul ar s e cti on s

( )
3
5 a z

a nd th eir d i s t an c es fr om th cen tr e (5 6 ) corr es pond to e ,

Euclid III 1 6 1 9 n d 1 5 ; as th s m ll c i rcl c orr p on d s to

.
a e a e es

n y ch ord th e gr at circl ( gr e tes t circl e in Gree k ) c orr

a e e a e
,

s
p o n d s to th di m e t er Th e peol s of circul r a ct i on . e a a se

corr es p on d to the e xtremiti e of th e di m eter bi s e ctin g s a

a ch ord of a circl e t right angl e (Pr op s 8 Gr eat a s . .

circl s bi ec ti ng on e anoth er (Prop s 1 1 1 2 ) c orr es p on d to

e s .

ch ords which bi s ct on e an oth e r (di amet r ) and great circl es

e e s ,

bi s ectin g s mall circl es at righ t an gl es an d p s s i ng thr ough a

th eir poles (Pr op s 1 3 1 5 ) corr e pon d to di ameter s bi s ecti n g

.
s

ch ord s at right n gl es The di s t anc e of any poi n t of a gre t

a . a
2 48 TR I GO N O M ETR Y

circl e from its pol e is e qu al to the s ideof a s qu ar e i ns crib ed

in th e gr eat circl e and c on v e r e ly (Pr op s 1 6 s N e x t c ome .
,

certai n problems To n d s tr ight li ne equal to the diame ter

a a

of any circul ar s ecti on o of th r s ph e r e it self (Pr op s 1 8

e .
,

to dr w th e gr eat circl e thr ough

a n y tw o gi ven p oin t s on a

th e s urfac e (Prop . to n d th e p ol e of any gi v en cir cu

lar s ecti on (Pr op . Pr op 2 2 appli e s Eu cl III 3 to th e
. . .

s ph e r e .

Book I I b egi n s with a d n iti on of circl es on a s ph ere

e

which t ouch one another ; th i s h pp en s wh en the common a

s e ction of th e pl an es (of th e circl es

) touche s both circles
An oth er seri es of prop os iti on s foll ow s c orre s p on din g again ,

to propos iti ons i n Eu el B ook III fo th e circl e

.
,
Para ll el , r .

circul ar s ecti on s h av e th e s me pol es n d con versely (Props

a ,
a .

1
, P r op s . r el ate to circl es on th e s ph er e touchi n g
one anoth e r an d th er e for e h vi n g th e ir p ol es on a gr eat a

circle which als o p ass es through th p oi n t of contact (cf e .

Eu cl III 1 1 [ 1 2 ] ab out circl es t ouch i n g one anoth e r)

. .
, If .

a gr eat circl e t ouch es a s m ll circl it l s o touch es anoth e r

a e, a

s mall circl e e qu al an d p rall l to it (Pr op s

a 6 e an d if a .
,

gr eat circl e be obliquely i n cl i n d to n oth r circul ar s ecti on e a e ,

it t ouch es each of two qu l circl es p arallel to th at s ecti on

e a

(Prop . If two circl on a s ph er e cut on e an oth er th e

es ,

gr eat circl e draw n through th ir p ol s bi s ect s th e i n t erc epted

e e

se g ment s of th e circl es P rop If th er e ar e any n u mb e r of

( .

p arallel circles on a s ph er n d any n u mbe r of gr eat circles

e, a

draw n through th eir poles th e arc s of th e p arall el circl es

,

i n tercepte d between any two of th e gr eat circles ar e s i milar ,

and the arc s of th e gr eat circl es i n t e rc e pt e d b e tw een an

y tw o
of the parall e l circl e e e qu l P rop
s ar
( a .

The las t prop os iti on form s s ort of tran s ition to th e p or ti on

a

of th e treati se 2 3 and B ook III which c on t ain

.

) s pr o

p ositi ons of purely as tronomic l in t eres t th ough ex press ed as

a ,

prop os itions in pure g om try without any s pe cic refe ren ce

e e

to th e vari ou s circl es in th h e v en ly s ph er e e Th e pr op os i
a .

ti ons ar e long and c ompl i c t d n d it w ould n eith er be eas y

a e , a

n or w orth whil e to att e m pt an en u m r ati on Th ey d eal with e .

circl e s or p art s of circl es ( rc s i n t erce pt e d on one circl e by

a

seri es of oth e r circl es n d th e lik e

a
) We h av e no difculty in .

r ecogni z ing particul ar circl es which come into man y prop osi
 TH EO DO S U S S S P H A E R I CA I
2 49

tion s A p articul ar small circl e is the circl e which is th e

.

li mi t of th e s t rs which d o n ot s et as s een by an obse rv er at

a ,

a p a rticul ar pl c e on th e earth s s urfac e

; th e p ol e of thi s

a

circl e is th e p ol e in th e h ea v en A gr eat circle which t ouch es .

thi s circl e an d is obliqu ely in cli n e d to th e parallel circl is th e

es

circl e of th e hori on ; th e p ar allel circl es of cour se r e pres n t

z e

th e app ar en t m oti on of th e x e d s tar s in th e diur n a l rot ti on a ,

an d h a v e th e p ol e of th e h ea v e n as p ol A s ec on d gre t e . a

circl e obliqu ely i n clin e d to th p ar ll e l c i rcles is of cour se th e a e

circl e of th e odi ac o cliptic Th e gr e t es t of th e p ar all el

z r e . a

circl es is n atur ally th e e quator A ll th t n e d be said of th e

. a e

v ari ou s pr op os iti on s (e xce pt two which w i ll be men ti on ed

s e p ar at ely
) i tha t th e s ort of res ult prov e d is lik e th t of
s a

P r op s 1 2 an d 1 3 of E uclid s P ha n om en a to th e effe ct th at in

. e

th e h alf of th e odi a c c i rcl e b egi n n i n g with C an c er (o C apr i

z r

corn u s ) e qu al arcs s t (o ri s ) in u n qu l ti mes ; th os which

e r e e a e

ar e n ear e r th tropic circl t k e lon g r ti me th o furth r e a e a e , se e

fr om it a s h orter ; th ose w hi ch t ake th e s h ort es t ti me ar e

thos dj c en t to th e equin oct i l p oi nts ; th os which ar e e qui

e a a a e

di s tan t from th equ at or ri s an d s et in equ l ti mes I n l i k e

e e a .

m an n er Th eodos iu s (III 8 ) in effect t akes e qu al n d con . a

tigu ou arc s of th
s cliptic ll on on e s ide of th e qu ator
e e a e ,

dr aw s through th eir xtr mi ti s gr t circl es touching th e e e e ea

circu mp o l r p rall el c i rcle and prov es th t th e corr es pon d

a

a

,
a

ing rc of th e e qu t or i n t rc e pt e d b etw een th e l att r gr e t

a s a e e a

circl a un qu al an d th at of th e sai d rcs th at c orr es pon d

es r e e ,
a ,

ing to th e c of th e e cli ptic which is n eare r th e tr opic circl e

ar

is th e gr eat r Th e s ucc e iv e gr e t c ircl es t ouchi n g th

e . ss a e

circum polar circle a of cour se s ucc s iv e p os i ti on s of th

r e e s e

hori on as th e rth r ev olv

z e bout its xi s th t i to y
a es a a ,
a s sa ,

th e s m l en gth of e on th e e cliptic t k es
a e ar l onger or s h ort r a a e

ti me to ri e accordi ng as it is n r er to o f rther fr om th e
s ea r a

tropic in oth er w ord s f rth er fr om o n ear r to th e equin octi al

, ,
a r e

p oin t s .

It is h ow v r obvi ous th t i n ve tig ation of thi s kin d

,
e e ,
a s s ,

which on ly prov e th t c r t i n rc ar e gr e ter th n oth er a e a a s a a s,

an d d o n ot giv th e actu a l n u m eric al r t i os b e tw een th em ar e

e a ,

u s eless fo any pr actical purpos e s uch s th at of t elli ng th e

r a

h our of th e ni ght by th e s tars which w as on of th e fun da ,

e

m en t al pr obl ems in Gr eek as tr on omy ; n d in ord r to n d a e

 TH EO DO S I U S S S P H A E R I CA

251

N ow th e tri an gl e NLO b ei ng right an gl e d at L , N O

, NL -

Meas ur e N T al ong N O e qu al to N L an d j oi n TB , .

Th en in th e tri an gl es B N T B N L tw o s id e s B N , N T ar e

,

e qu al to tw o s id es B N N L an d th e i n clud e d an gl es (b oth

, ,

b e i n g righ t) ar e e qu al ; th er e for e the tri angles ar e e qual in all

r p c
e s e ts a n d A N LB,

: A N TB

.

2R : 2 p= oc c x e '

ON z N L

N TB : ta n N OB

]

ta n

A N TB

A N OB

:

A NLB

L N OB
'
:

4 003 } A N OB

(ar c B C ) (ar c B C

If a

, b, ides

c ar e th e s of th e sph eric al tr i angle A B C th i s
,

r s ult
e i e quiv l ent ( i n c
s a s e th e an gl e COB s ubt en d ed by th e c ar

C B is equ l to A ) to a

'
1 : s n i b : tan A : tan a

a a ,

wh r e e ide oppos it e A in th e tri angl A B C

a B C , th e s e .

Th pr oof i b as e d on th e f ct (pr ov e d in Euclid s Op ti c

e s a s

and u m e d s know n by A ri t rchu s of S mos n d A rch i

as s a s a a a

m e d es ) th t i f or 8 a e angl es s uch th at
a , or B , , r '
rr ,

tan a / tamB a
/B .

W hil e th e r e for eh eod os iu s prov s th e e quiv l ent of th

, ,
T e a e

for m ul a pplic bl e in th e olution of a s ph eric l tri ngl

,
a a s a a e

right an gl e d t C th at t n a
-
in h t n A h e is u n abl e fo
a ,
a s a , ,
r

w n t of trigon om etry to nd th e actu al v lu e of

a nd ,
a a a

,
a

c n on ly n d a li mi t fo it
a He i x ctly in th s m p os iti on r . s e a e a e

as A ri s t rchu s w h o c n on ly
a ppr oximate to the v lu es of th
, a a a e

trig on om trical r ti o which he n eed s g s in cos s in

e a s ,
e . .

by bri ngi n g th em within upp er n d low r li mit with th e id a e s a

of th e i n qu aliti s e e

wh e re % rr oz B .
2 52 I
TR GO N O M ETR Y

We contr s t with thi s propos iti on of Th eodo i u s th e

m ay a s

corr es pon di n g propos iti on in M n l us s Spha ica (III 1 5 ) e e a

er .

d e ling with the mor g n eral ca in which C n ste d of

a e e se

1 a

bei ng th e trop i c l poi n t on th cliptic is lik B any poi n t a e e , ,

e

b tw een th e tropic l poin t an d D If R p hav e th e same

e a .
,

m an i n g s bov e n d
e a e th
a radii of th e p r alle l circl es
a a r
2
r e a

through B an d th e n ew C Menelaus prov es th at

,

which of cours with th e aid of T ble gi s th m ean s

, e, a s, ve e

of n di n g th ctu al valu es of a o a wh en th oth e r l em en ts

e a r e e

ar e g i v en .

Th pr op os i ti on III 1 2 of Th od o iu s pr ov s
e r es ult s i m il r . e s e a a

to th at of III 1 1 fo th e c e wh er th gr t circl e s A B B

. r as e e ea ,

A C C i n s t ead of b i ng gr t circl thr ough th p ol es ar

, e ea es e ,
e

gr t circl s touch i ng th circl of th lw ays vi s ibl e s t r s

ea e e e e a -

i. diff rent pos i ti on s of th e h or i on n d th e p oin t s C B

e . e z , a

,

ar e

a n y poi n t s on th a c of th obl i qu circl b e tw e n th e tropical e r e e e e

an d th e e qui n oct i l p oi n t ; in thi c as w i th th e s ame n ot tion

a s s e, a ,

4B 2p (ar e B C ) (ar c
It i s e v i d e n t th at Th eod os iu s
w s i m ply l bori ou s com a s a a

pile r n d th at th r e w pr ctic lly n othin g origi n al in hi

, a e as a a s

w ork It has b en pr oved by me ns of pr opo iti on qu ote d

. e ,
a s s

ver b ti m o a s u m d as k n ow n by A ut olyc u
r in hi M ovi n g
as e s s

Sphe e n d by Eucl i d in hi P h en om en a th t th e followi n g

r a s a ,
a

propo i t i on s in Th eodos i u
s
p Eucl i d ean I 1 6 a 7 8 1 1 s ar e r e -

, .
, , , , ,

1 2 1 3 1 5 2 0 ; II 1 2 3 5 8 9 1 0
, , ,
13 15 17 1 8 19 20 22 ; .
, , , , , , a, , , , , , ,

III 1 b 2 3 7 8 th os s h ow n in th i ck typ bei ng qu ot ed

.
, , , , ,
e e

w ord for w ord .

Th e b eginn in gs of tr igon ome tr y .

thi s not all I n Men l au s Sphaer i ca III 1 5 th er e

B ut is . e

s ,
.
,

is a r ef r en c to th pr opos iti on (I I I 1 1 )of Th eodos iu s pr ov ed

e e e .

a bov e n d in Gh e a d of C r emon a s tr ans l ati on fr om th e

,
a r r

A r abic s w ell as in H all ey s tr n s l a ti on fr om th e H ebr ew

,
a a

of J c ob b M chir th er e is an a dditi on to th e e ffe ct th at thi s

a . a ,

propos ition w a u s ed by A p ollon iu s in a book the titl e of s

which is giv n in the two tr an s lations in th e alt ern ati v e

e
 B EGI NN I N GS O F TR I GO N OMETR Y 253

forms li ber aggr e a ti vu s un i ve s a liber

'

g an d d e pr incipn s r

libus Eac h of th es e e xpr es s i on s m ay w ell mean th e w ork

.

of A poll on ius which M ari n us re fers to as th e Gen eral

Tr ti se Th er e is no app a re n t

ea d k o Wp y y f) Ka v a ar e a .

r eas on to d oubt tha t th e remark in qu es ti on w as r lly ea

con tai ned in Men el au s s origin l w ork ; and ev en if it 1 s an

a ,

A r bi an i n t erp ol ati on it is n ot lik ely to h ave b e en m d

a , a e

with out s ome d e nite auth ority If th en A p ollonius was th e .

di cov e r er of th e pr op os it i on th fact affor d s s ome groun d fo

s , e r

thi n king th at th e beg i nn i ngs of trigonometry go as far b ck a ,

a t l eas t a s A p oll on iu s
, T n n ry i n d ee d s ugges t e d th t n ot. a e
1
a

on ly A p ol l oniu s but A rch i m d es b e for e h i m ma

y h av e com e

pile d a table of ch ord s o at l e s t show n th e way to s uch

,
r a

a c ompil a ti on A rchi m e d es in th w ork of which we poss es s e

,

onl y a fr ag ment in th e M e s u r em n to a Ci r cle and A poll on iu s

f a e ,

in th e m mo wh e r e h g a ve n pprox i mati on to th e v lu

a vr v, e a a a e

of clos er th an th at obt in d by A rchi med es ; Tann ry

11 a e e

com pares th e I n di an Table of S in es in the Sur ya Si dd han t -

a,

whe re the angl es go by 2 4 th s of a right angle ( 1 2 4 th 3 :

7 s p os s i bly s h owi ng Gr ee k i n u n c

2 2 4 th s : a e e .

Thi s is h owev er in th e r g i on of c onj e cture ; th e r s t p er on

, , e s

to m ak e s y s t ematic u s e of trig on om etry is so far as w e know , ,

H ipp archu s .

H I P P A R CH U S gr e t es t s tron omer of antiquity w

,
th e a a ,
as

born at N icaea in Bithyn i a Th e p eriod of his activity is .

i n dic ted by r eferen ces in P tolemy to obser vations mad by

a e

him th e li mits of which a e from 1 6 1 B C to 1 2 6 B C P tolemy r . .

,
. .

furth r say s th at from H ipp ch us time to th e begi nning of

e ar

s

th e r eign of A n t on i n u s P iu s 1 3 8 ) was 2 6 5 year s Th .

2
e

b es t and mos t i mp ortan t obs rv ti on s made by H ipp archu s e a

w er e m ad e at R h od e s though an obs er vati on of the v er n l ,

a

e qu i n ox at A l ex an dri a on M rch 2 4 1 4 6 B c r ec ord ed by h im a , . .

,

m y h ave b een h is ow n
a H is m ai n c on tributi ons to th eor etic l . a

an d pr actic al as tron omy can h e r e on ly be i n dic at e d in th e

bri e fes t manner .

1
r
Tan n e y , R echer ches sa r l h is t d e l

.

a s tr onomie ancz e
'

mz e, p 64 . .

2
tl
P o emy, Syntax z s , vii 2 (vol ii, p
'

. . .
 I
H P PA R C H US 255

th at len gth s of the mean s y nodic the s idereal th e

th e , ,

an omali s tic an d th e dra c on i tic mon th ob tai e d by H ipp archu s

n

agr e e e x ctly with B a byl on i n cu n eif
a o m t b les of d at e n ot a r a

l at er th an H i pp rchu s n d i t i cl ear th t H ipp rchu s w as

a ,
a s a a

in full p os e ss i on of ll th e r es ult s es tabli s h e d by Babyl on i n

s a a

as tr on omy .

I mpr oved es ti m a tes f si z es

o an d d i s ta n ces f sun
o

an d m ean .

H ipp archu s i m prov e d

ri s t rchu s s calcul ti ons of th e
4 .
on A a a

s i es z n d di s t an c es of th e s u n an d moon
a det er mi n i n g th e ,

a pparen t d i mete r mor e ex ctly nd n oti ng th e ch anges in

a s a a

th em h e m de th e me n disy nc of th e s u n 1 2 4 5 D th e m n
a a a e , ,
ea

d i s t n c of th e moon 3 3 2 D th e di m t r s of th e s u n n d
a e ,
a e e a

moon 1 2 D n d D r es p e ctiv ely wh r

a D i th e m n ,
e e s ea

di ame ter of the e rth a .

Epi cycles a nd eccen tr i cs .

5 . ipp rchu s in i n v s tigati ng th e moti on s of th e su n moon

H a , e ,

an d pl an e t s proc ed d on th alt ern at i v hypoth s es of epi

,
e e e e e

cycl es an d ccen t cs ; h e did n ot i n ven t th e se hypoth es es

e rl ,

w hi ch w r e alr e dy fully un d er s tood nd d i s cu sse d by

e a a

A p oll oni u Wh i l e th e m oti on s of th e s un and moon could

s .

with d ifficul ty be cc oun t ed fo by th e i m ple epicycl e an d

a r s

e cc en tr i c hyp oth es es H ipp archu s f ou n d th t fo th e pl n e t

,
it a r a s

w as n e c es s ry to c omb i n e th e tw o i e to s up er dd e p i cycl e to
a , . . a s

m oti on in e cc en tric circl es .

Ca ta l ogu e f s tar s
o .

6 . H e com p i l e d a
cat l ogu e of x ed s t r in clud i ng 8 5 0 o a a s r

m or e s uch s t r s ; pp ar e n tly h e w s th e r s t to t t e th ir
a a a s a e

pos iti on s in t er m of coordi n tes in r el ati on to th e ecl i ptic

s a

(l t i tud e n d l on gitud e) n d hi t abl e di s t in gu i s h ed th

a a ,
a s

app r en t s i e s of th e s t ar s
a H is w ork w s con t i nu e d by
z . a

P t ol em y w h o pr oduc ed a c t l ogu of
,
s t ars which a a e ,

owi n g to an e rr or in his s ol a r t abl ffecti ng ll h is longi es a a

tudes h s by m n y erroneou s ly b en s upp os e d to be a m er e

,
a a e

r eproduction of H ippa ch u s s c talogu e Th at P t ol emy took r

a .

m n y ob s e rvati on s hi ms e lf s eems c ert ain

a .
1

1
S ee two pape r
b y Dr J L E D ey e in th e lM on th ly N otices of the
s . . . . r r
R oya l A s tr onomi ca l S ociety, 1 91 7 , pp 5 2 8 3 9 , an d 1 9 1 8 , pp 3 4 3 9 . . .
2 56 TR I GO N OM ETR Y

I mpr oved I ns tr u m en ts .

7 . H e mad e
gr eat i mprovemen t s in th i ns tru ment s u s ed for e

ob s erv ati ons A mong th os e which h e u e d w er e an i mpr ov ed

. s

di optra a meridi an i n stru m n t d es ig n e d for ob s er vati on s in

,
-
e

the meridi an only an d a u n iv e r s l i n tru ment (d

, poAd Bo a s cr u

6py o ) for mor e g en r al u s e H e al s o mad e a gl ob e on

'

au v e .

which he sh ow ed the p os iti on of th x d s t ar s as d eter min ed s e e

by him ; it appear s th at h e s h ow ed l rger nu mb er of s tar s a a

on h is globe th an in his c t i og u a a e .

Geogr aphy .

g eography H i pparchu s wrote critici s m of Er atos thenes

In a ,

in gr eat p art u n fair H e ch e ck d Er atos th enes s d ata by

. e

means of a sort of tri angul ti on ; h e i n s i s t ed on th e n eces sity

a

of applyi ng as tron omy to ge ogr phy of x i n g th e p os iti on of a ,

pl aces by l atitude an d long i tud e and of d et er mi ni ng longitud es ,

by obser vations of lunar e clips es .

O ut s id e the d omain ofas tr on om y n d geogr aphy H ipp archu s a ,

wrote a b ook On thi n gs bor n e d ow n by their wei ght from

which Si mpliciu s (on A ri s totl e De caelo p 2 6 4 s q ) quotes
s , . .

two prop os iti on s It is p os s ible h ow ever th at e ven in thi s

.
, ,

w ork H ipp archu s may h v e appli ed his d octrin e to th e c ase of

a

th e h eav en ly bodi es .

I n pure math ematics h e is s id to h ve c on s id er ed a pr obl em a a

in p e rm utati ons an d com bi n a ti on s th e prob l em of n din g the ,

n u mbe r of di f feren t p os s ibl e c ombi n ti on s of 1 0 ax i oms or a

as s u m pti on s which h e ma de to b e
, (v l . .

or accordi n g as th e axioms w er e aff ir med or deni ed 1

it seems i mp ossibl e to mak e any thin g of th es e gures When .

the Eihr is t attribut es to him w ork s On th e ar t of algebra

,

known by the titl e of the R ul es an d On the di v i si on ofnum

ber s we h av e no conr mati on S ut er s u s p ects s ome confusi on :
,

in v i ew of th e fa ct th at th e a r ticl e i mmedi ately foll owing in

the Ei hr i st is on Di oph an tu s w h o al s o w rote on the ar t of ,

alg ebra

1 lut rch
P a , Quaest Convio
. . viii . 9 3 , 7 3 2 F, De Stoicor um
. r epugn. 29 .

1 01 7 D .
 I
H PPA R C H U S 257

Fir s t sy s te matic us e of Tr igon ometr y .

We com e wh t is th e mos t i mport nt fr om th e

n ow to a a

poi n t of vi ew of thi s w ork H ippa chus s h re in th e d e velop , r

s a

men t of trigon ome try E v en if h e did n ot i n v en t it .

,

H ipp rchu s is th e r s t p er s on of wh os e s ys t e m tic u se of

a a

trig on ometry w e h ve d ocu men tary e vid en ce ( 1 ) Th eon a .

of A l ex an dri a say s on th Syn taa i s of P t ol emy a pr op os of e ,

P t ol emy s Ta bl e of C h ord s in a circl e equiv l en t to s i nes

( ) a
,

th at H ipparchu s too wrote a tre ti se in tw elve book s on , , a

s tr aigh t l in es (i e ch ord ) in circle while anoth er in s ix

. . s a ,

b ooks w as writt en by M en el u s I n th e S yn ta aci s I 1 0 a .

1
.

P t ole my giv es th e n ec e s s ry expl n at i ons s to th e n ot ati on a a a

u s e d in hi T ble Th circu mfer en c e of th e circl e is div i d d

s a . e e

i n to 3 6 0 p art s o degr e s ; th e di amet r is l s o divide d i n to

r e e a

1 2 0 p rt s an d on e of s uch p rt s i s th e u n it of l en gth in t er ms
a , a

of which th e l en gth of e ch ch ord i e xpr ess e d ; each p r t a s a ,

wh th e r of th e circu m fer n c o di amete r is divided i nto 6 0

e e e r ,

parts ch of th ese ag ain i nto 6 0 and s o on cc ording to th e

,
ea , ,
a

s y s t e m of s e x ag es i m l fr cti on s P tol e my th n sets ou t th e a a . e ,

m i ni m u m n u m b r of prop os i t i on s in plan geometry up on

e e

which th e calculati on of th e ch ords in th T bl e is b s e d (as e a a

63V y pa pp w pedodtk s h (Bu d a ews) Th e pr o

ex 1

aa ov a r
-

pos iti on s e famou s n d it c ann ot be doubted tha t

ar ,
a H ippar
chus u s d a s et of propo iti on s of th e s me ki n d th ough h is
e

s a ,

e xp os iti on prob ably an to much gr ter length A s Ptol my r ea .

"

d n i t ly s et h i ms elf to giv e th e n ecess ry prop ositi ons in th e

e e a

s h ort es t form p oss ibl e it will b e b e tt e r to g i v e th em u n d r ,

e

P t ol emy r th er th an h r (2 ) Pappu s in p eaki ng of Eucl i d s

a e e .
, s

propos i t i on bout th i n equ al i ty of th e ti mes which equ l rc s

s a e a a

ofth e odi c t ak e to r i se ob s erv es th t H ipp archu s in hi s book

z a ,
a

On the r i s in g of the twel si gn s of the od i ac s h ow s by mea n s ve z

of n u m er ica l ca lcu la ti on s (8K ip d/ 6 ) that e qu al arcs of the l i 1 1V

s em icircl beg inn i ng with C an cer which s et in times h avi ng

e

a c e rt ai n r el ati on to on e n oth e r d o n ot e v rywh e r e s h ow th e a e

s a m e r e l ati on b e tw een th e t i m es in which th ey ri e an d s o s

on W h v e s een th at Euclid A ut olycu s n d e v en Th eo

. e a , ,
a

d os iu s c ould on ly pr ov e th t th e s aid ti m es ar e gr eat e r o l ess a r

Th o Comm o Sy t i p 1 1 0 d H l m
1
e n, . n n ax s , : , e . a a .

2
P appu s , vi , p 6 00
. 9
13 . .

0
S
 I
H P PA R C H U S 2 59

in h is Comme nta r y, h e u s ed th e for mulae of s ph erical tr igonoa

me try to get h is r es ult s I n th e p ar ticular ca s e wh er e it is .

r e quir e d to n d th ti me in whic h s t r of n orth er n e a a

d ecli nati on d es crib es in the l atitud e of R h ode s th e p orti on of , ,

it a e a b ov e th e h ori on H ipp archu s mu s t h a ve u se d th e

s r z ,

e qui v al e n t of th e for m ul a in th e s olut ion of a right an gl e d -

s ph e ric al tri n gl e t n b cos A t n c wh e r

a C is th e right ,
a a , e

a n gl e W h eth er like Pt ol emy H ipp archus obtain e d th e

.
, ,

form ulae su ch s thi s on e which h e u e d from d i ffer ent

,
a , s

a pplic ati on s of th e on e g en e r al th e or em
(Men el u s s th eor m)

a e

it is n ot pos s ibl e to say Th er w as of cour s e n o difficulty . e

in c lcul ati n g th e t n g en t o oth e r trig on ometric l fu n cti on

a a r a

of an an gl e if on ly tabl of s i ne w s given ; for H ippa a e s a r

chu s an d Ptol my w e r e both aw ar e of th e fa ct expresse d by

e

s th e y w ould h v e writt en it
2 2
s in o r + cos cc 1 o r ,
a a ,

2 2 2
(cr d . 20 0 + { cr d (1 8 0 . 2 a )} 4r ,

wh er e (e d 2 01) m ean th e ch ord s ubt ndi ng

r . s e an ar e 2 04, an d r

is th e r a di u s of th e circl e of r e fe r en c e, .

Tab le of C h or d s .

We h av e no d etail s
bl e of C hords s u f of H ippar ch u s

s Ta
c i ent to en abl e u s to com par e i t with Ptol emy s which goes

by h alf d egr ees b eg in ni ng with an gl s of g

-

,
an d s o e ,

on .B u t H e ron in hi s M t ic say th at it is prov d in th e 1

e r a s

e

book about ch ords in a circl e th at if a n d a a e th i d es

s

, 9
a
ll
r e s

ofa r egul r enn eag on (9 s id e d gur )an d h en d ec agon (1 l s id e d

a -
e -

gur e) i n s crib d in a circl e of di ameter d th n ( 1 ) ae d ,

e
9
1
,

2 g d v e ry n e rly
(2 ) a ll
z which m n s th t s in 2 0 was
7

a ,
ea a

t ken a s equ a l to
a (Pt ol emy s tabl e mak es it

1 31 1 62
s o th at th e r s t a pp ox mat on an d
1
20 s
2
r 1 1 i
60 60 60
1 8 0 o s in 1 6 2 1 4 9 w s m ad e e qu l to 0 2 8 (thi s co

l
s in r r r a a r

re p on ds to th e ch ord s ubten di n g n ngle of3 2 4 3 n ea rly

s a a

h alf w y b etw een 3 2 % an d n d th m ean be tw e en th tw o

o
-
a a e e

l 1 6 54 55
60 )
ch ords su b ten d m g th e latt angle s g v es 6 0 ( O 0
1
e1 1
2
60

th e r e quir d i n e whil e as which on ly differ s

s
9
e s , 6 ,

H ro M tri i 2 2 2 4 pp 5 8 1 9 d 6 2 1 7
1
e n, e ca , .
, , . . an . .

s 2
260 TR GON O METR Y I
by $ 5 from agg o 7 7 H eron s gur e) Th ere is littl e d oubt
.
r
7 -

5 ,

.

th at it is to H ipp ch us s w ork that H eron re fer s though th e

ar

,

a ut h or is n ot men tion ed .

Whil e fo ou kn owl edge of H ippa ch u s tr i gon om try w

r r r

s e e

h v e to r ely fo th e mos t p rt up on wh at w e c n i n fer fr om

a r a a

P tol emy w e fortu n t ly p o s s

,
n or i gi n l s ourc e of in fo
a e s e s a a r

m ti on bout Gre e k trigon om etry in its h i gh es t d ve lop m n t

a a e e

in the Sphaer i ca of M en l au s e .

Th e dat of M EN E L A U S of A l ex a n dri
e is r oughly i n di a

cat d by th e f ct th t P t ol emy qu ot es an ob s e rv ti on of
e a a a

h is ma de in th e r s t y ear of Tr j n r e ig n (A D He

a a s . .

w s th er efor e
a con temp orary of P lut rch w h o in fact
a a ,

r epresents h im as b ei ng pr s nt at th e d i al ogue D f ci e i n e e e a

or be lu n ae wh er e (ch p 1 7 ) Luciu s ap ol ogi es to M en e l au s th e

,
a . z

m th em at i c i an fo qu es ti on i n g th e fu n dam en t l pr op os iti on

a r a

in optics th a t th e ngl es b f i n c i d en c e an d r efl cti on e e qu l

a e ar a .

H w r otee v ri ety of tr ti s es oth er th an th e Spha er i ca

a a ea .

We h ve s een th t Th on m n ti on hi w ork on Cho d s i n a

a a e e s s r

Ci r l in s ix Book
c e P ppu s s y s th t h e wr ot e a tr e ati se
s . a a a

) on th s tti n g (o p erh p s on ly ri s i ng ) of

( p yp
a a r ei a e e r a

di ff r n t rcs of the od i ac Pr oclus qu otes n lt ern tiv e

e e a z .
1
a a a

pr oof by him of Eu cl I 2 5 wh i ch is d i r ect i n s t ad of by . .

, e

r ed u cti o a d a bs u d u m n d h e w ould se m to h v e av oid e d

2
r ,
a e a

th e l a tt er ki n d of pr oof thr ough out A g i n P ppu s s p e ki ng . a ,

a , a

of th e m n y c omplic t d curv e d i s c ov e r ed by Dem etr i u s of

a a e s

A le x an dri (in his Li n ear c on id r ati on s ) n d by Ph ilon

a s e a

of Ty an as th e res ult of i n t e rw eavi n g

a
plectoid s n d oth er a

s urfac es of all k i n d s s ys th t on curv in part i cul r was a a e e a

i n ves ti g ted by M n l u an d c ll d by h im p r d oxic l

a e e a s a e

a a a

(w pd dogog ; th e n tur of th i s curve can on ly b e c onj ectured

a a e

(s ee bel ow) .

B u t A rabi an traditi on r e fer s to oth e r w ork s by M en el u s a ,

(1 ) E lem en ts of Geom etr y e dit ed by Th abit b Qurr in thr ee , . a,

B ook s (2 ) a B ook on tri n gl es

, n d (3
) a w ork th e titl e of a ,
a

wh i ch is tr n sl t ed by Wenrich d cog ni tione qu a n ti ta ti s

. a a e -

d i scr eta c cor por u m per mi x tor u m Light is thr ow n on thi s .

l s t titl e by one l C ha ini wh o (ab out A D 1 1 2 1 ) wr ot e a

a a -
z . .

1
u
P app s , v i, pp 6 0 02 . .

3
r lu
P oc s on E ucl I , pp 3 45 1 4 3 4 6 1 1 . . . . .

Pappu s, iv, p 2 7 0 2 5 . . .
 M E N ELA U S OF A LEXA N DR I A 26 1

tre ti s e abou t th e hydros tatic bal an ce i e ab out the d et er

a ,
. .

mi n ti on of th e s p e cic gra vity of h om og en eou s o m i x e d

a r

b odies in the cour se of which h e m en tion s A rchi medes n d

, a

M en el au s (a mon g oth er s ) as au th oriti es on th e s ubj e ct ; h e nc e

th e tr eati s e (3 ) m u s t h av e b een a b ook on hydr os tatic s dis
cu ss ing s uch pr obl ems as th at of th e crow n s olv ed by A rchi
m edes Th e alt er n ati ve pr oof of Eu cl I 2 5 qu ot ed by
. . .

Pr oclu s migh t h v e c om e e ith er fr om th e E lemen ts ofGeom et y

a r

o th e B ook on tri an gl es Wit h r ega rd to th e geome try th e

'

r ,

liber t iu m fr tru m (writt en by thr ee s ons of Mesa b S h akir

r a .

in th e n i n th c en tury) say s th at it c on t i n e d a s oluti on of th a e

duplicati on of th e cub e which is n on e oth e r th an that of ,

'

A rchyt s The s oluti on of A rchytas h a vi ng em pl oy e d the

a .

i n ter s ecti on of a t or e an d a cylin der (with a cone s well ) a ,

th ere w ould on th e as s umpti on th at M en elau s r epr oduce d th e

,

s oluti on be c ertai n appr opri at n ess in th e s ugge sti on of

,
a e

Tan n ery th at th e curv e which Men e lau s ca ll e d th e w pd dogog

1
a

y p pu w as in r e lity th e cu v e of d oubl e curv tur e k n ow n

'

a a r a ,
l

by th e n ame of V ivi ni which is th i nter se cti on of s ph e re a , e a

with a cylin der touchi n g i t in te rn ally and h avi ng fo its r

di amet er th r di us of the s phe r e Thi s curve is a p ar ticul r

e a . a

c as e of Eud oxu s hippo ped e an d it h s th e pr op erty th at th e

s , a

p orti on left out s ide th e cur ve of the s urf ce of th e h emi s ph re a e

on which it li es i s e qu l to th e s qu r e on th e di met e r of th e a a a

s ph e r e ; th e f ct of th e s aid area b ei n g s qu a eable w ould ar

ju s tify th e applic ti on of th e w ord n pd dogos to th e curv a a e,

a n d th e qu adr tur e it s e lf w ould n ot pr oba bly b a b eyon d the e

pow er s of the Gree k m th em tici n s as witnes s Pappus s a a a ,

d et ermin ati on of th e area cut off b etw een a complete turn of

a c ertain s piral on s ph ere and the gre t ci rcle t ouching it t a a a

th e origi n .
2

Th e Sphaer ica of M e nel au s .

Thi s
treatis e in three Book s is fortun t ely pr eserve d in a

th e A r bic and lth ough the ext nt v ers i ons differ on

a ,
a -
a c

s id er bly in for ma th e s ub s tan c e is b e yon d d oubt ge n ui n e ;

,

th e origin al tr an s l ator w as a pp ar en tly I s haq b Hu n i n . a

(di ed A D T h e r e h a v e been tw o e diti on s

. . (1) Lati n ,
a

T n ry M moi
1
a ne i ti/iq ii p 1 7
,
P ppu i pp 2 64 8
r es s c en u es , , . .
2
a s, v, .

.
 M ENELA US S S P H A ER I CA '
26 3

a lr eady appr opr i at ed for the pl an e tri angle We s h ould gather .

from thi s as w e ll as from th e r es triction of the de niti ons to

,

th e s ph eri cal tr i angl e and i ts p ar ts th at th e di s cu s s i on of th e ,

s ph eric a l tri an gl e as s uch was probably n ew ; an d if the

pr e
face in the A rabi c ver s i on addr ess e d to a pr i n ce an d beginni ng
with th e w ords 0 pri n ce ! I h av e di s covered n excell ent
,

a

meth od of pr oof i s g en ui n e w e h ave c on r mat ory ev id en c e

.
,

in th e writ er s own cl ai m

.

Mene l u s s obj ect s o fa as B ook I is c on c ern ed s eems to

a ,
r ,

hav e b en to gi v e th e mai n propos itions about s ph eri cal

e

trian gles c o r es pondin g to Euclid s propos ition s about plane

r

tr i an gl es A t th e same ti me he does not r es tr ict hi mself to

.

E uclid s m e th od s of proof e ven wh er e th ey c ould be dapt e d

a

to th e c as e of th e s ph er e ; h e a v oid s th e for m of proof by _

r ed u cti o d a bsu r d u m bu t s ubj c t to thi s h e pr e fers th e

a , ,
e ,

eas i es t pr oofs I n s ome r es pe ct s h is tr eat men t is mor e com

.

pl ete th an E uclid s treatm n t of th e analogou s pl n cases

e a e .

I n th e c on gru en c e th eor ems fo ex ample w h ve 1 4 a -

, r ,
e a .

c orres p on di n g to Bucl I 4 I 4 b to Eucl I 8 I 1 4 1 6 to . .

, . . .
,
.
,

Eu cl I 2 6 a h ; but M enel au s i n clud es (1 1 3 ) wh t w kn ow

. .
,
. a e

mb i gu ou s c ase which is en un ciat e d on th e li nes of

as th e

a ,

Eu cl V I 7
. I 1 2 is a par ticular case of I 1 6 Menelau s
. . . . .

i n clud es l o th e furth er c ase which h as no an logue in pl an e

a s a

tr i an gl s th at in which th thr ee a ngl es of on tri angl e ar e

e ,
e e

s e v er ally e qu l to th e thr ee an gl es of the oth er

a He
mak es m oreov e r no di s tin ction be tw een the con gru en t an d
, ,

the s y mmetric al r eg ardi ng b oth as cov er e d by congru en t

,
I 1 . .

is a pr obl e m to c ons truct a s ph eric al angl e e qu al to a gi ven

,

s ph e ric l an gl e i n tr oduc e d on ly
a s a l emma b e c au s
,
r equired a e

in l ater pr op os iti on s I 2 3 ar e the propos iti ons about . .

,

i sos ce les tri ngles corr esp on ding to Eucl I 5 6 Eucl I 1 8 1 9

a . .
,
. .
,

(greate r s id e o ppos ite gr eater an gl e and v ice v ersa) ha ve t heir

analogu es in I 7 9 an d Eu cl I 2 4 2 5 (tw o s id es r es p e cti v ely
.
, , . .
,

e qu al an d i n clud e d an gl e o third sid e in one tr i n gl e gr ea te r ,

r ,
a

th an i n clud e d angle or third s id in the oth e r) in I 8 I 5 ,

e, . . .

(t w o s id e s of a tri an gl e t ogeth e r gr eat e r th an th e third ) c orr e

s pon d to Eu cl I 2 0
s Th r e is y e t a furth er gr oup of prop osi
. . . e

ti ons com p ar i ng p ar t s of s ph e ric al tri angl es I 6 1 8 1 9 w h er e ,

.
, , ,

I 6 (cor es p on ding to Eu cl I 2 1 ) is deduc ed from I 5 j us t as

. r . . .
,

the r s t pa r t of Eu cl I 2 1 is de duc ed fr om Eu cl I 2 0 . . . . .
264 TR I GON OM ETR Y

Eu cl . I . tr u e of s ph eric al tri angles an d

16, 32 ar e n ot ,

Men elau s h as th ere for e th e c orr s p on di ng but di ffe rent pr o7 e

p os iti on s I 1 0 prov es th at with th e u sual notati on a b c

. . , , , ,

A B C for the s i d s
, , ,
n d opp o it an gl e s of a s ph e ric al
e a s e

triangle the ex t eri or angl t O o 1 8 0 0

,
o >A e a

,
r

,
r

acc ordi n g as c + a o an d v ic e v ers a Th e pr oof

r .

of thi s an d th e n ex t pr op os iti on s h l l b e gi ven as s pecimens a .

I n th e tri angl e A B C s upp os e th at c + a or l et -

D be th e p ol e opp o it e to A s .

Th en acc ordi ng,

c+ a o BC
as or BD r

(s in c e A D
an d th ere for e L B OD (= 1 8 0 C )

AD or ,

s i nc e [ D or > A

C <
( L A ) 1 8 0 .

Menel au s tak es th e c on v e rs e for gr an t e d .

A s a con sequ en c e of thi s I 1 1 prov s th at A

B G> 1 8 0 ,
. e .

Tak e th e s ame tri an gl A B C wi th th e p ol e D opp os it e

e ,

to A , and from B dr aw th e gr eat circl e BE s uch that

[ DBE A B DE .

h en OE EB CD
T so th t by a ,
th e pr eceding
prop os iti on the exteri or ,
an gl e A OB to th e tri an gl e B OE is '

gr eater than LUBE ,

i e
. . C A OB E .

A dd A or D LE BD) to th e un qu ls ; e a

th ere fore C A A CB D ,

wh ence A + B + C > LC BD + B or

A ft er two l emm s I w e h v e s ome pr op os i ti ons i n tro

a . a

d ucing M N P th e middl e p oi n t s of a b c r es p ecti v ely

, , I 23 , , . .

proves e g th at the ar c M N of a gr t cir cle > % c and I 2 0

,
. .
, ea , .

that A M or > a cc ordi n g as A or Th e

a

l ast group of propos iti ons 2 6 3 5 r elat e to the gure formed , ,

 MEN ELA U S S S P H A E R I CA

26 5

by th e triangle A B C with gr eat circles dra w n through B to

m ee t A O (b e tw een A an d C ) in D E res p e ctiv ely an d th e , ,

cas e wh er e D and E coi n cide an d th ey pr ove diffe r en t r es ults ,

a ri s i n g fr om diffe r en t r el ti on s b etw een an d c com a a

bin ed with th e e qu ality of A D an d E 0 (o DC) of th e n gl s r ,

a e

A BD an d E B O (or DB C), or of a + o and EB + BE (or Z E D)

r es p e ctiv ely ccording as a c ,
a o r
0

Book II h as practic ally n o i n t er es t fo u s Th e obj ect of it r .

is to es tabli s h c e r t i n prop os iti on s of s tron omic l i n t e r t

a ,
a a es

on ly which , e n othi n g m or e th an gen e r ali

ar ti ons o e xten z a r

s i on s of prop os iti ons in The odo iu s s Sphae i c Book III ,

s

r a, .

Thu s Th eodos iu s III 5 6 9 e i n clud e d in M en el u s II 1 0

.
, , ar a .
,

Th eod o iu s III 7 8 in Men el u II 1 2 whil e Men e l u II 1 1

s .

a s .
,
a s .

is n e xt en i on of Th e odos iu s III 1 3
a s Th e proof e quit . . s ar e

d ie en t fr om th os of Th od os iu s which a e g ner lly v e ry

'

r e e ,
r e a

lon g wi n d ed
.

B ook III Tr i g on ometry . .

It will hav e b een notic ed th at whil e Book I of M enel u s ,

a

giv es th g eometry of th e sph ric l tri ngl n eith e r Book I

e e a a e,

n o B ook I I c on t i n an y trigon om e try

r a Thi s i reserv ed fo
s . s r

Book I I I A s I h ll through out xpr es s th v ari ou s r es ult s

. s a e e

obt ai n e d in t er ms of th e trigon ome t ical rati os s in e c os i n e r , , ,

t ang en t it is n e cess ry to expl in on c for ll th at th e Gr eek

,
a a e a s

di d n ot u s e th i s t e r m i n ol ogy but i n s tea d of s i n es th ey u s e d , , ,

th e ch ord s s ubt en de d by arc s of a

circl e I n the accomp an ying gure
.

l et th e a c A D of a circl e s ubt en d n
'

r a

a n gl e a at th e c en tre 0 Dr w A M . a

p erp n dicular to OD an d produce i t A

e ,

to m e et th e circl e ag ai n in A Th en

.

A M / A O, A M is

s in or an d A A
or h alf the ch ord s ubten ded by n a

an gl e 2 a t th e c en tr e which m y
a ,
a

s h ortly b e den ote d by 2 a) .

S i n c P tole my e xpr es ses th e ch ord s s s o man y 1 2 0 th p rt of

e a a s

the di am e ter of th e circl e while A M A O

A A / 2 A 0 it , ,

follow s th at s in or and &(c d 2 a ) ar e e quival en t C os or is r . .

of c ours e s in (9 0 o<) an d is th e r e for e e qui val en t to c d

r .

2 a)

(1 8 0 .
 M EN ELA U S S SP H A E R I CA

7

For , if A M ,
BN ar e perp n dicul ar to 0 0
e , we h v a e , as b e for e ,

(er d (er d BC)

. . 2

s in A G : s in BG .

rcs of gr t circl s A DB A E C be cu t by th e
N ow le t th e a ea e ,

a rc s of gr e t circl es DEG B EE wh i ch th em s lv s m t in E
a , e e ee .

Let G b e th c en tr e of th e s ph er n d j oi n GB GE GE A D
e e a , , , .

Th en th e s tr i gh t li n es A D GB b ei n g in on e pl n e
a , , a ,
ar e

e ith r p r ll el o n ot p r ll l If th ey e n ot p r lle l th ey
e a a r a a e . ar a a ,

will m e t ith r in th d i r cti on of D B o of A G

e e e e e r .

Let A D GB m e t in T , e .

Dr w th s tr ight li n s A K G DL O m ee t i n g GE GE in K L
a e a e , , ,

r e p ectively
s .

Th n K L T m u s t li on a tr i ght l i n e n m ly th s tr ight
e
, , e s a , a e e a

l i n e wh i ch is th s ecti on of th e pl n d ter mi n d
e th a es e e e

by th e tri n gl a e

u s w e h v e tw o s tr i ght lin es A G
Th a cut by a ,

s tr ight li n es CD TK which th m s elv es i n t r s ct in L

a ,
e e e .

Th er e for e by M en el au s s pr op os iti on in pl n e ge om etry

,
a ,

CK CL D T
KA LD TA
tl
S o P o emy
1
th r r
I n o e w o d s , sin e th e s ai g
. in es GB , GE , c tr ht l
w i h char e i n on e p a n e , l r t
es pe c i vel y i n e s e c th e s ai g h ine s A D, A C, tr t tr t l
c l l
C D wh i h ar e a s o in on e p an e, th e poi n s of i n e s e c i on T, K , L ar e i n t tr t
t l t rfr
b o h p an e s , an d h e e o e l i e on th e s ai g ine in w ich th e p an e s

tr ht l h , l
in t r ct
e se .
26 8 TR I GO N O METR Y

B u t, by th e propos iti on s pr ove d abov e ,

GK s in CE CL s in GE DT s in DB
an ( 1
Wu

KA s in EA LD TA s in BA
th erefor by s ubs tituti on e, ,
we h av e

s in GE s in GE s in DB
s in EA s in FD s in BA
M en elau s
ppar en tly als o gav th e proof for th e c as es in
a e

which A D GB mee t tow rd A G an d in which A D GB ar e

,
a s , , ,

p r ll el r es p ectively nd l s o prov d th t in like m an ner in

a a ,
a a e a ,

th e bov e gurea ,

s in CA s in CD s in EB
s in AE sin DE s in BE

(th e tri angl e cut by th e tr n s v er sal b ei ng h er CEE i ns te d of a e a

A DC ) P tol my giv es th e proof of th

. ebove cas e on ly nd1
e a ,
a

di s miss s th e l as t menti one d r es ult with a s i mil rly

e -
a

.

(B) Ded u cti on s fr om M en el au s s Theor em

.

III . 2 prov
by m e n s of I 1 4 1 0 n d III 1 th at if A B C
es , a .
, a .
, , ,

A B C be tw o s ph eric l tri n gl es in wh i ch A

A an d C C a a , ,

e ith r e qu al o s uppl eme n t ary s in c/ s in a

ar e e s in c s in r , a.

n d c on v r e ly Th e p rticul r c e in which 0 C a right

a e s . a a as , r e

an gl giv wh t w as fterw rds know n

es es th e r egula a a as a

qu ttu o qu ntitatu m n d w s fu n d m n t l in A rabi n

'

a r a a a a e a a

tr i gon om try A s imil ss ociation tt ches to th e r es ult of

e .
2
ar
'

a a a

III 3 w h i ch is th e s o c lle d t ng n t o h d ow rul e of the

.
,
-
a

a e

r

s a -

A r bs If A B C A B C be tri an gles right angle d t A A n d

a .
,
-

a a
, ,

C C , e qu al n d both ei th e r o

ar e n d if P P b e
a r a ,

th e p ol of A G A C th en

es , ,

s in AB s in A B s in BP

s in AC s in A O

s in B P
A pply th e tri ngl e a s so th t a 0 f lls on C G B on CB s C E

a ,

a ,

a nd C A

on CA as CD ; th en th r es ul t foll ow s dir e c tly fr om
e

III . 1 . S in c e s in BP cos AB , an d s in B P

cos A B

th e
res ult b ecomes
s in GA tan A B

whic h is th e
tang t rul e en

of th e A r ab s .
3

1
tl
P o emy, Syn ta x vs, i 1 3 , v ol i, p 7 6
'

. . . .

2
S ee Br au n m ii h l , Ges ek d er Tr ig i , pp 1 7 , 4 7 , 5 8 6 0 , 1 27 9 . . .
.

3
Cf Br au nmiih l , op cit i , pp 1 7 1 8 , 5 8 , 6 7 9 , & c
. . . .
-
.
 MEN ELA US S S P H A ER I CA 269

It foll ows at onc e (Pr op 4 ) th at if A M A M a r e great .

, ,
'

circles draw n perpendicular to th e bas es B C B C of two . ,

s ph e ric l tri an gl es A B C A B C m which B C

B C

a : :
, , ,

s in BM s in MC tan A M
s in E M

s in M ( i c both
s n e ar e e qu al to
tan A M

)
III . 5 pr ov es th at if th er e,
ar e tw o s ph erical tri angl es A BC,

'
A BC

r ight gle d an at A, A

an d s uch that C while b
an d
'
b ar e les th an s

s in
(a + b)
'
s in (a +b)
a b

s in ( ) s in (a
fr om whi ch we may d educ e 1
th e formul a
s in
(a + b) 1 + cos C

s in (a b) -
l cos C
which is e qu ivalent to tan b tan 0 . cos 0 .

(y ) A n har mon i c pr op er ty offou r gr eat c

i r cles thr ou gh
on e p oi n t .

Bu t m or e i mport an t th an th e a bove r es ult is th e fact that

th e pr oof as s u mes as k n ow 1 1 th e amb e r -

mon ic prop e rty of four great circl es

draw n from p oi n t on a s ph er in rel a a e

ti on to an y gr eat circl e i nt rs ectin g th em e

th t if A B CD A B C D b e two

al l v iz
'
, . a , , A
tran sv e rs l s a ,

AD A D s in BC

s in s in BC s in

DC

s in DC s in AB s in s in A B
B r au n miihl , 0p . cit . i , p 1 8 ; Bjo nb o, p 9 6
. r . .
 MEN ELA U S S SP H A E R I CA

27 1

III . 9 III 1 0 show fo a s ph erical tri angl e th at (1 ) th e

an d .
,
r ,

great circl es bi s ectin g the thr ee an gles (2 ) th e gr eat circl es ,

th r ough the an gul a r p oi n t s m ee ti ng th e opp os it e s id es at

right an gl e s m eet in a p oi n t .

Th e r e ma i n i ng pr op osi ti on s III 1 1 1 5 r etur n to th e a me ,

.

,
s

s ort of a s tron omic l probl e m a thos e d l t with in Euclid s

a s ea

P ha e n om na Th od os iu s s Sph er i ca n d B ook II of M n

e ,
e a . a e e

l au s s own w ork P r op s 1 1 1 4 am ou n t to th eor ems in

. .

s ph e ric al trig on ome try s uch as th e foll owi n g .

Giv en rcs
a 01 1 , 0 5 , 013 ,
oz 4 , B1 (32 [33 6 4
, , , ,
s uch th t a

an d a s o l a1 > Bl , a2 >B a3 > 5 3 , or4 > ,8

If s in or ,
: s in a
z
s in 6X3 s in a 4 = s i n B, s in B2 s in Ba s in /3
3 1 Bz _

4 Bis B4
S in 61) S in 8 2)
1

s in 3 s in 32)
(
or1 , 1 ) (
Ol a

3 1 Ba -

53 5 4

a
S ID (d 1 2)

(6 _

B4 )

61
62
B 6.
th ree s eri es of thr e e a rcs s uch
ul > uz > a
3 , B, > 52 > B

an d s in (or y1)
l

s in (a
z yz ) i
: s n 01 3
( 7 3 )
3 S in
(5 1 _

7 1 ) : s n i (B2 _

7 2 )
s in s in s in 7
7 1 7 2 3
27 2 TR I GON O M ETR Y

a2 > 62 > 2 y2 ,

(2 ) If B1 < a 1 < yi o z < az < 7 w 33 < a3 < 7 3i

61 6

III . l s t propo i ti on is in four p rts Th e rs t p art

1 5 , th e a s ,
a .

is th pr op os i t i on c or r es p ond i ng to Th od osi u III 1 1

e bov e e s . a

allud d to
e Let B A B C b e two qu dr n t s of gre t ircl es
. a a a c

(in which w e e s i ly r e cogni e th e qu tor n d the e clip tic)

a z e a a ,

P th e p ol e of th e for m e r P A P A qua dr an t s of gr ea t circl s

, , , 3
e

m eet i ng th othe r qu d ran t s in A A an d C C res p ectiv ely

e a
1 , 3 l , 3
.

Le t R b the rad i us of th e s ph er e th e r ad ii of th

e r r r e
, , , , 3

p r llel c i rcl es (w i th pol P ) thr ough

a a

0 3 r s p ective ly
e e .

sin A ,A 3
T h en s ha ll
s in 0103

'

th etr i ngl e P 0 0 B A o the angles

a s
3 , , ,

an d th e ang l es at C e qu l th er efor (III 2 )

a e
3
.

s in PC s in BA
s in P 03 s in BC
 MEN ELA U S S SP H A E R I CA
27 3

B ut, by III 1 a ppli e d .

to th e t ri angle B O, A 1 cut by th e
tran s vers al P O A 3

s in A 1A 3 s in Cl C3 s in PA 1
s in BA 3 s in BC3 s in P Cl

s in A1A3 s in PA l s in BA 3 s in PA1 s in PC

s in 0, 0, s in P C, s in 3 0, s in P O, s in P o,

from abov e ,

Pa r t 2 of th e pr op os i ti on prove th t if s a ,
P CQA 2 b e draw n
such th t a s in P A
s in
?
P OZ
s in P C o r
2 ,
r
2
2
Rr (wh er e r i s 2

th e r a diu s of th e p r a ll e l c i rcl e thr ough a B Cz B A 2 is a

max i m u m whil e Pa r ts 3 4 di s cu ss th e lim it

, , s to th e v lu e a of
th r ti o b etw een the arc s A A an d 0 n
e a
1 3 .

N othi n g is know n of th life of C L A U DI U S PTOLE M Y exc ept e

th t h w as of A le x ndri made ob erv tion s betw een th e

a e a a, s a

y ea r s A D 1 2 5 n d 1 4 1 o p erh p s 1 5 1
. . a n d th r f or e p es u m
r a ,
a e e r

a bly wr ot his gr eat w ork ab out th e m iddl of th e r ei gn of

e e

A n t on i n u s P iu s (A D 1 3 8 A tr diti on h n d e d dow n by
. . a a

th e By n ti n e s ch ola r Th odoru
z a M lit n iot (ab out 1 3 6 1 )
e s e e a

s t at es th t h e w a s b or n n ot
a t A l e x n dri but t Pt olemai
,
a a a, a s

A rabi an tr a diti on s goi n g b ck pr obably to ,

a

H un i n b I s h aq say th t h live d to th e ge of 7 8
a .
, a n d give e a ,
a

a n u m b e r of p e r s on l d e t ail to which too m uch w e ight m u s t

a s

n ot b e att ch e d a .

Th e M a enp a n my o
(A r ab A lmagest)

g
ur a ts . .

P tol em y
gr eat w ork th e de n itive ach i e vemen t of Gr eek

s ,

as tron om y b or e th e t i tl e M Cn/t a T l K S Z v v r d gecos Bi BAi a ty

a

, ,

th e M a them a ti ca l Coll ecti on in thirt ee n Book s By th e ti me .

of th e c om men t at or s w h o d i s ti n gui s h e d th e l e s s e r tre ati s es on

as tron om y formi n g an i n tr oducti on to Pt ol emy s w ork as

u ucpo Littl e A s tr on omy

s aa r poy op op ey os (7 67 7 th th e

e ,
,

book cam e to b e calle d th e Gr eat C oll ection li q / aim; 0 15V

r agis Lat e r s till th e A r a b s c om bi n i ng th e articl e A l with

. .

T
 PTOLEM Y S S YN TA XTS

27 5

(di e d is e x an t t in p r t a , as w ell as th e r ion by

ve s N asi r ad
d in a t Tsi (1 2 0 1
-

. rs t editi on to be publi s h ed was the Lati n tran s lati on

Th e
mad e by Gh er ar d of C r emon from the A r abic which w as a ,

n i s h e d in 1 1 7 5 but was n ot pu blis hed t ill 1 5 1 5 w h en it was ,

br ough t ou t without th e a uthor s name by Pete r Liech ten

,

s t e i n at V en ic e A tran s l ati on fr om th e Greek h ad b een mad e

.

a bout 1 1 6 0 by an un known writer for a c ertain H en ricu s

A r i s tippu s A rc h d eac on of C a t ani a wh o h av i ng b een s en t by
, , ,

Willi am I K i ng of S icily on a mi ss i on to the Byz anti ne

, ,

Em p er or Man u el I C omn en u s in 1 1 5 8 br ought b ck with .

,
a

h im Gr eek manu s cript of th e Syn ta xi s as a pr esen t ; this

a

tran s l ati on h owever exi s ts on ly in man us cripts in th e V atic an

, ,

an d at Fl or en c e Th e r s t Lati n tran s l ati on fr om th e Gre ek

.

to b e publi s h e d was th at m ade by Georgiu s of Tr e bi on d for z

P op e N icolas V in 1 4 5 1 ; thi s was r evi sed and publi s h e d by

Lu c as Gauricu s at V en ic e in 1 5 2 8 Th e ed i ti o pr i r weps of th e .

Gre e k tex t w as brought ou t by Grynae us at Bas ] in 1 5 3 8 e .

Th e n e x t c ompl et e e dition w a th at of H al m publi s h ed s a

1 8 1 3 1 6 which is n ow r ar e

,
A ll th e mor e w elcom e th er e .
,

for e is th e den iti v e Gr ee k t x t of th e astronomical w ork s

,
e

of Pt ol emy e dit e d by H eib rg (1 8 9 9 to wh i ch is n ow e

add e d s ofar a s th e S yn ta xi s is c on c er ne d a mos t v alu abl e

, ,

s uppl m e n t in th e Ger man tr an s l a tion (with not es )by M an i tiu s

e

(Teu bner ,
1 9 1 2 1

S ummar y of C onten ts .

Th e S yn taxi s is mos t a av lu bl e for the r eas on th t it con a

t i v ry full p r icul r
a ns e a t a s of o b ser vati ons and i nv s tig ti ons e a

by H ipp archu s as w ell as of th e earli er ob ser v ati on s r ecorded

,

by h im e g th at of a lunar e clip se in 7 2 1 B C Ptolemy

,
. . . .

b se d hi ms elf very largely upon H ipparchus e g in th e

a ,
. .

pre p aration of a Tabl e of C hords (equi valen t to s in es ) the ,

th eory of e ccen trics and e picycl es &c ; an d it is qu es ti on abl e ,

.

W h e th er h e hi mse lf con tri but e d an ythi ng of great value e xc ept

a d en it e th eor y of th e moti on of th e v e pl an et s
fo which ,
r

H ipp archu s h ad only c oll ect e d m ateri al in the s ha p e of obs e r

v ation s m a d e by his p r ed e c es s or s an d h i ms elf
A v e ry s hort .

in dicat i on of th e s ubj ect s of th e di fferent Books is all th at can

r 2
27 6 I
TR GO N O M ETR Y
be given h er e Book I I n di s p ensabl e pre li m i nar i es to th e
. :

s tudy oi th e P t ol e maic s y s t em g en e r al e x pl an ti on s of
'
'

,
a

th diff r en t moti on s of th e h e v enly b odi es in r el ti on to

e e a a

th e e arth a c en tr e pr op os it i on s r quir d fo
s th e pr p r ti on
, e e r e a a

of T bl s of C h ord s th e Tabl e it s elf s om

a e propo iti on s in , ,
e s

s ph eric l g om e try l e d i ng to trig on om e tric l c lcul at i on

a e of a a a s

th e r l t i on s of arc of th qu tor e cliptic h ori on a nd

e a s e e a , , z

m erid i an T bl e of O bliquity fo c lcul at i n g d e cli nati ons

,
a a r a
,

fo e ch d egr ee p oi n t on th e e clipt i c nd n lly a m th od of

r a -

,
a a e

n d i n g th r i ght s c en s i on fo e rc of th cliptic equ al to

a s r a s e e

on e third of a s i gn o Book II Th e s m e s ubj ct con

'

-
r : a e

t i nn d i e probl em s on th e s ph er with p ci l r fer en c to

e , . . e, s e a e e

th e d i ff ren c e s b etw een v ri ou l t i tud e s th e l ength of th e

e a s a ,

l onges t d y at any d egr ee of l titud n d th e lik

a Book III a e, a e .

O n th l en gth of th e y r n d th e m oti on of th e u n on th
e ea a s e

e cc en tric n d picycl hyp oth ese

a Book I V Th e l e ng th of th
e e s . : e

month s and th e th eory of th m oon Book V Th c ons tru e e . : e

t i on of th as tr ol be an d th th ory of th e m oon con ti n u ed

e a ,
e e ,

th e di met er of th e s u n th e moon n d th e earth s s h d ow

a s , a a ,

th e d i s t n c e of th e s u n
a n d th e di me n s i on s of th e s u n m oon a ,

a n d ear th B ook V I C onju n cti on s an d opp os iti on s of s u n

. :

a n d moon s olar n d lu n r cl i ps s n d th ir p ri ods Books

,
a a e e a e e .

V I I n d V III
a e bout th e x ed tar n d th pre c ess i on of
ar a s s a e

th e equi n ox e n d B ook s I X XIII d vote d to th e mov

s, a
ar e e e

m en t s of th e pl an et s .

Tr igon om e tr y in P tol e m y .

Wh at i n t eres t s his tor ian of m th em tics is th e trigono

th e a a

m try in Pt ol emy
e It is e v i d n t that n o p ar t of th e trigon o
. e

m try o of th e m tt er pr eli mi n a ry to it in Ptol emy w as n e w

e ,
r a , .

Wh at h e di d was to abs tract from earl i r tr eati s es an d to e ,

cond en e i n to th e s mall es t poss ible s p ce th m in i mum of

s a , e

pr op os i ti on n ece ssary to e s tabli s h th e m eth od s an d formul e

s a

u sed Thu s at th b eginn i ng of th e pr elim in r i es to th e

. e a

T bl of C h ord s in Book I h e say s

a e

We will r t h ow how w e can es t abli s h s s

y t e m tic n d
s a s a a

sp dy meth od of obtai nin g the l en gth s of th ch ord s based on

ee e

th e u n if orm u s e of th e m all es t p oss ibl e n u m b er of pr op os i s

ti ons s o that we may n ot on ly h v e th e l ength s of the ch ords

,
a
 PTOLEMY S S YN TA XI 8

27 7

s e t ou t corr ectly but may be in p os sess ion of a r ead y proof of

,

ou r meth od of obt ain i n g th e m b as ed on g eome tric al con

s id e r ti on s
a .

He xpl ins th at h e will u s e th e di v i s i on (1 ) of the circle i nto

e a

3 6 0 e qu a l p art s or d egr ees a nd 2 of the di ame t r i nt o 1 2 0

( ) e

e qu l p r ts and will e x pr e ss fra c ti ons of th es e p r t on the

a a , a s

s e x ge s i ma l s y s t em
a Th en come th e g eometric al pr op os itions
.
,

as foll ow s
a

( ) a Lemma f or n d i n g s in 1 8

an d s in

To n d th e s id e of a p en tagon an d d ec ag on i n s cribe d in
a circl e or in oth e r w ord s th e ch ord s s ubt en di n g arc s of 7 2
, ,

an d 3 6

r es pectiv ely .

Le t A B be th e di amet e r of a circl e , 0 the cen tr e, CC th e

ra di u s p e rpendicul ar to A B .

B i s e ct GB at D, j oin DC an d m eas ur e ,

DE alon g DA e qu al to DC Join E C . .

Th en s h all OE be th e s ide of th e in
s crib e d r e gul a r d ec agon n d E C th e s id e ,
a

of th i n s cribe d r egul ar p n t gon

e e a .

Fo s in c e 0 B is bi s ecte d t D
r , a ,

BE E 0 + CD2 . DE 2
DC 2
DO Z
00 2
.

T h re fore
e BE E 0 CC 0B .
2 2
,

an d B E i s di v id e d in e x tr em e an d m e n r ati o a .

Bu t (E u el XIII 9 ) th e s i d es of th e r egul ar h ex agon and th e

. .

regul r d ec gon i n s cribe d in circl e wh en pl aced in s tr ight

a a a a a

li n e w i th on e anoth er for m tr ig h t li ne di vid e d in extr eme a s a

an d m e n ra ti o at th e p oi n t of d i v i s i on
a .

Th e r e for e B 0 b ei n g the s i d e of th e h ex ag on E 0 i the s d e

, ,
s 1

of th e d c ag on e .

A l s o (by Eu el XI I I 1 0 ) . .

(s id e of p en tagon) (s id e of he xagon) + (s ide of de cagon)

2 2 2

00 + OE 22
ECZ ;

th er efor e E C is th e s ide of th e r egular p entagon i ns cribe d

in th e circl e .

1
tl
P o emy, Syntax is , i . 1 0 , pp 3 1.
9
 P TOLEMY S S YNTA XI S
27 9

pr opos i ti on gi v i ng the re quir e d formu la d ep en ds upon

Th e
a l emm a which is th e f amou s P t ol emy s th eor em
,

G
iv en a qu adril ater l A B CD i n s crib ed a in a circle , th e
bein g A C B D to prov e th at
.

d 1 agon a ls , ,

A C BD .

proof is w ell know n Dr aw BE s o th at th e angl e A BE

Th e .

i e qu a l to th e ngl e DB C an d l et BE
s a ,

m eet A C in E .

Th en th e tri angl es A B E DB C e , ar

e qui n gul r an d th e r e for e

a a ,

AB z AE z s po ,

(1 )
A g ina ,
to ea ch of th e e qu al an gles
A B E DB C , add th e an gl e EBD ;

th en th e an gle A B D is e qu al to th e an gl e an d th e
trian gles A B D E B C a , r e e qui n ul r ;
g a a

th e r efor e B C : CE B D DA ,

A D BC . CE B D . .

By a ddi ng (1 ) an d we o btai n
A B DC + A D B C . . AC .

N ow let A B A C b e tw o a rc s t e r mi n ati ng at A th e extr e mity

, ,

of th e d i am ete r A D of a c i rcl e an d le t ,

AC a ) b e gr e at e r th an A B B
S upp os e th a t (er d A C ) an d (cr d A B ) . .

ar e giv en : it is r e quire d to nd

(er d B C )
. .

J oi n B D ,
CD .

Th en by ,
th e a b ov e th eor em ,

N ow A B A C ,
given ; th e r efor B D c d (1 8 0 A B )
ar e e r .

an d CD c d ( 1
r 8 0 A O
.
) e k n ow n A n d A D is k n ow n

ar . .

H en c e th e r e main i n g ch ord B C (c d BC ) i k now n r . s .

 280 TR I GON O METR Y

Th e e qu ati on in fact gi v es th e formula ,

{ r d as s .
a s .
( n .n
a
n


(er d .
{ er d .
(1 8 0 u
,

which is , of o c urs e equi v l n t to ,

a e

s in
(6 1 s in wh e re o
0 r cos ( ) cos 0 s in q) ,

By m ean s of thi s for mul a P t ol emy obtai n e d

d (7 2 1 2 ? 32

er d 12 . cr . 36

z
(8) E q i u va e nt o l f s in d s (1 cos

rd er to get the chord s of s maller angl es still w

B u t, in o ,
e

w n t a formul a for n di ng th chord of h alf an ar c wh en th e

a e

chord of th e ar c is gi ven This is the s ubj ect of P t ol emy .

s

n e xt prop os iti on .

Let B C be an a c of a c i rcl e w i th di am et e r A C and l et th e

r ,

ar c B C b e bis ec te d at D G iv en (cr d B C) it is r equir e d to . .

,

n d (er d DC ) . .

Dra w DE p erp en dicula r to A C ,

a n d j oi n A B A D B D DC M eas ur e
, , , .

A E al on g A C equ al to A B an d j oi n ,

T h en s hall E C be e qu l to EE or a ,

EC s h ll be h alf th e di f
a fer en c e b e
tw ee n AC an d AB .

For the tri angles A BD A E D e ,

ar

equ l in all res pe cts s i n c tw o s ides

a ,
e

of th one ar e e qu al to tw o s i d es of th e oth e r an d th e i n clud d

e e

an gl es BA D EA D s t an di n g on e qu a l arc s ar e e qu al
, , , .

Th er efor e ED BD DC ,

an d th e right angl e d tri n gl es DE E DCE a r e e qu l in

-
ll a , a a

res p ects wh ence E F EC or CE % (A C A B )

, , .

N ow A C CE . CD2 ,

when ce (cr d . CD)2 1

A C (A C A B )

&(cr d .

Thi s is of c our s e,
, e quiv l en t to th e formul a
a

2
s in &6 cos
 PTO LEM Y S S YN TA XI S

28 1

By ucces s i v ely applyi ng thi s formu l Ptolemy obtai n e d

s a,

(e d
r
(cr d
. an d nally (cr d I ? 1 2 3 4 1 5 an d . .

(cr d Bu t w e w an t a t abl e g oi n g by h alf

OP 4 7
.

d egrees and h enc e tw o more thi ngs e n e cess ary ; we h av e to

, ar

get a v alu for (cr d ly i ng b etw een (c d

e
(
an d er d . r . .

an d w e h av e to ob tai n an a dd i ti on for m ul en abli n g u s wh en a

(cr d or) is gi ven to nd { cr d (01 +

. an d s o on . .

() e E qu i va len t of cos (6 cos 6 cos -

s in 6 s in

To n d th e additi on formul a S uppos e A D is th e di amet er .

of a circl e , an d A B , B C tw o arc s Given (cr d A B ) and . .

(cr d B C ) to n d (cr d A C ) Draw th e di amet e r B OE , an d

.
, . .

j oi n CE CD, DE B D
, , .

N ow be i n g know n
, (er d . A B) ,

(c d B D) is kn ow n and th erefor e
r .
,

al s o
(er d DE ) which is e qu al to .
,

(cr d A B); . nd (c d B C ) bein g a ,

r .
A
known (e d CE ) i s know n ,
r . .

A n d by P t olemy th eorem

, s ,

B D CE .

di ame te r
Th e BE an d al l th e chords in thi s e qu ation c pt ex e

CD b ei n g gi v en n d CD A C) We h a v

, we can or cr d .
(1 8 0 . e

in f ct a

d A O)}

( cr d .
{ er (1 8 0

B C )} (cr d B C );

A B )} { cr d (1 8 0

{ cr d .
(1 8 0 . .

t hu s e d (1 8 0 r .

A C ) and th er efor e (c d A C ) is kn ow n
r . .

If A B 2 6 ,
BC 2 95, th e r e s ult i e q ui v l en t to
s a

cos (6 cos 6 cos s in 6 s in gb .

(5) M ethod of i n ter pola ti on ba s ed on for mu la

s in a / s in 6 a /B (w her e zr -
> a > B) .

Las tly we h ave to n d (cr d . h ving gi ven (c d I ?)

a r . an d

(er d .

P tol emy i ngeni ou s m eth od of i n ter pola ti on bas ed on

u ses an

a prop os iti on alr eady ass u med as know n by A ris tarchu s .

If A B BC be une qu l chords in a circl B C bei ng th e

,
a e,
 PTOLEMY S S YN TA XI S

283

(17 ) Ta bl e f Chor d s
o .

From this Ptol emy deduces th at is ve ry n arly e

and by th e aid of the ab ov e pr op os it i on s h e is in

OP 3 1
_

a p os iti on to c ompl et e h is Tabl e of C h or ds for arc s s ubt en di n g

n gl s i n cr eas i n g from to 1 8 0 by s t ep s of i ; in oth e r
f
a e

ord s a Tabl e of S i nes fo n gl e s fr om 6 to 9 0 by s t ps 1

, r a 7 e

0 L

(6 ) Fu r ther u se o f pr opor ti onal i n cr ease .

P tol e my
carri es furth er th e pri n cipl e of pr oporti on l in a

cre e s a method of n di n g pprox imately th chord of

as a a e s

a rc c ont ai n i ng an od d nu mb r of mi nut es betw een 0 n d '

s e a

O pp os it e e ach ch ord in th e Tabl e h e en ter s in a th i rd colu mn

3 5 th of th e e x c ess of th t ch ord ov e r th e on e b for e i e th e
1
a e , . .

chord of th e a c c ontai nin g 3 0 l ss th an th e chord in qu es ti on

r

e .

Fo e x am pl e (cr d
r is s tate d in th e secon d colu mn of th e
.

T bl e s 2 1 3 7 Th e e xc es s of (cr d ov e r (e d

a a

in th e . r .

T bl e i s 0 1 3 1 2 4 th which is

a
5 5 th o f i 1
i s 0 1 1 2 1
s
1

th er fore th e amou nt entere d in the third column oppos ite

e

(er d 2 g ) A cc or di ngly if w e w an t (er d 2 w t ke

. .
,
. e a

(c d r or 2.
1 an d ad d 2 5 ti mes 0 1
?
48 o W 0
r e

ta k (c d 2 35 ) o 2 1 3 7 4 n d s ubtract 5 times 0 7 1 2
e r . r
)
a
'
'

P tol e m y a d d s tha t if by u i n g th e a ppr ox i mati on fo 1 an d

,
s r

y w e gra dually accum ul at n e rror we can ch eck th e c l u

,
e a ,
a c

lation by com pari n g the ch ord with th t of other rel t d rcs a a e a ,

e g th . doubl e or th e s upple m en t (th e differenc e b et w n th e

. e ,
ee

ar c n d th e s emicircl e )
a .

S om e p rticul ar r es ult s obt i n e d f om the Ta ble m y be

a a r a

men ti on e d S i n c e (cr d th e wh ol e circu m f er en c e

11 2 . .

n ea rly n d th e l e n gth of th e di am e t e r

3 6 0 (1 1 2
,
a ,

be i n g th e v alu e of is 3 (l 6 )

71 -

o,

which is th e valu e u sed later by P tol emy and i e quiv l n t to s a e

3 A gai n 2 s in 6 0 an d 2 (er d be i n g
,

,
.

e qu a l to 2 (1 0 3 1 5 5 w e ha v e (1 0 3
1 '

43 55 23
+ + 1 7 3 20 5 09,
-

60 6 02 s o3

which is corr ec t to 6 plac es of d e ci mal s . S p e aki ng g e n rally e ,

284 I
TR GO N O METR Y
th e i
s n es btai n ed fr om
o P tol e my

s Ta ble ar e corr e ct to 5
places .

(L) P l a n e tr i gon ometr y i n j ect u sed

e .

h er e a e oth r cas es in P tolemy in which pl n e trigono

T r e a

m etry is in ff ct u d g in the determi n ti on of th e

e e se ,
e . . a

e cc en tricity of th e s u n orbit S upp o e th a t A CBD is

1
s . s

th e cc en tric c i rcl e w i th c e n tr e 0
e ,

a nd A B CD e ch ord
,
at r i ght ar s

a n gl es thr ough E the c en tr e of th e ,

ea rth To nd C E Th e a B C
. . re

i know n
s a s ay
) al s o th c ,
as e ar

CA B) If B E be th e ch ord.

p rallel to CD n d C G th e ch ord
a ,
a

p r ll l to A B nd if N P b e th e
a a e ,
a ,

m i ddl p oi n t of th
e rc B E GC s e a s , ,

Pt ol e my nd ( 1 ) th e a c B E s r

a + B th n th e ch ord B E e ,

c d (a + B
r . th en th e h lf of i t (2 ) th e r c GC a ,
a

z e
(ar + B 2 B ) ao e (o i B
.

) th e n th e ch ord nd r ar
,
a

l s tly h lf of i t H t h en dd s th s qu ar es on th h alf
a a . e a e e

ch ords i h e obtai ns, . e .

0 171 H erd (a + B
2
.

th t i a OE /r
s, (o r + 3) + S in
z
(01
3) 2

H proc e ds to obt i n th
e e n gl e OE C fr om it i n e OR / OE
a e a s s ,

which h e expr s s s ch ord of doubl th ngle in the es e a a e e a

circl e on OE s di m et r in r el ti on to th t di m ter
a a e a a a e .

S ph er ical tr igon om etr y : for m u l ae in s olu tion of

s ph er ical tr ian gles .

Inph ric l tr igon om try as lr e dy s tated P tol emy

s e a e , a a ,

obt i n s verythi n g th at h e w n t by u s i ng th e on e fun da

a e a s

m en t al pr op o iti on k n ow n s M en e l u s s th eor em appl i d

s a a e

to th e s ph e re (Men l u III of wh i ch h e giv es a proof e a s .

foll owi ng th at giv en by M n el u s of th e r st c se t aken in e a a

h is pr op os iti on Wh er P t ol em y h s occ as ion fo oth er p o

. e a r r

pos iti on of M nel u s s Sphae i ca e g III 2 an d 3 h e does

s e a

r , . . .
,

Ptol my Sy t iii 4 ol i pp 2 34 7
1
'

e ,
n ax es , .
,
v .
, . .
 PTOLEMY S S YN TA XI S

28 5

not quote th os e pr op os iti ons as h might h ave done but pr ov es ,

e ,

them afresh by mean s of Men ela us s th eor em The appli

.
1

c ati on of the th eor em in oth er c e gi v es in effect th e as s

foll owi ng di ffer ent formul ae b el ongi ng to th e soluti on of

a s ph e ric al tri an gl e A B C right an gl d t C vi -
e a ,
z .

i
s n a s i n 0 s in A,

tan a s in b tan A ,

cos c cos a cos b,

tan b tan 0 cos A .

On e illu s tra ti on of Ptol em y s pr oce dur e will be s u f

cien t2

.

Let H A H be th e h ori z on P E Z H th e m eridi an circl e E E

, ,

th e e qu at or, Z Z th e e cliptic E a n

e qui n octi al p oi n t Let E E

ZZ .
,

cu t th e h or i z on in A B ,
. Let P b e
th e p ol e and let th e gr t circl
,
ea e

thr ough P B cut th e equ tor t C H

,
a a .

N ow l et it be r equir e d to n d th e
ti me which th e ar c EB of th e cli pt i c e

takes to ri s e ; thi s ti me w i ll b e
meas ure d by th e a e EA of th e r

e qu at or (Pt ol emy h as pr vi ou s ly fou nd th e l ength of the

. e

arc s B C th e d e cli n ati on an d EC th e r igh t as c ens ion of B

'

, , , , ,

I 14
.
,

By M enel au s s th e or em ppli e d to th e arc s A E E P cut by

a ,

th e arc s A H P C which l s o i n t r s ec t one anoth er in B

,
a e

cr d 2PH
.

cr d 2 PB . cr d 2 CA .

d 2 BC d 2 AE

cr d . 2H E er . cr .

s in PH

. s in PB s in CA

BC s in AE
'
s in

s in H E

P H = cos H E P B = cos B C an d s in AE 1;

s in

N ow s in , ,

th er efore cot H

E

: cot BC s in CA ,

in oth e r w ord s in th e tri an gl e A B C r igh t angl ed at C

-
,
,

cot A cot a s in b ,

tan a s in b tan A .

1
Syntax is , vol i , p 1 6 9 . . an d pp 1 26 7
. respe cti ly ve .

11
I b , vol i, pp 1 2 1 2
. . .
-

.
 TH E A N A LE MMA or PTO LEMY 28 7

an d a rc h eavenly s ph e r e by means of o thogon al

s of th e r

pr ojectio n up on thr e e pl an es m utu ally at right an gl es th e ,

meridi an th e h ori on an d th e pri me vertic al

, Th e de n it e
z ,

.

probl em attack ed is th at of s h owin g th e pos iti on of the s un at

a n
y giv en ti me of th e d ay an d th e u se of th e meth od an d ,

of th e i n s tru men t s d es c r i b e d in th e b ook by P t ol emy w as

conn ecte d with th e con s tructi on of s u n di als as we l earn f rom ,

V i truviu s Th r e w as an oth er d th s / m b es id e th at of
.
1
e ea a s

P tol e m y ; th e auth or of it w s Diod o u s of A l ex an dri a a con a r ,

t emp or ary of C aes r and C ic ero Diod or u s fame d among th e a ,

mak er s of gnom on s tell me th e ti m e ! says th e A n th ol ogy

a n d P appus wrot a c omm n t ary up on i t in which e s h e te ll s e ,

a

us h u s e d th e c on ch oid in ord er to tr i se ct an an gl e a pr obl e m

,
s
e ,

e vid e n tly r e quir e d in th e A na lemm a in ord e r to divid e an y

a e of a circl e i n t o s i
r e qu al p art (h ours ) The w ord x s .

d a m/ ev i d en tly mean s ta k in g up in th e
r e t ta

s en s e of m ki n g a gra ph i c r e pr es en t ati on of s omethi n g i n

a ,

thi s cas e th e r epres en tati on on pl n ofparts of th e h e venly a a e a

s ph e r e On ly a few fr g men t s r ema i n of th e Gr e k tex t of

. a e

th e A n a lem m a ofP t ol e m y ; th es e c on t i n e d in a p ali mp s es t e ar a

(A m br os G L 9 9 s u p n ow 4 9 1 ) a ttribut ed to th e ev en th
. r . . .
, s

c en tury but probably earl i e r Besid es thi s w e h ave a tran s .

,

l ation by Willi am of Moerbeke from n A r abic ver s ion a .

Thi s Latin tr ans l ti on w as e dit e d with a v alu bl e c ommen t ary

a a

by th e i n def tig bl e C omm n di nu s (R ome a a but it is a ,

v il abl e in Willi m of M oe b e k e s ow n w ord s H e ib e rg

n ow a a a r ,

h a vi n g e dit ed it from C od V atic n us O ttobon l t 1 8 5 0 of th e . a . a .

thirteen th cen tury (written in Wi lli am s own h nd ) and i

a ,
h

clud e d it w i th the Gr ee k fr agmen ts (s o fa as th ey xis t) in r e

parall el colu mns in ol ii of Ptol emy s w orks (Teubn e v .

r ,

Th e gu r e is r efe rr e d to three x e d plan es (1 ) th e me ridi an ,

( )
2 t h e h ori o n (3 ) th e p r i m e v e rtic al ; th es e pl an s ar e th e
z ,
e

pl n es of the thr ee circl s A P Z B A OB Z QC r es pectively

a e , ,

s h ow n in th e di agr am b e l ow Thr ee oth er gr eat circl es a e . r

u s ed on e of which th e equ ator wi th pol e P is x e d ; th e

, , ,

oth e r tw o a e mova bl e an d w e re c all ed by s p eci l n ames ;

r a

th e r s t is th e circle r epr es en t e d by any p os i tion of th e circl e

of th e h o i on a it r e v olv es r ou nd C OC as di mete r (CS M in

r z s a

Vi tru i 1 39 2
1
D h it t i 4 v us , A th P l t i
e ar c ec . x . . u . a a . x v . .

3
P appus, iv, p 2 4 6 1 . . .
28 8 I
TR GO N O M ETR Y

th e diagr a m is one pos iti on

it c oi n cidi n g with th e e quator) of , ,

an d it w s c all e d / opos 5 A 9 ( th e circl e in s ix part s )

a Kr K1 K
-
i 0

becau se th e high est poi n t of it bove th hori on corr es p onds

'

a e z

to th e l ap s e of six h ours ; th e se c on d c ll e d th e hou r ci cle is ,

a r ,

th e circl e r epr s en t e d by ny p os iti on as B S QA of th e circl

e a , , e

of th e h ori on a it re volv es rou n d BA as ax i s

z s .

Th e probl em is s ab ov e s t at e d to n d th e p o iti on of th
, a ,
s e

su n t giv en h our of th e d ay I n ord er to i llu s trat

a a . e

th e m thod it i s ufc i en t w ith A v B u n mii h l to t k e the

e ,
s , . . ra ,
1
a

si mples t c e wh r th s un is on th e e qu ator i e t one of

as e e e ,
. . a

th quin octi l poi n ts s o th at th he temor on circle c oin cide

e e a ,
e c s

with th e qu tor e a .

Le t S b th e p os iti on of th e s u n lyi n g on th e e qu ator M S C

e , ,

P th e p ol M Z A th e m eridi n BCA th e h ori on B S QA th

e, a ,
z , e

hou ci r cle nd let th e v r tic l gr t c i rcl e Z S V be dr w n

r -

, a e a ea a

through S n d th v r ti c l g at cir cl Z QC through Z the

,
a e e a r e
'

zen ith an d C th e e s t p oi n t a -

We g i v n th
ar e c SC 90 t wh r t is th h our
e e ar :


, e e e

n gl e n d th e a c M B t wh r < 1) i th l e v ti on of

a ,
a 90 g r
,
e e s e e a

th p ol ; an d w h a v to n d th e arc S V (th e s un s ltitud e)

e e e e s a ,

VC , th e

as en s on a c i
l di ff r en ce S Q n d QC P tol emy in e

,
a .
,

f ct pr ctic lly d etermines th e p os iti on of S in t erms of

a ,
a a

cer tai n s ph erical c oordi nat e s .

Draw th e p e rp en d icul r s S E to th e pl ane of th e merid i an a , ,

S H to th at of th e h ori on n d S E to th e pl ne of th e pri m z , a a e

1
B r au n m u h l , Ges ek d er Tr igon ometw e, 1, pp 1 2 1 3

. .
, .
 TH E A NA LE MMA OF PTOLEMY 28 9

ve r tical ; an d d r aw FG p erpen dicul ar to BA and E T to OZ , .

Joi n H G and w e h a ve E G , S H GH ES ET , .

We n ow r epresent S E in a s eparat e gur e (fo cl ear ness r

s ak e as Ptol emy u s es on ly on e figur e

) w h ere B Z A corre

, ,

pon d s to EZ A , P to P and C M to GM
'
S et off th e ar c

s .

P S e qu a l to CS t) an d dr aw S E p e rp en dicu lar
'


90
,

to C M Th en S M S M , a n d S E : S E ; it is as if in th e
'
.

o ri gi n l gure we h ad tu n e d th e qu adr an t M S C roun d M 0

a r

t i ll it coin cided with th e m eri di an circl e .

I n th e two gur es dra w I FK I E X p ar all el to BA B A

, , ,

an d LE G L E G p ar all l to OZ O Z
'
,
e ,
.

Th e n (1 ) ar e Z ] ar e Z S a e (9 0 S V ) b e c u se if we

: z r ,
a

tur n th e qu adrant Z S V bout Z 0 till it coi ncid es with the a

me rid i an , S fall s
It follow s th t th e on I ,
an d V on B . a

r quir d e S V ar e B I in th e secon d gure

e e ar z

.

f C X (in th e secon d gure)

T nd th e ar c VC s t of
( )
2 o ,
e

l on g G E equ al to ES o E S and dr aw C X through to

a r ,

m ee t th e circl e in X Th en Z X = ar c VC ; fo i t i s a if
. ar c r s

w e h ad tur ne d th e qu a dr n t B VC abou t B O till it c oi n cid d a e

w i th th e meridi an wh en (s i nc G X ES GH ) H would ,
e

:

coi n cide with X and V w ith X Th ere for e E V i l o equ al

.
s a s

to B

X
.

a l on g T E in th e s e c on d gur e

3 ) To nd Q C o r Z Q s e t off ,

TYe
'
qu a l to E

S

, a n d dr a w C

V thr ough to Y

o n th e c i rcl e .

it if w tu r n e d th e pri me
h
T en a r c B

Y

: ar c C
Q ; for i s as e

v e rtical Z C ab out Z 0 till it coi n cided with the me r idi an ,

Q
wh en (i cs n e TE ) E w ou ld fall on Y, th e r d iu s
a

OE Q on O YY

an d Q on Y .

as tly b e c au
BS = ar c BL B L,

S L
'

se ar e
( )
4 L , ar c z ar e ,

U
 TH E A N A LE M MA O F PTOLE MY 29 1

or tan V C tan S C cos S C V in th e right angl ed s p heric al

triangle S VC .

Thirdly ,

S E
'
S E OE
QZ
v
tan tan Z 1 I I
OE

th at is
tan QZ s in BZ
whi ch is Men el au s Spha er ica
tan S M
,
s in B ill
,

III . pli e d to th e right angl e d s ph e ric al tri angl es Z B Q

3 , ap -

MB S with th e an gl e B c ommon .

Z e u th e n p oi n t s ou t th at l at er in th e s am e tr eati s e P t ol em y
n d s th e ar c 2 a des cribed bov e th e h or i on by a tar of a z s

giv en declin ati on by a pr ocedur e e quival ent to th e formul a

"
cos or tan 6 tan g
t ,

an dthi s is th s m e formula wh i ch
e a , as we ha ve seen ,

H ipp archu s m u s t in effe ct h a v e u s e d in his Commen ta r y on

the P haen omen a of E u d oxu s an d A r a tu s .

Las tl y
with regard to the c alculati on s of th e h eigh t h and
,

th e a i m ut h in th e g en er l c as e wh er e th e s u n s d e cli n ati on

z a) a

is Z e uth en h as s h own th t th ey m ay b e e xpr es se d by th e

a

for mula e

8 tan 41)cos 95

s in h (cos 8 cos t s in ,

cos 8 s in t
tan o
c 3

(cos 8 cos t s in 8 tan gt)sin 96

cos 8 s in t

8 ts in 95

s in 8 cos p cos cos

t t men t th er efore v th at th e B r au n mu hl 1
'

Th e s a e of A . .

I n dian s w e r e th e rs t to utili e the meth od of proj cti on z e

con tai n e d in th e A n a lemm a fo actual trigonometrical calcu r

lation s with th e h elp of th e Tabl e of C h ord s o S i n es r e quir es r

m odic a t i on in s o fa as th e Gr ee ks t all e ve nt s s h ow d th e
r a e

w ay to s uch u s e of th gur e Wh e th e r the pra ctic al applica

e .

ti on of th e meth od of th e A n a lemma fo wh at is e quival ent r

to th e s oluti on of s ph erical tri ngl es g oes ba ck as far a a s

H ipp rchu s is n ot c ert ai n ; b u t it is qui te like ly th at it d o s

a . e ,

1
Br au nm uh l , i , pp 1 3 , 1 4 ,
.
-

41 .

U 2
292 TR I GO N O M ETR Y

i g that Diod o u s wrot his A n l mm a in the nex t cen

see n v
r e a e

tury Th e oth er alt rn ativ ourc e fo H ippar chu s s s pheric al

. e e s r

trigonometry is th M en el us th eor em appli ed to the s ph ere e a -

,

on which al on e P t ol emy w h ave seen r eli es in his ,

as e ,

Syn taxi s I n n y c e th e T bl e of C h ords or S in es was in

. a as a

full use in H ippa ch u s w orks fo it i presuppos e d by eith er

r

s ,
r s

meth od .

Th e P lanisphaer iu m .

With t l y is as soci at ed anoth er

th e A n a lem ma of P o em
w ork of s omewh t i mi l r con t n t th e P la nisphaer i u m a s a e ,

Thi s agai n h as on ly urvi ve d in L ti n tran s l ati on from an

s a a

A rabic v ers i on mad e by on e M l m b A hmad al Maj i ti of as a a .

-
r ,

C ordova (born prob bly t M drid di e d 1 0 0 7 /8 ) th e tr ans la a a a ,

tion is now found to b e n ot by R udolph of Bru ges but by ,

H er mannu s S e cu n du whos e pupil R udolp h was ; it was

s ,

r t publi s hed at B l in 1 5 3 6 an d agai n edi te d with com

s as e , ,

men t ary by C omm an d in u (V nic e

,
It has b een s e ,

r e edi ted from th e m n u s cr i pt

-
by H eib erg in v ol ii of h is a s . .

tex t of Ptol emy Th book is n x plan atign of the system

. e a e

of pr oj ecti on kn ow n s te eo
g aphi c by which p oi n t s on th e
as r r ,

h eav enly s ph ere a e r epr s nt d on th e pl an e of th e equ ator

r e e e

by proj ecti on from one poi n t pol ; Ptolemy naturally t ak es ,

a e

th e s outh p ol e s c en tr e of proj e ct i on a i t is th e north ern

a , s

h emi s ph er e which h e is c on c rn d to r pr es ent on a pl ane e e e .

Ptol emy is aware th at th e proj cti on of all circl es on th e e s

s ph e re (gr eat circl es oth e r th n th os e through th e p oles a

which proj e ct into s tr ight lin es an d s mall cir cl es eith er a

parall el 0 n ot parall e l to th e e qua tor) a e likewi s e circl es

1
1 r .

It is curi ou s how ever th t h d o s n ot giv e any gen eral

, , a e e

proof of th e fact but is con t n t to prove it of p articular

, e

circl es s uch as the ecliptic th e h ori on &c Thi s is remark

, , z , .

abl e b e c au se it i s eas y to s h ow th at if a c on e b e d es crib e d

, ,

with th e pole as vert x an d p ss i ng thr ou gh any circle on the e a

s ph e r e i e a circul a r c on e i n g en r al obliqu e with th at circl e

, . .
, e ,

as b as e th e s e cti on of th e c on
, by th e pl ane of the equ at or e

s ati s es th e crit er i on fou n d fo th e s u b con tr a1 cti by

se on r 1

y s
A p oll oniu s at th e b egi nn i n g of his Coni cs and s th er efor e a ,
i

circl e The fact th at th e meth od of s te eogr aphic pr oje cti on s

. 1 1

s o eas ily c onn ect e d w i th th e pr op e rty of s u bcon t1 a1 y s ecti on s

 TH E P LA N I S P H A E R I UM O F PTO LE MY 293

of o bliqu e circul r con es has le d to the conj ectur e that A pollo

a

ni u s was th e di s c ov e r er ofth e m e thod B u t Pt ol emy ma k es no .

men ti on of A p ollon iu s an d all th at we k n ow is th t Sy n es iu s , a

of C yr en e a pupil of H yp ti a an d b or n b out A D 3 6 5 3 7 0
( ) a ,
a . .
-

attribut es th e di s c o e ry of th e m e th od n d i ts applic ati on to

v a

H ipp archu s ; it is curi ou s th t h does n ot m n ti on Pt ol emy s a e e

treatis e on th e ubj ect but s p eaks of hi mse lf alon s h avi ng

s , e a

p erfe cted th e th eory Whil P tol emy is fully aw are th at . e

circl es on th e s ph er e be come circl es in th e pr oj ection h e s ys , a

nothi n g ab out th e oth e r ch ara ct ri s tic of thi s m eth od of r o e

p
jection n m ely tha t th n gl es on th e s ph er e ar r e pr s en t ed
, a e a e e

by e qu l angl on the pr oj e cti on

a es .

We m u t c on t en t o urs elv es with th e s hortes t allu i on to

s s

oth er w ork s of P t ol e my Th e r e ar e in th e rs t pl c e oth e r .

, a ,

mi n or s tr on om ic al w ork s a s foll ow s
a :

(1 ) Tow s d n h d w d pw of which on ly Book II u au u s r

'
er ar

viv e (2 ) Tn o g 6 n A w/ m in two Book th r t

s,

ea a T 1V au i y u s, e s

of which i xtan t in Gr ee k the s econ d in A rab i c on ly (3 ) th

s e , , e

i n s cripti on in C n ob u s (4 ) H pox p w 6m m d a
a s i , et a

K a i/ i r t
r ac Ka

A ll th s e i n clud e d diti on

xq rpoqiop ia . in H eib e g s e e ar r e ,

v ol i i . .

Th e Op tics .

Ptol emy wrot e an Op tics in v e B ook s which was tra n s ,

l t ed fr om an
a A r a bic v er s i on i n t o Lati n in th e tw elfth
cen tury by cer t i n A dmi ral Eug n i u s S icu lu s ; Book I
a a e
1
,

h ow e v er an d th e end of Book V
,
w nting Books I II ar e a .
,

w ere phy s ic l n d d ealt with g en er liti es ; in Book III

a ,
a a

P tole my t a k e s up th e th eory of m irr or s B ook I V d ea ls with ,

c on cav n d c om p os i te mirrors n d Book V w i th r fr cti on

e a ,
a e a .

Th e th eor etic a l p orti on w ould s u gg es t th at th uthor was e a

n ot v e ry pr oci en t in g eom e try M n y q ues ti on s s olv e d . a ar e

i n c orr ectly owi ng to th e ss ump ti on of pri n cipl whi ch is a a e

cl early fals e n ame ly th t th i m ge of poi nt on mirr or is

,
a

e a a a

at th e p oi n t of c on curre n c e of two li n es on e of w hi ch is dr w n , a

from th e lu min ous poin t to th e cen tr of c urv ture of th e e a

m ir ror whil e th e oth er is th e lin e fr om th e ey e to th e p oi n t

,

S e e G Govi , L otti ca d i C la ud io Tol omeo d i E u genio A mnu r a glio d e

' f
1

S i ctli a ,
'

r
To i n o, 1 8 8 4 ; and pa i u a s in G Lo i a L e s cience es aue rt c l r . r .

a n ti ca Gi eci a, pp 5 7 0 , 5 7 1

n el l
'
-
. .
 TH E OP TI CS O F PTO LEMY 29 5

bu t th e tr
l i i nto Lati n (n ow i n clu de d in the Teubn er
an s a t on

e diti on of H e ron ii 1 9 0 0 pp 3 1 6 which was mad by . e

, , ,

Willi am of Moerb ek in 1 2 6 9 was eviden tly made from the e ,

Gr ee k an d n ot fr om th A r abic as is h ow n by Gr e ci s ms in e , s a

th e tran s l ati on .

A me ch an ical Wor k H epi pomsu

.

Th er e llu si on s in S i mplicius an d l ewh er e to book

ar e a 1
e s a

by Ptol my of me chan ic l con tent w pt pomfw on b l n ci ngs

e a , e
'

, a a

o tur n i ng
r of th e c l e m which P tole my mai nt in ed s
s s a , a a

agai n s t A ri s t otl e th at ai o w at r in th eir ow n pl ac e

r r e

h av n o w ight n d wh en th ey a e in their ow n pl ce ith er

e e , a , r a e

r emai n at r est or r otat s i mply th e ten d en cy to go up o to e , r

f ll dow n bei ng d u to th e d s ir of thi ngs which e not in

a e e e ar

th eir ow n pl c es to move to th em Ptol emy w en t s o f as to

a
'

. ar

m i n ta in th t
a bottle full of ai w n ot only not h vi er
a a r as ea

th n th e a me b ottl e em pty (as A ris t otl e h eld ) bu t actu ally

sa ,

light er wh n i nate d th n wh en mp ty Th e m w ork i a e . e sa e s

a pp r en tly m e n t by th e book on t h e l ments mentione d

a a e e

by S i m pliciu s S u id attributes to P tol emy thr ee Book s of

.
2
as

M echa n ica .

S i plicius a ls o m en ti ons a s 1 ngl e book wept di ato mic ems

m 3
,
-

O n d i m en s i on i e di men s i on s, in which P tol emy tri ed to

.
, .

s h ow th a t th e pos s ibl e n u m b e r of di m en s i on s is li mit e d to

thr ee .

A tte mpt to pr ove th e P ar al le l P os tu late -

.

hould w e omit to n otice Ptol my ttempt to prov e

N or s e

s a

th e P r ll e l Pos tul t P tol emy d vot ed

a a tract to thi
-
a e . e a s

s ubj e ct n d P roclu h s giv en u th e en ti l s of th e rgu 4

, a s a s es s a a

me n t u s e d P tolemy gives rs t proof of Eu cl I 2 8 an d '

.
, ,
a . .
,

th n an ttem pt ed proof of I 2 9 from which h e d duces

e a .
, e

Pos tula t e 5 .

1
Si mp l i ci us on A ri ts . De cael o, p . 7 1 0 1 4 , H e ib . .
(Ptol emy , ed . H e ib .
,

vol p . ii , .

2
I b , p 2 0 1 0 sq
. . . .

3
I b , p 9 2 1 s q , (P o emy , e d H e ib vol
. . tl . . iip , .

(Ptole my
.

r clu
.

4
P o s on Eu cl I , pp 36 2 1 4 s q , 3 6 5 7 . . . . .
367 . 27 , ed . H ei b .
,

v ol ii , pp 2 6 6
. .
29 6 TR I GO N O METR Y

I . To pr ove I 2 8 Ptol emy takes two s traight li nes A B

.
,
, CD,
an d a trans v er al EE GH We h av e to prov e that if the
s .
,
su m

of th e an gle B EG E GD i s e qu al to two r i gh t
s ,
an gl es , th e
s traight l i n es A B CD ar e p ar all e l i e n on s e can t
, ,
. .
-
.

S i nc e A E G is th e s uppl e me n t of BE G an d E GC
of E GD it , ,

foll ow s th t th s u m of th an gl a A E G E GC is l s o e qu l to
e e es ,
a a

two right ngl s a e .

N ow upp os e if p oss ib l e th t EB GD maki n g th e u m of

s , ,
a , ,
s

th e ngl a B E G E GD equ al to two r i ght an gl

es ,
me t t K es , e a

th n s i mi l rly EA GC m king the s u m of th e ngl A E G

e a ,
a a es ,

E GC qu al to tw o right angl
e m u t l s o m eet s y t L es s a ,
a a .

[ P t ol emy w ould h av e don b ette r to poin t ou t th t n ot e a

on ly e th e tw o s u m s e qu l bu t th
ar n gl es th e m lv e a e a se es ar

e qu l i n p ai r s i e A E G to E GD
a ,
n d E GC to BEG
. . nd w c n a ,
a e a

ther efor e t k th e tr i an gl e K E G n d apply it to EG on th oth r

a e a e e

s id s o th t th e
e ,
i d EK GK m y lie l ong C C EA es pec
a s es ,
a a , r

ti ely in wh i ch c s
v ,
GC EA w i ll meet t th e p oi n t wh er e
a e , a

K fall s ]
C on qu n tly th s tr aight li n es LA B K LCDK
se e n cl os e a
e , e

s p c which i i mposs ibl e

a e : s .

It follow th at A B CD c nnot mee t in eith er dir ecti on ;

s ,
a

th ey e th r efor e p arallel
ar e .

II To prov e I 2 9 P tol my t kes two par llel li n es A B

. .
, e a a ,

CD n d th e tr ns v er sal E G an d argu
a a thu It is r equir d ,
es s . e

to pr ov th t A A E G A C GE
e a tw o right a n gl es .

Fo if th e s u m i n ot qu l to two r i ght an gles it m u t be

r ,
s e a , s

e i th er gr e at e r o ( 2 ) l es s
( 1 ) r .

(1 ) If it is gr e t er th e u m of th e angl e s on th oth er s id e
a , s e ,

BE G E GD wh i ch , e th e s uppl em e n t s of th
,
r s t p ir of ar e a

ngl s mu s t b e less th n tw o ri ht n gl es
a e , g a a .

Bu t A E C G e n o m or e p a r ll e l th n EB GD s o tha t if
,
ar a a , , ,

E G ma kes one pa i r o a n gles f A E G, E GC togethe r gr ea ter tha n

 PTOLEMY ON TH E PA R A LLE L POS TU LA TE 2 9 7 -

two r i ght a n gles , i t mu st als o ma ke the othe r pai r B E G E GD ,

together gr eater than two r i ght a n les

g .

Bu t th e a el tt r p ira gl w r pr d l
of an es e e ove es s th
an two

right n gles : which is i mpos s ible

a .

Th e r e fore th e s um of th e an gl es A E G E GC c ann ot be ,

g ea te th an two righ t an gle s

r r .

( 2 ) S im ilarly we can s h ow th t th e s um of th e two angl es a

A E G E GC cann ot be less th an tw o right angl es

, .

Th e r e fore A A EG A C GE two right angle s .

[Th e fall acy h er e li es in th e i n f er en ce which I h av e marke d

by it lics Wh en Ptolemy ay that A E C G e no mor e
a . s s ,
ar

parall l th an EB GD h e is in effect ass uming that th ou gh

e , ,
r

a ny one
poi ntonly one p a r a llel ca n be d r a wn to a gi ven s tr a ight
li ne, which quiv l t
is an e a en ry tul t
for th e v e Pos a e h e is

e n d e v ouri n g to
a r ove Th lt e rnati ve Pos tul at e is kn ow n
p . e a

P l yfa ir s ax i om but it is of an ci en t origi n si n c e it is

as a ,

di s tin ctly en un ci at ed in P oclu s s note on Eu cl I r

. .

III Pos t 5 is now d educed thu s

'

. . .
,

S upp o e th at th e s tr i ght li n e s maki ng with

s tran s versal
a a

an gl es th e s u m of which i s l e s t h an two right angl es d o n ot s

mee t on th e s id e on which th o e n gl es ar e s a .

Th en for ti or i th ey will n ot meet on th e othe r s ide on

'

, a ,

which e the angles th e s u m of which is gr ea te th an tw o

ar r

right ngles [Thi s is en force d by s upplemen t ry propo i

a . a a s

tion s howin g th at if the lin e me t on that s ide Eu cl I 1 6

.
,
s ,
. .

w ould be contradicted ]
H en c th e s tr aight li n es c nn ot meet in eith er dire ction
e a

the y e the r efor e p ar a llel

ar .

B u t in th at case th e an gl e m d e wit h th e tr an s v er s l ar e s a a

equ a l to tw o right angl es which c ontradicts the ss umpti on: a .

Th e r e for e th e s tr aight l i n s will m e et e .

 C ON TR OVER S I ES A S TO H ER O N S DA TE
299

a bov e qu oted ; th e titl e how e ver in itself need n ot i mply , ,

more th an t h at H er on s w ork was a new edition of a s imil ar

w ork by C tesibius and the K mm B o may even h ave been adde d

,

z v

by s om e w ell r ead editor wh o k ne w both works an d d es ired to

-

i n dic te th at the great er p art of the cont ents of H eron s w ork

a

wa s d u e to C tes ibiu s O n e m n u s cript h as H p wog Ma g n

. a a e a

8p >s B e n od xci wh ich corres pon ds to th e titles of the oth e r

a
1 -

works of H eron and is there for e more likely to be gen ui ne .

Th e d i s cov e ry ofth e Gr e e k t ext of th e M etr i ca by R S ch one .

in 1 8 9 6 ma d e it pos s ibl e to x with c ert ai nty an upp er li mit .

I n th a t w ork th er e ar e a n u m b e r of allu s i ons to A rchi med es ,

thre e r e fe r en c es to th e
xmp o d n or op , of A pollon iu s and
'
i v r ,

two to th e (book s ) ab out s tr aight lin es (ch ord s ) in circl e

a

(dd m d N ow a lth ough

e r ot
r ai
s p2 a xxh c pev 1r e T , u ,

th e rs t b egi nn i n g s of tr i gon om e try may

go ba ck s far as a

A p ollon iu s w e kn ow of no w ork givi ng an actu l T bl e of

, a a

C h ord earli e r th an that of Hi ppa rchu s

s We get th re fore .
,
e ,

at on c th e d a t e 1 5 0 B C o th er e bouts as th e ter m i n u s pos t

e . . r a

qu e m A ter mi n u s a n te qu em is fur n i s h ed by th e d at e of th e
'

c om p os iti on of Pappus s Collecti on ; for Pappu s allud s to and

e ,

dr w s up on the w orks of H eron A s Pappu s was writi ng in

a ,
.

th e r e ign of Di ocl eti an (A D 2 8 4 it foll ow s th t H eron . . a

could n ot be much later th an s ay A D 2 5 0 I n s peaki ng of , , . . .

th e s oluti on s by th e old g eome te r s (oi n h oi y wp p ) of

a ai e r at

th e probl e m ofn di ng th e tw o m ean proporti onals Pappu m y , s a

s eem t r s t s igh t to i n clud e H e ron al on g with E r t os th enes

a a ,

N icom ed cs and Philon in th t d es ign tion and it h as be n a a , e

argu d on t hi s b as i s th at H e r on liv e d l ong b e for

e , ,
Pa ppu s e .

B u t a cl os e x ami n ati on of th p ssag e s h ow s th at thi s is

1
e e a

by no me n s n ecess ary Th e r elevan t w ords ar e as follow s

a .

Th an ci en t g eomet er s w er e n ot abl e to s olv e th e probl em

e

of th e tw o s tr aigh t li n es [th e probl em of n di ng tw o mean

proporti on ls to th em] by ordi n ary geometr ical method s in ce
a s,

th e pr obl em is by natur e s ol i d but by attack i ng it with

.

me ch an ic al mean s th ey m n g e d in a w on d er ful w ay to a a , ,

re duc th e qu es ti on to a pr ctical an d conveni ent con s t uction

e a r ,

as m ay b e s e en in th e Mes ola bon of Eratos th enes an d in th e

me ch ani cs of Philon and H e ron Nicomed cs al s o s olv e d it
by m ean s of th e cochloid curv e with which he al s o tri secte d ,

an an gl e

.

1
P appus , iii , pp 5 4 6 . .
300 H ER O N O F A LEXA N DR A I
ppus goes on to s y that h e will giv four s oluti on s one
Pa a e ,

of which is his ow n ; th e r s t s e c on d n d third h e d e cr i b es , , a s

a s th os e of Er t os th en es N icom e d cs an d H e r on
a Bu t in th e ,
.

earli e r sen t en c h e m n ti on Philon a l ong wi th H e r o

e n nd w e e s ,
a

k now from Eu tociu th at H eron s s olut i on is pr ctic lly th e

s a a

me as P h ilon s H en c w m y c on clude th t by th e third

sa . e e a a

oluti on P ppu r ally m e n t Philon s n d th t h e on ly me n

s a s e a ,
a a

tion ed H e ron s M ech n i cs b cau s e it w s c on v en i en t pl ce in

a e a a a

which to n d th e same s olution .

A noth r argu m en t h as b een b e d on th e f ct th t th e

e as a a

e xtr ct from H e r on s M echa n i cs given at th e en d of P ppu s

a s a s

Book V III s w h av e it r e i n tr oduc d by th e uth or with

, a e , a e a

a complai nt th t th copi s of H ron s works in which h e

a e e e

fou n d th em w er e in man y r es p e ct s corrupt havi n g los t both ,

begi nn i ng and end But the extr cts pp ear to h v b e n .

1
a a a e e

a dd d n ot by P ppu s but by s ome l t er writer an d th e

e , a , a ,

a rgumen t accordi n gly falls to th e groun d .

Th e limi t s of d at e b ein g th en s ay 1 5 0 B C to A D 2 5 0 ou r

. .
, , . .
,

on ly c ours is to try to d e n e e s w e ll p os s ibl e th e r l tion ,

a as , e a

in ti me b tw e n H e r on n d th e oth e r m ath em tici an s wh o

e e a a

come r oughly withi n the s m l i m i t s Thi s meth od h s led

, ,
a e . a

on e of th e m os t r ec n t wr i t ers on th e s ubj ct (Titt l ) to e e e

2

plac e H eron n ot much l t er th an 1 0 0 B o wh i l e nother } a . .

, . a
1

r lyi ng lmos t en tir ely on a com pari s on b etw en p s s ag s in

e a e a e

P t ol emy n d H ron rriv es t th v ry d if

a e fer n t c on clu s i on
,
a a e e e

that H eron w s l t er than P tol my an d b elong e d in f ct to

a a e a

th e ec on d c en tury A D
s . .

I n vi e w of th e d i ffe r en c be tw een th es e r es ults it will b e e ,

c on ven i ent to s ummari th e e v i den ce rel i e d on to es t bli s h z e a

th e e rli er d t e
a n d to c on s id r h ow fa
a it is o is not con
, a e r r

e lu s iv e g in s t th e l ter We begi n with th e r el ti on of

a a a . a

H eron to Ph ilon P hi lon is s upp os e d to c ome n ot m or th an

. e

a g en r ti on lat r than C tes ibiu s b c u s i t w ould a ppe r th at

e a e ,
e a e a

m ch i n es fo thr owi n g pr oj ctil es c on s tr ucte d by Ctes ibiu s

a r e

a n d Philon r s p e ctiv e ly w e r e b oth a v ail abl e

e t on e ti me fo a r

i n p ecti on by xp erts on th e s ub j ct ; it is i n f rr ed th t
s e e

e a

1
Pappus , VI 1 1 , p 1 1 1 6 4 7 . . .

2
. r
l
A r t H e on von A ex and e ia in Pa y Wissowa s R ea l E n cycl oped ic r ul - -

d er clas s A l ter tu ms wiss ens ch cg t, vol 8 l 1 912

. . .
, .

3
I H a m 1n er ~Je ns en i n H er mes , vol 4 8 1 9 1 3 , pp 2 2 4 3 5
. .
, . .

1
Ph i le n , M ech S yu t i v, pp 6 8 1 , 7 2 3 6

. . . . . .
 i

C ON TR O V ER S I ES A S TO H ER O N S DA TE
30 1

Ph ilon date cann ot be l ter th an the end of th e s ec ond

s a

cen tury B C (If C tes ibiu s ouris h ed be for e 2 4 7 B C th e argu

. .
. .

m en t w ould a pp aren tly s ugges t r th e r th e b egi nn i n g th an th e a

en d of th e s ec on d c en tury
) N ext H er on is s upposed to have .
,

b een a you ng er con t em por ry of Phil e n th e gr oun ds bein g a ,

th e foll owi ng (1 ) H er on m e nti on s a s tationary aut om ton

.
-
a

r epres en t ti on by Philon of the N aupliu s s tory an d thi s is

a -

,
1

identi ed by Titt e l with a repr es entation of th e same s tory by

s ome c on t em p or ary of H er on s B u t c re ful

( 5 m 6 nd s

0 a a

p eru s l of th e wh ol e p s s age s eems to m e r ather to sugg es t

a a

th t th e l tt er r epres en t tion was n ot Philon s an d th t

a a a

, a

P hile n w as i n clud ed by H er on among th e a n c i en t uto

a

m aton m ak e rs an d n ot amon his c ontemp or ri es A n oth e r 3

g , a .

argu m en t dduc ed to sh ow that Phil e n w con temp orary

a as

H ro A t m pp 4 0 4 1 1 40 8 9
1
e n, n a I b p 41 2 1 3
, . .

. . .
, . .

Th r l t r m rk of H ro foll ow y th t h
.

e e e va n
(1 ) H e a s e n a r e as s . e sa s a e
h fo d o rr g m t of t ti o ry tom t b tt r o mor
as un n a an e en s s a na au a a e e r e
i tru ti th th o d crib d by Phil o of By ti m (p 4 04
ns c ve an se es e n z an u
i t c h m t i o Philom tti g of th N pl i tory i
. .

A

s an n s an e e en ns e se n e au us s -

n
w h ich h fou d ryth i g good pt two th i g ( ) th m ch
,
e n e ve i m n e x ce n s a e e an s
fo th r pp r of A th
e a wh i h w too d if
ea an ce c lt d e n e, c as u an

(b) th b ofe a i id t prom i d b y P h il i h i d criptio

s en ce an nc en se on n s es n,
na m ly th f ll i g of th d rb olt o Aj
e e a w ith n o d of th d r a un e n ax a s un un e
ac comp yi g it (pp 40 4 1 5 408
an Thi l tt r i id t H ro could
n . . . s a e nc en e n
n ot d y wh r i Phi l
n tho gh h h d o lt d gr t mb r
an e e n en, u e a c nsu e a ea nu e
of c opi of h i w ork H co ti
es (p 4 08 9 1 3 ) th t w
s ot to
. e n n u es . .
a e ar e n
su
ppo th t h i r se i g d ow Ph ilo o h rgi g him with ot b i g
a e s unn n n n r c a n n e n
c p bl of rry i g o twh t h promi d O th o tr ry th mi io
a a e ca n u a e se . n e c n a , ee ss n
w asprob b ly d to lip of m mory fo it i
a ue y ough to m k a s e , r s eas en a e
t g th d r (h pro d t how h ow to do it ) B t th r t of
s a e -
un e e ce e s o s . u e es
Ph i lo rr g m t m d to h im ti f tory d th i h y i
n s a

an e e n s s ee e sa s ac , an s, e sa s, s

wh y h h ot ig or d Ph i lom w ork fo I th i k th t my r d r w i ll

e as n n e e : r n a ea e s

g t th m o t b
e t i f th y
e h ow s r t Wh t h
en e b w ll id by e ar e s n, s a as ee n e sa

th ci
e an t d th p r t l y from th i wh t th
en s an ci t o rlook d
en , s e a a e s a e an en s ve e
o wh t i th ir w ork
r a d d i mpro m t (pp 40 8 2 2 4 1 0
n e (2 ) Th n ee e ve en . . . e

n ex t ch pt r (pp 4 1 0 7 4 1 2 2 ) pl i g r lly th ort of th i g th

a e . .
. ex a ns en e a e s n e
au t om to pict h to h ow d H ro y h w ill gi o
a n -
ur e as mpl s ,
an e n sa s e ve n e e xa e

whi ch h r g rd th b t e Th e ft r dr wi g co tr t b tw
a s as e es . en a e a n a n as e ee n
th impl r pi ctur m d b y th
e s e i t which i ol d thr d iff r t
es a e

e an c e n s nv ve ee e en
m o m t o ly d th co t m por ry ( i O sna ) r pr t tio of
ve en s n , an e n e a o Ka g e ese n a ns
i t r ti g tori by m
n e es n of m or um ro
s d es ri d mo m t ean s e n e us an va e ve en s

(p 4 1 2 3
. h pro . d to d cri b tti g of th N pli tory
e cee s es e a se n e au us s -

Th i i th r pr t ti o wh i ch Titt l i d ti w th Ph lo B t it
.

s s e e e s en a n e en es 1 i n s . u

i to b ob r d t h t th d cri pti o i cl d
s e s e ve th t of th pi od of th a e es n n u es a e e s e e
th d rbolt triki g Aj (c 3 0 pp 448 1 4 5 2 7 ) wh i h H ro pr ly
un e s n ax .
, . . . c e n ex ess
sa y th t Ph i l
s om itt d
a F rth r th m ch i m fo th en pp r e . u e , e e an s r e a ea an ce
of A th ib d i l rly ot Ph ilo m or d if l t

29 i
d

n n n s e cu
'

en e es cr e c . s c ea

a rr g m t b t th impl r d i c d crib d (pp 4 04 1 8 408 5 )

an e en , u e s e ev e es e . .
-

. as

po i bl d pr f b l to P h ilo ( f H ro d Sch m d t pp
.

ss e an ole er a e n s c . e n, v . 1, e . i , .

l iii l i )
xv -
x x .
 C O N TR OVER S I ES A S TO H ER O N S DA TE 30 3

m achin es u s ed by the two for the ame purp os e fre qu ently s

diffe r in d etails ; e g in V itruvius s h odometer p ebble drops . .

a

i n to a box at th e end of each R om n mile while in H eron s a ,

1

th e di s t an c e c om pl et e d is mark e d by p oi n ter It is in deed a .

2

poi n te d ou t th at th w at er org n of H eron is in man y r es pects e -

a

m or e pri m iti ve th an th at of V itruviu s ; but as th e in s t u ,

r

me n t s e alt og e th e r diff
ar e r en t th i s can s carcely b e s aid to ,

prove an ythi ng .

O n the oth r h n d th er e e p oi n ts of c on t ct b e t we en
e a ar a

cert i n pr opos iti ons of H er on nd of th e R om n a gr imen

a a a

s o es
r C olu m lla bout A D 6 2 g v e c e rt i n me s ur em n ts of
. e ,
a . .
,
.
a a a e

pl n e gur es which gre with th e for mulae u s ed by H eron

a a e ,

n otably th os e fo th e e quil t e r l tri an gl e th e r gul ar h e xagon

r a a ,
e

(in thi s c as e n ot on ly th e form ula b u t th e actu l gur es agr ee a

with H eron ) n d th e s g men t of a circl e which is l ess th n

s a e a

a s e micircl e th e for m ul a in th e l s t c s e b e i n g
, a a

( 8 7 0h 1 7:
1

wh e r e s is th e ch ord n d h th h eight of th e s gm nt H re a e e e . e

th er m ight s ee m to be dep n d en ce on e w y or th oth r ;

e e , a e e

but th e po s i bility is n ot exclude d th t th e tw o write rs m y

s a a

m er ely h av e dr wn from comm on s ourc e ; fo H eron in

a a r ,

g i vi n g th e for mul fo th e ar of th e gmen t of a circle a r ea se ,

s t a t es th t it w s th e form ul a u se d by th e mor e a cc u r at e
a a

i n v s tig t ors (of i p B po

e a

aK t
'
eO T e
'

We ha v e l s tly to con s id er th e r l ti on betw een P t ol emy

,
a ,
e a

an d H e r on If H eron live d ab out 1 0 0 B C h w as 2 0 0 y ears

. . .
,
e

e rl i e r th n P t ol e my (A D 1 0 0
a a Th e a rgu men t u sed to . .

prove that Ptol e my came s om ti me aft er H e ron is bas e d on e

a p ss ge of P roclu s wh er e Ptolemy is said to h v r marked

a a a e e

on th e u n tru s tw orthi n ess of th e m eth od in v ogu e am on g th e

mor e an ci en t writ rs of m e ur i n g th pp ren t di ameter of

e as e a a

th e s u n by m n s of w at e r cl ock H i pp archu s ay s P o
4
ea -
s .
,
s r

clu s u s e d h is di optra fo th purpos e an d P tol emy follow e d

,
r e ,

h im P r oclu s proc e d s
.
e

Let u s th en s et ou t h er e n ot on ly th e obs e r v ti on s of

a

th e a n ci en t s but l s o th con s tructi on of th d i optr of a e e a

V itr i H ro D oy t 34 2

1
14
uv u s, x . . e n, v o r a, c . .

3
H ro M t i e i 31 p 7 4 2 1
n, e r ca , .
, . . .

Pro l H ypotypo i pp 1 2 0 9 1 5 1 2 4 7 2 6
c us, s s, . .

, .
.
304 H ER O N O F A LEXA N DR I A

Hi pp rchu a A n d r s t we will s h ow h ow w e can meas ur e an

s .

i n terval of ti me by mean s of th regul r e fflux of w at er e a ,

a
p oced u r e wh i ch w s e xpl i n e d by H eron th e me ch nic i n
l a a a a

in his tr eati s e on w t e r cl ock s

a .

Th eon l x dr i h s a p ss age to s imilar eff ct H e

of A e an a a a a e .
1

rs t s ays th t th e mos t n ci en t m th em tici ns con tri v ed

a a a a a

a v es s e l which w ould l t w t r ow ou t u n i for mly through a e a e

s m ll a p erture t th bottom nd th en dd t th e en d l mos t

a a e ,
a a s a ,
a

in th e ame w ord a P roclu s u s es th at H eron h ow e d h ow

s s s ,
s

th i s i m an ag d in th r s t book of h i w ork on w t r
s e e s a e

clocks Th on . ccou nt is from Pappu s C omm nt ry on

e

s a s

e a

th e S y nta m s n d thi s i s l o P oclu s s s ourc as is s h ow n by

, a a s r e,

th e f ct th at P roclu g i v e s
a dr wi ng of th w t r clock s a a e a e

wh i ch ppears to h av been los t n Th on tr an s cripti on from

a e i e

s

P ppu s but wh i ch P appu s m u s t h v e r epr oduc e d from th

a , a e

work of H ron Tittel i n fer s that H ron mu s t h v r n k ed

e e a e a

s on e of th e more an c i en t writ r s a c omp r d with

a e s a e

Ptol emy Bu t th i s g i n d o s n ot s eem to b e a n c s sary

. a a e e e

in fe r en c N o d oubt H r on w ork w c on ven i en t pl ce to

e . e s as a a

r fer to fo a des cripti on of w t r cl ock but it do s n ot

e r a a e -

, e

n e c ess r i ly foll ow th t P t ol m y w r ferri n g to H eron

a a e as e s

cl ock r th e r th n om earl i e r for m of th e m i n tru m nt

a a s e sa e s e .

A n en t i r ly di ff e r en t con clu s ion fr om th t of Titt l i

e
,
a e s

r ch ed in th articl e Ptol m i o nd H r on lr ady llud d

ea e e a s a e a e a e

to .
2
Th e rgu men ts ah ortly th es e ( 1 ) P tol em y ys in ar e s . sa

his Geog aphy (0 3 ) th t hi pr e d c s or h d only b n bl e

r . a s e es s a ee a

to me ur th di t n c b etw een tw o pl c s (as an a c of

as e e s a e a e r a .

gr e t circl on the e rth circum feren c e) in th c

a e wh r e a

s e as e e

th e tw o pl c e on th e s m
a mer i d i n H e cl i ms th t h e
s ar e a e a . a a

h i m lf in v n t d a w y of doi ng thi ven in th e c s e W h er

se e e a s e a e

th e tw o pl a c e a e n i th r on th e m m eridi n n o on th e
s r e e sa e a r

sa m p r all el c i rcl e pr ov i d ed th at th h ight of th e p ol e at

e a , e e s

th tw o pl c es r s p ctiv ly
e n d th e an gl
a b tw een th great
e e e ,
a e e e

c i rcl e p in g through both nd th mer i di an circl e through

as s a e

on of the plac es a know n N ow H ron in h is Di opt a

e , r e .

e '
r ,

d e l with th e pr obl m of mea ur i n g th di s t n c b etw een

a s e s e a e

two pl c es by m e n s of th e d i optr
a an d t ak a
an e x a, e s as a

1
h
T e on , C omm on th e Syn tax z s , B ase , 1 5 38 , pp 2 6 1
. l . sq .
(qu oted in
P i oclu s , H yp olyp os is ed M ani i s , pp 3 09 , . tu .

2
H amm e Jen sen , 0 p ci t r . .
 C O N TR O V ER S I ES A S TO H ER ON S DA T E
'

30 5

th e di tan c e betw een R ome an d A lex andri a 1 Unfortu n ately

s .

th e t ext is in pl ac es corrupt n d d eci en t s o tha t th e m e th od a ,

c an not be r econs tructed in det il But it i n volv e d th e obser a .

v ti on of the same lu n r e clip e at R ome an d A l ex ndri a

a . a s a

r es p ectiv ly and th e dr awin g of th e aam lemm a for R ome

e .

Th t is to say th e math m atical meth od which P tol emy

a ,
e

cl i m to h av e i n ven te d is p oken of by H eron s thi ng

a s s a a

g en r lly known to e xp erts n d not mor e re mark ble th an

e a a
'
a

oth e r t ch n ic al matt e rs d ea lt with in th e s ame b ook

e C ou s e .

qu en tly H er on mu s t h av e b en later th an Ptol my (It is e e .

right to d d th ats ome hold th t th e chapt er of th e D z optr a '

a a .

in qu ti on is n ot g er m n to th e s ubj ect of th e tr a ti s e and

es a e e ,

w s pr ob ably not written by H er on but i nt erp ol at e d by ome

a s

l at er e ditor ; if thi s is so th e rgu ment bas ed upon i t f lls to , a a

th e gr ou n d ) (2 ) Th e dioptr d es crib e d in H e r on s w ork is a

. a

n e an d a ccurat e i n s tru men t v e ry mu ch b ett er th an an ythi n g ,

P t olem y h ad at h is di s pos l If Ptol emy h ad been w r e of a . a a

its e xi s t en c e it i s hi ghly u n l i k ely th at h e w ould h a v tak en

,
e

th e tr oubl e to mak e h is s ep r at e an d i mp erfect p r ll actic a a a

i n tru m n t s i nc e it c ould e s ily hav e b een gr fted on to

s e ,
a a

H e r on di optra N ot on ly th e r e fore mu s t H eron h a v e b een

s .
, ,

l at e r th an Ptol emy but s eeing th t th e t echn iqu e of in st u ,

a r

men t m ki n g h ad mad e s uch s trid es in th e i nt er v l h mu s t

-
a a ,
e

h v b en cons iderably lat r (3 ) I n his w ork p2 po iw

a e e e . 1r e
'
vr c

2

P tol em y a s w e h av e seen di put d the v i ew of A r i totl th t

, ,
s e s e a

a ir h s we ight ev en wh en s u r oun de d by air

,
a A ri t otl e r . s

s ti s e d h im s e lf e x p er i m e n t lly th t a v es s e l ful l of
a i is a a a r

h eavi er th n th e same v es el empty ; P tol emy al s o by x

a s . e

e i m en t c on v i n c e d hi ms elf th t th e for mer is a ctu lly th e

r a a
p ,

lighter P tol emy th en ex t nd e d h i argu ment to w ter n d

.
e s a ,
a

h e ld th at w ater with w ater r ou n d it h as no w eight and that ,

th e div e r h ow e v er d eep h e div es d oes not feel th e w e i ght of

, ,

th e w ter a b ov e him a H r on ass ert s th at w at e r h s n o

. e a

appr e ci bl e w eight an d h as n o a ppr eci abl e p ow e r of c om

a
e

pres s in g th e air in a v ess el i nv erte d and forc ed dow n i nt o

th e w t r I n con r mation of thi s h e cites th e c
a e .
of th e as e

dive r w h o is not pre vent d fr om breathing wh en fa bel ow

,
e r

r
H e on , D ioptr a , c 3 5 (vol iii, pp . . .

2 lcu
S im p i i s on De caelo, p 7 1 0 1 4 , H ei b (P o emy, . . . tl vo l. 11, p .

3 r
H e on , P n eu matica , i P e (vol i , p 2 2 1 4 . rf . . . .

X
 C O N TR OV ER S I ES A S TO H ER O N S DA TE
30 7

H e ron was know n 6 HAega vdpet (e g by Pappu s ) or

as s . .

6 ,
(mecha n i cu s ) to di s ti ngui s h him from oth e r
u n a wx s
x ,

p er sons of the s ame name ; P roclu s and Damianu s u s e th e

l tt r tit e whil e Pappu s als o s p eak s of of wept r u H pa wa
a e l ,
"

pnxa w xoc .

C h ar acte r of wor ks .

H e r on was l mos t en cyclop edic writer on m th e m ti cal

an a a a a

an d phy s ic al s ubj e cts P r ctic al utility r ath er th n th o eti

. a a e r

cal c ompl e t en ess was th e obj e ct i med at; his en v i ron ment in a

Egypt n o doubt acc ou nt s largely for thi s H is Met ica b gi ns . r e

with th e old legend of th e tr diti onal origin of geometry in a

Egyp t an d in the Dioptr a w e nd on e of the v ery probl ems

,

which geometry w as i n ten de d to s olv e namely th t of e ,

a r

es t bli hi n g b ou n d ari es of l an d s wh en th e oodi n g of th e

a s

N ile h ad d es troy e d th e l n d ma rk s : Wh en the b ou n d ri es a -

a

of an ar ea h av e be come obli t era t e d to s uch an e xt en t th t a

onl y tw o or thr ee mark s r e m i n in additi on to a p lan of th e a ,

ar a to upply a fr es h th e r emai n i n g mark s H eron mak es

e 1
, s .

l i ttl e o no clai m to origin lity ; he often quotes uthoriti s

r a a e ,

but in accord an ce with Gr eek pr ctice he more fr equ en tly

, a ,

om it s to d o s o ev id en tly with out an , y id ea of mi s l ead i n g ny a

on e ; on ly wh en h e has m d e wh a t is in h is opi n i on an y a

s l ight i m prov emen t on th e m e th od s of h is pr e de c es s ors d oe s

h e tr oubl e to men ti on th e fact a h abit which cl rly i n di , ea

cates th at ex cept in thes e cas h e is s i mply gi v i ng th e bes t

, es ,

tr adition l meth ods in the form whi ch seemed to him e s ie s t

a a

of com pr h ens i on and applic ti on

e Th e Metr i c a s eem to b e a . s

rich est in d enite r efer en ces to th e di sc ov eri es of pre de

ce s o s ; th e n ames men ti on e d a
s r A rchi me d es Diony s od o u s re , r ,

Eud oxu P l ato ; in th e Di optr a E atos th enes is qu ot e d an d

'

s, r ,

in th e i n tr oducti on to th e Ca topt i a Plato and A ri s totl e e r c ar

m en tion e d .

Th e pr a ctical utility of H er on s m an u al s bei ng s o gr e t it

a ,

was n atur l th at th ey s h ould h av e gr eat v ogu e an d e qu ally

a ,

na tur al th at th e mos t p opul r of th em at any r at e s hould b e a

r ee dit e d a lte r e d an d add e d to by l at er writ er s ; thi s w as

,

i n ev it abl e with b ooks which lik e the Elemen ts of Euclid , ,

w er e in r egul ar use in Greek By an ti ne R oman and A ra bi an ,

z , ,

H ron Diopt c 2 5 p 2 68 1 7 1 9
e ,
r a, .
, . . .

X
 308 H ER ON O F A LEXA N DR I A

education for c entu ri es The geom trical or mensurational . e

books in particular gav e s cope fo ex pan si on by multiplication r

of ex ampl es s o th at it is difcul t to di s entangl e th e g enuin e

,

H eron from th e r es t of th e c oll e cti on s which h av e c ome dow n

v
to u s u nd er h is name con s d er ed cr t eri on s as
H u ltsch . s i i i

follow s The H eron texts wh i ch h ve come d own to our

:

a

ti me a e uth entic in s o fa as th y b ar th e auth or s name

r a r e e

an d h a v e k ept th e ori i n l d es i gn n d for m of H e ron s w ork s

a
g a ,

but ar e una uth en tic in s o f as bei n g con s tan tly in u se for ar ,

practical purposes th ey w er e r p at dly e e dite d and in the ,

e e e r -

course of r e editing w er r wr i tt n with a vi ew to th e

.
-

,
e e e

p rticular nee ds of the t i m e

a .

Lis t of Tr eatis e s .

S uch of the w ork s of H e r on as h av e s ur v i ve d h av e r each ed

u s in v e ry diffe ren t w a y s Th os e which h a ve c ome d own in .

th e G r eek ar e :

I Th e Metr i ca , rs t di s cov e re d in 1 8 9 6 in a man u s cript

.

of th e el ev enth (or tw e lfth ) c e n tury a t Con s tan ti nople by

R S ch one and edit ed by hi s s on H S ch on e (H er on is Oper a , iii ,
.
, .

Teubner ,

II . it d in n It li an v ers i on by V en turi
On the Dioptr a , ed e a a

in 1 8 1 4 ; th e Gr eek
t xt w a rs t br ought ou t by A J H e s . . .

V incent in 1 8 5 8 an d th critic l editi on ofit by H S ch one i

I
,
e a . s

in cluded in the Teubn ol iii ju t m en ti oned er v . s .

III Th e P ne u m a ti ca in tw o Book s which app ear ed rs t in

.
, ,

a La ti n tran s l ati on by C omm n din u s publi s h ed a fter h is a ,

d eath in 1 5 7 5 ; the Gre ek t xt w s rs t e dited by Th evenot e a

in Veter u m ma them a ti comum op er a Gr aece et La ti ne ed i ta

(Pari s an d is n ow a v ai l a bl e in H er on is O er a i Teu b
p (
-

, ,

n er , by W S chmidt . .

IV . On the ar f
t o con str u cti n g a u to ma ta (pi a ur a/ta r o

wocnr ) The a u toma ton thea tr e, r s t e dite d in an Itali an

tx g , or -

translati on by B Bald i in 1 5 8 9 the Greek tex t was i n cluded

.

in Theven ot s Vet m a th an d n ow for ms p art of H er on is

.
,

Oper a v ol i , by W S ch midt
,
. . .

V Belopoei ca
.
(on th e construction of en gines of war ), e dit ed
Notices et ex tr aits d es manus cr its d e la B ibli othque i mpmale, xix, pt 2 ,

pp 1 5 7 33 7
-
. .
 LI S T O F TR EA TI S ES 3 09

by B Ba ldi (A ugs burg

.
, Th even ot (Vet math ) K och ly
.
,

an d R us t ow
(1 8 5 3 ) a n d by Wesch e (P oli or cti qu e ates r Gr ecs ,

1867 , th e r s t critical e diti on) .

VI Th e Chei r oba li s tr a M m pa s n

.

x er
po B aA
-
K a r a o k ev

Kat av
py e r pca

e dite d by V . Pr ou Noti ces et ex tr , a i ts , x x v i . 2

(Pari s ,

VII .
g eometrical w orks Deni ti on es Geomet i a Geo
Th e , ,
r ,

d a esi a S te eometr i ca I an d II Me ns u a e Li ber Ge pon i cu s

, r , r ,
e ,

e dit e d by H u l tsch with Va r i a e collecti on es

(H e on i s A lexa n r

d r i n i geom etr i cor u m et s ter eom etr icor u m r eli qu i ae ,

Thi s e diti on will n ow b e r e pla c ed by th at of H eiberg in th e

Te u b n e r c oll ec ti on (v ol s iv v
) wh i ch c ontain s much addi .
, ,

tion al matt e r from th e C on s t an ti n opl e man u s cript r ef err e d to ,

but omit s th e Li ber Geeponi cu s (exc ept a fe w xtr cts ) n d

e a a th e
Geod aes i a (whi ch c on ta i n s on ly a fe w e xtr ct s from a th e
Geom etr y of H e ron ) .

O n ly fr g men ts s urvive of th e Gr eek text of th e Me ha n ics

a c

in thr e B ook s which h ow e v er is e xt an t in th e A r abic (n ow

e , , ,

e dit e d w i th G rm n tr an sl ati on in H e on i s Ope a ol ii

, e a ,
r r ,
v .
,

by L N i x n d W S ch midt Teubn e
. a .
, r ,

A s mall e r s ep r t m e ch n ic al tr eat i s e th e B po h s is
a a e a ,
a v k

,

quot e d by P ppu s Th obj ect of it was to move a given

a .
1
e

w e ight by m n of a giv en forc e n d th e machi n cons i s t ed

ea s

, a e

of an rr ng ment of in t eracti n g toothe d wheels with diff r en t

a a e e

di a me t r s e .

A t th e n d ofth e Dioptr a is a d e s cr i pti on of a hod om ete fo

e r r

m e uri ng di s t an c es tr av ers e d by wh eel e d v ehi cl e a ki n d of

as a ,

ta xamet r li ke wi s e mad e of a combi n ti on of tooth ed wh eels

e ,
a .

A w ork on W t r clock (m p? odp m bpo xo o ) is m en

a e -
s t u c c
r vr etc u

tion ed in th e P n eu/m ti ca as h avi ng c on t i n e d four Book s a a ,

an d i l s o llude d to by Pappu
s a aFrag men ts a e pr ese rv ed s .
2
r

in P r oclu s (H ypotyposi s ch ap 4 ) n d in P ppu s c omm n t ry

. a a s e a
,

on B ook V of P t ol emy s S y n ta x i s r e produc e d by Th eon

.

Of H e r on C omm e nt r y on E u cl id E lem en ts On ly v e ry

s a s

m e gr e frag men t s s urviv e in Gree k (P r oclu ) but

a l rge s ,
a a

n u m b e r of e xtr ct s e f ortu n at e ly pr ese rv e d in th e A r ab i c

a ar

com men tary of n N iri i edit d 1 ) in th e L ti n ver i on of

a -
a a , e a s

Gher a d of C r mon by C ur t e (Teu bne

r e nd (2 ) by a z r ,
a

1
Pap pus , v iii , p 1 0 60 5
. . .
2
I b , p 102 6 1
. . . .
 GEO METR Y 31 1

thi s cl ass e th e di ffer en t cas es of I 3 5 3 6 I I I 7 8

Of ar .
.
, .
,

(wh er e th e chord to b e c omp re d e dr wn on differ en t id es s a ar a s

of th e di m ete i n s t e d of on th e s m e s id e I l l 1 2 which i
a
) ( 1 a a , . s

n ot E uclid s t all but H er on s own ddi n g the c as e of

a a
,

ext rn al to th at of in ternal con tact in III

e V I 1 9 (wh er e . .

th e tri n gl e n which n a ddition al li ne is dra w n is t k en to

a i a a

be th e s m a lle of th e two V I I 1 9 (wh er e th e p rticul r c s e

) r , . a a a

is giv en of thr ee n u m b er in c on ti n u ed pr op orti on i ns t ea d of s

four proporti on al s ) .

(3 ) A lt e rna t i v e proofs .

It pp ar s to be H e ron w h o r t in troduc ed th e s y but

a e s e a

u n ins tructiv m i algebr ic l me th od of pr ovi n g th e propos i

e se -
a a

ti on II 2 1 0 which is n ow s o popul r On th i s meth od th e

s .
a .

prop o i ti on s e prov d with out gur es s c on s qu ences of

s ar e

a e

II 1 c orr e pon d in g to th e lg br ic l formul

. s a e a a a

ron xpl i n s th t it is n ot pos i bl e to prov II 1 with out

He e a a s e .

dr w in g a n u m b r of li ne (i e without ctu lly dr w i ng th

a e s . . a a a e

r ct n gl es ) but th t th e foll owing prop os i ti on up to II 1 0

e a , a s .

c n b
a pr ov d by mer ly dr wi ng on e l in e H e di s ti n gu i s h es
e e e a .

tw o v r i ti of th e m th od on e by d i ss olu ti o th
a e es oth r by e , ,
e e

comp os i ti o by which h e seems to m e n spli tti n g u p of r ct

,
a -
e

a n gl e nd qu r es n d om bi na ti on of th m in to oth rs
s a s a a c e e .

Bu t in h is pr oof h e s om eti m com bi n es th e tw o v ari t i e s es e s .

A lt r n tiv e pr oofs
e e g i v n ( ) of s om
a pr op o iti on s of ar e a e s

B ook III n m ly III 2 5 (pl ac e d ft er III 3 0 an d t art i n g

,
a e . a . s

fr om th e a e i n s tead of th e ch ord) III 1 0 (prov e d by m an s

r , . e

of III III 1 3 ( proof pr eced ed by l emma to th e ff ct

. . a a e e

th t a tra i ght l i n e c nn ot m t a c i rcl e in mor th an two

a s a ee e

p oi n t ) s .

A cl s s of lt rn at i v e proof is (b) th a t wh i ch is i n t n d d to
a a e e e

m e t a p articu l r obj ct i on (
e m s) which h d b een o m i ght
a e ey e r a
-

a r

b e r i s d to Eucl i d s c on s truct i ons Thu s in c rt i n cas s

a e . e a e

H r on v oi d s p od u ci n g
e a c ertai n s tr ight l i ne wh er e Eucl i d
r a a ,

produc e i t th obj ect b e in g to m ee t the obj e ction of on e who

s ,
e

s h ould d e n y ou ri ght to ss u m that th er is n y pa ce r a e e a s

a va il ble aO f th i cl s . his pr oofs of l 1 1 2 0 nd h i s as ar e .

, a s

n ot on I 1 6
e S i mi l rly in I 4 8 h e upp oses th ri ght n gl e d a s e a
-

. . .
 H ER O N O F A LEXA N D R I A

tri angle which is cons truct ed to be cons tructed on th e me sa

s id e of th e c om mon s id e s th e giv n tri n gl e i s a e a .

A third clas s (0 ) is th at which a void r ed u cti o ad a bs u d u m s r ,

e g a dir e ct pr oof of I 1 9 (fo which h

. . r equ i res and gives . r e

a pr e l i mi n ry l m m
) an d of I 2 5
a e a . .

(4 ) H eron s uppl i es c ertai n con v es of Euclid pr op o iti on s

er s s s

e .
g of II 1 2 1 3 and V III 2 7
. .
,
. .

(5 ) A few d d i ti on s to an d e xt n i on s of Euclid pr op os i t i on s

a ,
e s ,
s

ar e l o fou nd S om a e u n i mp ort n t g th cons tructi on

a s . e r a ,
e . . e

of i s os c e l e s nd c l en e tri angle in a n ot on I 1 and th e

a s a s e .

con truct i on of two t ng n t in III 1 7 Th e m os t i mp ort n t

s a e s . . a

e xt n i on is th at of III 2 0 to th e c s
e s wh er th e angl t th . a e e e a e

c i rcu mfer enc e is great er than r ight ngl which gives n a a e, a

e as y w
y of pr ovi ng th th eor em of III 2 2
a I n ter es ting ls o e . . a

a re th n ote on I 3 7 (on I 2 4 in P oclu l w

e . s h r e H er on
. . r s , e

prov th t two tr i ngl es w i th tw o s id of th on qu l

es a a es e e e a

to tw o s i d of th oth r n d w i th th e i n clud d n gl
es e uppl e a e a es s e

men ta y a e e qu al in r e
r rn d c om p r e th rea wh r th a a, a a s e a s e e e

s u m of th i ncluded angl es (on e bei ng s uppo e d great r th n

e s e a

th oth e r ) is l s s o gr e t er th n tw o righ t n gl
e e r an d on I 4 7 a a a es, .
,

wh er th re is pr oof (d ep en d i ng on pr li mi n ry l mma ) of
e e a e a e s

th e f ct th t in th gur of Eucl i d s pr op o i t i on (s ee n xt

a a ,
e e s e

p ge) th traight li n es A L B G CE me t in a poi nt Thi s

a ,
e s , , e .

l t proof is w orth g n g Fi r t com th l mm

as 1 v1 . s e e

e as .

(1 ) If in tr i ngl e A B C tr ight l i n DE b dr w n
a a a s a e e a

p r ll l to th e b s B C cutti ng th e s i de A B A C o thos e
a a e a e s , r

s i d es pr oduc e d in D E an d if F b e th e , ,

m i ddl p oin t of B C th en th e s tr i ght lin e , a e

A F (produc d i f n c es s ry ) w i l l ls o b i s e ct e e a a

DE (H K i dr w n through A p rall l to . s a a e

DE n d H DL K E M thr ough D E p ar all l ,

a , , e

to A F mee ti n g th e bas in L M es ec e r
B L F M C
p ,

ti ly Th e n th e tri n gl A B E A FC
ve . a es ,

b tw n th s m p ar lle ls
e ee e e qu al
a So e th e tri n g lea ar e . ar e a s
DB F E FC , Th er e fore th di ffer en c es th e tri angl e A DE
. e , s ,

A EF equ l an d s o th e r e f or e
,
ar e a th e p rall e l ogr m H F ar e a a s ,

K F Th er efor e LF
.
FM o D C CE ) , r .

( 2 ) is th e c on v er s e of Eu cl . I . 43 . If a p r llel ogr
a a a m is
 GEOM ETR Y 313

cu t in to four oth ers A DGE DE FGCB CE so th at DF CE , , , , ,

a e e qu al th e c ommo
r , n v ert ex G will lie on th e di agon al A B .

H e r on pr oduc es A G to meet CF in H an d then prov es th a t ,

A H E is a s tr aigh t li ne

S i n c e DE CE ar e equ al , s o m e
,

th e tri an gl es D GF E C G A ddi n g , .

th e tri n gl e GCF w e ha v e th e
a ,

triangles E CF DCF e qual and , ,

DE CF a e p aralle l
, r .

B u t (by I 3 4 . th e tri
,

a n gl s A K E GK D ar e c on gr uen t
e , ,

s o th at E X = K D ; an d by l mm a
( 1 ) it foll ow s th t CH H F e a : .

N ow in th e tri an gl es FH B CH G two s id es (B F FH and

, , , ,

GC CH ) and th e i nclud d n gl es ar e e qu al ; th er efor e the

,
e a

t ri an gl es r e congru en t n d th ngles BH F GE G e e qual

a ,
a e a ,
ar .

A d d to ea ch the angl e GH F n d , a

A BH F + A FH G A CH G A GH F two right an gl es .

To pr ov e h is s ub s tan tiv pr op os iti on H e ron draws A K L e

per p en dicul ar to B C an d j oi n E C mee ting A K in M Th en

,
s .

w e h v on ly to pro e th at B M G is a s traight li n e
a e v .

C ompl e te th e p ar all e logr am FA H O

, a
nd draw th e di agona l s

OA EH m eeti ng in Y Through M dr aw P Q S R parall el

. ,
,

r es pe ctiv e ly to BA , A C .
 TH E DE FI N I TI ON S 315

con cave and convex lune garl and (th es e l t two r e

, , as a

c omp os i te ofhomogeneous par t ) an d awe (wA x s) bou n ded by s e v ,

four circular arc s two concav e and two c onv ex De fs 2 7 3 8 , ,

. .

R e ctili n e al gur es f oll ow th v ri ou s ki n ds of tri an gl es and ,

e a

of qu dril at era l s th e gn omon in a p ar all e l o r am an d th e

a
g , ,

gnomon in the mor e gener al s ense of the gur e which dde d a

to a gi ven gure mak es the wh ol e in to a s i milar gur e ,

p olygon s the parts of gur s (s ide di agonal he ight of a

, e , ,

tri an gl ) p erp en dicul ar p rall l th e th ree gur es which will

e , ,
a e s,

ll u p th e s p ac e rou n d a poin t Defs 3 9 7 3 S olid gur es a e , .

-
. r

n e x t cl a s i ed a cc ordi ng to th e s urfac es b ou n di ng th em an d
s ,

l i n es on s urfac es a e d ivid ed i n to (1 ) s i mpl e n d circul ar r a ,

(2 ) m ixe d like th e c on ic an d piric curv es Defs 7 4 7 5 The

, s , .
, .

s ph e r is th en d en ed with its p art s an d s tat ed to b e

e , ,

th e gur e which of all gur s h avi ng th e s ame s urf c ,

i th e e a e, s

gr e t es t in c on t ent Defs 7 6 8 2 N ex t th e cone its di ff r n t

a , . .
,
e e

s p e ci es an d its p a rts a e t ken up with th e di tin cti on r a ,

s

be tw e n th e three c on ics th e cti on of the acute ngle d cone

e , se -
a

( by s om e al s o call e d el lips ) n d th e s ecti ons of th right

e a e

n gl e d an d obtu s e angl d c on s (al s o c all e d

a
pa bol a an d e e r a
-

hype bol ) De fs 8 3 9 4 ; th cyli n d er a s e cti on in gen eral

r a , .
e , ,

th e spi e o tor e in its thr e v ari eti es op en c ontin u ou s (or

r r e , ,

j u s t clos ed) and cross i ng i ts elf which res pectiv ly have

-

,
e

s e cti on s p os ses s i ng s p e ci al pr op e rti es s qu r e rin gs which

,
a

a e cu t ou t of cyli n d er s (i e pres u ma bly ri n gs th e cr o s e cti on

r s s
-

. .

of w hich through the c entre is tw o s quares) an d variou s oth r ,

e

gur s ou t ou t of s phere o m ix ed s urfaces D fs 9 5 7 ;

e s r ,
e .

r ctilin eal s olid gur e pyr m i ds th e v e regular ol i ds the

e s, a ,
s ,

s em i r gul r s olid s of A rchi m e d s two of which ( ach with

-
e a e e

fourt een fac es) w er e k n own to P l to Defs 9 8 1 0 4 ; pri s ms a , .

of di f fe r en t kin d s p arall el epip e d s with th e s p eci l v ari et i s

, ,
a e ,

th e cub e th e beam dok o s (l n g th l onger th an br dth n d e ea a

, ,

d epth which may b e equ al) th br i ck wh 6 s (l ngth l es s

,
'
,
e , i z/

1 e

th an br adth and depth) th e e or Bw/ f S with ,

l G KO

l en gth bread th and de pt hun equ l Defs 1 0 5 1 4

,
a ,
.
-
.

L s tly com e d e n ition of r el ti ons e qu ality of li n es s u r

a s a , ,

f ac s an d olids r esp ecti vely imilarity of gures r eciproc l

e ,
s ,
s ,

a

gur es Defs 1 1 5 1 8 ; i n d n it e i n cr ease in m gn itud e

e a
. ,
,

p arts (which mu s t be h omog en eou with the wh ol es s o th t s ,

a

e g th
. .
hor n lik e angl e is not a p rt o s ubmul tipl e of right
e -
a r a
316 H ER ON O F A LEXAN DR I A

or any gl e) m ultipl s D fs 1 1 9 2 1 pr oporti on in mag n i

an ,
e ,
e .

tud e wh t mag n itud e c n have a r tio to on an oth er

s, a s a a e ,

m g n itud es in th e
a me r ati o o m gni tud es in prop or ti on sa r a ,

d eniti on of gre t er rati o De fs 1 2 2 5 ; tran s for mat on of

a ,
.
-
i

r ti os (compon en d o sepa n clo conv te nd o l ter n a n d o i n

.

a r a ,
er , a ,
,

ve t en d o
r n d ex a equ a li ) De fs
a 1 2 6 7 ; comm e ns urabl e an d ,
.

i n c omm ns ur abl e magn itudes and s tra ight li n es Def 1 2 8

e ,
s .
,

1 29 Th er e follow tw o t abl es of meas ur e s De f 1 3 0 2

.
,
s . .

Th e Deni tions r e v ery v lu abl e from th e p oi n t of vi e w ofa a

th h i t or i n of m th ematic s fo th ey giv e th e diffe re n t lt er

e s a a ,
r a

n t i v e d e n it i on s of th e fu n d amen t al c on c e pt i ons ; thu s w e

a

n d th e A rch i me d ean d n iti on of a s tr aight li n e oth e r

e ,

d nit i on s wh i ch w e k now from Pr oclu s to b e d u to A pol

e e

lon iu oth r s fr om P os id on iu s an d
s, e o on N o doubt th e ,
s .
_

coll ecti on may h v e b een r ec s t by ome edit or o editorsa a s r

a fter H er on ti m but it s ms at l s t in s ubs t an c to go

s e, ee ,
ea e,

b ck to H ron o e rli er s t i ll S o f s it cont in s or igi n a l

a e r a . ar a a

d n i t i on of Pos i don iu s it c n not h v e b een comp i l ed earli er

e s ,
a a

than th r t cen tury e but its con t en t eem s to b lon g in

s s e

th e m i n to th e p ri od be for e th e C hri s ti n
a a H i b erg
e a er . e

a dds to hi editi on of th e D n i ti on s e xtr cts from H e ron s

s e a

G om try p o tul t e
e e ,
nd x ioms from Euclid xtr acts from
s a s a a , e

G mi n u s on th e cl
e ific tion of math matic th e pr i ncipl es as s a e s,

of g eometry &c extr a ct fr om P roclu s o

,
.
, om e early c oll ee s r s

t ion of s ch oli on Eucl i d nd extr ct fr om A n atoliu and

a , a a s s

Th eon of S myr n a wh i ch follow e d th e ctu al d e n iti on s in th e

, a

m n u s cript
a Th e se v ari ou s dd i ti on s w e re app r en tly c oll e cted
s .
_
a a

by s ome By n t i n d i tor perhap s of th e el ev en th c en tury

z a e e , .

M e ii s u r ation .

Th e Metr i ca , Geometr ica , S ter eom etr ica , Geoclaes ia ,

M en su r a e .

We come to th e mens ur ti on of H eron Of th e

n ow a .

di ffer en t w orks un d er thi h ad th M et ic is th e mo t s e e r a s

i mportan t fr om ou poin t of vi ew becau s e it s ee ms mor than r

, e

a n y of th e oth e r s to h av e pr es e rv e d it origi n l for m

, I t is s a .

l o mor fu n d men t al in th at it gives th e th eore tic al bas i s of

a s e a

th e for mul ae u s ed an d is not a m er applic ati on of rul es to , e

p rticu lar ex mpl es I t is als o mor e k i n to th eory in th t it

a a . a a
 M EN S UR A TI O N 317

does not u s e con cre te m ea ur es but s i mpl e n u mb er o u nit s , s r s

which may the n in particular cases be t k en to b feet cubits a e , ,

or an y oth e r u nit of m eas ur emen t Up to 1 8 9 6 wh e n . a

,

m an u s crip t of it w as di s c o er e d by R S ch on e at C ons t an ti v -
.

n o l e it w a s on ly k n ow n by
p , n allu s i on to it in E utociu a s

(on A rchi m d es s Meas u em en t of a Ci l ) w ho s tat e th t

e r r c e s a
,

th ew y to obt ai n n appr oxi ma ti on to th e s qu re r oot of

a a a -

a n on s qu r e n u m b e r i
-

s h ow n by H eron in hi
a M ti a a
s s e r c s
,

w e ll a by P ppu s Th eon and oth er wh o h d comm n ted on

s a , , s a e

th e S yn ta az is of P tol em y Tan n e ry h ad lready in 1 8 9 4 .

1 2
a

di s cove r d frag men t of H e r on s M tr ica givi ng the parti cul ar

e a

e

rule in a P r i s man u s cript of the thirteen th c en tury con tai n

a

ing P r ol egomena to th e S yn ta a i s c omp i l ed pr es u m bly from a

th e c om m en t ari es of Pappu s an d Th on A n oth e r i n t er es ti n g e .

differ en c e betw een the Metr ica n d th e oth e r work is th t in a s a

th e for m e r th e Gr ee k w y of writi n g fr cti ons (which is ou a a r

me th od) largely pr e p on d e rat es th Egypti n for m (wh i ch ,

e a

e xpr es se s fr cti on a th e s u m of di m in i hi ng s ub multi pl s )

a a s s e

b i ng u se d comp r ativ ely r r ely wh ere a th re verse is th e

e a a ,
s e

cas e in th e oth r w ork e s .

I n vi e w of th gr eat e r a uth ority of th e M t i ca w e s h all

e e r ,

t k e it a th e b is of ou acc oun t of th e men urat i on whil

a s as r s , e

k eepin g th e oth er w orks in v i ew It is des irable t th . a e

out s e t to c om p ar br oadly th e c on t en t s of th e v a r i ou s c oll ee

e

ti on s Book I of th e M t ica con t i n th e m en s ur tion of

. e r a s a

s qu ar es r e c tan gl es an d tri n gl e s (ch p

,
1 p arall l tr pe i a a s . e -
a z a,

rh om bi rhomboid s n d qu adril at er ls with on e ngl e right

,
a a a

(1 0 r egul r p olygon s from th e quilat eral tri n gl e to th

a e a e

r gul ar dode cagon (1 7

e a ri n g b e tw een two c on c en tric
circl es s egm en t s of circl e s (2 7 n e llip s p ra a e a a

bolic s eg m en t th e s urfa c es of a cyli n d er n i o c e le s a s s

cone a s ph e r e (3 8
) an d a s eg me n t of s ph e r e a

Book II giv es th m en s ur ti on of c ert i n s olid s th e solide a a ,

con ten t of a con e (ch p cyli n der re ctilin e r s olid

a . a a

gure s a p ar all el e pip e d

,
pri sm a py ramid and fru tu m , a ,
a s ,

& c (3. a fru s tu m of a c on e (9 ph ere an d a s gmen t ,

a s e

of a s ph e r e ( 1 1 a sp i r e o tor e ,
th e s e cti on of r a

cyli n de me s ur d in A rchimed es s M ethod

r a e a n d th e s olid

A r h im d ol iii p 2 3 2 1 3 1 7
1
c e es , v .
,
. .
.

T ery M moi
2 i tig
a nn ii 1 9 1 2 pp 44 7 5 4
,
r es s c en u es , , ,
.
.
 M EN S U R A TI ON 319

H eib e rg put
id by s id e with c orres p on di ng secti ons of the
s s e

Geom et ic in p ar all e l c olu mn s ; othe r s h e i n s rt in s uit abl e

r a e s

pl c es ; s ecti on 7 8 7 9 con t i n tw o i m p or t n t problems in

a s . a a

i n d ete r mi n t e an aly s i s Geom 2 4 1 2

a H ib erg .
,

, e

a dd s fr om th e C on t n ti n ople man u s cript contai ni ng th e

, s a

Met i c re l e v e n m ore
a, e ct i on s (ch ap 2 4 3 1 3 ) con t in i ng s .
,
a

i n d et er mi n ate pr obl ems an d oth r ct ions (ch p 2 4 1 4 3 0 an d ,

e se a .
,

3 7 5 1 )givi n g th m en s ur at i on m i n ly ofgur es i n s crib ed in o

e ,
a ,
r

circu m cribe d to oth er s e g qu ar s o circle in tr i ngl s

s , . . s e r s a e ,

circl es in qu ar s circl bout tri an gle nd l tly of circl es

s e , es a s, a as

an d s eg men ts of circl es .

Th e S ter omet i ca I h s t th e begi nn i n g th e t i tl e E l

e r a a aa

H p n 9 but lik th Geom et i

y y i 5 o p oy po y
ar a 7 o
1V r e e er v evc u a /0 , e e r ca ,

s e ms to h av e b een edit e d by P a t ici u

e C h p s 1 4 0 giv e th e r s . a .

m e n ur ti on of th e ge om e tr i c l s olid gures th e s ph er e th e
s a a , ,

con e th e fru tu m of a con e th obeli k with circul r bas e

,
s , e s a ,

th e cyli n d e r th e p i ll r th e cube th o c pnw og ( l s o c all ed

a e cx a
-

, , ,

o'
VU th e o
po pyr mid n d frus t
u et v
,
'

v a s, a a .

S om e p orti on s of thi s cti on of th e book go back to H eron ; se

thu s in th e m a ur em en t of th ph r ch p 1 M t ica e s e s e e a . e r

II 1 1 an d both h r n d el s wh er e th e ordi n ary for m of

.
,
e e a e

fra cti on pp ear s C h aps 4 1 5 4 m e s ure the con ten ts of cer

s a . .
a

t i n build i ngs o other con s tructi on s e g a th eatre an am ph i

a r , . .
,

th e tr e a wi mm i n g b th a w e ll a hip
, a s w i ne butt and -
a , ,
s ,
a -

th e lik e .

Th e e c on d c oll e cti on S te eometr i a II

s pp ear to be of ,
r c , a s

By an ti n e origi n a n d c on t ai n s i m i l a r matt r to S te eometr ica I

z s e r ,

p rts of wh i ch a e h er r ep e t d C h p 3 1 (2 7 H i b ) gives
a r e a e . a .
,
e .

th probl em of Th al s to n d th e h ight of
e p i ll ar o tre e ,
e a r a e

by th e meas ur men t of h dow s ; th e l t s ection s m as ur e s a as e e

var i ou s pyr am ids a p r i sm B n/ d m s (l i ttl e l tar) , , a e a a .

Th e Geod ae ia is n ot an i n d p en d e n t w ork but on ly con

s e ,

t in s e xtr cts from th e Geom tr y ; thu s ch p 1 1 6 G om

a a e a s . e .

5 3 1 B ult s ch

,
2 1 2 32 ch ap s 1 7 1 9 giv e th e
, ,
.

m e th od s of n d i n g in ny c al n e tri an gl e th e i d es of which ,
a s e s

ar e g i v n th e s eg m en t s of th e b a e m d
e ,
by th e p erp en dicular s a e

from th e ve rtex n d of n ding th e r ea dir ct by the w ell ,

a a e

k nown for mul ofH e ron i e we h a ve h er e th e equival n t of

a . . e

Metr i ca I 5 8 .

.

Las tly th u p w o Men su r a e w as attribut ed to H eron

,
e
,
er ae ,
r ,
3 20 H ER ON O F A LEXA N DR I A

in A rch imedes manu s cript of th e n i n th c en tury , but can

an

n ot in its pr ese nt for m b e d u e to H e r on alth ough p orti ons of

it h av e p oi nts of conta c t w i th th e ge n u i n e work s S ect s 2 2 ? . .

m eas ur e all s ort s of obj e ct s e g s t on e s of differ ent s h ap es , , . .

a pill ar th eatr s hip v ult a hippodrome but

,
a tow er ,
a e, a ,
a a ,

s ects 2 8 3 5 measur e g om etric l gur

. a circl e an d s eg men t s
e a es ,

of a circl e (cf M etr i ca I ) n d s ct 3 6 4 8 on s ph er es eg m en t s

. ,
a e s .

,
s

of s ph ere s pyrami d s con es n d fru t

,
c lo ely c onne cted
,
a s a ar e s

with S ter om I n d M t ic II e ct 4 9 5 9 givi ng th e m en

. a e r a se s .

,

s u ation of re c e pt cl s
r n d pl n e gu r of v ariou s s ha pes
a e a a es ,

s eem to h a v e a d i f
fer e n t or ig in W c n n ow tak e u p th e . e a

C on ten ts of th e M etr ica .

I Me s ur men t of A reas Book . a e .

The pr e face r e cord s th tr dit i on th t th e r s t g eom etry e a a

aros e ou t of the pr ctic l n c s i ty of meas uri ng an d d is a a e e s

tributing l an d (wh enc e th e n am e g ometry after which

e

e xt en s i on to thr ee di m en s i on b ec m n cess ry in ord er to s a e e a

meas ure solid b odi e H ron th n m e n ti on s Eud ox u s an d s . e e

A rchi m ed es a p i on eer in th d i s cov ry of d i fcult m eas ur e

s s e e

ment s Eu d ox u s h v i n g b e n th e r s t to pr ov e th at a Cyli n d er
,
a e

is thr ee ti m es th e cone on th e s m e b s e n d of equ a l h ei ght a a a ,

an d th at circl es e to on noth r th e s qu ar es on th e ir
ar e a e as

di ameters wh i l e A rch i m d rs t pr ove d th at the s urface of

, e es

a ph er e is e qu al to fo tim th r of a gr eat circl e in it

s ur
'

es e a ea ,

and th e v olu me tw o th i rd of th cyl in d er circu ms cribi n g it

-

s e .

(or ) Ar e a o f scal e ne tr i an gle .

After th e e s y c s of th r ct ngl e th e right angled

a a es e e a ,
-

tri angle an d the i s os cel e t i n gl e H eron giv es two m eth ods s r a ,

of n ding th e ar ea of sc l n tr iangle (acute an gl e d or a a e e -

obtu s e angl ed ) wh en th e l en gth of the thr ee s id es a e gi v en

-
s r .

Th e i s t me thod is b se d on Eucl II 1 2 an d 1 3 If a b c a . . .
, ,

be th e s id es of th e tr i n gl e opp os it e to th e an gl es A B C a , ,

res p ecti v ely H ei on obs erv s (ch p 4 ) th at an y an gl e e g C is

,
e a .
,
. .
,

acut e right 0 1 obtu s e ccordi ng as c < or a 11 and thi s Z 2 2

,
a ,

is the crit eri on d et er mi n i n g wh i ch of the two prop os iti on s is

applic abl e Th e me th od i s dir ect e d to d et er mi n i ng r s t th e
.
,

seg men t s i n t o which an y s id e is divid d b

y th e p e rp en dic ular e
 A R EA O F S C A L EN E TR I A N G LE
. 321

from ppo i te v e rtex nd th enc e the l n gth of th e pe

th e o s ,
a e r

pen d icu l it s elf We h v e in th e c ses of th e tri angl e acute

ar . a ,
a

ang l e d t C n d th e tri n gl e obtu s e n gl e d at C r es p ect i v ely

a a a -
a ,

CD :
)~ c
2
} /2 a ,

wh en ce A DZ 62 C D2 ) is fou nd ,
so th at we know th e a ea r
%a A D) .

I n th e cas es giv en in M etr i ca I 5 6 th s i d es r e (1 4 1 5 1 3 ) .

,
e a , ,

an d ( 1 1 1 3 2 0 ) r s p ectiv e ly an d A D is fou n d to be r ti on l
, , e , a a

Bu t of c ours e b oth CD (o B D) n d A D m y b e urd s r a a s ,

in which c s e H er on gi v es approx i mat e v alu s

a C f G om e . . e .

53 5 4 H u lts ch ( 1 5
, ,
1 4 wh er w e h av e a tri ngl e ,

,
e a

in which a 8 b c 6 s o th at a + b c 4 4 an d Z 2

4 , , ,
_

CD 21 Thu s A D = 1 6 (2 1 16 1
4
7 .
1
: -

2
-

1 5
1

1 6 a n d1
A D
1
,a 2 3 1 pprox i mately wh e nc -
a , e

th e r e aa 4 x 11: H eron th en obs erv es th at w get 2

. e

a n e r e r r es ult s till i f w e m ultiply A D by (4a ) b efore Z 2

a .

e xtr a c ti n g th e s qu ar e m e t fo th e ar ea is th n / (1 6 x 8 4 g1
1
,
r e x 73

o r which v ery n arly 1 1 o 1 14 is e 2

1
1 4
1
2 1
r

S o in M etr ica I 9 wh e r e th e tri ngl e s 1 0 ( 1 0 b e i ng

.
,
a i ,

th e b s e ) H eron n d s th e p e rp en d i cul r to b
a ,
6 3 bu t h e a e ,

ob tai n s th rea as wh i le observi ng 2

BO ) o
e a ,
r

th at w e ca n of cou s e t ak e th e pproxi m ti on to / 6 3 o
,
i ,
a a

x r

7 1 17 5 n d m ultiply it by h
,
alf 1 0
a obt i n in g 3 9 1 5 s ,
a 2
1
8
1
a

th e ar ea .

Pr oo f f the
o f mu la
or A / { s (s a ) (s b) (s

Th e se con d
th at know n as meth od is
for mula of th e

r
H e on n am e ly
in o
,
u n ot a t i on A / { (
s s a
)(s b)(s ,
r , s

Th e pr oof of th e for mul a is gi v en in Metr ica I 8 nd al o in . a s

 PR OO F O F TH E
FOR MU LA O F H ER O N

3 23

Dra w OL at righ t angl es to OC cutti ng B C in K an d BL at ,

r i ht an l es to B C m ee ti n g OL in L J oi n CL
g g . .

Th en s i n c e each of th e a ngl es C OL CB L is r i ght C OB L is

,
, ,

a qu drilat e ral
a in a circl e .

Th e r e for e A C OB A CLB 2R .

Bu t A C OB + A A OF ZR , b ec au se A O, B 0 C 0 ,
bi ec t th
s e

an gl
es r u d
o n O an d th e an , gl e C OB
s , A OF a r e togethe r qu al e

gl
to th e an es A OC B OF, , whil e the su m of a ll four n gl s a e

is e qu l to 4 B
a .

C on s e qu ntly e A A OF A CLB .

Th e r e for e th e right -
an gl ed tr iangl es A OF CLB , ar e s i mil r ;
a

th er efor e B C BL A F FO

EH OD ,

an d , a lt ern at e ly , CB E H B L OD

BK KD;

wh en c e componen d o
, , CH : HB B D DK .

It follow s th t a

CH 2
z CH . H B = B D DC . : CD DK .

B D DC : ODZ ,
i c
s n e gl e C OK
th e an is right .

Th ere for e
(A A B C )
2
CH 2
OD2 (from above)
CH . HB . B D DC .

s
(
s a )( s b) (s c
)
.

(6 ) M ethod o appr ox im a ti n g to the s qu a r e r oot o

f f
a non s qu ar e n u m ber
-
.

It is a pr op os of th tr i ngl e 7 8 9 th t H eron g i v s the

e a , ,
a e

i mportan t s tat e m en t of h is meth od of ppr oxi m ti ng to th e a a

valu e of a s urd which b efor e th e di s cov ery of th e p ss age

,
a

of th e M etrica h ad b e en a s ubj ct of u n li mit e d c onj e ctur e e

as bear i ng on th e qu es ti on how A rchi m d e obt i n d his e s a e

appr ox i m ti on s to / 3a s .

I n thi s c se 3 = 1 2 s a
a 5 s b 4 sc ,
3 s o th at , , ,

A 5 4 3) W7 2 0 ) .
3 24 I H ER O N O F A LEXA N DR A

S i nce s ay s H r on

7 2 0 h as n ot its

,
i d e rati onal we can e ,
1
s ,

obt ai n i ts id wit h i n a v ery s m ll d i ff r en c

s s foll ow
e S in ce a e e a s .

th e n ext s ucc eed i n g s qu r n u m ber i 7 2 9 which h s 2 7 fo a e s ,

a r

its s id e divid 7 2 0 by 2 7
,
Th i s giv e 2 6 3 A d d 2 7 to th s
e . s
2
.
i .

maki ng 5 3 3 n d t k e h lf of th i s or 2 6 % g ,
Th e id e of 7 2 0
a a a . s

w i ll th r for b e very n e rly 2 6 1 1 I n f c t i f w mu l t p1y

.

e e e a -
a e i
.
,

2 6 1 1; by it elf th pr oduct i s 7 2 0 5
7;
1
o th t th
s diff r en c e ( n
,
e 3
1
,
s a e e i

th e qu r e ) i s ? a s 3
1

If w d i r to make th e d i ffer n c e ti ll s m al l r th n

e es e w e s e a 3 5
1
,
e

sh ll t k e 7 2 0 3 i n t ead of 7 2 9 [o r ath e r w h ould t k

a a
1
6 s r e s a e

2 6 1 1 in t d of,
n d by pr oc e d i n g in th e
s ea m w y we a e sa e a

sh ll nd th t th r es ulti ng diff r n ce is much l s s th n 5 3

a a e e e e a 3
1

I n oth e r w ord i f w h av e a n on s qu ar e n u m b er A an d a
2
s, e -

i th e n e r t s qu a re n u mb er to i t o th t A b th e n w 2
s a es s a a ,
e
,

h v as th e r t pprox im t i on to / A
a e, s a a x .

( a +

for a se con d approx i m ti on a we t ke

a

an d s o on .
2

1
Metr ica
8 pp 1 8 2 2 2 0 5 , i . . . . . .

2
t
Th e m e h od i n d i ca ed b y H e on was k n own to B ar l aam an d Ni co as t r l
R h ab d as in th e ou een h cen u y f rt
Th e eq u i va e n of i was u s ed b y t tr l t . t
Lu ca Paciu ol o (fte e nth s i x een ce n u ry ), an d i was k n ow n to th e o e t th t t th r
tl l
I a ian a ge b ai s s of th e s ix e e n h ce n u y r t Th u s Lu ca P a ciu ol o ga ve t t tr .

21 56
,
1
a n d 2 1
13 3
1
as s ucces s i ve app ox i m a i on s to J G H e ob ai n e d r t . t
2
6
th e rt
s as 2+ th e secon d as 21
2 21
and the th rd i as

2 l
eg
Th e a bov e r ul e g i ves "
b
l
a

K
I

IJ

S
I
+ 11 1 2a .
o
r 0

r
Th e fo m u l a of H e on w as agai n pu t fo w a d , i n m od e n i me s by r r r r t
t r
,

B u z en g eig e r as a m e ans of a ccou n in g for the A ch i m e d ean appr oxi ma

ti on to J 3 appa e n y w i ou knowi ng its p e vious h is o y B e and
, r tl th t r tr rtr
l tt t tr t rt t th
.

a s o s a ed i in a ea i s e on a i h m e i c Th e me od , too, b y
wh i ch Oppe r m a nn an d Al exe i eff s oug to accoun for A ch i me d e s s ht t r
r t
a pp ox i ma i on s i s i n ea i y th e sam e r lt
Th e a e me th od d e pe n d s on . l tt r
th e o mu a fr l
me) f
f; o
r

A l e xeieff s e pa rt a ed A into two factors d o, 11 0 , and poi n t e d ou t th a t if ,

s ay .

a
, , /A b, .

2A

0 + b0
 A PPR O XI MA TI ON S TO S U R DS 325

S ubs titutin g in (1 ) the va ue l a

2
b for A , we o btain
A .

2 a

H er on does not s eemto h ave u s e d thi s formula with a nega

ti v e s ign u n l ess in S ter eom I 3 3
,
(3 4 H u l tsch ) wh e r e / (6 3 ) . .
, , 1

and a a n, g i if a b do a

2A
1
a1 + b1
an d s o on .

Now s uppo th t se a , in H e on r '

s formul w ae , e pu t a X0 , A /a
o
r, X, ,
A , 01 , xl , a nd s o on . W th h
e en ave

1 A 2X wo
)
/ A
X1 = i 1
r
.
_

a X1 X + x
th t i X, x , a r e, r
rithm tic d h rmo i m n ti ly

a s, , espec ve , th e a e an a n c ea s
b twe e e n X0 mo X2 , ,th rithm ti c d h rmo i m b tw
x , ar e e a e an a n c ean s e e en
X, x] , an d oo tly i A l i ff formul
s n, e xac as n ex e e

s ae .
L ow t y to pply th m thod to A rchi m d c J3 d w
et u s n r a e e e es s as e, , an e
h l
s al s ee to wh t t t it r to g i wh t w w t S ppo
a ex en s e ves ve a e an . u se
we b eg in w ith 3 1 W th h . e en ave

or

a nd from th i s we d e ri ve s u cc es s ve i ly
l > / 3 1 2
. ,
1
Et > 1 g't2 , 183 31 V 3 > fi 312 -

b
B ut, if we t rt from 1
s a ,
ti
ob a n ed by th e formul a a+
va
+ 1
b),

we t
ob ai n th foll owi g
e n a ppro i m tio
x a ns by '

excess ,

m + n wa s) as .

Th e se co d proc th n ess en g ives rchim d s r lt

one of A e es

es u s,
1 3
151
7 50 , b ut
ne ith r of th two proc
e e e s s es gi th oth r 23 d r ctly
ves e e ,
11
1
-
1
, i e . Th e l tt r
a e

can , h ow r b obt in eve , e a ed by u i g th formul th t i f

s n e a a ,
th n e

a ma C

b mb + n d d
97 168
For we can ob a i n r e t e rr
t from and 1 97 3
6
thu s
56 + 97 1 53
, 01 fr om

353
1 060
gr , and 1 th
. us
ll 612
an d SO on . Or aga n i 1 .

1 8 8 1 7 + 97 18 91 4 1 35 1
be ob t ai n e d fr om L
1 334
7
.

4
an.

d 9 .

1 thus .

1 08 6 4 + 5 6 1 092 0 7 80

t
Th e ad van age of th e me od i s a , as compa ed wi a of con th th t th th t r
t r ct t
i nn ed f a i ons , i is a e y api d way of a i ving at a lose appr oxi vr r rr c .

t th r
ma i on Gun e h as s own h a th e (m + 1 )th app oxima ion ob ai ned h t t r t t
r f r ul t c t fr ct
.

by H e on s o m a is

th e 2 1 1
th ob ai n e d by on inued a ion s Die .

q u rt h
ad a i s c en I r r ati on ali taten d er A e n u nd d e en E ntwi cke lun gs lt r
th
me od e n i n A bh andli myen z ur Ges ch (1 M a th iv 1 8 8 2 , pp 8 3
'

. . . . .
 TH E R E GU L A R PO LYGO N S 3 27

now
11 4 7 5
1
%g
1
2, (1
2
so th at th e pproxi m ti on u se d by
a a

H eron for h er e Fo th e s/ 3 is r s i d e 1 0 th m e th od giv es ,

e

th e s ame r es ult as a bov for g 1 00 4 35 e, .

Th e r egul r pen ta gon is next tak en (ch ap a H er on .

premi s es th e followi ng lemma .

Le t A B C be a right angle d triangl e with th e ngl e A e qu l -

,
a a

to E R -

sP r oduc e A C to 0 s o th at 0 0

. AO
If now A O i divided in xtrem e an d s e

m e an r ati o A B is qu al to th e great er ,
e

se g ment (Fo produce A B tp D s o that

. r

AD A O an d j oi n B O D O Th n s i n c e
, , . e ,

A DO i i s os c e l es an d th
s n gl tA %R e a e a :
,

A A DO [ A OD 1 R an d from th e 5, , ,

e quality of th e tri angles A B C OB O , ,

[ A OB A BA O 3 13 It foll ows th t 5
. a

th e tri an gl e A DO is th e i o c l tri angle of Eu cl I V 1 0 an d s s e es . .

,

A D is divid e d in extr em e n d m e n r t i o in B ) Th e r for e a a a . e ,

s y s H e ron (BA + A C
[ Thi s i E ucl XIII
2
a
) 5A0 ,
2
. s . .

N ow s i n c A B OO , R i f B O b e produc ed to E s o th t
e

,

a

CE B C BE s ubt n d t 0 n n gl e e qu l to 5 B and th er e
, e s a a a a

,

for e B E is th e s id e of a regul r p entagon i n s cribed in the a

circle with O s c en tr e an d OB r dius (Thi s circl e als o

a as a .

p as s es through D nd B B i the s i d e of a r egular d ecagon in ,

a s

th e s me circl e ) If n ow B 0
a AB 00 p BE
. a r ,
:
,
:
,

w e h v e from a b ove (r
a
p 5 10 wh enc e s in c e 5 is ,
2 2
, ,

a ppr oxi mat ely w e obt i n approxi mat ely nd a r a

gp s o th at p 3 a H en ce &p a a an d the ar ea
2
& a ,
:
,

of th e p en tag on H e r on add s th a t if w e t k e cl o er
'

z
ga .
,
a a s

a pproxi ma ti on to / 5 th an we h ll obt i n th e ar e s till x s a a a

mor e ex ctly I n th e Geom et y th e form ul is giv en as

a . r
1

Th e r egul ar hex a gon (ch ap 1 9 ) is s i mply 6 ti mes th e .

e quil t e r l tri n gl
a w i th th same s i de If A be th e r e
a a e e . a a

of th e e quil at era l tri n gl e with s id e a H er on h s pr ov e d a ,

a

th t A I h c h x g If
L z z a 2
a { of 2
(Al et i e e n ge ( e o
/n ) z r a . a .
,

e g a 1 0 (h ex g on ) n d (h ex g on ) 2 5 9 n e rly 2
. . 6 7 50 0 ,
a ,
a a a .

I n th e Geomet y th e for mul is given s Jg a whil e 2

n oth e r
S "
r a a -

,
a

book i qu ot e d as givi ng

s i g )a ;
it is d d ed th t th e -
l z
a a

l tt er for mula obt i n d fr om th r e ofth e tri ngl (3, T )

a ,
a e e a a a e,
1 1
3
Ct
2
,

r e pr es en t th more ccur te proc dur n d is fully t out by

s e a a e e, a se

1
Geom 1 0 2 (2 1 , 1 4 , 2
I b 1 0 2 (2 1 , 1 6 , 1 7

.
. ,
328 HE RO N O F A L E XA N DR I A

H e ron matte r f ct h ow ev er 6
of a 5 ) 3 ex ctly
1 1
. As a , , a ,

an d ly the M tr i ca
on e gives the mor accur te c alculati on e a .

Th r egul r hep ta gon

e a .

H er on s u mes (ch p 2 0 ) th at if
a s b e th e s ide an d th e a .
, a r

r diu s of th e circu ms cribi ng c i rcl e

a g be i ng pp ox i , a : r , a r

m t ly qu l to th e p erp n dicular fr om th e c n tr e of th e
a e e a e e

c i rcle toth s id of th e r egular h x agon i n s crib d in it (fo g

e e e e r

is th ppr oxi m t e valu e of / 3 ) Thi s th eor m is qu ot ed by

e a a x . e

Jo d n u N mo a iu (d 1 2 3 7 ) s n I n di n rul

; he p o

r a s e r r s . a a a e r

b bly obt in ed i t from A b u l W fa (9 4 0

a a Th e M et ic

a r a

s how th t it is of Gr k orig i n n d i f A rch i me d s re lly

s a ee ,
a , e a

wrot e a book on th e h ept gon in circl e it m y be d u e to a a ,

a

him If th n go is th perp endicul r from th e c en tr e of th e

. e e a

c i rcl on th id e (a ) of th e i n s crib e d h eptagon

e e s
(a ) 8 / 3 % ,
r

o r 16 7 wh n c e 1i3 / ( a ) nd e
2 1 2
a

m t ly ) 1 4 / 7 o
a e C ons qu en tly th
1
r e of the
r e e a a

h ept gon 7 p a 7 g {5
1 .
2 a _
a
l
a

Th e regul ar o tagon d gon n d d od eca gon c , eca a .

In th se c es (ch p 2 1 2 3 2 5 ) H ron n ds p by dr wing

e as a s .
, , e a

th p erp en dicul r 0 0 fr om O th e c en tr e of th
e a , _
e

c i rcu ms cr i b d c i rcl e on s i d e A B n d th en m k ing e , a ,

a a

th e ngl OA D qu l to th angl e A OD
a e e a e .

Fo th oct g on r e a ,

A A BO R an d p :

or
1
2
a .
2
2
a pp oxi mat ly
r e .

For th e dec gon a ,

[ A DC R , an d A D DC 5 4 n ea rly (s e e pr ced i ng e

h en c e AD: AO 5 : 3, an d
p % a (2 2

For th e d od e c a
gon ,
A A DC
'
: -

R, an d
p % a (2 s/ 3)

a pproxi m tely a .

A ccord i n gly A S
-

a
z
,
A A s
g wh r e a is e

th e si d e in e ch c a ase .

Th e regul r en neagon a a nd hen d ecagon .

In thes c s (ch p e a es a s . 2 2, 2 4 ) th e Ta b l e of C h ord s (1 e

 TH E R EGU LA R PO LY GO N S 3 29

p r es u m bly H ipp archus s Tabl e) s pp eal e d to If A B b e the

a

1 a .

s id e a of an en n e g on or h en d ec agon i n crib d circl e A C

( ) s e in a a ,

th e di am e t e thr ough A w e a e told th t the abl e of C h ords

r
T b , r a

gi ves 7 nd as the r es p e ctiv e

a pprox i mat e v alu es of th e a

rati o A B A C Th e angles s ubtend e d at the cen tre 0 by the

s id e A B a

4 0 an d 3 2 8
e s ec r e r
7 p
ti e ly an d Pt olemy s Tabl e gi ve
v , s,

a s th ch ord s s ubt en d e d by an gl e s of
e

4 0 an d 3 3 r es p e cti v ely 4 1 1 2 3 3

1
,

(ex pr es s e d in l 2 oth

n d 3 42 4 5 5

)
a

pa rts of th e di am te r); H r on e e

gur es c orr es pon d to 4 0 1 n d 3 3 1 1

a
7

3 6 r s p e ctiv e ly

e Fo th e n ne gon . r e a

AC 2
9 A B wh e nc B C 8AB
2
, e
2 2

o r pprox i m t ely 3 7 A B an d
a a
3 2
,

BC 1 :
6 ; th re for e (ar e of
7
a e a

n n eagon = A B C = F0 2
e
) 7 A .
1
a 1

th e heoi d eca gon A C o th a t

2 Z
AB nd B C
7
AB _ _
-

a 2 7
7
2
, s

BC : nd r e of h en de cagon 1 A A B C 7 a
z -

a, a a a
7
1
. :
2
.

A n n c i e n t form u l for th e r ti o b e tw een th e s id e of an

a a a
y
r egular polygon n d th diame ter of the c i rcu m cribi ng circle a e s

is pr es erv d in Ge pon 1 4 7 s q e P eud o Dioph 2 3 e . . s -

.

n me ly d N ow th e ra ti o n a
a n /ti tend s to a th e n n
'

71 s

n u m b r (n of s id es n cr as es
) e n d th e f or m ul a i n dic at es a ti me i e ,
a

wh en was g en er ally t ken as 3

7r a
-

e
) The Ci r cle .

C omi n g to th e I 2 6 ) H ron u e s A rchi circl e (M a i cal

gmaking the ci cu mfe en ce of
. e s

m ed s s v lu e fo n am e ly
2

2
e a r 7r -
r r
, 7 ,

a cir cl e 7 an d th r a 7 5d wh e s the diu s an d d th e

4 -

r e a e er r i ra

di amet r It is h er tha e .t h e g i v th e mor x act li mi ts e es e e

fo r which h e s y th at A rchi me des foun d in his work On

77 a s

P li n thid es a n d Cyli n d s bu t which n ot c on v en i en t for er ,

ar e

calculati ons Th e li mits as w e h v e s een e given in the

. . a , ar

t ext s 27 7 7 7 < an d with T nn e ry s lter ti on to

a 1 1 1 8 3
7T
9 7 3 8 1 -
a a a
7 7 7 7 7
- -

e quit e ti f c tory l 1 9 8 3 2
21 1 3 7 2
< 1 15 7 71 7
-

2 7 5
ar sa s a .

1
S ee vol . 1, pp 2 3 2 3 . .
 S E GM E N T OF A C I R C LE 33 1

Th e rs t th ese for mulae is appli e d to a s eg men t gr e ter

of a

th an a s emicircl e th e s e c on d to a s e g men t l es s th an a s em i
,

circle .

I n th e M etr i ca th e a r ea of a s eg me n t gr eat er th a n a semi

circl e is ob tain ed by s ubtra cting th e area oi th e c ompl ementary
s e g m e n t fr om th e ar ea of th e circl e .

From th e Geomet ica we n d th at th e circu mferen ce of th r

1
e

s eg men t l s s th n s e n ici cle w as t ak e n to b e / (b

e a 4 11 )
a H r r x
2 2
t

i
or a lt e rn ativ e ly / (b 4h ) (L 4 1 ) b } s
z 2 2
1
2

(7 7 ) E llips e par , a bolic s eg me n t s u r fa ce of cyli nd er

, ,
r i ght
a n d s egm e nt o s her e
con e, s
pher e fp .

ft r th re of n ellip s (Metr ic I 3 4 ) an d of p r bolic

A e e a a a e a . a a a

s eg m e n t
(ch p H er on giv es th e s urfac e of a cyli n d r
a . e

(ch p 3 6 ) n d r i ght c on e (ch p

a . a in both c s s h u n rolls
a a . a e e

th e s urface on pl n o th at th e s urfac e becom s that of

a a e s e a

p r lle logr m in th e on e ca e n d a s ector of circl e in th

a a a _
s a a e

oth e r For th e urf c of

. ph r e (ch p 3 8 ) n d s eg men t of
s a e a s e a . a a

it (ch p 3 9 ) h e s i mply u s es A rchi me des s r es ults

a .

.

Book I e n d s w i th h i n t how to m s ur irregul r gur e a ea e a s,

pl n o n ot If th gur e is pl n e n d boun d ed by n
a e r . e a a a

irr egular curve n eighb ouri ng poi nt ,

t ken onth e curv s ar e a e

s uch th t i f th ey a e j oi n e d in ord er the c on t our of the

a ,
r ,

polygon s o form d is n ot much differen t from th e curv e e

its e lf n d th e p olygon is th n m eas ured by div i di n g it in to

,
a e

tri an gl es If th s urface of an irregular s olid gur e i to be

. e s

fou n d y ou wr p r ou n d it pie ces of v ery thi n pap er o cloth

, a r ,

e n ough to cov e r i t an d y ou th en s pr e d ou t th e p p er o ,
a a r

cl oth n d m e ur e th t
a as a .

B ook II M s ur e m n t of volu m es . ea e .

Th pr fac e to Book II is i nt er esti ng

e e h owi ng h ow as s

v gu e th tr d iti on bout A rch i m ed s had alr ady b come

a e a s a e e e .

A ft er th e m ea ur em en t of s urfa c s r ectili n e r o n ot it is
s e ,
a r ,

prop er to proc ee d to th e s olid bodi es th e s urfaces of whic h w e ,

h av e lr ady m eas ur e d in th e pr ec di ng b ook s urfac plan e

a e e , es

an d s ph e r ic al c on ic a l an d cyli n dric al
,
n d irr egul ar s urf c e , a a s

as w e ll Th m eth od s of d eali ng with th es e s olids a e in

. e r ,

1
Cf Geom , 9 4 , 9 5 (1 9 2 , 4 ,
. . . 97 . 4 (2 0 7 .
,
332 H E RO N O F A LE XA N DR I A

i w of th eir s urpri s i ng charact r r e ferr e d to A rchimed es by

v e

e ,

certai n writers who give th e tr ditional accoun t of their a

origi n Bu t wh e th er th ey b el on g to A rchi m e des or anoth er

.
,

it is necess ar y to give a s k tch of th e e m ethods as w ell e s .

Th e Book b egi n s with g ne r l i ti e s ab out gur es all th e e a

s e cti on s of which p ar ll l to th b e a e equal to the base

a e e as r

and s i mil arly s itu ate d whil e th e c n tr es of th e s ecti on,

s ar e on e
_

a s tr aight li n e through th e c n tr e of th e bas e which m ay b e e ,

e ith er obliqu e ly i n cli n e d o p e rp n d icul ar to th e b as e wh eth er r e

the s aid s tr aight li n e ( th e axi i o is n ot p erp en dicul ar to

s s ,
r

th e bas e th e v olu m
,
e is e qu l to th product of th e ar ea of the a e

b ase an d the per pe nd icu la h ight of th e top of the gur e r e

from the b ase Th e t er m h ight i th en ceforw ard res trict ed

. e s

to th e l ength of th e p rp en dicul r fr om th e top of th e gur e

e a

on th e base .

( )a Con e , c yli n d er , p ar a llelepiped (p r i sm) , pyr a m id , an d

fr u s tu m .

II . deal with a c on e cyl i n d er a p arall el epip ed (th

17 , a ,

e

bas e of which is not r s tr i c ted to th e p arallel ogram but i s i ne

th e illu s tr ati on gi ven r egular h ex agon s o th at th e gur e is

a ,

mor e pr op e rly a pri sm w i th polyg on al b as es ) a tri an gular ,

pri sm a pyr amid with b s e of n y for m a frus tum of a

,
a a ,

tri angul ar pyr amid ; the gur es ar in g ener al obli qu e e .

(B) Wed ge shap ed s olid (B n q vla K os)

'
-
a ao x os

or '
a .

II 8 is a cas e which is p erhaps w orth giving It is th at of

. . .

a r e cti li n eal s olid th e base of which is a rect angl e A B CD an d

,

h as opp os ite to it anothe r r e ctan gle E FGH th e s ides of which ,

ar e r e s p e cti v ely pa rall e l but not n e c es s arily pr op orti onal to

those ofA B CD Take A K qual to E F and BL equ al to BC

. e , .

B i se ct B K CL in V W an d dr w K R P U VQOM p arall el to
, , , a ,

A D an d LQR N WOFT p r ll el to A B
, , Joi n FK GR LG a a .
, , ,

GU, H N .

Th en th e solid is di v ide d i n to (1 ) th e p ar all el epiped with

A R E G as opp os it e
, fac es (2 ) th e pri m with K L as b as e and , s

FG as th e opp osi te edge (3 ) th e pri s m with N U as bas e and ,

GH as oppos ite edge an d (4 ) th pyr m id with R LC U as ba se , e a

n d G as v ert ex Le t h b e th h eight of th e gur e Now

a . e .
 M EA SU R E M E N T O F S O LI D S 333

th e par allel epip ed (1 ) is on A R as base and h as height h th e

pri m 2 ) is equal to a p ar allel e piped on K Qas bas e an d with
s

h eight h ; th e pri s m (3 ) is e qu l to pa rall el epip ed with N P a a

s b as e nd h eight h ; and n ally th e pyramid 4 is e qu al to

a a
( )
a p a ra ll e l e pip e d of h eight h n d on e third of R C as bas e a -
.

h ere fore the wh ol e solid is e qu al to one p arallele pipe d

T
wi th h e ight h an d base equ al to (A R + K Q+ NP + R 0 + 7 1 30 )
or A O R O .

N ow if A B =
, a, BC : b EF : , 0, FG = d ,

A V AT + d ), R Q %( Ct C ) RP
, %(b d
) .

T h e r e fore v olume of s oli d

c b d )} h
)( .

Th e s olid in qu es ti id tly the tru e B h i x 9 ( li ttle

on is ev en a a
-
0

alt ar for th e formula i u e d to ca lcul at e th e con ten t of s s

a B a
h m s in S ter eom II 4 0 (6 8 H eib ) I t i s al s o I thin k
a a . .
, .
, ,

th e oi n { way ( littl e meas ur emen t of which is

J t/ a a

giv en in Ster eom I 2 6 (2 5 H eib ) It is tru e th at the s econ d

. .
,
.

t e rm of the r s t factor 7 7 (a c) (b d ) is th er e n egl ect ed

_
1 -

p e rh ap s b ec au se in the c se t k en (a 7 b 6 c 5 d 4 ) a a , , ,

thi s t erm is s mall c om p a r ed with the oth er A

p ar ticula r gbqw xog in wh ich e ith er c a or d b w as
a

a , ,

c alle d a g the secon d t e m in th e factor of th e c on tent

v r

v an i s h es int h is c as e an d if e g c a th e c on t en t is
, 7 (b d )ah
,
. .
, .

A n oth er Bmp x os is mea ure d in S ter eom I 3 5 (3 4

'
ta
s . .
,

wh er e the s olid is i naccurate ly called a pyramid oblong

( p p m)

GT e o x a n d tr u n c at ed or h alf
perfect
-
 M E A S U R E M EN T O F S O L I DS 335

d e s cribi ng circl e and th e l en gth of th e p ath of its cen tr e .

For h e s y s s in c e 1 4 i a r adiu s (bf th e p ath of th e c en tr e )

, a ,
s ,

2 8 is i ts di am e t er nd 8 8 its circu m fe r en c e If then th e tore

a .

b e s tr aight en e d ou t n d m d e i n t o cyli n d r i t will h av e 8 8

a a a e ,

fo its l en gth an d th di amet e r of the b as e of the cyli n d e r is

r , e

1 2 ; s o th t th e s olid c on t en t of th e cy l i n d r i
a w e h av e e s , as

s e en , 99567 88 1 44 1 .

f A r chi med es s M ethod

(e) The two speci a l

"
s olid s

o
-
.

C h ap s 1 4 1 5
give th meas ur em en t of th e tw o r em rk ble
.
, e a a

s olid s of A rchi me d es s Method f oll owi n g A rchi m e d s s r es ult s

,
e .

(f) The ve r egu la r s olid s .

ch a p s 1 6 1 8 H eron meas ure s th e con ten t of th e e

In .
v

regul r s olids after th cub H h of cour in each case

a e e . e as se

to n d th e p e rp en dicul r fr om th c en tr of th cir cu msc ib a e e e r

ing s ph e r e on an y f c e Let p b e thi s p erp en dicul ar a th a .

,
e

e dg e of th s olid th radiu of th circl e circu m s cribi n g n y

e , r e s e a

face Th en 1 ) for th e tet ahed on

. r r

2 2 2

2
a 3r , p a a .

(2 ) cas e of th e octa hed r on which is th e s um of two

I n th e ,

e qu l pyr m id s on a s qu r e b s e th e c on t en t i
a a on e third a a s -

of th at b s e multipli ed by th e di gonal of th gur

a a e e,

/ Z CL o 7 / 2 a ; in th e c ase ta k en a = 7 an d
x r .
3
,

H e r on t k e 1 0 s an ppr ox i m ati on to / (2 7 ) o / 9 8 th e
a s a a x
2
r x ,

r e s ul t bei n g } o 1 6 37 (3 ) I n th e c s e of th e ico a
a . r . a s

hed on H r on me r e ly s y s th at
r e a

( r l value of th e r atio i M
p a 93 127 th e ea s
6 )
(4 ) In th e cas e of th e d od eca hed r on , He ron sa ys that
p z a
(th e tru e valu e is 7 an d , if / 5 is
10
put e qu l to H eron r tio is re d i ly obt i n ed )
a

s a a a .

Book II en d s with n llu s i on to th e m th od ttribu ted to a a e a

A rchi m e d es fo meas uri n g th e c on t en t of irr egul r bodi e s by

r s a

i mme r i ng th m in w te r and mea ur i ng the amou nt of uid

s e a s

di pl c d
s a e .
336 HE R ON O F A LEXA N DR I A

III Div i ion of gur e Book . s s s .

Thi b ook h s m uch i n comm on with Eucl i d s b ook O n d i i

s a v

f g s ) th probl m bei n g to divid

si on s (o u r e r i ou gures
, e e e va s ,

pl n o s oli d by tr ight l i n o pl n i n to p arts h v in g

a e r ,
a s a e r a e a

a g v n r tio I n III 1 3 a tr i n gl e d ivid d i nto tw o p t

i e a . . a 1s e ar s

in a g i ven r ti o by tr aight li n (1 ) p ass i ng thr ough v e t ex

a a s e a r ,

(2 ) p r ll l to a s id (3 ) through ny p oi n t on
a a e id e e, a a s

III 4 i worth d es cr i pti on Gi v en tri ngl e A B C to cut

. s :

a a ,

ou t of i t tri ngl e DE F (wh er e D E F e poin t s on th e

a a , ,
ar

si d es res pect i v ely ) giv en in m gn itud e nd uch th at th e a a s

tri ngl s A E F BED CED m y be equ al in are

a e , H er on ,
a a .

a s s u m es th t i f D E F div i d e th e id es s o th t
a , , , s a

A F z FB = B D z DC = CE z EA ,

th e l atte r thre triang les e qu l in a r a

ar e e a e .

H e th en h s to n d th e v lu e of a a

each of th e thr e e r ti os wh i ch will a

r es ult in th e tr i n gl DE F h v i n g a e a a

g n ar ea
rve .

J oi n A D .

S i n ce B D C D CE E A z z

B C z CD CA : AE ,

an d A A BC : A A DC : AA DC : A A DE .

A l so A A BC : A A B D A A DC : A E DC .

Bu t (s i n c e th e
t i n gl r
a e a of th e r a e DE F 1 sg i ven ) A EDC s 1

gi v n a w ell s A A B O Th e efor e
e , s a . r A A B D x A A DC s giv en 1 .

Th er e fore if A H b e p erp en d i cu l, ar to B C ,

AHz . B D DC . 1s giv en ;
the r for e B D DC s g i v n an d s i n c B C giv n D is giv n
e . 1 e , , e is e , e

pos i t i on (w h av e to ap ply to B C a re ctangle qu al to

e e
B D DC n d falli ng s h ort by
. a s qu r e) a a .

A s n x mpl H r on tak
a e AB a 1 3 BC 1 4 CA e 15 e es , ,

A DE F 24 A A B O is th n 8 4 nd A H
.
12 e ,
a : .

Thu s A E DC 20 nd A H B D DC 4 84 20 6 7 20 ; , a
2
. . . .

th e r e fore B D DC o 4 6 7 (th e t xt om it s th
g) r e e .

Th r e for e s y s H r on B D
e 8 appr oxi m t ely
,
a Fo 8 w e e , a . r
 D I V I S I ON S O F FI GU R ES 337

sh ould apparently h ave 8 7 in ce DC i i mmedi ately stat ed ,

s s to
b e 5 7 (n ot Th a t is in s ol v i n g th e e qu a ti on ,

x
2 14c
c+ 4 6 3 O,

which giv e cc 7 / (2 H er on appar en tly s ubs t i tut e d 2 7 o

s : x r

7 fo 2 7 th e re by ob tai n in g 1 7 as an pproxim ati on to th e

r , a

s urd .

(Th e l mma as s u me d in th s pr op os iti on is eas ily prov d

e r e .

Let m n b e th e r ti o A F FB BD D C CE EA a : : .

Th en A F m c/(m n ) FB no m m b (m n )
( n ) CE:
, , ,

EA nb
/(m n ) &c
, .

H en c e

AA FE /A A BC

A BDF/A A BC

: A CDE /A A B C .

an d tri angle s A FE B DE CDE e equ al

th e , , ar .

P ppu s h as th e pr opos iti on th t th e tri ngl s A B C DE F

a
1
a a e ,

h v th e s m c en tr e of gr avity )
a e a e .

H e r on n ext s h ow s h ow to d i vid e a p ar all el tr ap i um i n t o -

ez

tw o p rt in a g i v n r t i o by
a s s tr i ght li n e
(1 ) through th e
e a a a

p oi n t of i n t ers e cti on of th n on parallel s id es (2 ) thr ough a e -

giv n poi n t on on of th e p r llel s id s (3 ) par ll el to th

e e a a e ,
a e

p r ll l id (4 ) thr ough p oi n t on on e of th e n on par ll l

a a e s es , a -
a e

s id es (III 5 III 9 s h ows h ow to divid the re of

. . e a a a

circle i n to part s which h av a giv en r at i o by me ns of n e a a

i n n er c i rcl e w i th th e s ame c en tr e Fo th pr oblems beg in . r e

n i n g wit h III 1 0 H ron s y s th t n u m e ric l c lcul ati on al on e

. e a a a a

n o l on g e r ufc es but ge ometric l methods mu s t be ppli d

s ,
a a e .

Thr e pr obl em s a e r e duc ed to probl em s s olv ed by A p oll on i u s

e r

in h is tr e t i se On cu tti n g of a na Th e r t of th e s is a r ea . s e

III 1 0 to cut off from th e ngl of tri ngl

.
,
g i v en a e a a e a

proporti on of th tr i an gl e by a s tr ight lin e through a poi nte a

on th e opp o it e id produc d III 1 1 1 2 1 3 s h ow h ow

s s e e . .
, ,

to cut n y qu adr i l at e r l i nt o p rt
a in a g i v en rat io by a a s a

s tr ight li n e thr ough p oi n t ( 1 ) on side (a ) d i v i d in g th a a e

-

s id e in th e giv e n r ati o (b) n ot s o dividi n g it (2 ) n ot on any , ,

s id e (a ) in th e c s e wh e r e th e qu dril t e ral is
,
a trap iu m a a a ez ,

i e h as tw o s id es p arall e l (b) in th c s wh er it is n ot; th e

. . ,
e a e e

l s t cas e (b) is r e duc ed like III 1 0 ) to th e cutti ng o of an

a
'

.
-
'

1
P appus , v iii , pp 1 0 3 4 8.
-

. C f pp 43 0 2 pos t
. . .

1 523 2 -
70
 DI V I S I O N S O F FI GUR ES 33 9

two o pp os ite s id es which the r equir ed traight li ne cuts ar e s

(a ) p arall el or (b) n ot parall el I n th e r st c s e (a) th e . a

proble m re duc es to drawi n g a s traight li n e thr ough E i n te r

s ctin
e
g th e p ar all e l s id es in poi n t s F G s uc h th t B F A G , a

is e qu l given len gth I n the cond cas (b) w h ere

a to a . se e

BC A D a , n ot p ar all l H e r on s upp o e
r e th em to meet in H e s s .

Th e an gl e t H is th en giv n an d th e r ea A B H
a I t is th en e , a .

a qu s ti on of cu tti ng off fr om a tr i ngl e with vertex H a

e a

tri an gl e H FG of gi v en re by a tr ight li n e dr w n from E a a s a a

,

which i g in a pr oblem in A pol lon ius s Cu tti ng of of a n

s a a

-

ar ea . uxili ary probl em in cas e (a ) is s ily s ol ve d in

Th e a ea

III 1 6 M as ur e A H equ al to th e giv en length Join B H

. . e .

an d bi e ct i t a t M
s Th en E M m eet B C A D in p oi n t s s uch
. s ,

th t BF A G th e given l ength Fo by congru n t triangles

a : . r , e ,

BF GH .

Th e Same pr obl em e s olv e d fo th e c se of any polygons ar r a

in III 1 4 1 5 . A s ph e r is th en divid d (III 1 7 ) i n t o s g men ts

, . e e . e

s uc h th t th eir aurfaces ar e in giv en r ti o by me ns of

s a a ,
a

A rchi m e d es O n the Sphe e n d Cyli n d er II 3 ju s t as in

, r a ,
.
, ,

III 2 3 P rop 4 of th e sam Book is u sed to di v ide a s ph er e

.
,
. e

i n t o s eg men t s h avi ng th ir v olu mes in a giv en rati o e .

III 1 8 is i n t er es ti ng b ecaus e it re calls an i ng en i ous pr o

.

pos iti on in Euclid s book On Divi s ion s H eron s probl m is

.

e

To divid e gi v en circl i n to thr ee equ al p ar t s by tw o s trai ght

a e

z 2
340 H ER O N O F A LEXA N DR I A

lin es an d be obs erves that as th e probl em i cl e rly n ot

, ,

s a

rati onal w e s h all fo pr ct i c l c on ven i en c e mak e th e divi s ion

, ,
r a a , ,

as ex c tly pos s i bl e in th e follow a as ,

A B is th s id of n

ing w y a . e e a

q u i l t er l tri n gl e in s crib e d in th e e a a a

c i rcl e L t CD b e th e p ar allel . e

d i met er 0 th e c n tr e of th e c i rcl a ,
e e,

n d j oi n A O BO A D DB Th en a , , ,
.

h ll th e s g m n t A BD b e v ery s a e e

n rly on e t h ird of th e circl Fo ea -

e . r ,

s i n c e A B i s th s id of n e qu i e e a

l t r l tri n gl i th e circl th a e a a e h e, e

e ct or OA E B i one th i rd of th s s -

c i rcl e A nd th tri ngl e A OB formi ng p rt of th s ect or

. e a a e

i e qu al to th tri ngl e A DB ; th er for e th e

s e gmen t A E B
a e se

plu th tri ngl A B D is qu l to on th i rd of th e c i rcl

s e a e e a e e,
-

a n d th e s eg m n t A B D on ly d i f f rs fr om th i s by th e s m ll
e e a

egme n t on B D as b e which m y b n gl e ct e d Eucl i d

s as ,
a e e . s

pr op o i t i on is to cut off on e th i rd (o n y fr cti on ) of circle

s -

r a a a

b etw een tw o p r ll el ch ords (see ol 1 pp 4 2 9 a a v .

, .

III 1 9 n d poi n t D w i th i n ny tri ngle A B C s uch th t

. s a a a a

th tr i n gl e D B C DCA DA B a e all qu l ; an d th n H er on
e a s , ,
r e a e

p s to th e d i v i s i on of ol i d gur es
a ses s .

Th s ol i d gur
e di vided in giv en r ti o (b es ides the
es a a

s ph r ) pyr mi d with b s of an y for m (I I I

a

e e e th ar e a a e .

th e c on e (III 2 1 ) n d th frus tum of con e (III

. a th e e a .

cutti ng plan b ei ng p r llel to th b e in ch cas e Th e e

es a a e as ea . s

pr obl em i n volve th xtr c ti on of th e cub root of a n umb r

s e e a e e

w hich is in g n r l n ot n ex act cub e e n d th e p oi n t of

e a a ,
a

i n t r s t is H ron s m eth od of pproxi m tin g to th e cub e r oot

e e e a a

in s uch a c s e T k th e c aof th e c one

. nd uppos th t
a e as e ,
a s e a

th p orti on to be cut off at th e top is to th e r es t of th c one as

e e

m to n We h v e to n d th r at i o in which th e h eight or the

. a e

e dg e is cut by th pl n p r ll el to th e b s which cuts e a e a a a e

the c on e in th e g i v e n r at i o Th v olu me of c on b ei ng . e a e

7 c h wh ere c is th rad i u of th e base an d h th h eight

2
7r , e s e ,

w h av e to n d th e h e ight of th e c on th v olu m of which

e e e e

m
as th e h i ght h is to th e r di u s 0 of
2
c h an d

7r e a
m+n
, ,

it bas e as h is to c w e h av e s i mply to n d h wh e r

s ,
e
 DI V I S I O N S O F FI GU R ES 34 1

h /h
3 3
m Or , if we ta k e
dg es e e in s tead
th e e ,

of th e h eigh ts , e
2

/ e
3
m I n the c ase t ak en by
H e r on m : n : 4 : 1, an d e : 5 C onse qu en tly 1 00
3
e _
4
.

appr ox i mat ely an d n III 2 0

.

Th e r e for e y s H eron e 47 9
sa i .
, , l ,

he s h ow s h ow thi s a iv ed at 1s r r .

A ppr ox i ma tion to the . cu be r oot o f a n oncu be n u m ber .

Ta k e th e n ea es t r cub e n u mb er s to 1 0 0 both abov e an d

below ; th es e ar e 1 2 5 an d 6 4 .

Th en 1 25 100 25,
an d 100 64 36 .

Multiply 5 i n t o 3 6 ; t h is giv es 1 8 0 A d d 1 0 0 ma ki ng 2 8 0 .
,

( iv i d e 0 by
D thi s gi ves 7 7 A dd this to the s i d e of
9
1 8 .

th e s ma ll e r cube : thi s giv es 4 7 97 T h i s r s as n early as p os s ibl e .

th e cube root ( cubic s i d e ) of 1 0 0 un its

.

We hav to conj ectu e H e ron s fo m ul a from thi s x m pl

e r

r e a e .

G en ra lly if e A ( + , upp o e th t A a = d and

d
a
a s s a
3

(a + l ) A d Th b es t s ugg es ti on th at h as b en m d
3
2
. e e a e

is We rth e i m n m ely th at H e r on formul a fo th e pp ox i

s, a s r a r

m t e cub r oot w as a +
a e 5 m ultipl i e d
(a + 1
i n to th e 3 6 m ight i n deed h ve been th e s quar e root of 2 5 o a r

x/ d an d th e 1 0 0 dd e d to th e 1 8 0 in th e d enomi n at or of th e
z , a

fra cti on m i ght h v e be en th e origin l nu m b er 1 0 0 (A ) and n ot a a

o ad b u t We rth ei m s c onj e ctur e is th e m or e s ti s f ct ory

r a a
z ,

b ec u s e it c n b volved ou t of quit l emen ta y con s id er

a a e e e e r a

ti on s Thi s s how n by G En s t om as follow U i n g th e 2

'

. i s . e r s . s

s m e n ot ti on E n es tr o m furth e r s upp os e th t a i th e x ct
'

a a s a s e a
,

v lu e of A n d th t (m ) d a + 1 oc) = 8
a
/
x a a a
3
7
.

Thu s
=
81 w3 a 2 an d
,
3 a a se a ): ( a
3 d
l
z dl 81 .

S m i il rly f a ro m 82 (
a + 1 tc) we d eriv e
c
) ( a + -
ao
3
d2 87 .

T h e r for e e

77
(5 87 a;
)
(tc a )}
61 aw a a )
Clr 3 ( (t a )
'
- a a

a + 1

(
a a a )
'

1
Z ei ts ch r f M a th u P hys ilc x i v, 1 8 9 9, i s l i
. . Ab t , pp 1 3
. .
, l h t tt .
-
. . . .

2
B i bl i otheca M a thema tica , viiis , 1 9 07 8 , pp 4 1 24 3 -
. .
 DI V I S I O N S O F FI GU R ES
S in c e (D G) (FB ) m n,

(DB) (D G) (m + n ): m .
(DB ) (D G) 5 4 .

h (a 2 2
7r aa a ),
(DB ) 5698 ,

md (D G) (DG) 4558 7
m+ n
.

Le t y be th e h eight (CM ) of

T h en DH z AH : CK Ir A

r h :
7 ( a a ) (a + h) 7 a,

r
h en ce to is kn ow n . a nd x : 48

C on e C DE (cone CDE ) 41 58,

'
1r a a,

c one CE G (CDE ) : (DB ),

(con e CFG): 4158
m +n

con e CA B : (C DE ) (DB) ,
(cone CA B) : 4 158 5698

N ow , sa ys He ron ,

(CA B ) ( C DE )

[H e m ight h v a e sa id s i m ply

(CDE ) :
(CFG) x
3
y wh en ce y 46 a pproxi mate]
Thi s gives y or CM ,
T her for e
e LM y
x 1(

h en c e Lill is kn ow n
'

N ow A D 2
A H 2 + DH 2
A D?

{e m
a via n
1
56 7 ,

1 th at A D is kn ow n .
AD : 121

T h e re for e DE T h er efore DE 77 1 27

5
DO W D .
l 0
3 44 H ER ON O F A LEXA N DR I A

Qu a d r a ti c equ a ti on s s olved i n H er on .

We h av e alr eady m et w i th on e s uch equ ati on (in Met i a r c

III n mely
.

g a 23
2
0, th e r e ul t on ly ( 87 ) s a

bei ng g i ven Th re e oth er s . e ar in th e Geom t ica wh r e th e r e e

proc s s of oluti on is h ow n
e s s .

qu re s uch th t th e Giv en
( 1 ) Geom etr i ca 2 4 , 3

a s a a

s u m of its r a an d p eri m ter i 8 9 6 fee t to s par te the r

a e e s : e a a ea

from th p eri m ter i e 4 93 896 H eron t ak es h lf of

e

: . e . . a

4 n d add s its s qu r e c ompl ti n g th

a qu r on th l e ft s id e a ,
e e s a e e .

G m i an d 2 4 4 6 (H e ib ) g i v n d th e m
( ) t 2 1 9 e on

2 e o e c r a ,
e ,
. e a sa

e qu ti on Geom 2 4 4 7 an oth r lik e it Gi v en th u m of

a .
,
e . e s
,

th d i am et er p ri m t r nd ar of circle to nd ch
e , e e e a ea a ,
ea

of th e n

i .

Th e two equ ti on a s ar e

2
77 d + 3
7
2
: 2 1 2,

an d 77 d 2 + 27 3 : 67 7 .

u u l meth od is to b g i n by d ividi n g by 7 7 thr ough out

Ou r s a e

o a to l e v e d th r s t t er m H er on s is to mu ltiply by

2
s s a as e .

such n u mb r w i ll l v a s qu re th e r t t rm I n thi
a e as ea e a as s e . s

c s h e m ultipli by 1 5 4 givi n g 1 1 d + 5 8 1 1 d 2 1 2 1 5 4
a e es ,
2 2

o r67 7 1 54 s th c s m y b C om pl e ti n g th e s qu ar
a e a e a e . e,

h obt i n s ( 1 1 d +
e a 3 26 48 841 o 1 0395 841 Thu r . s

1 1 d + 29 o th at i 1 8 3 o 1 0 6 r s, r .

Thu s 1 1 d 1 54 o 7 7 nd d 14 o 7
: th e c se m y b e r ,
a r ,
as a a .

I n deter mi n te pr obl a e m s in th e Geom etr ica .

S ome ry in t r s t i ng i n d et r m in te probl em s a e n ow
ve e e e a r

i n clude d by H eib rg in th G om t i ca Tw o of th m (chap e e e e r .

1
e .

2 4 1 2 ) w e r e i n clud e d in th e Gep oni cu s in H ultsch e diti on

, s

(secti on 7 8 th r e t e n w h a vi n g b e e n f ou n d i n th
'

s ,
e s ar e , e

C on s t n ti n ople m n u cript fr om which S ch on e e dit ed th

a a s e

M t ica e r A h ow ev er th se probl ms to wh t e v r period

. s, , e e , a e

th ey b l ong mor e k i n to lgebr th n to men ur ti on

, ar e e a a a a s a ,

th y will be mor pr operly d es crib e d in a lat er ch pter

e e a 0 11

A lg ebr a .

1
H er on is A lex an d r ini oper a ,
-

vol . i v, 414 28 . sq .
 TH E DI OP TR A 3 45

Th e Di op tr a (n epi dtvr r pa s ) .

Thi s tr e ti s b egi ns with a c r eful d es cripti on of the

a e a

d i optr a n i n s tru m en t which s e rv d wi th th e an ci en t s for

, a e

th e sam e purp os e a th eod olit e with u s (ch p s 1 as Th e a .

probl ems with which th e tr eati s e goes on to d al e e ar

(a) pr obl em s of h ei ght s n d d i s t n c es (b) engi n eeri n g p o

a a ,
r

blems ( ) pr obl em s of m en s ur ti on to which is

, 0 dded a ,
a

(ch a p 3 4 ) a d s cripti on of a h od om t r o t axam et er con

. e e e ,
r ,

s i s ti n g of an a rr n ge m en t of t ooth d wh eel s a an d n dl s s e e e

s cr e w s on th e s m a x s w ork i n g on th e t e th of th e n ext
a e e e

W h e el s r s p e ctiv ely e Th e b ook n ds with the pr obl em

. e

(ch p a . Wit h giv en forc to m ov

giv n w igh t by
a e e a e e

m e n s of i n t r ct i n g t ooth d wh ee l s which r ally b el ong

a e a e

,
e s

to m ch n ic se n d w as a pp r en tly a dd ed lik e s om
a , a oth e r a e
,

pr oblems ( g 3 1 to meas u e th e outow of i e th v olu me

e . .
,

r , . . e

of w t r i ss u i n g fr om a
a e in orde to mak th b ook , r e e

mor e c om pr e h n iv e Th e s s n ti al pr obl e ms d e lt wi th a e
e s . e e a r

s uch th e f oll owi n g

as To d et erm i n th e d i ff r en c of l v el . e e e e

b e tw een tw o g i ven p oin t s to dr w s tr i ght l i n e c on n e ct a a a

in g tw o p oi n t th on e of wh i ch is n ot vi s ibl fr om th e oth er
s e e

to m e ur th l e s t br e dth of r i v er
as e e th e d i s t n c e of
a a a a

tw o i n cc s s ibl e p oi n t
a e th e h eight of an i n cces ibl e p oi n t
s a s

to d t rm i n e th e differ n c e b etw en th e h eigh ts of two

e e e e

i n cc e ibl e p oin t s n d th p os i t i on of th e s tr ight l in j oi n i n g

a ss a e a e

th m
e th e d pth of a d i tch to bor e a tu n n el thr ough
e

a m ou n ta i n g oi n g tra i ght from on e mouth to th oth er s to e

s i nk a s h ft thr ough a mou n tain perpen d i cularly to c n l

a a a a

owi ng un der n e th g i v en s ubt rr an ean c n l of ny

a a e a a a

for m to n d on th gr ou n d b ov e poi nt fr om which a

, e a a

v ertical h ft m u s t b s un k in ord er to r each g i v n p oi n t

s a e a e

on th e c n l (fo th e purp o e e g of r movi ng an ob tructi on )

a a r s . . e s

to c on s truct h rbour on th e mod l of a given s gmen t

a a e e

of a circl given th n ds e, to c on truc t v ult s o th t it

e e s a a a

m y h av
a p h rical s urf c e mod ell ed on g i ven s gmen t
e a s e a a
t
e

Th m en s ura t i on pr obl ems i n clud e th e foll owi n g

e to :

m s ur e an irr egul r a re
ea which i d one by i ns cribi nga a, s a

r e ctili n e l gur e n d th en drawi ng p erp en dicul r to the

a a a s

s id e s a t i n t e rv l to meet th e c on t our (2
a s o by d r w in g on r a e

s tr ight li n e a cros th e a r e an d er e cti n g perpen dicul r from

a s a a s
 TH E M E C H A NI CS 3 47

th e r s t ch pt er o c h pt r s ofth e real M echa n i c which h d

a r a e s a

been los t Th e tre ti se w ould d oub tles s be i n with gen er aliti es a

g
.

i ntroductory to mechan ic s uch w e n d in th e (m uch s as

in terpolat e d) b egi nn i ng of Pappus Book V III It mu s t th en , .

a pp a r en tly h av e d lt with th e prope rti es of circl e cyli n d er s

ea s, ,

n d s ph e r es with r e fe r en c e to th e ir i mp or tan c e in me ch an ic s
"

fo in Book II 2 1 H er on say th t th e circl e is of ll gur es

r . s a a

th e mos t mov bl e an d mo t e s ily m ov e d th e a m e thin g s a , sa

a pplyi n g l so to th e cylin der an d s ph ere n d he add s in

a a
,

s upport of thi a re fe r en ce to a pr oof in the precedi ng Book

s

Thi s r e fer en c e m
y b e to I 2 1 but t th e en d of th at cha pt er
a .
,
a

h e s ay th at cyli n d er s e v e n wh e n hea vy if pl c e d on th
s

, , a e

grou n d o th t th y touch it in on e li ne on ly
s a e s ily e ,
ar e a

m ov ed n d th e s me is tru of ph e r es l s o
, a matt r which
a e s a ,
a e

we ha ve a lr ea d y d i scu ed ; th e di s cu s s i on ma h v e c ome ss

a
y
e a rli e r in th e B ook in ch ap ter n ow los t , a .

Th e tr e ti e b egi nn i n g with ch p 2 a s ft r th p s ge
, a . a e e a sa

i n terpol te d fr om th e B po h g i curi ous ly di s conn ect d

a a v x , s e .

C h p s 2 7 di cu s s th e m oti on of c i rcl e o wheel s e qu al or

a .
s s r ,

u n e qu l movi ng on di ffer en t x es (e g i n tera cti ng tooth ed

a , a . .

wh eel ) o x e d on th e s me axi s much fter th e f h i on of

s ,
r a , a as

th e A ri s t ot eli n M e h a n ica l p obl em s a c r .

A r i stotle

s Wheel .

p rticular (ch p 7 ) H er on tt mpt to ex pl i n th pu le

In a a . a e s a e z z

ofth e Whee l of A r i s t otl e w hi ch r ma i n d pu l up to qu ite

e e a z z e

m od rn ti m e e nd g ve i to th e pr ov rb
s, a rot m A is totelis a r se e ,

a r

magi s to qu e e qu o m gi s to qu e etu
r r Th e qu e ti on i s say s
,
a r r r

s

th e A ri s t ot e li n pr obl e m 2 4 why d o th e gr t er circl e r oll n

a ,

es ea a

e qu a l di s t n c e with th e l es s r circl e wh en th y
a e pl c e d a b ou t e e ar a

th s m e c en tr e w h e r ea
e a when th ey r oll s eparately
,
th e s, ,
as

i e of on e is to th i e of th e oth r so
s z th e s tr ight li n es
e s z e , ar e a

tr v ers e d by th em to on e an oth er
a Let A C B D b e qu dr n t ,
a a s

of circl s with c n tr e 0 b ou n d e d by th e same r ad ii an d draw

e e ,

t an g en t s A E B F at A nd B I n th e r s t case s uppose th e
,
a .

circle B D to r oll long BF till D tak es the position H ; th n a e

th e r a di u ODC will be t right n gl e s to A E an d C will b e

s a a ,

a t G a p oi n t s uc h th at A G i s e qu l to BH
,
I n th e s e c on d a .

1
S V C p ll A i to
ee tel i q
an tio m h i
a e 1 8 1 2 p 26 3 q
e, r s s ua es nes ec a n ca e, , . s .

2
A ri t M h ni s 8 55 .
28 ec a ca , a .
348 H ER O N O F A LE XA N DR A I
c upp os e th e c i rcle A C to r oll a long A E t i ll ODC t kes
a se s a

th e p o iti on O FE ; th e n D will b t F wh er e A E BF

s e a .

A nd i m il rly if a wh ol r e v oluti on i p rfor m e d an d OB A is

s a e s e

agai n p erp en dicul r to A E C on tr ry th er fore to th e pri n

a . a , e ,

cipl th t th gr t er ci rcle mov s quicker th n th e s maller on

e a e ea e a

th e me x isa it w ould app ear th at th e m ovem n t of th e

a s, e

s ma ller in th i c
u i ck sth t of th gr t r in c e
as e is as
q as a e ea e , s

BH A G n d BF H r on xpl n ti on is th at e g
AE a . e s e a a , . .

in th ca wh er th l rge r circl r oll on A E th e le er

e se e e a e s , ss

circl e m in t in th a m s p d s th e gr e t e r b c au s e it h as
a s e sa e ee a a e

two moti on ; for i f w r eg rd th m ll er circle as merely

s e a e s a

f t n ed to th l rg er a n d n ot r oll in g t ll it c ntre 0 wil l

as e e a ,
a a ,
s e

mov e to O tr v r i ng d i t n c 0 0 equ l to A E nd B F;
'
a e s a s a e a a

h n c th gr t r ci rcl will t k th e le r with it ov r n

e e e ea e e a e sse e a

e qu l di tan c
a th e r olli n g of th e l s r c i rcl h vi n g n o f
s e, f ct es e e a e e

up on thi s .

The pa r a l le logr a m of velocities

.

r n ext pr ove th e par llelogr m of v lociti s (ch p

H e on s a a e e a .

h e t k e th e ca e of
a s rect n gl e but the pr oof i ppl i ca bl e
s a a , s a

g n er ll y
e a .

Th w y it i put is thi s A e a s .

p oi n t mov with un i for m v el ocity es

long tr aight li n A B from A a a s e ,

to B whi l e at th e sam e ti m A B , e

m ov w i th u ni for m v el ocity lw ys es a a

p r llel to it e lf with its extremity a a s

A d e cribin g th e s tr ight lin e A C s a .

S upp o wh n
se poi n t rriv e t B th str ight li ne
e a s a , e a
 TH E PA R A LLELO GR A M OF V ELO C I TI E S 3 49

r e ch es
a th e positi on CD . Let E F be an
y in ter medi t e a

p os iti on of AB ,
an d G th e p os iti on at th e sa me i n s tan t
of th e movi n g p oin t on it . Th e n cl early A E
th ere fore A E : EG _
A C : EF A C z CD, follow s that
and it
G li e s on di gonal A D which is
th e a ,
th er e for e th e ctual path a

of th e m ovi ng p oi n t .

C h aps 9 cont ai n a digr es s i on on th e c on truction of

. s

pl an e n d olid gur e s i m il r to given gur e but gr eat er o

a s s a s r

l e s in gi v en r ati o H e r on ob s erves th at th e case of plan e

s a .

gur e i n v olve th e ndin g of mean propor ti onal betw een

s s a

tw o s tr ight li n es an d the c s e of olid gure s th e n di ng of

a ,
a s

two m ean pr op or ti on a l s ; in ch ap 1 1 h e giv es hi s oluti on of . s

th e l tt er pr obl em which is pr e s erv e d in P appu s and Eu tociu s

a ,

as w ell nd h , alre dy b een giv en ab ov e ( ol i pp 2 6 2

a as a v .
,
.

Th e en d of ch p 1 9 c on t i n qu i t e i n c on e qu n tly th e con
a . a s, s e ,

s t r ucti on of a tooth e d wh l to mov on an n dl cr w ee e e ess s e ,

a ft e r which ch p 2 0 m k es a fre h s t rt with s oma . ob erv a s a e s a

ti on on w ei ght in e quil i brium on a h ori on tal pl n e but

s

s z a

t en di n g to fa ll wh en th e pl n is i n clin ed an d on th r eady a e ,
e

mobility of obj e ct s of cyli n drical form wh i ch t ouch th pl an e e

in on e lin on l y e .

M oti on on an i n cli ned pla n e .

Wh en w eight is h n ging freely by a r ope ov r pull y

a a e a e ,

n o f or c e ppli d to th e oth er n d of th e r op e les th n th e

a e e s a

w eight it self will ke p it up but if th e w e ight is pl c ed on n e , ,

a a

i n clin e d pl an e n d both th e plan e n d th e p ort i on of th

,
a a e

w eight in cont ct w ith it e s mooth th c a i di ff r en t ar ,

e ase s e .

S upp os e g th t e, . w ei ght in th e form of a cyl i n der is pl ce d

.
,
a a a

on n i n cli n e d pl an e
a o th at th e l i n e in which th y t ouch i s e s

h ori ont l ; then th e force require d to b e pplie d to r op e

z a a a

p ar lle l to th lin of gr te t s l ope in the pl n e in ord er to

a e e ea s a

k e ep th e w eight in equ i l i brium i l es s than th e w e ight Fo s . r

t h e v e rtic a l pl a n e p as s i n g thr o ugh th e li n of c o n t c t b e tw n e a ee

th e cyli n d e r an d th e pl a n di v id th e cyli n d er i n to two e es

un equ l parts th t on th e dow nw rd s ide of th e pl ne b ei ng

a ,
a a a

th e gr e t e r s o ath a t th
,
e cyli n d e r will t e n d to r oll d ow n ; but

th e forc e r e quir e d to s upp ort th e cyli n der i s th e quiv len t

e a ,

n ot o f th e w ight o f t h e wh o
e l e cyli n d r but of th e diffe r en c e ,
e
 O N TH E C EN TR E O F GR A VI TY 351

S upp ort s how ev er th e pri nciples e the s ame W h eth er

As

.
, , ar

th e b ody is s upp ort e d o hu ng up it does n ot foll ow th at r ,

thi s w as a differ en t w ork from th at know n s n pi ( y i w a e v -

c

C h ap s 3 2 3 which ar e on th e pri n cipl es of th e l e v er o of

.
,
r

w e ighin g en d with n e xpl n ti on mou ntin g to th e fact

,
[
a a a a

th at gr eater circl es overpow er small er w hen th eir movemen t

i s ab out th e s m e c en tr e propos ition whic h Pappu s s y s

a , a a

that A rchimed es pr ov e d in h is w ork n pi I n ch p 3 2 e a .

,

too H e r on gi ves as h is auth ority

,
proof giv en by A rchi med s a e

in th e sam e w ork With I 3 3 m ay b e comp re d II 7 . . a .

,

wh er e H er on retur n s to th e s ame ubj ect of th e greater and s

les s er circle movi n g bout th e s ame c ntr e an d s t tes th

s a e a e

fa ct th at w ights r ecipr oc lly pr opor ti on l to th eir r di i a e

e a a a r

in e quilibriu m wh en u s p en de d fr om opp os it e en d of th e s s

h ori on t l d i ameter s ob rvi ng th at A rchi me des proved th

z a ,
se e

prop o iti on in hi s w ork O n th e e qu l i ti on of i n cli n ation

s

a z a

( pr es u m bly a

k II Th e e mech n i c l pow r
B oo

. v a a e s .

H ron d e l s with th e wh e l a n d xle th e l e ve r th e pull ey

e a e a , . ,

th e w e dg e an d th s cre w n d with c ombi n t i on s of th e e

e ,
a a s

p ow er s The d es cripti on of th e pow e r com s rs t cha ps 1 6

. s e , .

,

an d th en a ft e r II 7 th ,
pr op os it i on abov r eferre d to an d th
.
, e e , e

th eory of th ev eral pow ers b s ed upon it (ch ps 8

e s a a .

A pplic ti on s to s p ecic c e foll ow

a Thu s it is how n h ow as s . s

to m ov e a w eight of 1 0 0 0 t l n t s by mean of force of a e s a

5 t al en t s r s t by th e ,
y t em of wh eel s d e cribed in th s s s e

B po h o
a v s n xt by a s y t m of pull e y s
x , e n d thirdly by s e , a a

com b i n ati on of l ev e rs (ch aps 2 1 It is poss ibl e to combin . e

th di f
e fe r en t p ow e r s (oth r th an th e w edge) to pr oduc e th e e

s am e r es ult (ch p Th e w e dge an d Scr e w

a e d i s cu ss e d
. ar

with r e fe ren c e to th ir angles (ch aps 3 0 n d ch p 3 2 r e f r s

e . a a . e

to th e e ffect of fr icti on .

Mecha n i cs i n d a i ly life ; qu er ies an d a n s w er s .

A fter a pr e f tory ch pt er a n u m b er of qu eri es r es em

a a

blin g the A ri s t ote li an probl ems e s t t ed an d an sw er d ar a e

(ch a p e g
.
W h y d o w agg on .
w ith t
.
w o wh e l s c arry

s e

a w e ight m or s ily th n th os e with fe our ea Why a

P ppu iii p 1 0 6 8 2 0 3 1
a s, v , . .
-

.
 352 H ER O N O F A LEXA N DR A I
do gr at w i ght s f ll to th gr oun d in
e h ort er t i m th n
e a e a s e a

light er on es l Wh y d oes a t i ck br ak oon r wh en on e

,

s e s e

put on kn ag in t it in th e middl ? Wh y d o peopl e

s e s

ee a s e

us p i n c r s r ath r th an th e h an d to dr w
e e Wh y e a a

i its s y to mov w ei ghts wh i ch

ea an d e ar e

Wh y is i t th m or e d ifcult to mov s uch w e i ght th f rth er

e e s e a

th han d i s w y from th em r i ght up to th p oi n t of u p en s i on

e a a ,
e s s

o r p oin t n r i t 4 Wh y e gr t h i p s turn e d by rudd er

a ea
"
ar ea s a

alth ough i t is s o m ll l Why d o rrow s p n tr t e r m our s a

,

a e e a a

o m et al pl t s but f i l to p en tr t e cl oth pr d ou t ?

r a e a e a s ea

P r oble ms on the ce ntr e o f gr a vity , t

fc -

r .

II 3 5 3 6 3 7 h ow how to n d th c n tr of gr vity of
.
, ,
s e e e a

a tri ngl e qu dril ter l nd p en t gon r e p ect i v ly Th n

a , a a a a a a a s e . e ,

s u mi n g th t
a s tri ngl of un iform th i ckn s is upport e d by
a a a e e s s

a pr op t ch ngl e H ron n ds wh t w ei ght i s upp or t d

a ea a , e a s e

by ch prop ( ) wh n th e prop s upport th tr i n gl only

ea , a e s e a e ,

(b) wh n th ey upport th e tr i angl plu s g i v en w i ght pl c d

e s e a e a e

at n y p oi n t on it (ch p
a 38 L s tly if kn ow n w ei ght s a s .
,
a ,

ar e put on th e tri ngl e t each ngl h n d th c en tr of a a a e, e s e e

gr v i ty of th ys t m (ch p 4 0 ) th pr obl em i th n ext n d e d

a e s e a . e s e e

to th e c of an y p ol y gon (ch ap
ase .

Book III d l with th pr act i c l c on s tructi on of n gi n e ea s e a e s

fo ll s ort s of purp os
r a m chin e m pl oy i n g pull y w i th es , a es e s

on e tw o o mor
,
upp orts fo l i ft i ng w ei ght oil pr
,
r & e s r s, -

e s s es , c .

Th e Ca toptr ica .

h i s w ork n d n ot det in u l on g S ev r l of th e th eor t i c l

T ee a s . e a e a

pr opos i t i on w hich it c on t i n s a th s me s pr opos i ti on s a r e e a as

in th s o c ll d C topt i c
e of E uclid-
wh i ch s w h ve
a e a r a , ,
a e a

see n w in ll prob bil i ty th e w ork of Th on of A l x n d ri

,
as a a e e a a

a n d th r for m uch l t r in d t
e e I n additi on to th or etical
e a e a e . e

prop os i t ions it con tai n probl ems th e purpos of wh i ch i to

,
s e s

con s truct m irror s o c omb in ti on s of m i rr or s of s uch s h ap e r a

as w i ll r e ct obj ct in p rticul r w y e g to mak e th

e e s a a a a , . . e

right s id e pp r s th e r i ght in th pictur e (in s tea d of th

a ea a e e

r v rs ) to enab l
e e e p er on to s ee h is b ck o to pp e r in
,
e a s a r a a

th m i rror h a d dow n w rds with f c e di s t ort e d with thr e

e e a , a , e

ey es o two n os r nd s o forth C on c v e nd c on v ex es , a . a a
 TH E CA TOP TR I CA 35 3

cylin drical mirror s pl ay a p art in th es e arrang ements The .

wh ol e th eory of c our s e ulti mat ely d epen ds on th e mai n pr o

p ositions 4 n d 5 th t the an gl es of i n cidenc e an d reecti on
a a

ar e e qu al wh th er th e mirr or is p lan e o circul ar

e r .

H er on s pr

ff
oo o equ a li t o a n les o
y g f f i ncid e nce a nd ecti on
r e .

Le t A B be pl an mirror C the ey e D th obj e ct s e en

a e , , e .

Th e a rgu men t r est s on the fact that natur e d oes nothi ng in

vain Thu s light travels in a straight li ne th at is by th e

.
, ,

qu ick es t ro d Th er efore even

a .
,

wh en the r y is a li n e br ok en F
a

at a poin t by r e ection it mu t

, s

m rk th e s h or tes t brok en lin e

a

of th e ki n d c onn ecti n g th e e
y e

an d th e obj e ct N ow say s .
,

H eron I m ai n tain th a t the

,

s h ort es t of th e br ok en l i nes

(br ok en at th e mirr or) which

c onne ct C an d D is th l ine as e ,

CA D th e par t s of which mak e equ al an gl es w i th th e mirr or

, _
.

J oin DA an d produc e it to meet in F th e perp en dicular from

C to A B L tB b
. ny p oi n t on th
e mirror oth er th an A
e a e ,

an d j oi n FB B D , .

N ow A EA F A BA D

A CA E by hyp oth es i s ,
.

Th er efor e th e tri angl es A E F A EC h avi ng two angl es equ al , ,

an d A E c om mon a e e qu al in all res p e cts

,
r .

Th e r e for e CA A F and CA AD DF ,

S i n c e FE E C n d BE is p erp en d i cul ar to FC B F
, a BC , .

Th e refor e CB BD FB B D
FD,

i . e . CA + A O .

Th e prop os iti on was of cour s e k now n to A rchi med es We .

ga th e r from a s ch oliu m to th e Pseud o Euclide n Ca toptr ica -

a

th t he pr ove d it in a differ en t way n mely by r ed u ti o ad

a ,
a c

a bs u r d u m thu s Den ot e th e angl e s CA E DA B by or B r e

,
: , ,

s pe ctiv ely Th en or i s
. o B S uppose or B Then
,
r . .
,

A a
 PA PPU S O F A LE XA N DR I A

WE h a v e s e en th t
lden A g of Gr eek g eometry
a th e Go e

en d e d with th ti me of A p oll on iu s of P rga Bu t th e i nuen c

e e . e

of E uclid A rchi m d s n d A p oll on iu s c on t i n u d an d fo s ome

, e e a e ,
r

ti m th e re w s s ucces s i on of qu i t e comp tent math em tici ans

e a a e a

w h o lth ough n ot origi n ti n g anythi n g of ca pita l i mp ort n c e

, a a a ,

kept up th e tr diti on B es id es th os w h o w ere k now n fo

a . e r

p r ticul ar i n v s ti g ti on e g of n ew curv o urf ces th er e

a e a s, . . es r s a ,

w e re uch men s G m i n u w ho it cann ot b e doub te d w r e

as e s , ,
e

th oroughly f m i li r with th e gre t cl a s i c s G m i nu s as we

a a a s . e ,

h a ve s en wrote com pr h en ive w ork of lmos t n cycl opae dic

e ,
a e s a e

ch aract e r on th clas s icati on n d cont n t of m th m t i c s

e a e a e a ,

i n cludin g th e h i tory of th e d e velopmen t of each s ubj ct

s e .

B u t th e b eg in ni n g of th C hri s ti n e a quite a d i ffer n t e a r s e es e

s t at e of thi n g Exc e pt in s ph ae ic an d
s . tr onomy (Menel au s r as

a n d P t ol m y ) pr oducti on w as li m it d to e l em en t ry t xt
e ,
e a e

b ook s of d cid e dly feebl qu ality I n the mean ti me it w ould

e e .

s eem th t th e s tudy of high r ge ome try l an gui h e d o

a w s e s r a

com pl t ly in ab ey n ce u n ti l Pappu s aros to r ev iv i n te r st

e e a ,
e e e

in th e s ubj e ct Fr om th e w ay in w hich h e th i nk it n c es sary

. s e

to d e crib e th e c on t en t of th e cl s ica l w ork s bel on gi n g to

s s as

th e Tr a s u r y of A n lysi s fo ex am pl
e on e w ould a uppo ,
r e, s se

th at by his ti me man y of th em w er e if not l os t compl et ely , ,

forgott en an d th at th e great t k which h e t him s elf was

,
as se

th e e es ta bli h m en t of g eom e try on its for mer h i gh pl n of

r -
s a e

a chi e vem en t Pr e su m bly uch i nt er es t

.
he w abl e to s as as a

a r ou s e s oon ick e r e d ou t but fo u s h is w ork h a s an in ,

r

e s ti m bl e v alu e
a s c on tituti n g a ft e r th e w ork
a of th e gr e t
s ,
s a

math em atici an s which h v e actu ally urv iv d th e m o t im a s e ,

s

p ort n t of ll ou ources
a a r s .
3 56 PA PPU S O F A LEXA N DR A I
Date of P appu s .

Pa ppu s liv ed at th en d of th e third c en tury A D Th e e . .

auth or i ty fo thi s dat e i m argin al n ot e in a Leyd en man u

r s a

s cr i pt of chr on ol o i c l t bl s by Th on Of A l x n dr i a wh e r e e e a
g a a e , ,

opp o i t n m e of D i ocl ti n s ch oliu m y I n hi

to th
s e e a e a ,
a sa s, s

ti m P ppu s wrote Di ocl et i n r eign d from 2 8 4 to 3 0 5

e a

. a e ,

n d thi mu s t th r for e b th p e r i od of P ppu s lit e ra ry

a s e e e e a s

a ctivity It i tru e th t S u id as m ke h im c on t m p or ry
. s a a s a e a

of Th on of A l ex n dri a
e ddi ng that th y b oth liv ed u n d r a , a e e

Th eod o iu s I (3 7 9 s B u t S u id a s w e vid n tly n ot w e ll as e

a c qu in te d with th e w orks of P ppu ; th ough h e m en ti on

a a s s

a de s cr i pt i on of th e rth by him an d a c om men tary on four ea

B ook of P t ol emy S y nta xi s h e h a n o w ord ab out hi s gr eat e t

s s ,
s s

w ork th S yn goge A s Theon l s o wr ot a c ommen t ry on

,
e a . a e a

P tol my n d in c orp or t d
e gre t deal of th c omm nt ry of
a a e a a e e a

P ppu it i prob ble th t S u id h d Th eon comm en t ary

a s, s a a as a s

b for h im n d fr om th e oc iat i on of th e tw o n m wron gly

e e a as s a es

in f rr d th t th ey w er e con te mp or ri es
e e a a .

W or ks (com m e ntar ie s ) oth e r th an th e Collection .

Bes id es th e S y na goge which is th e m a i n s ubj e ct of th i s ,

cha pt er Pappu s wrot e s ev e ral c ommen t ari e s n ow los t e xc e pt fo

, ,
r

fr agm ent s which ha ve s urv i v e d in Gr eek or A r abic On e w a s .

a c om m en ta ry on the E lemen ts of E ucl i d Thi s m u s t p e s u m . r

a bly h av e b ee n pr e tty c ompl e t e fo wh i le Pr oclu s (on E ucl I ) ,

r ,
.

qu otes c ertai n thi ngs fr om Pappu s wh i ch may b e a s su med to

hav e come in th e n ote s on Book I fra g men t s of h is oommen ,

ta ry on Book X a ctua lly s urvive in th e A rabic (see a b ove ,

v ol 1 pp 1 5 4 5
.
, an d ag ai n E u tociu s in his n ot e on A rchi
.

,

me d es O n the Sph r e a n d Cyl in d er I 1 3 say s th at Pappu s

, e ,
.
,

e xpl ai n e d in hi s c om m en t ary on th e E lem en ts h ow to i n s crib e

in a c i rcl e a p olygon s i mil ar to a p olygon i n s crib e d in an oth er

c i rcle which problem w ould no d oubt b e s olv e d by Pappu s as
, ,

it is by a s cholia s t in a n ote on XI I 1 S ome of th e r efer en c es, . .

by P roclu s des e rve pass i ng men ti on 1 ) Pappu s s aid th at .

th e c on v er s e of P os t 4 (e qu ality of all right an l es i s n ot

g ) .

tru e i e it is n ot tru e tha t all angle s e qu al to a right an gl e ar e

,
. .

th ems e lves r ight s i n c e th e an gle betw een th e con t e rm inou s

,

arcs of tw o s e m ic i rcl es which ar e e qu al an d h a v e th eir

 WO R K S O TH ER TH A N TH E COLLE C TI ON 357

di mete r s at right an gle s an d t erm in atin g a t one p oi nt is

a

e qu a l to but is n ot a right an gl e (2 ) P ppu a id th a t

1
, , . a s s ,

in a dditi on to th e g en ui n e axi om s of Euclid th er w ere oth er , e s

on r c ord e bout un quals dded to a e a

e qu l n d e qu a l s
a s a dde d to u n qu als a e .

O th er s giv en by Pappu s a (say s r e

Pr oclu ) i n v olv e d by th e d en iti on s

s ,

e.
g th t all p art s of th pl n
. a n d of e a e a

th e s tr aight li n e coi n c i de with on e

n oth e r th t p oin t divides li n e

a ,
a a a ,

a li n s urfa c e an d
e a urface olid an d th t
, th i n n it e a s a s

,
a

e

is (obt ai n ed ) in m gn i tud es b oth by a ddit i on n d di m i n uti on 2

a a .

(3 ) P appu s g e pr tty pr oof of Eu cl I 5 which mod rn

av a e . .
,
e

e dit or s h a v e s p oil d wh en in tr oduci n g it i n t o t e xt b ooke If -

s .

A B A C a e th e e qua l s i d es in n i o c e l es tri n gl e P ppu

, r a s s a ,
a s

com p r s th e tr i n gl e s A B C and A CB (i e s if h e w r com

a e a . . a e e

p ri n g th e tri n gl A B C en fr om th e fron t with th s me

a a e se e a

tri ngl e e en fr om th b ck) nd h ow s th t th ey ti fy th e

a s e a ,
a s a sa s

c on di ti on of I 4 s o th t th y s e qu l in .ll r p ct s wh n c e
,
a e ar e a a es e ,
e

th r es ult foll ow s
e .
2

M ri n u at th n d of his c omm en t ry on Euclid s D ta

a s e e a a

r efer s to com m n t ry by P ppu s on th t b ook

a e a a a .

P ppu s c omm en t ry on P t ol e my S yn t wis h s lr e dy

a s a s a a a a

b n m n ti on e d (p
ee e it em s to h v e xt en d e d to ix. se a e s

B ook if n ot to th e wh ole of Pt ol my w ork Th e Fihr i t

s, e s . s

ay s th at h e al s o wr ot a c omm en t ry on P t ol em y

s P la n i e a s
-

sphae iu m wh i c h w a tr ns l t d i n to A r bic by Th abit b

r ,
s a a e a .

Qurr P ppu h i m e lf a llud s to h i ow n comm en t ry on

a . a s s e s a

th e A n a l em m of Diod o u s in th e c our e ofwh i ch h e u se d th e

a r ,
s

con ch oid of Nicomed cs fo th purpo e of tri ect ing an angl e

. r e s s .

W com n ow to P ppu s s great w ork

e e a .

Th e S ynagoge or Collection .

Char acter f the wor k ; wi d e

( ) a o r an e
g .

O bvi ou s ly writt n w it h th e obj ct of r evivi n g th e cl as s ic l e e a

Gr e e k g eom e try it c ov er pr ctic lly the wh ol e ld ,

It is s a a e .
,

P ro l
2
1
c us on Eu cl I , pp 1 8 9 9 0
. .
Ib
. .
, pp 1 97 . . 6 1 98 1 5 . .

3
I b , pp 24 9 2 0 2 5 0 1 2 . . . . .
 TH E COLLE CTI ON 3 59

s i z es an d di s ta n ces m oon ) A utolycu s (O n the

o f the su n an d ,

movi n g spher e) C a rpu s ti och (w h o is qu oted as havi ng

, of A n
s a id th t A rchi m e d e s wr ot
a on ly on e me ch n ic al book tha t e a ,

on s ph e r e m kin g s i n c e h e h eld th e me ch an ic l
-
a , ppli anc es a a

which made him f mou to be n ev rth les s u n w orthy of a s e e

written d es cripti on C rpu s hi ms elf w ho w as k now n s : a , a

m echa n i cu s appli e d ge om try to oth e r arts of thi s practic l

, e a

ki n d) C h m n d u (w ho add ed thr e i mpl e n d obviou loci

, ar a r s e s a s

to th os e which for m e d th b gi nn i n g of th e P la n e Loci of e e

A p oll on iu s ) C on on of S mos th e fri e n d of A rch i me d s (cit ed

, a , e

as th e prop ou n d e r of theor em bou t th e s pir l in plan e a a a a

which A rchi m ed pr ov ed th i w ould h ow e ver s m to b es : s , , ee e

a m i s t ak e as A rchi me d es s y
, t th e b gi nn i n g of his tr eati a s a e se

th t h e sen t c rt i n th orems w ithout pr oofs to C onon w h o

a e a e , , ,

w ould c rt i n ly h v prov ed th m h d h liv d) D m triu s of

e a a e e a e e , e e

A le x n dri (me n t i on d s th e uth or of w ork c ll e d Li ne r

a a e a a a a a

c on s i d er ati on s yp y y i m i s i e cons i der ti ons on

,
a rk a

e r r ac
c r et
-

,
. . a

curv es as to which n othi ng m or is known ) Dino t atu

, e , s r s,

th e br oth e r of Men ech mu (c i t d with N icomed cs a h vi ng s e , , as a

u se d the cu of H ippi
w
to wh i ch th ey g v th n me of
r ve as , a e e a

qu a d a tr ia r p y m l o
'

,
fo th e qu ari ng of th e circl e )
r er a u va a , r s ,

Diod or u (me n ti on e d s th
s uth or of n A n lemma ) Erato a e a a a ,

s th en e s (wh ose m e n nd e n ppli nc fo nding two or a -

r ,
a a a e r

a n y n u m b e r of g eom e tric mean s is d e cr i be d n d wh o is ,

s ,
a

furth r m n ti on e d s th e author of tw o Book On m an s

e e a s

e

n d of a w ork n ti tl e d Loci wi th r efer n c e to

a e e

E y cin u s (fr om wh os P
r a d ozca qu ot d v ri ou pr obl me ar ar e e a s e s

s eem i n g t r s t s ight to b i n c ons i s t n t with Eu cl I 2 1 it

a e e . .
,

b ei ng how n that tr ight li ne c n be draw n from two poi nt s

s s a s a

on th e b s of tri n gle to a p oi n t withi n th tri angle w hiph

a e a a e

a r e togeth er greater than th e oth r two id provide d th t th e s es, a . e

poi n t in th e b s e may h p oi n t s oth r than th e xtr emiti s)

s a e e e e ,

Euclid Ge mi n u s th m th em tic i n (from wh om i cit d

,
e a a a s e a

r e mark on A rchi m ed s con t i n e d in h is book On th cl s ic e a e a s a

ti on of th e math em tica l s ci n c es s e bov e p a H er clitu e e a ,

. a s

( fr o m wh om P appu qu ot an l eg n t oluti on of s g es e a s a ve c
rt

with r e fer enc e to a s qu r e ) H e mod o us (P ppu s s on to a ,

r r a s

,

wh om h e d e dic te d Books VI I V III of hi Coll cti on ) H er on

a ,
s e ,

of A l ex n dri (wh os e me ch n ical w ork

a a e xt ns ively quoted a s ar e e

fr om) H ie iu s th phil os oph r ( con t mp or ry of P ppu

,
r e e a e a a s,
360 PA PPUS OF A LEXA N DR I A

who is menti oned h avi ng k ed Pappu s s opi nion on the

as as

att empt ed s oluti on by pl an e m e th od s ofth e pr obl em ofth e two

means which actu ally giv es a meth od of approximati ng to

,

a s oluti on H ipp archu s (qu ot e d a s pr ctic lly a d opti n g thr ee

1
) ,
a a

of th e hypoth eses of A ri t rchu s of S amos ) M egethi on (to s a ,

wh om Pappu s d edicat d B ook V of h is Collection ) Menel au s

e ,

ofA l e x andri a (qu ot e d a s th uth or ofSphaer i ca an d as h a vi ng e a

a ppli e d the name n c ert i n cur ve) Nicomachu s

p i dogos to a c a a ,

(on thr ee means additi onal to th e r t thr ee) N icom ed es s , ,

Pa nd os ion (to wh om B ook III of th e C ollecti on is de dica te d)

r ,

Pericl es (e ditor of Euclid s Da t ) Philon of By an tiu m (men

a ,
z

tione d al ong with H er on) Ph ilon of Ty n (men ti on e d as th e a a

dis coverer of certai n com

,

plic ted curv d rive d from the in ter a es e

w eavi ng of plectoid an d oth r s urf ce ) Pl to (with referenc e e a s , a

to th e ve r egul ar s olid s ) P t ol emy Th eodo iu s (a uthor of th e , , s

Sphaer ica and O n Days a n d Ni ghts ) .

(y) Tr a ns la ti ons an d ed i tions

-

Th e r s t publi h ed ed i ti on of th C ollecti on was the Latin

s e

transl ati on by C omm ndin u (V n i c 1 5 8 9 but dated at the

a s e e ,

en d

Pisau r i apud H ie ony n u n C on co d i m rr e i s s u ed r r r a

with only the titl e p ge ch ng d Pis au r -

a U p to a e

r

1 8 7 6 p orti on s on ly of th e Gr k t e xt h ad a pp eare d n am ely ee ,

B ook s V I I V III in Gr k n d Ge r m n by C J Gerh ardt

, ee a a , . .
,

chap 3 3 1 0 5 of Book V by E i n n a m Pari s 1 8 2 4 chap s

s .
, se r r , , .

4 5 5 2 of B ook I V i n I o
ph i To elli Ver onen si s Geometr ica se r ,

1 7 6 9 th e r e m i ns of B ook II by John Walli s

, a
(in Oper a ,

mathema ti ca I I I O xford , ,in ddition the re s torer s a ,

of w ork s of E uclid nd A p oll on iu s fr om th e i ndi cati on s

a

fur ni s h ed by Pappu giv e xtr ct s from th e Gree k te xts e a

r elati ng to th e particul r w ork B r ton le C h mp on Euclid s a s e a

P or isms H all ey in h i e di ti on of th e C onics of A p ol l on iu s

, s

(1 7 1 0 ) an d in his tr n sl ti on fr om th e A rabic and res torati on

a a

r es pectively of the De secti on e tion i s and De s ecti on e spatii r a

of A p oll oniu s ( l C m r e r on A poll on iu s s Ta cti on cs

a e

S i ms on and H or s ley in th ir r t or ti on s of A polloniu s s P la n e e es a

Loci an d I n cli n a ti on s publ i h d in th e y e ar s 1 7 4 9 and 1 7 7 0

e s e

r esp ecti vely I n th y e r 1 8 7 6 8 a ppeared the on ly corn

. e a s

1
S ee vol . 1 pp 2 6 8 7 0
, .
4
.
 TH E C OLLE C TI ON . B OOK S I ,
11 , 111 36 1

plete G r eek text with pparatu s Lati n tr an s lation com

, a , ,

m en t ry a pp en dic es an d i n dic es by Fri e drich H u lt ch ; thi s

a , ,
s

gr t editi on is one of th e r s t mon umen ts of th e r viv ed

ea e

s tudy of th hi s tory of Gr ee k m th ematic s in the la t h lf

e a s a

of th n in e t en th c en tury an d ha pr op erly for me d th e mod el

e e , s

fo oth er d e n itive d i ti on of th e Gr e e k t ext of th othe r

r e s e

Cl s ic al Gr e k m th e m tici an s e g th e e diti on s of Euclid

a s e a a , . .
,

A rchi m e d A p ollon iu s &c by H e ib erg

es , n d oth e r s Th , .
,
a . e

Gr k i n d ex in thi s e di ti on of P ppu s d s erv s s p e ci a l m en ti on

ee a e e

b c u e it l argely ser ves

e a s d i cti on ary of math m tic l as a e a a

t r m s u ed n ot only in P ppu s but by th e Gr ek m th

e s a e a e

m tici n s g n rally
a a e e .

(6) S u m ma r y o f conte n ts .

A t th e b gi nni ng
w ork Book I n d the r t 1 3 p o
e of th e , a s r

p o iti on s (ou t of 2 6 ) of Book II a e m i ss i n g Th e r t 1 3

s r . s

pr op o iti on s of B ook II e v i d ntly lik th e r e t of th Book

s e , e s e ,

de lt with A pollon iu s s m th od of w orki ng w i th very larg

a

e e

n u m b e r s e xpr d in ucc es s i v p ower of th myri d 1 0 0 0 0

es s e s e s e a ,
.

Thi y tem h
s s lr e ady b en de crib ed ( ol i pp 4 0 5 4
s as a e s v .
,
.
,

Th e w ork of A p ollon i u s s ee m to h av e c on t i n d 2 6 pr op o i s a e s

ti on s (2 5 l e di ng up to an d the 2 6 th c on t i n i ng th e n l
a , a , a

c on t i n u ed m ultiplic tion) a .

B ook III c ons i t of four ction S ct i on (1 ) i s ort of

s s se s . e s a

hi s tory of th e problem ofn d in g two mean p op o ti ona l i n r r s,

con t i nu ed pr opor ti on , between two g ive n s tr a i ght li nes .

It begi n s with s ome gen era l r emarks a bout th e di s ti n cti on

b tw en th eor e m s nd pr obl ems P ppu ob rv t h t
e e a . a s se es a ,

wh er a th an ci en t c ll ed th em ll a like by one n m e s ome

e s e s a a a ,

r g rdi ng the m ll s pr obl ems and oth er

e a a th or ms a clear
a s as e e ,

di t i n cti on w as dr w n by th os e w ho f vour ed more e x ct

s a a a

t e m i n ol ogy A ccordi ng to th e l tt er a probl em i th t in

r . a s a

which it is pr opo e d to d o o cons tr u ct ometh i ng th or m

s r s , a e e

that in which given certai n hyp oth eses w in v s tig te th at

'

, ,
e e a

which follow s fr om and is n eces arily i mpli e d by th em s .

Th r e for e h e w h o pr op ou n d s a th eor em n o m tt r h ow h h s
e ,
a e e a

b ecom aw ar of the f ct which i a nec ary c ons e qu n c of

e e a s es s e e

th e pr e m i ss es m u s t s t t e s th e obj e ct of i n quiry th e r i ght

,
a ,
a ,

r s u lt an d no oth r On th e oth er han d he wh o propou n ds

e e .
,
 TH E C OLLE C TI ON . BO O K III 3 63

S e cti on The theor y of m ea n s .

N e xt follow a se cti on (pp 6 9 1 0 5 ) on the th eory of ths . e

di ffe r en t ki n ds of mean s Th di s cu s s i on tak s its origi n . e e

from th e s tat emen t of th e s econ d pr obl em which w s that

, a

of xhibitin g th e three m an s (i e th e arith metic g eom tric

e e

. .
,
e

an d h a r m on i c ) in a s em icircl e Pappu s r s t giv s a con

. e

s tructi on by which anoth e r g eome t er

(em s S) cl i m d to TL

a e

h av s olv ed thi s problem but h d o s not s eem to h v e u n d er

e , e e a

s t ood it n d r e tur n to th e s me probl e m l te r (pp 8 0

, a s a a .

I n th e m ean ti m e h e b egi ns with th e d n ition s of th e e

thr e me n s n d th en s h ow h ow given ny tw o of three

e a a s , a

te ms b c in rith m et i c l g eome tric l o h ar mon ic al p o

r a, , a a , a r r

g ss ion th third ca n b e fou n d

r e , Th de n iti on of th me n
e . e e a

(b) of thre e t er m s a b c in h arm on ic progr es i on b ei ng th t it

-

, , s a

sa ti e th s re lati on c d b b c Pappu s gives lt rn ative

s e a :
,
a e

d n iti on fo th e arith me tic an d ge om tric m e n s in corr e

e s r e a

s
pon d ing for m n am ly fo th e rithm e tic n a a a , b b c e r a r rr ea

a n d fo th e g e om tric a b
r b b c e : a .

Th e c on tructi on fo th h a r monic me n i p e rh a p s w orth

s r e a s

giv in g L t A B B G be tw o given tr ight lin es A t A dr w

. e , s a . a

DA E p e rp en dicul r to A B an d m k e DA A E qu l J oi n a , a ,
e a .

DB BE From G dr w GF at right
,
. a

a n gl es to A B m ee ti n g DB in F 0 .

J oin E F m e ti n g A B in C Then e .

B C is th r e qui re d h ar moni c m e n
e a .

For

AB zBG z DA z FG

EA ~
: FG
:

A C z CG
BC B C BC
(A B ) ( ) .

S i m il a rly by m e an s of a li ke gur e w e ca n n d B G wh e n
, ,

A B , B C ar e gi ven a n d A B wh e n B C , B G a r e g i ve n (in ,

th e l a tt er ca s e the p e rp en dicul ar DE is dra w n through G

i ns t ea d of A ) .

Th en follow pr opos iti on that if th e three m ean s and th e

s a ,

s e v e r al e xtr e m es a e r e pr e en t e d in on e s et o li
f nes th er e mu s t r s ,

be ve of th e m a t l eas t nd ft er s e t of v e s uch li nes h a v e , a ,

a a

been foun d in th e malle t p oss ible i nteg ers P ppu s p s s es to s s , a a

364 PA PPUS O F A LEXA N DR I A

th e probl em ofr epr esenting th e thr ee means with the re pective s

e xtremes by si n: li ne dr w n in s micircle s a a e .

Given a semicircl e on th di me te r A C an d B a ny poi n t on e a ,

th di ameter dra w B D t right ngl e s to A C

e ,
Le t th e ta ng en t
a a .

at D mee t A C produc ed in G n d meas ur e DH along th , a e

t n gen t e qual to D G J oi n H B mee ti ng the r diu s OD in K

a . a .

Le t B F b e perp en dicul r to OD a .

Th en Ex a ctly a s abov e i t is s h ow n th at OK is a h arm on ic

, ,

m n b e tw ee n OF an d OD
ea A l o B D is the g eome tr i c m e n . s a

b tw een A B B C while OC
e , OD) is the a rith metic m n
,
ea

b etw een A B B C , .

Th e r efor e th e s ix li n es D O C C ) OK OF A B B C B D , , , , ,

s upply th e three mean w i th the r es p ecti v e extremes s .

B u t Pappu s seems to h v f il d to ob s erve th at th e c er t i n

a e a e

a

oth r geon eter

e w h o h as th e am e gur e ex cludi ng the dott e d
r s

li n s uppli ed th e s ame in v li n s For he said that DE

es , e e .

is

h ar monic me n It is in fact the harmoni c me n
a a a

b tw en A B B C as is eas i ly s een thu s

e e , , .

S i n ce OB B is right an gle d tri ngl and B F perpen di cul r

a -
a e, a

to OD,
DF : B D B D Do ,

m
'

DE 0 0 .
e
A B Bo .

B ut DO 7 (A B BC ) ;

th er efore DE (A B . BC ) 2AB BC .

Th e r efor e AB (DF B C ) BC A B DE
.
.
( ) ,

th t is a , A B BC (A B DE
) (DE BC ) ,

an har monic mean b etw een A B B C

d DE is th e , .

C ons equ ently the j ive l i ne D 0 DF

( s :
, AB
exhibit all the thre e m ean with th e e xtre mes s .
 TH E C OLLE C TI ON . BO O K III 36 5

Pa ppu s
does n ot s eem to ha v e een thi s fo h e obse rves s ,
r

th t th e g eomet er in qu es ti on though s ayi ng that DE is

a
,

a h ar m on ic m ean does n ot s y h ow it i har mon ic mean , a s a

or b e tw e en w h t s traight li n es a .

I n th e n e xt ch apt ers (pp 8 4 1 0 4 ) Pappu s followi ng N ic o .

,

m ch u an d oth e r d e n s e v en mor e m n s thr ee of which

a s s, e s ea ,

w er an ci en t an d th e las t four mor e mod er n and h ow s h ow

e , s

w e can f or m all t n m n s as li n ear fu n cti on of or B y wh e r e

e ea s , ,

or B y a, in g eom etric l p r ogr es s i on

, r e Th xp os iti on h s a . e e a

alr e dy b een d es crib e d v ol i pp 8 6

a
( .
, .

cti on The P a r a d oxe

Se of E yci n u s s

r .

Th e third e cti on of B ook III (pp 1 0 4 3 0 ) con t i n a s e r i es

s .
a s

of pr op os it i on s all of th s me ort wh i ch a e curi ou s r th er

,
e a s ,
r a

th an g eom tric lly i mp ortan t Th ey pp e r to h v b een

e a . a a a e

t k n d i r ect from coll e cti on of P a a d oxes by on e E y cin us

a e a r r .
1

Th e r s t s et of th e se pr op os iti on s (Pr op s 2 8 3 4 ) a e conn e ct e d .

r

with Eu cl I 2 1 which ys th a t if from th e extr emitie

. .
,
sa , s

of th b ase of n y tri n gl tw o s tr ight li n e s b dr w n m e ti n g

e a a e a e a e

a t an y p oi n t w i th i n th tri n gl th s tr ight li n s t oge th r e a e, e a e ar e e

l es s th n th tw o s ides of th e tri angl oth er th an th b

a e e e as e ,

but con t i n gr eate r n gl e It i p oin te d ou t th t if th

a a a . s a , e

s traight li n s e l l ow e d to b e dr w n fr om p oi n t s in th e b
e ar a a as e

oth e r th n th e e xtr e m iti s th ir s u m m ay be gr at er th n th

a e ,
e e a e

oth e r tw o s id e s of th e tri an gl e .

Th e r s t c as e t k en is th at of r i ght n gl d tri angl e A B C a a -

a e

right n gl ed t B Draw A D to any p oi n t D on B C M as ur

-

a a . . e e

on i s DE qu al to A B bi s e ct A E e ,

in F n d j oi n FC ,
a Th en s h ll . a

DE + FC be BA + A O .

For E F + FC = A F + FO > A C .

A d d DE an d AB r es pe ct i v ely ,

an d we ha ve
DE + FC BA + A O .

Mor e e a l bor ate pr op os iti on s ar e ne xt proved such , as th e

followi n g .

1 . In an y tri an gle except an equilat er l tri an gl

,
a e or an i s os cel es

P ppu iii p 1 0 6 5 9 a s, ,
. .

.
 TH E C OLLE CTI ON . BO O K III 367

N ow EA +AO EF+ F0

E G + GC an d GC , a for ti or i .

Pr oduc e C C to K s o th a t GK E A + A C an d wit h G a s ,

cen tre an d GK as radius d e s cribe a c i rcl e Th i s circl e will .

me e t H C an d H G b e c au s e GH EB B D or DA + A C an d
,

GK a for ti or i , .o

Th en
To obta i n trai ght li n es H G G L s uch th at H G
tw o s

,

GL
BA A C w e h a v e on ly to ch oos G o th t H G
'
GL

, e s a ,

e n cl os e th e s tr ight li n es H G GL c om pl e t e ly
a .
,

N xt s upp o e th t g i v e n tri n gl e A B C in which B C

e s a , a a BA

AC , r e qu i r d to draw from tw o p oi n ts on B C to
we ar e e

an i n tern a l p oin t tw o s tr i ght li n s gr ater e pecti ly th n a e e r s ve a

BA , A C .

Wi th c en tr n d BA
B r diu s d s crib th e a c A E F
as e a as a e e r .

Ta k e an y p oi n t E on i t n d ny p oi n t D on BE pr oduc e d , a a

but w i thi n th e tr i n gl J oin DC n d pr oduce it to G o a e .

, a s

th at D G A C Th en with D as c e ntr n d D G s radiu

. e a a s

d es crib e a circl e Thi w i ll mee t b oth B C n d B D bec u

. s a a se

BA AC ,
an d a for ti or i DB DC .

Th en if L be n y poi n t on BH it is clear th at B D DL
, a , ,

a e tw o tr aight li n es
r s ati s fyi n g th e c on diti on s s .

A p oi n t L on BH c n be fou n d uch th t DL is qu a l
"
a s a e

to A B by marki ng off DN on DB e qu al to A B an d dr aw i n g
with D c entr n d DN as radiu
as e circl meeti ng B H
a s a e

A l s o if DH b e j oi n d DH AC

in L .
,
e ,
.

P r op os iti on foll ow (3 5 4 3 ) h avi n g a i mil r r e l ati on to th e

s s a

P os tul t e in A rchi m e d s On the Spher

a an d Cyli n d er I
e ,
e , ,

a b out c on t e r m i n ou s br ok en lin es on e of wh i ch wh olly en cl ose s

368 PA P P U S O F A LEXA N DR A I
th e o th r i it is h ow n th t br ok en li nes c on i t i n g of
e ,
. e . s a ,
s s

se v r l tr aight li nes n b e dr w n w i th tw o p oi n t on th e
e a s ,
ca a s

b se of tri n gl o p r llelogr m as xtr em i t i e n d of

a a a e r a a a e s, a

gr at er t otal l en gth th n th r em in i ng tw o i de of th e
e a e a s s

tri ngl o thr ee ide of th p r all logr m

a e r s s e a e a .

Pr op s 4 0 2 s h ow th at tri n gl s o p r ll el ogr m c n b
.
a e r a a a s a e

con tructed with i d e r p ct i v ly gr t er th n thos of given

s s s es e e ea a e a

tr i n gl e o p r llelogr m but h v i ng l
a r a a r a a a e s s a ea .

S e cti on The i n scr ibi ng f the ve

o r egu a r l s oli d s

in a s
pher e .

Th e ct i on of B ook III (pp 1 3 2 6 2 ) solv th

fourth se .
es e

pr oblem of i n cr i b i n g ch of th e r egul r ol i d in a
s s ea e v a s s

g i v n ph r A ft r om pr el i m in ry l emm as (Pr op 4 3
e s e e . e s e a s .

P ppua tt ck th ub t n tive pr oblem (Prop s

s a a s e s 8 ) u s i ng s a s .

th e m eth od of n aly s i f oll ow ed by y n th i s in th e c e of

a s s es as

ea ch ol i d s .

( )
a I n ord e r to i n crib e r egul r pyr a m id o t
s tr h e dr on in a a r e a

th e ph r h n d tw o c i rcul r cti on qu l n d p r ll l
s e e, e s a se s e a a a a e

to on no th er ch of wh i ch c on t i n s on of tw o oppo it
e a ,
ea a e s e

e dg it di m t r
es as If l b e th d i m t r of th e ph r th
s a e e . ( e a e e s e e, e

p r ll l c i rcul r cti on h v l
a a e a di am t r w h ere l ga
se s a e c

as e e , (
2
z
.

(b) I n th c s of th e cube P ppu s gain n d tw o p r ll el

e a e a a s a a

c i rcul r cti on w i th d i m t r cl uch th at d = g l ; s q u r

a se s a e e
'
s
2
c
2
a a e

i n s cribe d in on e of th es e c i rcl i on fa c of th cube an d es s e e e

th e qu r with i de p r llel to th os e of th e rs t qu r e
s a e s s a a

s a

i n crib d in th ec on d c i rcl e i th oppos i te f c

s e e s s e a e .

( ) I n th c s of th e oct h edr on th e m tw o p r ll el c i rcul ar

0 e a e a sa e a a

se cti on s w i th d i m t er cl s uch th t cl gd a e u d; n '

a
2 z
ar e se a

e qu i l t r l tri n gl e i n s cr i b e d in on
a e a a circle i on f c e nd th e s e a ,
a e

opp os i t e f c e i n qu i l t er l tri an gl e i n s crib d in th e ot he r

a s a e a a e

c i rcl but pl ce d in e x ctly th e oppo it e w y

e a a s a .

(d ) I n th e c s e of th i cos h edr on P ppu s n d four p ar ll el

a e a a s a

ci rcul r ct i on s e ch p i n g through thr ee of th v erti c s of

a se a as s e e

th i c os h dr on ; tw o of th e
e a e e s mall circl es c i rcu m s cribi n g se a r

two O pp o i t e tri ngul r faces r e p ectiv ely an d th oth er tw o

s a a s , e

c i rcle sb etw een th es e tw o c i rcl es p r ll e l to th em n d

ar e , a a , a

e qu al to on e n oth e r Th e p air s of circl es a e d e t er mi n e d in

a . r
 TH E C OLLE CTI ON . BOO K S III ,
IV 369

this w y If ol be the di a meter of the s ph er e set out two

a .
,

s tr aight li n e s as
) s uch th at cl a y a e in the r ti o of th e s id es
3 , , ,
r a

of th e r e gul ar p ent ag on h e x ag on an d d e c agon r es p e ctiv ely ,

d es cribe d in on e n d the s me circl e Th e s maller pair of a a .

circl e s h av e r as r adiu s wh er e r y an d th e l arg er pair

2 z
,

h av e 9" a s r ad iu s wh er e r x
2 z

(e) I n th c a e of th e d od c ah edron th e sa me four p rall el

e s e a

circular s e ctions ar e d r w n as in th e ca e of th e icosah ed r on a s .

I n s crib ed p en t gon s set th e opp os it e w ay e i n s cribed in th e

a ar

tw o mall e r circl es ; th ese pen t agon s for m opp os it e fac e s

s .

R egul ar p e n t ag on s i n s crib e d in th e l arg er c i rcl es with ve rtic e s

a t th e pr op e r p oi n t (an d ag i n s et th e opp os it e w y ) d e t e rm i n e
s a a

t n m or e v ertic
e of th e i n s cr i b ed d od c h e dr ones e a .

Th e con s tructi on a e quit e di ffere n t from th ose in Euclid s r

XIII 1 3 1 5 1 4 1 6 1 7 res p e cti v ely wh ere th e probl em is r t

.
, , , , ,
s

to c on s truct th e p articul r r egul ar s olid and th en to com

a

pre hen d it in a s ph er e ige to determi ne th e circu m cribi ng

,
. s

s ph e r e in ea ch c ase I h av et out Pappu s s propos it i ons in

. e s

d e t il e l s wh r e l
a e e .

k IV Boo .

A t th e b egi nni n g of Book I V th e titl e an d pr e fac e ar e

m i s s in g an d th e r s t e cti on of th e B ook b egi n s i mm ediat e ly
,
s

with an en un ci ti on Th e r s t secti on (pp 1 7 6 2 0 8 ) contain s

a . .
-

P r op os iti on s 1 1 2 which wi th th e e xc e pti on of Pr op s 8 1 0

,
.
,

see m to b e i s ol at e d pr opos it i on s giv en fo th eir ow n sak es and r

n ot c onn e ct e d by n y g en er l pl n a a a .

S e cti on E x te nsi on o f the theor e m of P ythagor a s

Th e r s t pr op os iti on is ofgr ea t i n t er es t b e i n g th e g en erali z a ,

tion of Eu cl I 4 7 as Pappu s h ims elf c al ls it which is by thi s

. .
, ,

ti me pr et ty widely k now n to ma thematician s The enun ci a ti on .

is as follow s .

If A B C be tri angl an d on A B A C ny p rallelogr ams

a e ,
a a

what e v er b e des crib ed as A B DE A CFG nd if DE FG

.
, , ,
a ,

produc ed m eet in H an d H A be j oi n ed th n th e par all lo , e e

grams A B DE A CFG ar e togeth e qu l to th p ar llelogr m

,
r e a e a
-
a

ot to Eu l i d r i t i
E
'

1
Vi d p
e n opo o i
esTh Th i t B ook o
f l d c
'
s s ns n e r een s uc z s

E l emen ts , pp 4 7 3.
,
4 8 0 ,
4 7 7 , 48 9 9 1 , 5 0 1 3 .

B b
 TH E C OLLEC TI ON . BOO K IV 37 1

w e m ay s ay th at th e alg e braic s u m of the thr ee parall elogram s

qu l
is e a to z e ro .

Th ough P a ppu s on ly t ak es one cas e as was th e Gr e ek h abit , ,

I see n o r e s on to doubt that h e w s aw ar e of th e r es ults

a a

in th e oth e r p os s ibl e cas es .

P r op s 2 3 r e not ew orthy in th t th ey u se th e m eth od n d

.
, a a a

phr s eology of Eucl X pr ov in g that c ertai n li n e in on e

a .
,
a

gur e is th e i rr ation al calle d mi n o (s ee Eucl X an d r . .

a c e r tai n li n e in an oth e r gur e is th e e xc ess by which th e

bin omi a l e xc ee d s th e s tr a i ght li n e whi ch pr od u ces wi th a

r a ti on a l a ea a m ed i a l wh ole (Eu cl X Th pr op os iti ons

r . . e

4 7
n d 1 1 1 2 a e quit e i n t e r es ti n g as g eom e tr i c al
a r x rci s e e e s,

b ut th e ir h ea ing is n ot obvi ou s P rop s 4 and 1 2

r e r ema rk : . ar

abl e in th at th ey e c as e s of na ly s i s foll ow e d by s y n th e s i s
ar a

a ppli e d to th e proof of theor em s P r op s 8 1 0 b el ong to th e . .

s ubj e ct of ta n gen ci es b ei ng th e s or t of pr op os iti on s th at w ould

,

com s par ticul ar c e in book s uch th at of A p olloniu s

e a as s a as

O n C on tacts ; P r op 8 s h ow s th at i f th er e ar e tw o e qu al .
,

circl es an d a giv en poi nt outs id e b oth th e d i ameter of th e ,

c i rcl e p ass i n g thr ough th e p oin t n d touchi ng both circl e a s

is giv en ; th e pr oof is in man y pl c es obs cur e an d as s u mes

a

lemm as of th e s am kin d as thos e giv en l ter a pr op os of e a

A poll on iu s s tr e ti s e ; Pr op 1 0 purp ort s to s h ow h ow giv en

a .
,

thr ee u n e qu l circl es t ouchi n g on a n oth e r tw o n d tw o to e a a ,

n d th e di m et e r of th e circl e i n cludi n g th em an d t ouchi ng

a

all th r ee .

S ecti on i n scr i bed i n the aa Aog

On ci r cles

shoe ma ker kn ife

s

Th e ction (pp 2 0 8
n ex t dir ecte d tow ards the demon
se .

s t ation of a th e or em ab out th
r rel ative s i es of s ucc es s ive e z

circles i n s cribed in th e a Aos (s hoemake r s knife) is ex

c
z

t em ely i n t er es ti n g an d cl e v er an d I wi s h th t I h d p c e
r ,
a a s a

to r e pr oduc e it c ompl et ely Th e oia Aog which w e h ve

. , a

a lr e ady m et with in A rchi m e d e s s Book of Lemmas

is
,

formed thu s BC is th e di ame te r of a s em icircl e B GC nd

. a

B C is divid e d i nt o two p rt s (in g ener al u n e qu al) at D ; a

s e micircl e s a e d es crib e d on B D D C as di ame t e rs on th e sam

r e ,

s ide of BC as B GC is ; th e gur e i n clud e d b e tw een th e thr ee

s e m icircl e
l

is th e a Aos s c

.
37 2 PA PP US O F A LEXA N DR I A

Th ere is , sa y s ppu s
r ecord n n ci en t propos i ti on to
Pa , on a a

th e foll owi n g eect Let ucc es siv e circl e s be i n s crib d in th e

. s e

a
cz Ao r t ouchi n
g th e em i circl es an d on noth er as how n s e a s

in the gur e on p 3 7 6 th i r c en tr es b e i n g A P O
. .
Th en if ,
e , , ,

p 7 9
l p
, b e
2
th,
p e rp3
en dicul r s fr om th e cen t
e A P O a

r es , _ ,

on B C and d d d th d i am et r s of th e c orr es p on di n g
1 , 2 , a
e e

circl s e ,

P1 dl P2 2 d2> P3 3 da

gi ns by s ome l emma s th e cours e of wh i ch I s hall

H e be ,

reproduce s s h ortly as I can a .

I If (Fig 1 ) two c i rcl s w i th c en tr es A C of which th

. . e ,
e

for m r i th e greater t ouch ex tern lly t B an d n oth e circl e

e s a a ,
a r

w i th c en tr e G touch es th e tw o c i rcl es at K L r s p ctiv ly ,

e e e ,

then K L produc d cut th e circl e B L g i n in D n d m ee t s

e s a a a

A C pr oduc e d in poi n t E s uch th at A B B C A E E C a z z : .

Th i s i s as i ly pr ov d b e c u s th e c i rcul r s g m n ts DL LK
e e , a e a e e ,

a e s i m il r
r n d CD is p rall e l to A G
a ,
a Th r for a . e e e

AB z BC z AK z CD z A E z EC .

A l so K E E L = E B2 .

For A E : E C = A B z B C = A B z CF = (A E

FI G 1 .

Bu t A E EC KE : ED ; the r for e e BE E F .

T h ere for e KE . EL E L E D BE 2 BE E F . .

A nd E L E D BE E F; th er efore KE EL E BZ .
 TH E C OLLE C TI ON . BOO K IV 37 3

II
Let (Fig 2 ) B C B D b ei n g i n one s tr aight li n e b e th e
.
, , ,

di amet er s of two s emicircl es B GC BE D an d let any circle as , ,

FGH t ouch both s emicii cl es A be i ng th e c e n tr e of the circl e , .

Le t M be th e foot of th e p erp en dicula r fi om A on B C r the ,

r dius
a of th e circl e
h er e e tw o c as e accordi ng
FGH . T ar s

as B D li es al on
g B C o B li e s b et w een D an d C ; i e in th e

r . .

rs t c as e th e tw o s emicircl es a e th e outer nd on e of th i n ner r a e

s e m icircl es of th e a
q Aos w h il e in th s econ d cas e th ey ar e


, e

th e tw o i nn er s m icircl es ; in th e l tt er c as e th circl e FGH

e a e

m y e ith e r i n clud e th e tw o s em icircl es o b

a n tir ly ext er n al r e e e

to th em N ow s ay Pappus it is to b e prove d th at
.
, s ,

in c as e
'
(1 ) BM : r
(B C + B D) (B C BD
) ,

an d in cas e (2 ) BM : r (B C B D)

FI G 2 . .

W e will con n e o ur s elv es to th e rs t cas e r epres ent ed,

in
th e gur e (Fig .

D ra w through A th e di ameter H F p r ll el to B C Th en a a .
,

s in c th e circl s B GC H GF t ouch at G
e e nd B C H F , , a , ar e

par ll el di ame ters GH B GFC e both s tr aight lin es

a , , ar .

Let E b th p oi n t of con t ct of th e circl e FGH an d B E D ;

e e a s

th en s i milarly B E F H E D ar e s tr ight li n es
, , , a .

Le t H K FL b dr w n p erp en dicul r to B C
,
e a a .

By th e s i milar triangl es B GC BK H we , h av e
BC z BG z BH z BK , or CB B K = GB BH ;. .

an d by th e s i mil ar tri an gl es BLF BE D ,

B F z BL B D z BE , or DB B L . FB B E . .
 TH E COLLEC TI ON . BOOK IV 37 5

Th er e for e (Lemma I ) if the two circle s touch th e semi

,

circle BE D in R E , res pecti vely FR E is a s traight li ne and

,

But E F FR FB ; 2
th er efore EH FB .

If now EH meets P N in O an d MA produc ed in S , weh av e,

by s i mil r triangl es FH FB
a , PH : P0 AH : A S wh enc e
,

PH P O an d S A AH , hat O
so t , S ar e th e in t rse ctions
e

of P N A M wit h th e
, res pectiv e circles .

Joi n BP , an d produce it to mee t [ VA in K .

N ow

AH : PH, from above ,

AS PO .

BM : B N -

BK BP

KS P0 .

A S, an d KA d , th e di a me t e r

MK z KS = PN z PO ,

PN : &d ,

PN : d .
 PA PPU S O F A LEXA N DR I A

We now come to th e s ubs tan ti ve theorem

IV .
.

Let FGH be th e circl e t ouchi ng all thr ee s em icircl es (Fig .

We have th en as in Lemma II , ,

an d for th e same r e as on (r egardi ng FGH touchi ng

s em icircl es E GC, D UC )

From rs t r elation w e h ave

B C : BD BL BK ,

FI G 4 . .

wh nc e DC BD K L BK nd i n v ers ely
e : :
, a B D DC : BK K L ,

while from the Second r lati on B C CD

, e , : CK CL ,

wh enc e

BK LC K L?

But we s aw in Lemma II (b) th at BK LC

T h er fore e

For th e se c ond circl e Lemm a III gives us

(29 1 + d 1 ) d 1 Pz i d z

whence s i n ce p d
,
1 l , p2 2 d2 .

Fe th e th i r d circl
r e

(P 2 d c) : d z 2 :
29 3 13
30 ;

w
A nd so on a d i nn i twm .
 '

TH E COLLE CTI ON Boox I V 37 7

Th e prop os ition holds when the s ucces s iv e circl es

sa me ,

i ns tead of b ei ng placed b etw een the large and on e of th e s mall

s em icircl e s c ome d own b e tw ee n th e two small s emicircl es
, .

P ppu s ne xt d eal s with p eci a l c as es (1 wh ere th two

a
) s e

s ma ll r s em icircl e s b e c ome s tr ig h t li n es p erp en dicul r to th e

e a a

di am te r of the oth er s em icircl e at its extremiti es (2 ) wh er e

e ,

w e re pl c e on e of th e s m ll r s em icircl es b a s traight li ne
a
y a e

through D at right ngles to B C and l as tly (3 ) w h r e i ns tead

a , _
e

of th e s e micircl e D UC w e i m ply h av e th e s tr aight li n e DC s

n d m ak e th e rs t circl e t ouch it an d th e tw o oth e r s emi

'

circl e s .

P ppu s s pr op os iti ons of c our i nclud e as particul r c as es

a se a

th e p r t i l pr op os iti on s of th
a a me ki n d i nclud e d in th e Book e sa

of L mmas attribut e d to A rchi m ed es Pr op s 5 cf p 1 0 2

e
( .
,
. .

S e cti on s (3 ) and Method s ofs qu ar i ng the cir cle , and o f

tr is ecti ng (or d i v id i n i n gl e
g an
y r atio
) a n y gi ven an .

Th e ctions of Book I V (pp 2 3 4 3 0 2 ) a e mai nly

las t se .
-
r

d e vot d to th e s oluti on s of th e probl ems (1 ) of s qu ring o

e a r

r ctifyi ng th e circle and (2 ) of tri secting any given ngle

e a

or di vidi n g it i n t o tw o p art s in an rati o To thi s en d Pappu s

y .

gives s h ort account of cert i n curves which w ere u sed for

a a

th e purp os e .

(a ) The A r chi med ea n spir al .

Hebegi n s with the s piral of A rchi medes prov in g ome ,

s

of th e fu n dame nt a l prop er t i e H is m eth od of n din g th s . e

a rea i n cl u d e d
(1 ) betw een th e r s t turn and th e i n iti al li n e ,

2 ) b etw een an y r adi u s v e c tor on th e r s t turn an d th e c u rv e ,

i s w orth givi ng b ec au s e it di ffe r fr om th e method of A rchi s

-

med e It is th e area of th e wh ole rs t tur n w hi ch Pa ppu s

s .

w ork s ou t in detail We will t k e th e area up to th e ra diu

. a s

v ect or 0 B say , .

Wi th cen tre 0 an d radi us OB dr w th e circl e A B CD a

.

Let B C be a cer ta i n fra cti on s y 1 n th of the a c E CUA

, a ,
r ,

an d C D th e sa m e fr acti on OC OD mee ti n g th e s pira l in F E , , ,

r e p e ctiv e ly Let K S S V b e th e ame fr acti on of straight

s .
,
s a

li ne K R th e s id e of a s qu ar K NLR Draw S T V W p arall l

,
e .
,
e

to K N m e eti ng th e di ag onal K L of the s quar e in U Q r e s pe c

'

ti ely
v n d dra w M U P Q p ara ll e l to K R
,
a ,
.
 TH E COLLE C TI ON . BO OK IV 379

We hav e i milar propor tion conne cting a gure circum

a s

s cri b e d to th e s pir al an d a ur circum s cribed to the cone

g e .

By i n cr eas i ng n the i n s crib e d an d circu ms crib e d u s can

g 1 e

b e c ompr es s ed t ogeth e r an d by th e u sual me th od of ex ha u s ti on

,

w e h a v e ulti ma t ely

(se ct or OA DB) (area ofs piral) (cyl K N NL) (cone K N N17 )

.
, ,

3 l,

( r of s pir l cut of
f by OB ) (s e ct or OA DB)

or a ea a .

ratio of th e sector OA DB to the complete ci rcle is th at

Th e

of th e an gl e which th e ra diu s ector d es cr ibes in pa s s i n g fr om v s

th e p os iti on 0 A to th e p os iti on OB to four righ t angl es th at ,

is by th e prop e rty of th e s pir al r a wh er e r

, OB a 0A , , ,
.

Th e r e for e ( re a of s pir al cut off by OB)

;
}
a
I

S i mil rly th e a rea of th e S p ir l cu t off by any oth er radi us

a a

v e c tor T rr

1r
a

Th e r e for e ppu s proves in his n ex t propos iti on) the

(as Pa
rs t r ea is to th e secon d as r to r
a
3 3

C on id erin g th e ar eas cut off by the rad i v ectores t th e

s i a

poin ts wh ere th e r evolvi ng li n e h as p ssed through ngl es a a

of i n 5 n d 2 re pe ctiv ly we ee th at th e areas ar e in
, 7r ,
a 11 s e , s

th e r ati o of (g, ) 1 o 1 8 s o th t th e
3
reas of
, r
, ,
a a

th e s p iral i n clud e d in th e four quad nts a e in th r ati o 1a r e

of l 7 1 9 3 7 (P rop
, , , .

The conchoid f N icomed cs

o .

con choid of Nicomed c i n ex t d es cribe d (cha p 2 6

Th e s s s .

and it i s s h own (ch ap s 2 8 2 9 ) h ow it c n be u se d to nd two .

,
a

g eome tric me n s b etw een two traigh t lin es an d con sequ en tly
a s ,

to n d a cub h avi n g a gi v en rati o to a gi ven cub e (s e ol i

e e v .
,

pp 2 6 0 2 an d pp 2 3 8 4 0 wh ere I h av e al so menti on ed
. .
,

P appu s r em rk th at th e con ch oid which h e d es crib es is th e

s a

r s t con choid whil e th e re als o ex i s t a second a thir d an d a

, ,

u r th which r e of u se for oth e r th eor ms )

fo a e .

(y ) The qu ad r a tr ix .

Th e qu ad r a tr ix is tak en n ext (cha ps 3 0 wi th Spor us s .

critici s m qu es ti oni ng the con tructi on as i nvol v i ng a peti ti o

s
3 80 PA PP U S O F A LEXA N DR I A

qu ri g h circl i a ttribut e d to
p r i n cipi i I ts u s e
. for s a n t e e s

m d T h wh l ub t c e of th 1 s
Din os tr atu s an d Nico e e s e o e s s a n .

s ub s e cti on is giv en a bo v e (v ol i pp 2 2 6 .
,
.

or the u a d r a tr i a; by m ea n s of
Two con s tr u cti on s f q
su r f a ce -
l oci

I n th e n e xt ch a pt e r s (ch a p 3 3 3 4 P r op s 2 8 2 9 ) P ppu s s .
, ,
. ,
a

gives tw o lt rnativ e way s of producin g th e qu ad r a tr i x by

a e

urf c l ci f which h cl ai m s th e me n t th at

me n s
a of s e o o a -e r

th ey e geometrical r th e r th an too mech n ical s th e

a a a
ar

tr aditi on l meth od (of H ippi s ) w s

a a a .

(1 ) Th e r t us smeth od
cyli n dric l h e lix thu s
se a a .

Let A B C b e a qua dran t of circl e with c n tre B n d a e ,

a

l et B D b e an y r di u s S upp o e a . s

th at E F dr w n from p oin t E ,
a a

on th e r a diu s B D p rp en dicul a r e

to B C is (fo ll s uc h r a di i ) in ,
r a

a giv en r ati o to th e a c DC r .

I s ay s ys Pappu s t h t the

,
a ,

a

l ocu of E is a ce rt i n curv e s a .

S upp ose a righ t cyli n d er

e r e ct d from th e qu dr an t an d e a

C cyl i n dric al h lix C GH dr wn a e a

p on it urf c Let DH be u s s a e .

th e g n r at or of thi cyli nd r through D m t i n g th e h e lix

e e s e ,
ee

in H .Dr w BL E ] a t righ t n gl e to th e pl n of th e
,
a a s a e

qu adr nt n d dr w H I L p r ll l to B D
a , a a a a e .

N ow by th e pr op rty of th e h el i x E I ( = DH ) i to th e
, e , s

ar c CD in g i ven r ti o A l so E F (a c CD)
a a . giv en r a ti o : r a .

Th r e for e th e r at i o E F EI is giv en
e A nd inc E F E I e . s e , ar

gi v en in p os i ti on FI i giv en in p o iti on
, B u t FI is pe pen
s s . r

d icu l to B C
ar Th er e for FI i in a pl n e g i v n in p o iti on
. e s a e s ,

an d s o th e re for e is I .

Bu t I is al o on c ert ai n s urf ce d cribed by th e li n e LH

s a a es .

which moves lw y p r ll l to th e plan e A BC with one

a a s a a e ,

e xtre m ity L on B L an d th e oth e r e xtr e m ity H 0 th e h lix 11 e .

Th er e for I li es on th e i n t e r se cti on of t h i
e urface with the s s

pl ne through FI
a .
 TH E C OLLEC TI ON . BO O K IV 381

H en c e I li es
c ertai n curv e Th ere fore E its proj ecti on
on a .
,

on th e pl n e A B C al s o li es on
a curv e ,
a .

I n th e p rticul ar c as e wh e r e th e gi v en r ti o of E F to th e
a a

ar c C D i s e qu al to th e r ti o of B A to th e a c CA th e l ocu s of a r ,

E is a
qu a d r a tr ix .

[Th e s urfa ce des crib ed by tr aight li n e LH is a plectoid th e s .

Th e s h p e of it i p erh p s b e s t r e ali ed s a con ti n u ou s s pir a l

a s a z a

s t irc s e
a a i e a s pir al s t irc s e with i nn it ely s m ll s t e p s
. . a a a .
,

Th e qu d r a tr i x is thu s pr oduc e d
a th e orth ogon l proj e cti on as a

of th e curv e in which th e
plectoid is i n ter s e ct d by a pl an e e

through B C i n cli n d t agiv en angle to the plan e A B C It is

e a .

n ot difcult to v e rify th e r e s ult n lytic ll

y] a a a

(2 ) Th e s ec on d me th od u s e rig ht cyli n d er th e bas e of which s a

is an A rchi m de n p i ral e a s .

Let A B C b a qu dr an t of a circl e as b for e n d E F pe

e a , e , a ,
r

p n dicu la
e t F to B C r tr ight
a , a s a

li n e of s uch l ength th t E F is a

to th e ar c DC as A B is to the
ar c A DC .

Let p oin t on A B mov e u ni

a

formly from A to B whil e in th e ,

s am e ti me A B i ts elf r e volv e
,
s

u n ifor m ly ab out B from th e p os ition BA to th e pos iti on B C .

Th p oi n t thu s d es cr i b es th e s pir l A GB
e If th e s pir l cuts a . a

B D in G ,

BA BG (ar c A DC ) (ar c DC ) ,

BG (ar c DC ) BA (ar c A DC ) .

T h er efore B G E F .

Dr aw GK t right n gl es to th e pl ne A B C and equ l to B G

a a a a .

Th n GK
e n d th e r e for e K li es on
,
a righ t cyli n der with the ,
a

s pir a l as b s e a .

B u t BK l s o li s on a c on ic al s urf c e with v e rt x B s uch th at

a e a e

its g en era tor s all mak e n ngle of with the plane A B C 1

a a 4 1r
.

C on e qu n tly K l i es on th e i n t er s e cti on of tw o s urfac es

s e ,

an d th e r e f or e on curv e a .

Thr ough K draw LK I p r lle l to B D a nd le t B L E ] be at a a , ,

right an gles to th e pl ne A B C a .

Th en LK I movi ng a lw y s p ar ll el to th e pl an e A B C wi th
,
a a ,

one e x t r e m i ty on B L a n d pas s i ng thr ough K on a cer tai n

 TH E COLLEC TI ON . BOOK IV 383

a c ert i n rati o shown in th e s econd gur e wh re A B C is

a e

a qu adr n t of a circl e e qu al to a gr eat circl e in th e s ph er e

a ,

nam e ly th e r ati o of th e s egmen t A B C to the s ect or DA BO .

Dr a w the tangen t C F to th e qu adrant at C With C as .

c en tre an d radius C A dr w th circl e A E F mee ti ng CF in F

a e .

Th n th e sector CA F i e qu l to th e s ector A DC (s i n ce
e s a -

CA 2
2AD while A A OF
2
, A A DC) .

It is r e quir ed th erefore to prove th at if S be th e rea cut

, , , a

of f by th e s pir al as ab ov e de c r ib e d s ,

S :
(surf a c e of h em i s ph er e) (s egmt A B C ) (s ect or
. CA F) .

Let K L b e a (small ) fra ction say 1 n th of the circu m , ,

fer en ce of the circl e K LM an d let H P L be the qu adran t of th e

gr ea t circle through H L meeti ng , th e s pir al in P . Th en , by
th e p r op e rty of th e s pira l ,

( ar c HP ) ( ar c H L ) z:
(ar e K L) (cir cumf . of K LM )

l : n .

Le t th e small circle N P Q p ass i ng through P be d es cribed

ab out th e p ol e H .

N e xt l et FE be the s am e fr acti on 1 n th of th e ar c FA , ,

that K L is of the circumfer en ce of the circle K LM and j oin E C ,

mee tin g th e ar c A B C in B With C as centr e an d CB as .

radi us des cr ibe the ar c B G m ee ti ng CF in G .

h en th e ar c CB is th e s ame fracti on 1
T , nth , of th e ar c

CBA th t th e ar c FE is of FA (for it is
a y s een that easil

A FC E A BDC whil e A FCA

1 4 CDA )
,
1
Th e r e for e s i n c e
.
,

(ar c CB A ) (ar c H P L), (ar c CB) (ar c H P ) an d chord CB ,

ch ord HP .
384 PA P PU S O F A LEXA N DR I A

N ow ( ct or
se HPN on s ph er e ) (s e ct or HK L on s ph er ) e

(ch ord HP) 2

(ch ord H L )
2

( cons equ enc

a e ofA rch i m ed es , On Spher e an d Cyl i n d er , I .

2
HP 2
HL 2
CB 2
CA

h er for e
T e

( e ct
s or H P N ) (se ct or H K L ) ( e ct or C B G) ( e c tor CE F
) s s .

S i m il arly if th a c LL b e t k en e qu l to th e a c K L n d

e r a a r a
,

th gre t circl e thr ough H L cut th e s p i r l in P an d a m ll

e a ,
s a ,
s a

circl e des crib d bout H an d through P m eets th e

e a HP L
ar c

in p ; n d if l i ke w i e th e c B B is m ad qu l to th c B C
a s ar e e a e ar ,

n d CB is pr oduc e d to m e t A F in E whil gai n c i rcul r

a e e a a a

a c with C a c en tr e an d CB r d i us meet CE in b
r s as a s ,

(se ct or H P p on ph r ) (s ctor H LL on s ph ere)

s e e e

(s e ct or C B b) (s e ctor CE

E) .

A nd s o on .

U lt i ma t e ly
th n w h all get gur con s i s tin g of s c tors
e e s a e e

on th e s ph er e circu m crib ed b out the r e S of th s pir l n d

s a a a e a a

a gur e con i ti ng of s ctor of circl e circu m cribe d bout th e

s s e s s s a

s egmen t CB A ; an d i n l i k e m nn e r w h ll have i n cr i be d a e s a s

gur es in ch c s s i m i l rly m d up
ea a e a a e .

Th me th od of xh u s ti on w i ll th en giv
e e a e

S :
(s urfac e of h em i s ph er e ) (s egmt . A BC) (s ect or CA F)
(s egmt . A BC ) (s ect or DA C) .

[ We may , as an i llu s trat i on

lytical equ i v l en t ,
giv e th e an a a

of thi pr op o ition
s If p b e th s ph eri c l coord i n t s of P
s .
, a) e a a e

w ith r ef er enc e to H as pol e n d th e a c H N K a p ol ar xi s a r s a ,

th qu ti on of P ppu curv is obvi ou s ly

e e a a4p

s s e a) .

If now th r diu of th s ph ere i taken a u n i ty w e hav e as

e a s e s s ,

th e el em en t of r a ea

dA d a) ( 1 COS
p) 4 d p (1 cO S
p) .

T h ere for e A 4 d p (1 cos

p) 2 7r
4 .
 TH E C OLLE CTI ON . BOO K IV 385

Th er e fore

A 2 7r 4 l
4

(s urfac e of h e m i s ph re) e 2 7r

(s eg men t A B C )
(s e ct or DA B O)
Th e c d p r t of the l s t s e cti on of Book I V (chap 3 6 4 1
se on a a s .

,

pp 2 7 0 3 0 2 ) is mai n ly c on c er n e d with th e pr obl em of tri

.
~

s ctin
e
g a n y g i v n an gl o dividi n g it i n t o pa rt s in any g i v n
e e r e

r ti o Pappu s begi n s w i th an oth er ccou n t of the di ti ncti on

a .
a s

be tw e n p la n e s oli d n d li ne problems (cf Book III ch p s

e , a ar .
, a .

2 0 2 ) cc ordi n g as th ey r e uir e fo th e ir
a oluti on th e
q r s

s tr a i ght li n e n d circl e on ly
(2 ) c on ic s o the ir quiv al ent
"

a ,
r e ,

3 ) high e r curv es s till which h ave a mor e c ompl i cat ed and ,

forc d (o u n n tur al) orig in bei ng pr oduc d from mor e

_
e r a ,
e

irr egu l ar s urf ce nd in volved mot i on S uch a e th e Cur ve s

a s a

s . r

which e d i s cover ed in th s o c ll e d loci on su r f ces a

ar e -
a

a ,
s

well oth er mor c om plicat e d s till n d m n y in n u mb er

as s e a a

di s cov e r ed by D m etr i u s of A l ex an dri in h is Li n ea con

e a r

s i d e a ti on sr n d be h ilon of Ty n by mean s of th e i n t er
a a a

l a ci n g of plectoid n d othe r urfac of all s ort s ll of wh i ch

s a s es , a

curv e pos ses s man y r em rk bl prope rti es pecul i r to th em

s a a e a .

S om e of th e e curv es h v e b en th ought bv th e m or e r ec en t
s a e

writ ers to be w or thy of con s id er bl e di scus i on ; on of th m is a s e e

th a t wh ic h l o r c ived from Men elau s the n ame of th e

a s e e

pa a d oxica l curv e
r O th e r s of th e s m e cl s s e s pir ls
. a a ar a ,

qu dratric es cochloid nd ci s oid s H e add s the oft n qu ote d

a ,
s a s .

e -

re e cti on on th e err or c om m i tted by g eomet er wh en th ey s

s olv e problem by me n of n i na ppr opri t cl ss (of

a a s a a e a

curv e o its quiv alen t ) illu s tr t in g thi s by th use in

r e ,
a e

A p oll on iu s Book V of a r e ct an gular hyp erbol a for n di n g th e

, ,

fee t of n ormals to pa r abol p s ing through one poin t a a as

( wh e r e a circl e w ould s e rv e th e purp os e) a n d by th ass u m

p ,
e

ti on by A rchi med es of solid O S in h i b ook On Spir als a VE O l

'

s

(s ee above pp 6 5 ,
.

a n gle
Tr i secti on (or d i vis i on i n an y r a ti o ) of an y .

Th e m e th od of tri s ec tin g a ny an gl e base d on a c ert i n O S a VG O t

'

is n ex t d e s crib e d with th e s oluti on of the a w its elf by

,
ue

was 2 C C
 TH E C OLLE C TI ON . BOOK IV 387

l ength (c on si st ent wit h a r eal s oluti on ) The pr oblem is b es t .

ex h ibit e d by m ean s of an alyt i c al geometry .

If B D a DC 6 A D 0 (s o th at DE ab/c) w e h ve
, , , a

poi nt R on B C s uch th t A R pr oduced olves th e

to n d th e a s

pr oblem by maki n g P R equ l to lo ay a , s .

Let DR x Th en s i n c B R R C
. P R R A we h v e
, e . .
, a

( a x )(b + x )
An b i u
o v o s ex p e di ent is to put y for /
s (c
2
wh en
we h ave
(a 1)
<
2 2 2
an d y c + 93 .
(2 )
Th es e qu ati on s r epr es n t a p rabol a and a hyp rbola
e e a e

r es p e cti v ely an d Pappu s d oes in fact s olv e the pr obl m by

,
e

m e n s of th e i n t er s ecti on of parab ol a and a hyp erb ol ; one

a a a

of h i s pr eli m i nary l emm s i h ow ev er ag ain a little mor e

a s, ,

g ene ral I n the abov e gur e y is r epr esent ed by R Q

. .

Th e r s t l e mma of P appu s (P r op 4 2 p 2 9 8 ) s t t es th at if .
, . a ,

fr om a gi ve n p oi nt A n y s traight line be dr w n meetin g

a a

a s tra ight li ne B C gi ven in p os iti on in R an d if R Q b e dr w n

"

, a

a t right n gl es to B C an d of l en gth b ea ri ng a gi v en r ati o

a

to A R th e l ocu s of Q is a hype bola

,
r .

Fo dr w A D p erp en d i cul r to B C and produc e it to A

r a a

s o th ta

A D DA th e gi v en r ati o
0

QR z R A z .

C c 2
388 PA PPUS O F A LEXA N DR I A

Meas ure DA long DA equal to DA

a .

T h en if QN ,
be p erp en dicul r to A D a ,

AD ? 2
A DZ)

(QR
2
(A R )
th t is
a , Qs A N A N

an d th e o l cus of Q i a hy pe rbol s a .

Th e e qu ti on of th
a hyp rbol e e a is cle rly a

2
$ l
wher e , is a cons tan t I n the p rticular c ase t k n by
t
. . a a e

A rchi me de s QR RA o l an d th hyperbola b comes ,

r u
, ,
e e

th e r e ctangul ar hyp erb ol a (2 ) bov a e .

Th se con d lemm (Pr op 4 3 p 3 0 0 ) pr ov es th t if B C is

e a .
, . a ,

giv en in l ength and Q i s uch poi n t th t when QR is dr w n

, s a a ,
a

pe rp en dicul r to BC BR R C k QR wh ere l i a given

a , . .
,
a s

l ength the locu of Q is pa a bola

, s a r .

L t 0 b e th m i ddl e p oi n t of B C n d let OK b e dr w n
e e , a a

right angl es to BC an d of l ngth s uch th at e

Let QN b e

dr w n p erpen d icul ar to OK
a .

T h en QN
2
OR Z
Z
OC BR . RC

lo (K O QR ) ,
by hyp oth es i s ,

h er for th e locu of Q is a par bol

T e e s a a.

Th equ at i on of th e p rab ol a r e ferre d

e a to DB DE , as a x es of
x an d y i s obv i ou s ly

2
b) = z.
}
2
x }
y .

wh i ch eas i ly r educes to

(a x ) (b + x ) Icy , as a bov e

rchi mede particular c se k a b/c

In A s s

a .

To olv e th e probl em th en w e h v e on ly to dr w th e p ar
s a a a

bol nd hyp rb ol in qu t i on nd their i nt er e cti on th n

a a e a es ,
a s e

gi v Q wh enc R n d ther for e A R P is d etermi n e d

es , e , a e , .
 TH E COLLE CTI ON . BOOK S I V , V 3 89

Book " V . Pr efa c e

gacity of Bees on th e Sa .

I t is ch ar act eri s tic of th e great Gr eek math ematici ans that ,

wh ene v er t h ey w ere fr ee fr om the r estraint o

f th e t e ch n ica l
lan guage of mathematics as when for i ns tance they had occa ,

s i on to wr it e a pr e fac e th e y w er e abl e to writ e in l n gu ag e of

, a

th e high est lite r ar y qu a lity com par a ble with tha t of the ,

phil os oph ers h i st or i ans and p oet s We have only to re call

, , .

th e i n tr oducti on s to A rchi me de s s tr eati ses and th e pr e fa c es

'

to th e diffe r en t B ooks of A polloniu s s Conics H eron th ough

.
,

s e ve r e ly p r a ctica l is n o e xc e pti on w h en h e h as an
, y g e n e r al
e xpl an ati on hi s t orical or , oth e r to gi v e We hav e now to , .

not e a lik e c as e in Pa ppu s n m ely the pr efac e to Book V of ,

a

th e Collecti on Th e edit or H ul tsch dr aw s att en ti on to th e

.
, ,

e l e g an c e n d pur ity of th e l angu ge an d th e c are fu l writin g ;

a a

th e latt e r is illu s tra t e d by th e tudie d av oidan ce of hi a tus l s .

Th e ubj ect is one w hi ch a w r it er of tas t e and i m gin tion

s a a

w ou ld natur ally nd attr acti v e n am ely the practica l intelli ,

g en c e s h ow n by b ees in sel ecti ng the h ex agonal form fo the r

cell s in the honeycomb Pappu s does not di sapp oi n t us ; the .

p as s g e is as attr acti ve as th e s ubj ect and des er ves to be

a ,

r pr oduc d
e e .

I t is c our se to men th at God has gi v en th e bes t an d

of
mos t p e rfe ct noti on of wi s dom in general an d of m th ematic al a

s ci en c e in p ar ticul ar b ut a p rti al s h a re in th es ,
things h e a e

all ott d to s ome of th e u n r eas on i n g an i mal s a s w e ll

e To men .
,

as be in g en dowe d with r eas on h e vouchsafed that they s hould ,

d o e v e rythi n g in th e li ght of r ea on an d d emons tr ati on but to s ,

th e oth e r n i mal s w hi l e d en yi ng th em r eas on h e gr n t ed

a , ,
a

th at ea ch of th em s h ould by virtu e of a certain n tur l ,

a a

i n s ti n ct obtai n ju s t s o much s is needful to s upport li fe

,
a .

Thi i n s ti n ct may b e obs erv e d to ex i s t in v ery m n y oth e r

s a

s p ci e of li v i n g cr eatur es bu t m os t of all in b ees I n th r t

e s . e s
,

pla c e the i r orderli ness and the ir ubmi s sion to the queen s w h o s

r u l e in th e ir s tat e ar e truly dmir abl e but m uch mor e a dm ira ble a ,

s till i s th ir emula ti on th e cl ean lin es s th e y ob se rv e in th e

e ,

gath er in g of honey and the for thought and hou s e wifely ca re

,
e

the y d ev ot e to its cus tody P res umably b ec au s e th ey know .

th em selves to be entru s t ed w ith th e t ask of bri nging from

th e g ods to th e a cc ompli s h e d p or t ion of manki n d a s h r of a e

1
Pappu s , vol . iii , p 1 2 33
. .
 TH E C OLLE CTI ON . BO O K V 391

the m e cir cu mfer en ce the s em i ci r cle i s the gr ea tes t with me

"

sa so
,

pr e li mi na ry l emmas which d es erve notice (chaps 1 5 .

,

(1 ) A B C tri angl e right angl d

is a -
e at B . With C as cen tre
an d r diu s CA a d e crib e th e a s r c

A D cutti ng CB produc ed in D .

To pr ov e th at (R d en oti ng right a

angl e
)
(s ector CA D) (ar ea A B D)
> R : A BCA .

Dra w A F at right gl es to CA meeti ng CD pr oduced in F

an ,

an d dr w EH p rp n dicul ar to A F
a e With A s cen tre n d
e . a a

A B as r diu s d es cr i b th e
a c GBE e ar .

N ow (a r e E B E ) (ar ea E B H ) ( r
a E B F) ( e ct or A BE ) a ea s ,

an d , co mpone nd o ,
A FBH (E B H ) A A B F : (A B E ) .

B u t (by an e a s yl e mma which h as ju s t pr ec d d ) e e

wh enc e A A B F : (A B D) A A B F : (A BE

an d (A B E ) (A BD) .

T h r for e (A BE ) (A B G)
e e : (A B D) : (A B G)
(A B D) A A B O, a for ti or i .

T h r efore A BA F A B A C (A BD) A A BO
e : ,

wh en c i n ve rs e ly A A BC (A B D) A BA C A BA F
e, ,
: : .

a n d compon nd o
, (s e ct o
er A C D) (A,
B D ) R A B CA : .

[ If or b e th circul ar m eas ur of A B OA thi s gi ve s (if A C = b)

e e ,

s 1 n a cos oz . b)

2a :
(2 a s n 2a i
) 7r : 2a ;

th t
a is , -
whe r O 6
s in ] 0) e 1r .

( )
2 A B C is g i n a tri an gl e right an gl e d
a a tB With C -
a . as

c en tre an d CA as r adius dr w a circl e A D m e ti ng B C p o a e r

d u ce d in D To pr ov th at
. e

(s e ct or CA D) ( r e A B D ) R LA C D a a : .
3 92 PA PP US O F A LEXA N DR I A

Draw A E right at an gl es to A C . Wi th A as cen tr e n d a

AC as radius d s crib e e th e circle FCE m e e ti ng A B produc d e

in F and A E in E .

Th n i n ce A A C D
e ,
s A CA E , (s ector A CD) (s ector A CE ) .

T h er e for e
(A CD) A A BO (A CE ): A A B O
(A CE ) (A CE a for ti or i ,

A EA C : A CA B .

I n v er s ely ,

A A BC : (A CD) A CA B : A E A C ,

an d , co mponend o

(A B D)z (A CD) A EA B : A EA C .

I n ver ly se , (A CD) (A B D) A EA C A EA B

R : A A CD .

ppl i c t i on of these l emm to th e

n ow to th e a a as

prop os i ti on comp r i ng th r e of a s emicircl e w i th th t of

a e a a a

oth er s eg m en t s of qu l c i rcu m f er en c e (ch ap s 1 7

e a .

A se m icir cle i s the gr ea tes t of a ll segm en ts of ci r cles whi ch

h ave the s a me ci r cu mfer en ce .

Le t A B C b e a se micircl e
with cen tre G an d , DE F an oth er
se g ment of a c i rcle s uch th t th circu mf er nc e
a e e DE F is e qu l a

to th e c i rcumfer en ce A B C I ay tha t th e ar ea of A B C is . s

gr e ter th n th rea of DE F
a a e a .

Let H be th e c n tr e of th e circl e DE F Draw EH K B G at

e .
,

right ngl es to DE A C r es p ecti v ely Join DH an d draw

a , .
,

LH M p ar ll e l to DF a .
 TH E C OLLE C TI ON . BO O K V 3 93

LH : A G z :
(ar e LE ) (ar c A B )
(ar c LE ) (ar c DE )
(se ct or LH E ) : (s ect or DH E ) .

A l so LH
: A GZ (sector LH E ) (s ect or A GB) .

Th er ef or e the ctor LH E is to the s ector A GB

se in the
rati o duplic ate of that which th e s ector LH E has to the
s e ct or DH E .

Th e r efor e

(s e ctor LH E ) ( e ctor DH E ) (s e ctor DH E ) (sector A GB)

s .

N ow (1 ) in t h e c as e of th e s eg men t l es s th an a semicir cle

an d (2 in th e c ase of th e s eg m en t grea t e r th an a s emicircl e
)
(s e ctor E DH ) (E DK ) R A DH E ,

by the l emmas (1 ) and (2 ) r sp e ctiv ly e e .

Th at is ,

(sector E DH ) (E DK ) A LH E A DH E :

(s ect or LH E ) (s e ct or DH E ) :

(s ector E DH ) (s ect or A GB ) ,

from abov e .

Th erefor e the h alf s egmen t E DK is les s th an the half

s e micircl e A GB , wh en ce th e s micircl e e A BC is gr eat er th an
th e g ment DE F
se .

We hav e a lready des crib d th con tent of Z enod or us s

e e

tr eati s e (pp 2 0 7 1 3 b ov ) to which s o far as pla ne gu r es

.

, a e ,

a e c on c e r n ed Pappu s
r , dd e d n othin g e xce pt th e above pr o
a

pos iti on re lati n g to s egm n ts of circle e s .

S e cti on Compar i s on o f volu mes of soli d s having their

su r faces equ a l . Ca se of the spher e .

Th e p ortion of Book V deali ng with s olid g ur es begi ns

(p . 3 5 0 2
. 0 ) wit h th e s t at e m en t th a t th e phil os oph er s wh o

con sidered th at the cr eator g ve th e u ni verse the for m of a a

s ph e r e bec au s e th at w as th e mo t b eautiful of all s h ap es al s o s

a s s ert ed th at th e s ph er e i s th e gr e t e s t of all s olid gures a

 TH E C OLLE C TI ON . B O OK V 395

of th e s ph er e Pa ppu s qu ote s A rchi me des On the Spher e a n d

, ,

Cyli n d e but thin k s proper to add a s eri s of propos iti on

r , e s

(ch a p s 2 0 4 3 pp 3 6 2 4 1 0 ) on m uch th e sa me li ne as tho e of

.
, .
s s

A rchi me de s an d l eadi ng to th e sam r ult s s A rchi m ed es e es a

obt ai n fo th e s urf c ofa seg m en t of s ph er e a n d of th e wh ol e

s r a e a

s ph er e P r op th e v olu m of s ph e r e
( n d fo .
(P r op
a r e a .

P r op 3 6 (ch a p 4 2 ) s h ow h ow to divide a s ph er e i n t o two

. . s

s gmen t
e s uch th t th e ir s urfa c e
s e in give n r ti o nd
a s ar a a a

P r op 3 7 (ch a p 4 3 ) pr ov s th t th e v olu me as w ell

. . th e e a
'

as

s urfac of th e cyli n d er circu ms cribi ng a s ph ere is l tim s

e e

th t of th e s ph er e itself
a .

A mon g th e l e mm atic pr op o iti on s in thi s s e cti on of th e s

B ook Pr op s 2 1 2 2 m ay b m en ti on e d
. P rop 2 1 prove th t
,
e . . s a ,

if C E be tw o p oi n t s on th e t ng en t t H to s emicircle uch
, a a a s

th t CH H E nd if CD E F b e drawn p e rp en d i cular to th e
a , a ,

di amet er A B th en (CD E F) CE A B DF ; P rop 2 2 prove

,
. s

a like r es ult wh r e C E e poin t on th e emicircl e CD E F e , ar s s , ,

a e as b e for p rp ndicul r to A B and E H is th e chord of

'

r e e e a ,

th e circl e s ubt e n di ng th e a e which w i th CE makes up a s emi r

circle ; in th i s c as (C D + E F) CE E H DE Both res ults e : . .

ar e ea i ly ee n to b e th
s e quiv l en t of th e trig on ome tric l
s e a a

for mula
s in
y) 2 s in x cos y,

or ,
if ce rtai n differen t an gl es be t ak en a s x , y ,

s in x s in y CO t7 1

cos y co sx

S e cti on (5 ) Ofr egu lar s oli d s wi th s u rfa ces equ a l tha t i s ,

gr ea ter whi ch ha s m or e faces .

R e tur n in g to the mai n pr obl e m of th e B ook Pa ppu s s how s ,

th a t of th e v e r egular s olid gure s a ss ume d to ha v e th e ir

,

s urfa c e s equ a l th at is gr ea t e r which h a s th e m or e f a c e s s o

, ,

tha t th e py ra mid, th e cube th e octa h edr on th e dode ca h e dron , ,

an ico h edr on of qu l s urf c a e s r g rds olid

d th e sa e a a e r , a e a s

c onten t in a cen di n g order of magn itude (Pr op 3 8

,
s s .

Pa ppu s i n dic te (p 4 1 0 2 7 ) th at s om e of the n ci n t s h d

a s . .
a e a

w orke d out th e proofs of th e e prop o ition s by th e n lytic l s s a a a

meth od ; for hi mse lf h e w ill g i e meth od of his ow n by ,

v a
396 PA PPUS or A LEXA N DR A I
s yn th etic l deducti on fo which h e cl im s th t it is clear er
a ,
r a a

an d s h or te r W have r t pr opos iti on (with au x iliary

. e s s

lemm ) ab out th e pe rpen diculars fr om th cen tr e of th e

as e

circums cribi ng s ph er e to f c e of (a ) the octah e dr on (b) th e a a ,

icos h edr on (Pr ops 3 9

a th en th pr opo iti on that i f .
,
e s , a

dodecah edr on nd an ico ah edr on b i n s cribe d in the same a s e

'

s ph r e th e am
e ,
ma ll circl e in th e ph e r e circu m cribe s b oth
s e s s s

th epent gon of th e d od ecah ed on n d th trian gl e of th

a r a e e

icos h edron (Pr op

a thi s la t i th prop os iti on pr ov ed by . s s e

in th e s o c ll d B ook XI V of Euclid P rop 2

H yp icl s es nd -
a e ,
.
, a

Pa ppu s giv e tw o m eth od of pr oof th e s ec on d of which (ch p

s s ,
a .

5 6 ) c orr e p on d to th t of H y p icl s
s Pr op 4 9 prov es th t
s a s e . . a

tw elve ofth e r egul r p ent gon in cribe d ina circl e r e togeth er a a s s a

gr e t r th n tw enty of th e quilat r l tri ngl es i n s cribed in

a e a e e a a

th e s ame circl Th e n l p r op os iti on provi ng th at th e cube

e . a s

i gr at e r th n th pyr mid with th s me s urfa c e th e oct

s e a e a e a ,
a

h ed on gre t r th n th cub
r nda e o on a e Pr op s 52 6 a e e, a s , r .

(chap 6 0 O f P ppu auxil i ry pr op o iti on P r op 4 1

s . a s s a s s, .

i s pr ctic lly con t i ne d in H y p icle s Pr op 1 an d Pr op 4 4

a a a s s .
, .

in H yps icle s l t l emma ; but oth erwi e th xpos iti on i

s as s e e s

differ ent .

Boo k VI .

O n th e con te n ts of bri ef It is m in ly Book V I w e be

'

ca n . a

as tronomic al d e l i ng with the tr eati ses in clud d in the s o

, a e

c ll d Li ttl A s tr on omy th at is the s m ll r as tron omic l

a e e , ,
a e a

tr ti s s which w e r s tudi d s n i n troducti on to th e gr at

ea e e e a a e

S yn ta xi of P tol my s Th pr e f c s ay s th at m n y of th o e e . e a e a s

w h o t aught th e Tr ea su y of A str on omy thr ough a c r l es s r , a e

u nd rs t n ding of th e propos iti on a dded s om thi ng s as being

e a s, e

n e c ss ry an d om itt e d oth e rs
e a s u n ne c es s ary P ppu s m en ti ons a . a

a t thi s p oi n t n i n c orr ect a ddi ti on to Th eod o iu s Sphae ica

a s , r ,

III 6 n om i s s ion fr om Euclid s P ha en omen a Pr op 2 n

.
,
a

, .
, a

i n ccurat r pr e ent ti on of Th eodos iu s On Days a n d N ights

a e e s a , ,

P rop 4 an d th omi i on l t e r of c ert i n oth er thin gs a s

.
, e ss a a

b ein g u nneces sary H is obj ect is to put th e mi s ta kes . se

right A llu i on s e ls o found in th e Book to Men elau s s

. s ar a

Sph e i ca e g th e s t t e men t (p 4 7 6 1 6 ) tha t M en el au in

a r , . . a . . s

h is Sp haer i ca c ll d a s ph eric al tri n gl e p n A po th ee sid e

'
a e a r t ev u, r -
.
 TH E COLLE C TI ON B OO K S V VI 397
'

.
,

The Sphaer i ca of Theod os iu s is dealt with at s o me l ength

(chap s 1 2 6 Prop s 1
.
-

an d, . so ar e th e theorems of
A ut olycu s On the movi ng Spher e (ch a p s 2 7 . Th eod os iu s
On Days a n d N ights (ch a p s 3 0 6 , P rops 2 9 .
-

. A ri s tarchu s
On the si z es a nd d is ta n ces ofthe S u n a nd Moon (ch aps 3 7 4 0 , .
.

i n clu d i ng a pr opos iti on Pr op 3 9 with two l emm as, which is , .

corrupt at th en d an d e is not r eally prov e d) Eucli d s Opti cs ,

(ch a p s 4 1 5 2 Pr op s 4 2 an d Euclid s P haen om en a ch ap s

.

,
.
( .

5 3 6 0 P r op
, 55 s .

P r oblem i s i ng f Eu clid Opti cs

ar ou t o s

T h er e i little in the Book of gen eral math m tical i nterest

s e a

e x c ept th e f oll owi n g pr op os i t i on s which occur in th e s e cti on on

E uclid s Op ti cs

.

Two pr op os iti on s ar e fun damenta l in s ol i d g eometry ,

n am e ly
:

( )
a If fr om a p o i n t A a b ov e pl an e A B b e dr a w n p er p en i a

d icular to th plan e and i f fr om B a s tr ight l i n e B D be

e , a

dr aw n p erpen dicular to any s tr ight li n e E F in the plane a

th en will A D al s o be p er p en dicular to EF (Pr op .

(b) If from p oin t A abov e a pl n e A B be dr wn to the pl an e

a a a

but n ot at r ight n gles to it n d A M be draw n p erpen dicul ar

a , a

to th e pl an e (i if BM be th orth ogonal proj e cti on of BA on

. e . e

th e pl ane) th e an gle A B M is th e leas t of all th

,
n gl es which e a

A B ma kes with any s tr aight li n e thr ough B s B P in the s ,

a ,

plane ; the an gl e A BP i n cr ase s as BP moves aw y from BM e a

on e ith er s id an d giv en an y str aight lin e B P making

'

e ,

a c ert a i n an gl e with BA on ly on e oth e r s trai ght li ne in th e ,

plan e will m k th e same n gl with B A nam ly s traight

a e a e ,
e a

li n e BP on th oth er s id e of B M making the s am ngle with

e e a

it that BP does (Pr op .

Th es e a e th e rs t of a s r i e of l emmas l e di n g up to th e
r e s a

mai n pr obl e m the i n ves tig ti on of th e app r en t f or m of

,
a a

a circl e as s e n from a p oi n t out s id e its pl an

e I n Pr op 5 0 e . .

Euclid Op ti cs 3 4 ) P appu s pr ov es th e fa ct th t all th e

, ,
a

diamet er s of th e circle will app r e qual if the s tr aight line ea

dr aw n from th e poi nt repr es en tin g the ey e to th e centre of :

th e circle is eith e r (a ) at right n gl es to th e plan e of th e circl e a

or (b) if n ot t right angl e s to th pl an e of th e circl e is e qu al

,
a e ,
 TH E C OLLEC TI ON . BO O K S V I , VI I 399

The t es t of pparent equ ality is of cours e th t the tw o s tr igh t

a a a

l i n es s h ould su bten d e qu al n gl es at F a .

Th e m ai n p oi n t s in th e pr oof a e th es e Th e pl an e thr ough r .

C F CK is p e rpen dicul ar to th e pl a n es BEE P EM n d LFR ;

, , a

h en ce CF is p erp en dicul r to BE QF to P M nd H F to LR a ,
a ,

wh en ce B C n d CE s ubten d equ al angles at F s o d o LH H R

a : , ,

an d P Q QM
, .

S i n c e FC bi s e ct s th e a n gl e A FD and A C : CD AK :KD ,

(b y th e polar prop e rty) A CFK is a right an gl e A n d CF is , .

th e i n t er s e ct ion of tw o pl anes at r i ght a ngl es n amely A FK ,

a nd for mer of which FK li es ; th er e for e K F is

B EE , in th e
p rp en dicular to th pl n e BEE nd th erefore to EN S i n c
e e a ,
a . e

th re for (by th e p ol r pr op erty) LN NP LK K P it

e e a : ,

follow s th at the an gl e LEP is bi s e ct ed by FN hence LN NP ,

ar e pp r en tly equ l
a a a .

A g i n L C C M = LN N P
a LF FP
z LF FM z z z .

Th r e for e th e an gles LFC CFM

e e e qu l n d L C CM , ar a ,
a ,

ar e a pp r en tly e qu la a .

L tly as FP ; th ere fore

th e i s os ce l es tr i n gl es FLB FP M e e qui n gul r
a th ere ,
ar a a

for th e ngl es P EM LFR n d con s equ en tly P FQ LFH ar e

e a , ,
a , ,

e qu l a H en c e LP R M w i ll pp ar to be p ar alle l to A D
.
,
a e .

We h v e b ed on thi s propositi on n eas y method of

a , as ,
a

s olvi n g P ppu s s n al probl em (Pr op Giv en circl

a . a e

A B DE an d any p oi n t withi n it to nd out s ide th e pl n of ,

a e

th e circl p oi n t from which th e circl e will h v th ppe r

e a a e e a a

an c of n ll i p e with c e n tr e C

e a e s .

W h v e onl y to pr oduc the diamet er A D throug h C to th e

e a e

pol e K of th ch ord BE perpen dicul r to A D nd th n in

e a a e ,

th pl n e thr ough A K p erp en dicul r to th e pl n e of th c i rcl

e a a a e e,

to d s cri b e s m ic i rcl
e aon OK a di m et r
e A ny poi n t F on e s a e .

thi s s m icircl s at i s es th e c on diti on

e e .

B oo k VI I . On the
Tr ea s u r y of A na lys i s

.

B oo k m uch
gr eat r i mportan c e s i n c e it giv s n
V I I is of e , e a

a ccou ntof th b ook s for mi n g wh t w a c ll d th e T asu y o

e
f a s a e r e r

A n a lysi s (d h p os 6 9) and as r e g rd s th os of th e book s

va v eu

1 11 0
-

,
a e

which a e n ow lo t P ppu s s ccou n t with th e hi n t s d eri vabl e

r s , a

a ,

fr om th e l rg e colle cti on of l emmas s uppli e d by him to ea ch

a
40 0 PA PPU S O F A LEXA N DR I A

book pr ctically con stitutes ou on ly s ourc e of in for mati on

, a r .

Th e Book b egi n s (p 6 3 4 ) with den i t i on of a n a lysi s an d . a

sy n thesi s which s b i n g th e m os t e l b or a t e Gr e e k utt e r n c e

, a e a a

on th s ubj ect d e erv es to be qu ote d in full

e ,
s .

c lle d H h bp S is to put i t s h ortly a s peci al
Th e so -

a va v /O
ex

, ,

body of doctri ne pr ov i d ed fo th e u s of tho e w h o ft r r e s ,

a e

n i s h i ng th ord in ry E l em n t s e d es ir ou s of cqu i r i ng th
e a e ,
ar a e

pow r of s olv in g probl m wh i ch m y be s et the m n ol ng

e e s a 1 v v1

(th e c o n truct i on of) li nses n d i t i u e ful fo thi l one It is ,

a s s r s a .

th e w ork of thr e m n Eucli d th e auth or of th e El emen t s e e , ,

A p olloniu of P rg n d A ri t
s u th lder n d proc ed by
e a a s ae s e e ,
a e s

w y of an ly s i s n d s y n th es i s

a a a .

De ni ti on o f A n a lysi s and S yn thes i s .

A n a lysi s

en ta ,
th
k es th at wh i ch i ought s if it w r ,
s s a e e

d tt d
a mi e an d a s s es p
from it through its s ucces iv oon ss s e

qu e nces to s om e i n th g which i d mi tted as th r ult of s a e es

y th i
s n e s s : for in a na ly i s we u m th t which i ought s ass e a s s

if it w re alr e dy don (y y o s) an d w i n qu i r wh t it is
'

as e a e e v ,
e e a

from wh i ch thi r ults an d g in wh at is th e n tec d n t s es , a a a e e

c u s e of th e l att r nd s o on u n til by s o r etr ci ng ou teps

a e ,
a ,
a r s

w e com up on s om eth i ng lr eady k n ow n o b e l on gi ng to th e

e a r

cl of r t pr i n c i pl es n d s uch method w c ll n aly i

a ss s ,
a a e a a s s

a s b e i n g olut i on b ckw rd s (d d w h w Ad
s ) a a v a air .

B ut in syn the i r v r s i n g th e pr oc s w t k as lr dy

s s, e e es , e a e a ea

don th t wh i ch w as l s t riv d at in th e an lys i n d by

e a a ar e a s a ,

a rr n gi ng in th ir n atur l ord r s c ons equ en c what befor e

a e a e a es

W r e nt e ce d en ts nd s ucc e iv ly con n e cti n g th m on e with

e a ,
a ss e e

a n oth e r we rrive n lly t th con truction of wh t w s

, a a a e s a a

s ought ; n d thi s w c l l s yn th s i
a e a e s .

N ow naly i s is of tw o ki n d th e on e dire ct e d to s earchi ng

a s s,

fo th e truth
r n d c all e d theo ti ca l th e oth e r dire cte d to
a r e ,

n di ng wh t w a e told to n d and c ll ed p oblem a ti ca l

a e r a r .

(1 ) I n th e theor eti c l k i n d w ss u m e wh at i s s ought as if a e a

it w r e xi tent n d tru e aft er wh i ch w e p ass thr ough its

e e s a ,

s ucc s ive con se qu n c es s if th ey too w er e tru e an d es t bli s h ed

e s e , a a

by virtu e of ou hypoth es i s to s om ething dmitt ed th en r ,

a :

( ) i f th t s om eth i n g d mi tt ed i tru th t which is s ought

a , a a s e, a

will l s o be tru e n d th proof w i ll c orr es p on d in th e r v ers e

a a e e

ord r to th e an ly s i s but (b) if w e come upon ome thing

e a , , s

ad m itt dly f l s th t which is s ought will ls o b fal s

e a e, a a e ,
e .

(2 ) I n th e p oblem a ti cal ki n d w ss u m e th at which is pr o

r e a

poun de d a if i t w er e know n aft er which we pas s through its

s ,
 TH E C OLLECTI ON . BOOK VI I 40 1

succ essi v e con sequ ences taki n g th em as t r ue up to s omething , ,

ad m i tt ed : if th en a
( ) wh at is adm itt e d is p os s ibl e and obtai n
abl e t hat is w hat math ematici an s call gi ven what was
, ,

or ig mall
y pr op ose d will al s o be pos ibl e and th e proof will s ,

ag a in c orr es p on d in th e r e v e r e ord e r to th e an aly s i s but if b

() s ,

we come up on s omethi n g ad m ittedly i mp oss ibl e th e probl em ,

will al s o be i mp oss ible .

Th i s t t men t
could h rdly be i mpr ov e d upon ex cept that
s a e a

it ough t to b e a dd ed th at eac h s t e p in th e ch ai n of i n fer en ce

in th e analys i s mu s t b e u n cond i ti on a lly con ver ti ble ; th at is ,

when in th e anal ys i s w e say that if A is true B is true , , ,

w e mu s t be s ur e th at e ach s ta t emen t is a nec essa ry cons e

qu ence of th e oth er s o th t th e truth of A e qu ally foll ow s
, a

fr om the tru th of B Thi how e v r is almos t i mpli ed by . s, e ,

Pappu s wh en he s ay s th at w e in quir n ot wh at it is (namely e,

B ) which foll ow s from A b u t wh at it is (B) fr om which A ,

follow s an d so on
,
.

Lis t of wor ks i nthe Tr easu r y of A n a lysi s

.

P appu s a dds a li s t in o rder ,

of th e books for mi ng th e
Muah vpevos
,
name ly
Euclid s Da ta , on e Book A polloniu s s Cu tti n g of ofa r ati o,
'
-

tw o Books , Cu tti ng of of a n a r ea two Book s Deter min ate

-

, ,

S ection , tw o Books Contacts two Book s , Euclid s P or isms ,

, ,

thr ee Books , A pollonius s I n cli na ti on s or Ver gi ngs (var ou s)

i

two Book s th e s ame author s P la n e Loci two Books , an d

, ,

Coni cs , eight Book s Ar is taeu s s S olid Loci, v e Bo ok s , Euclid s

S u r face Loci , two Book s , Era tosth en es s On mea n s, two Books

- .

Th e re ar e in al l th i rty thr ee B ook s th e c on ten ts of which up

-

to th e Con i cs of A polloni u s I h av e s et ou t for y our cons i d er a

'

ti on, i ncluding not on ly th e n umber of the propos itions , th e

d imi smi an d the cas e s dealt with in ea ch Book, but al s o th e
lemmas whi ch ar e re quire d ; i n dee d I hav e not, to th e bes t
of my b eli e f, omitt e d any qu es ti on ar i s i ng in th e s tudy of th e
Book s in qu es ti on

.

Des cr iption f the

o tr eati ses .

Th en follow s the s h ort des cripti on of the contents of the

v ar ious Book s dow n to A pollon iu s s Con ics ; n o acc ou nt is

giv en of A r istaeus s Soli d Loci Euclid s Su rface Loci and

,

-

mm D d
 TH E C OLLE C TI ON . BO O K VI I 40 3

utility ju sticati on of thi s tatement n d in ord th t

. In s a

er a

he m ay n ot pp ear em pty h an d e d wh en l eaving the s ubj e ct

a -

he will pr esen t h is r eaders with the foll owi ng .

(A n ti cipa ti on of Ga ld i n s Theor em )

.

Th e un ci ati on s
en ar e n ot ve ry cl e rly w ord ed but th er
a ,

is n o d oubt as to th e sen s e .

Fi gu r es gener a ted by a f plan e gu r e co mplete r evolu ti on o a

a bou t a n a xi s ar e i n a r a ti o com ou n d ed
(1 ) of the r a ti o p
of the ar eas of the gu r es an d (2 ) of the r atio of the s tr a ight ,

li n es si milar ly d r a w n to (i e d r a wn to m eeta t the sa m e a n gles) . .

the a x es of r ota ti on fr om the r especti ve cen tr es of gr a vi ty .

Fi gu r es gen er a ted by i n complete r evolu ti on s ar e i n the r a ti o

co m ou n d ed (1
p ) of the r a ti o of the a r ea s of the gu r es a nd
(2 ) of the r a ti o of the a r cs d escr i bed by the cen tr es of gr a vi ty
of the r especti ve gu r es the la tter r a tio bei n g i tselfcompou n d ed
,

the r a ti o of the s tr a i ght li n es s i mi la r ly d r a wn fr om

the r especti ve cen tr es o f gr a vity to the a xes of r ota ti on ) a n d
(b) of the r a tio of the a n gles con tai n ed (i e d escr i bed ) a bou t . .

the a xes of r evolu ti on by the ex tr emi ties o f the sai d s tr a ight

li n es (i e the cen tr es of
. .

He r e obvi ou s ly w e h v e the e s en ce of th e cel ebrated

, , a s

th eorem comm on ly attribute d to P Guldi n (1 5 7 7 .

qu an titas r otu n d in vi m ot tion is d u ct p od u it P ot

a a r a a r c e

s t te m R otu n d am u n o grad o altio em P ot es t t

a s iv e Qu an tit t e r a e a

R ot t a a

Pa ppu s a dd s th at

th es prop os i ti ons which a e pr actically on e i n clude any

e ,
r ,

n u m b e r of th eor e ms of all s orts ab out curv es s urfac e nd ,

s, a

s olid s all of whi ch

,
e prov e d at on c e by on e dem on s tr at i on
ar ,

an d i n clud e pr op os iti on s b oth old an d n e w an d in par ticul r ,

a

th os e pr ove d in th tw elf th Book of the e Elements

e s .

Hu lts ch attributes th e wh ole pass ag e (pp 6 8 0 3 0 6 8 2 2 0 ) . .

.

to an i n t erp ol a t or I d o n ot k n ow for wha t r eas on ; but i t

,

s e e ms to m e th at th propos iti on s a e quite b yon d wh at

e r e

c ould be e xpe cte d fr om n i n terpolator i n dee d I know of a ,

n o Gr e e k m th em tici an fr om P appu s s d ay on w rd exc e pt

a a a

P a ppu s hi ms elf w h o was c pa bl e of di s c ov eri n g s uch a p o a r

p o i tion
s .

C t ob y1
Lib ii h p iii Prop 3 Vi
en r ar ca , 1 64 1 .
, c a . v
,
. . enn ae .

D d 2
40 4 PA PPU S O F A LEXA N DR A I
If th e pas sag is gen ui n e i t s eems to ind ic te w h at is n ot
e ,
a ,
'

el s e wh e r e c on rm e d th at th e Collecti on ori gi n lly c on tai n ed

,
a ,

o w as i n ten d e d to c on t ai n tw el v e B ook s
r ,
.

Lemma s to the d ier en t tr ea ti ses .

A fter des crip ti on of the tr eati ses fo min g th e T easu y

th e r r r

A a lysi s c ome th e c o ll e cti on s of l e mm as giv n by P ppu s

o f n e a

to ss i s t th e s tud en t of each of th books (except Euclid s '

a e

Da ta ) dow n to A pollon iu s Con i cs wit h two i s ol at e d l emm s

s ,
a

to th e S u r face Loci of Euclid I t is di f

-
cult to giv e ny . a

s u mmary o n
y g en ra l i d ea of th es e l em mas b e c u s e th y
r a e ,
a e

a e v e ry n u me r o
r u xtr emely var i ou s nd oft en qui te d iffi
s, e ,
a

cult r equ i i ng s t rate ability an d full comm n d of ll th

,
r r -
a a e

r sourc es of pure g eometry Th ei r n u m be r is l s o gr atly

e . a e

i n cr eased by th add i t i on of altern tiv pr oofs often r quir i ng

e a e ,
e

lemmas of th ei r Ow n an d by th e s ep r ate formulati on of ,

a

p rticul r c a es wh r by th e u s of algebr an d con ven t i on s

a a s e e e a

w i th reg rd to s ign w e can make one propos iti on cove r all the
a

c s s Th e s tyl is dmira bly t er se often s o con den s ed s to

a e . e a ,
a

m k th e rgu men t d i f
a e cult to foll ow with out om
a littl e s e

l li ng ou t ; th e h n d i s th at of
-
m s t r thr ough out
a Th e a a e .

on ly m i s f ortu n e is th at th b ook s elucid t e d b e i ng l o t (e xc ept ,

e a s

th e Con ic an d th Cu tti n gof s f of a r a ti o of A poll on iu s ) it i

e , s

d i fcult oft n i m pos ible to ee th e conn xi on of th e lemm

, e s , s e as

w i th on e an oth er and th e p oblems of th book to which th ey r e

r elate I n th e circums tance all that I can hope to d o i s to

. s,

i n dicat e the typ es of propos i t i on s in clude d in th e l emm as nd a ,

by w ay of i llu s tr t i on n ow n d th en to g i v e a proof wh r e it
a ,
a e

is s u fci en tly ou t of th e c ommon .

( ) Pappu s begi n with L mm s to the S ecti o r a ti oni s n d

a s e a a

S ecti o sp ti i of A p ollon iu s (P r op s 1 2 1 pp 6 8 4
a Th e .

,
.

r t two s h ow h ow to divid e a s tr i ght lin in a giv n r ti o

s a e e a ,

n d h ow gi v en th e rs t se c on d n d fourth t e r ms of
a ,
po ,
a a r

p or ti on betw een s tr ight li n es to n d th e thi rd ter m Th e a , .

n e xt s cti on
(Props 3 1 2 n d 1 6 ) s how s h ow to man ipul t
e .
a a e

r l ti on s betw een gr eater n d l s s r ati o by tr ns for mi ng

e a a e s a

th em e g compon en d o con ve tend o &c in th e s me way

,
. .
, r , .
, a

as Eucl id tr n s for ms e u a l rati os in B ook V ; Pr op 1 6 pr ov e

q a . s

that ccordi ng as a b o
,
a o d ad o be zP rop s r z ,
r . .
 TH E C OLLECTI ON . BO O K VI I 40 5

17 d eal wi th thr ee s traight li nes a b c in geometrica l

2
0 , ,

progr es s ion showi ng how to mark on a straight li ne con tai n i ng

,

a b c a s seg ments
(i ncludi n g th e w hol e among seg men t s

, ,

length s e qual to a c i 2 (ac); th e length s ar e of c our se e qual

to a + c + 2 b r es p ective ly Th ese l emmas ar e pre li mi n ry to . a

th e pr obl em (P rop Giv en two s tr aig ht li nes A B B C

. ,

( lyin g be tw een A and B ) to nd a p oi nt D on BA prod uce d

0 ,

s uch th a t B D DA CD (A B + B U 2 / A B B C ) Thi s is : s .
,

of cou r s e e qui val en t to th e qu a dr atic e qu ati on (a + x ) x

,

(a c l x) : (a
+ c 2 / dd
-

) -
n d a f ter ma rki n g off A E al ong
s , a ,

A D e qu l to th e fourth t er m of thi s pr op orti on Pappu s s olv es

a ,

th e e qu ati on in th e u s u al way by a pplic ati on of ar eas .

Lemmas to the Deter mi n a te S ecti on ofA pollon iu s

.

r p 6 4 pp 7 0 4 7 0 be long s
x t s et of Le mmas
Th e ne
(P o s 2 2 , ) . .
-

to th e Deter m i n a te S ection of A polloni u s A s we h av e s e en .

(pp 1 8 0 1
.
, ab ov e ), thi s wo rk s ee m s to h av e amou n t e d to

a Theor y of I n volu ti on Wh ether th e pplication of ce r t i n . a a

of P a ppu s s l emmas corr e s p on d e d to th e

conj ectur e of Z euth en

or n ot w e h av e at all e v en t s in thi s set of l emm s s ome

,
a

r e m rk ble applicati on s of g eometrical alg ebra Th ey m y

a a


. a

b e divid e d i n t o gr ou p s as foll ow s

I . P rop s . 22, 25, 29 .

If in th e g ur e A D DC B D DE , th en

proofs by prop orti ons ar e not di fcult Pr op 2 9 is n

Th e . . a

a l ter n ti v e pr oof by mean s of P r op 2 6 (s ee be l ow )

a Th e . .

alg e bra ic e qu i va l ent may b e e xpres s e d thu s : if ax by the n ,

6 (a b)(b x )
v c + we + w
II . P r ops 30 , 3 2 , 3 4 . .

If in th e same gure A D DE . BD DC, th en

B D DC A B B E z EC CA
. . .
 TH E COLLE CTI ON . BOOK VI I 40 7

Tw o pr oofs giv en of th e r s t th eor em

ar e We will giv e th e .

rs t (P rop 2 6 ) becau se it is a c ase of theor eti ca l a n a lysis

.

follow ed by sy nthesi s Des crib e a circle about A BD : pr oduce .

E A C A to mee t th e circl e ag ai n in F G, and j oi n BF FG

, , ,
.

S ub s tituti n g GC CA for B C C D and FE E A for B E E D, . . .

w e h a ve to i n quir e W h eth e r GC C A CA 2 FE EA A E . .

i . wh e th e r GC OA FE EA
e . : : ,

i e wh e th er GA A C
. . FA A E z : ,

i e wh e th e r th e tri an gl es GA F CA E ar e s i mil ar o in oth er

. .
,
r ,

w ords wh eth er GF is p ar all el to BC

, .

Bu t GF i s par all e l to BC b ec au s e th e angl es B A C DA E , , ,

b ei n g s upplemen tary A DA E A GA B A GFB while at th e , ,

sa m e ti m e A DA E s u ppt of A FA D A FBD . .

Th e s y n th es i s is obvi ou s .

A n lt e r n ati v e proof (P r op 2 7 ) di s pens es with th e circle

a . ,

an d on ly r e qui res E XH to b e dr aw n p a rall el to CA to m ee t

A B A D in H K
, , .

i ilarly (Prop 2 8 ) for c as e (b) it is only nec es sary to dr aw

S m .

FG thr ough D p arall el to A C meeti ng B A in F an d A E

produc ed in G .

Th en , A ma , A A DF A DA C ) being both right an gl es ,

FD D C
Th r e for e A D2 CA 2 FD D C (CA : FD) (CA : D G)
?
e CA

(BC : B D) (or : DE )
DC CE : B D DE
. . .

In ca s e (0 ) a circle is circums cribed to A DE cuttin g A B in F

a nd A C in G Th en s i n ce A FA D
.
A GA E th e arc s DF E G
, , ,

ar e e qu a l a n d t h er e for e FG is p ar a ll e l to DE T h e proof is .

li ke th t of c ase (a) a .
40 8 PA P PU S O F A LEXA N DR A I
VI . P r op s . 37 38 .

If A B z BC = A Dz
z D C
wh ethe r A B be ,
gr eater or les s
th an A D then ,

A B BC B DZ . .

[ E in th e gti r e i s a p oi nt s uch th t E D a CD ]

a
lg ebraical e quiv l en t i If E b
The a th a s : en ac = b2 .

( i
Th e s e l emm s e ub id i ry to th e ne xt (Pr op s
a ar s s a . 3 9,

b i ng u se d in th e r t proof of th em
e s s .

Pr op s 3 9 4 0 prov e th e followi n g
.
,

I f A CDE B b e s tra ight li n e an d if a ,

AC 2
z CD 2
,

If A B a B C , BD 0, BE ( Z, th e a lg br ic
e a equ iv a

l n ts
e th foll owi n g
ar e e .

a ( a d) (a ~
b)z
d ;
c(c d ) ( b e 2
) (a )(c d
) b
( dP
b)b I c d a b c
and I f
( a ( r
) ( a )( ) (
a )
d a c d) 2
(a
) ( 0

VI I . P rop s . 4 1 , 42 , 43 .

If A D DC B D DE .
, s uppose that in Figures (1 ) and

k A E + CB , an d in Figur e (3 ) If; AE B C, th en
 TH E C OLLE C TI ON . BOO K VI I 40 9

Th e lge braic l e quivalen ts fo Figur e (1 ) an d (2 ) r

a a r s e

s
pe ctiv ely m y be writt n (if a AD 6 a 0 0 BD e , , 0 ,

d DE ):

If ab = cd ,
th en
b (
c -

_
b)
c
(c a )(G i b) ,

d (a i d ) (d + b)
Figur e (3 ) giv e s oth er vari eti e of sig n Troubles bout s . a

s ign c n be a v oid e d by m e s uri n g all l en gth s in on

a dir ection a e

fr om n origi n 0 out s ide th e li ne Thu if OA a OB b

a . s, , ,

&c th e pr op os iti on m y b as foll ow s

.
,
-
a e :

If (d a ) (d c) (b d ) (e d ) nd k e a + b c a ,

th en k (d a) (b a )(e a ) k (d c) (b c)(e e) ,

,

k (b d ) (b a )(b -

)
c an d k (e -
d) (
e -
a
)( e c ) .

V III rops 4 5 5 6
. P .

.

Mor e g n e r lly if A D D C e B D DE nd k a A E + Ba , : . a

th en if F b an y poi n t on th e lin e we h v e accordi ng to the

, e ,
a ,

p os iti on of F in r ela t i on to A B C D E , , , , ,

lc DF
. .

A lg e bra ically , if OA a, OB b OF 56 , th e e quival e nt

is : If (d a cl
)( c
) (b d
)(e d
) , an d k ( e c
) ,

(o a
a )(w
e )(b o
a ) k (m d ) .

By ma ki n g a; a, b, c, e s ucc ess i ve ly in thi s e qu ti on a , we

obt a i n th e r e s ult s of P o sr p . 41 3 a bov e .

IX P r ops 5 9 6 4
. .

.

I n thi gr oup Pr op s 5 9 6 0 6 3
s e l e mmas r quir d fo th e .
, ,
ar e e r

r emark bl e propo it i on s (6 1 6 2 6 4 ) in which P ppu i nv s ti

a s , , a s e

ga te s i ngul r n d m ini mum va lu es of th r ati o

s a a

e

W h e re (A D) (B C ) a e p oi n t pai rs on
, ,
tr ight li ne and P
,
r -
a s a

is a noth e r p oi n t on th e s tr aight li n e H e n d s not on ly wh en .

,

th e r ti o h as th e
a i ngul r n d mi n i mu m (o ma xi mu m) va lu
s a a r e,
 TH E C OLLE C TI ON . B OO K VI I 41 1

N ow upp os e (A D) (B C ) to be tw o poi nt pair on

s , , ,
-
s a

s tr a i ht li n e an d l t P n oth er p oi n t on it b e d e ter mi n e d by
g , e ,
a ,

the r e la ti on
A B B D z A C CD. . BP z z CP z ;
th en ay s Pa ppu s the rati o A P
, s , P D : BP P C is s n i gular an d

a m i n i m u m a n d is e qu al to ,

On A D di ameter dr aw a circl e
as , an d draw BF ,
pe r pen
dicu la r to A D on opp os it e s ides .

Th en by hyp oth e i s A B BD A C
, s , . . . CD : B P 2
C P Z
;

th e r efor e B F OG BP 2
:
Z
._
2
: CP 2 ,

or BF : C G BP CP ,

wh en c e tri n gl
FBP GOP a r e s i m i lar an d th e r e for e
th e a es ,

e u ian u l a1
q g a FP G I S a s tra ight li n e
,
<
o th t .

P 1 od u ce GC to m ee t th e circl e m H j oi n FH an d d 1 a w DK , ,

p er p en dicul ar to FH pi od uced Dra w th e d ia mete 1 FL and .

j oi n LH .

N ow ,
by th e l e mma FK ,

A C BD .
, an d HK 2
= A B CD ,

th er fore FH EX E X / (A C
e s . B D) / (A B
x CD) .

S i n c e in th e tri an gl e FH L P C G
,
s , ,
th e an gl es at H , C ar e

right n d A FLH A P GC th e triangl

a z
,
e s ar e s i m i l ar , an d

GP z PC '
z FL z FH z A D z FH

AD: { J (A O B D) .

GP z PC
FP z PB

G1
: P0 2
: FP . P G : BP PC
412 PA PPU S O F A LEXA N DR A I
Th ere fore
AP . P D BP . P C = A D2 : J (A C B D) .

proofs of P rops 6 2 and 6 4 r e diffe ren t

Th e . a , th e former
bei ng long n d n ol v ed Th e r es ults ar
a 1 v . e :

Pr op 6 2 If P is b tw e n C an d D nd
. . e e , a

A D DB . : A C CB . DP z
z PC z
,

th enr ti o A P P B CP P D i s i n gul r
th e a s a an d a mi n i mu m
an d i e qu al to B D) / (A D B C )} DC 2
2
s

Prop 6 4 If P is on A D pr oduc ed an d
. . ,

A B BD A C . CD B P 2
CP 2 ,

then th e rati o A P P D BP P C is s in gul r a an d a ma xi m u m ,

an d is e u l to A D / (A C B D) / (A B C D)}
Z 2
a
q : .
.

(y ) Lemmas on the Neo ets of A pollon i u s

.

fter a few eas y prop os iti on s (e g th e e qui valen t of th

A . . e

propos ition th t if a x + oc by + y th en ccordi n g a

a ,
2 2
, , a as

o r b a + az o, 6 + y) P ppu giv es (P r op 7 0 ) th
r , a s . e

l emma leading to th e s oluti on of th e o g with r egard to ve

-
L

th rh ombu s (s e pp 1 9 0 2
e bov ) n d aft r th t th e s olu
e .

,
a e ,
a e a

ti on by one H er aclitu s of the s me pr obl m with re p ec t to a e s

a s qu ar e (P rop s 7 2 pp 7 8 0 Th e pr obl em is Given a

. , .
,

s qu a r e A B CD to d r , aw th r ou gh B a s tr ai ht li n e,
g m eeti n g CD
in H a nd A D pr od u ced i n E , s u ch tha t H E i s e u al
q to a gi ven
l en gth .

Th e luti on d p en d s on a l emm
so e a to th e e ffe c t that if , an
y
s traight li n e BH E thr ough B meets CD in H an d A D pr o

d u ce d in E , an d if E F b e draw n p erp en dicul ar to BE m eet n i g

BC pr oduc ed in F th en
,

C F BC 2 HE .
 TH E COLLE CTI ON . BOO K VI I 41 3

Dr aw E G p erpe ndicul ar to B F .

Th en th e tri angl es BCH E GF a s i mil a r nd , re a (s in c e

BC E G) e qu al in ll r es p e ct s : th ere for e E F BH a .

B F2 BE Z E Fz ,

B C B F+ B F FC . . BH . BE + BE . EH + E F2 .

B u t the , an gl es H CF H E E , bei ng right , H, C ,

F , E ar e

con cyclic an d B C BF , EH BE .

Th e r e for by s ubtr ct i on e, a ,

B F FC = B E. . E II + E F2

BE . E E + EE 2

BH . H E + E H 2 + BH 2

EE . E E + EE

Ta k i ng w y a a th e c ommon p rt a ,
BC CF w e ,
h ve
a

CF 2
BC 2
EH 2

N ow upp ose th t we h v to dr aw BH E through B in

s a a e

s uch w y th t H E 70 S i n c B C E H e both gi v n w
a a a . e , ar e , e

h ave on ly to dete mi ne a l ength x s uch th at 03 B C + 70r

2 2 2
,

pr oduc B C to F s o th t CF x dr w a s m icircle on B F
e a ,
a e as

diamet r produc A D to mee t the s emicircl e in E an d j oi n

e ,
e ,

BE . B E is thu s th s tr aight li n e r e quir e d e .

P r op 7 3 (pp 7 8 4 6 ) pr ov es th at if D b e th e midd le p oi n t
. .

,

of B C th e b,
e of n i s os c e l es tri n gl e A B C th e n B C i s th e
as a a ,

s h o t e t of
r s l l th e s tr ight li n s thr ough D t r mi n at ed by
a a e e

th e s tr aight lines A B A C an d th e n e r er to B C is s h ort er th an

, , a

th e mor e r em ot e .

Th r e follow s
e c ons id era bl e coll ecti on of l emmas mos tly
a

s h owi n g th e e qu a lity of c e rt i n i n te rc e pt s mad e on traigh t a s

li n es through one extremity of th e di m ter of on e of tw o a e

s e micircl es h a vi n g th e ir di am et e r s in a s tr aight li n e ith er ,

e

on e i n clu d i n g o partly i n cludi n g th e oth e r or wh olly ex

r ,

tern l to one anoth er on th e me o opp osite s ides of th e

a ,
sa r

diameter .
 VI I
'

TH E C OLLE C TI ON . BOO K 415

Th e pr oblem is r educed to a probl em contai n ed in A p ollo

n i ms s Deter mi n a te Secti on thu s

.

S upp ose th e pr obl em s olv e d by th e s emicircle DE F BE ,

b ei n g qu l to A D Join E to th e cen tre G of the s emicircl e

e a .

DE F . r oduce DA to H ma ki ng H A equa l to
P ,

b e th e m i ddle p oi n t of DC .

S i n c e th tr i n gl s A B C GE C a e i m ilar
e a e ,
r s ,

AG Z
: G0 2
BE z
z EC

A D2 EC Z ,
by hyp oth es i s ,

AD z
z GC D G (s in c D G
2
e

AG 2
A D2 D G2

H G D G D GZ

H G DG .

Th erefore
H G z DG A D 2
: GC z DG2

A D2 : 2 DC . GK .

Ta ke a s tr ight l i n
a e L s uch th t a A D2 2 L

th e refor e H G DG L GK ,

H G GK . L DG . .

Th e re fore gi ven the tw o s tr ai ght li n es H D DK (o

, ,
r

thr ee p oi n ts H D K on a s tr aight li ne) w e h v e

, , ,
a

a p oin t G b etw een D and K s uch th at

which is th e c d
s e on ep ita gm a of th e third Problem
Deter mi na te S ectio n .
of Apolloni us , an d th e e for e may be r

tak e n as so lved .
(The probl em is th equiv al en t of th e
e
 416 P A P PU S O F A LEXA N DR I A

so luti on of a c ert i n quadr atic equ tion ) P ppu s obs erves

a a . a

th at th e probl em is alw ys p oss ibl e (r qui r e n o a e s

an d prov es th a t it h s on ly on e s olut i on a .

Lemm a s on the tr On by A p oll on i u s

(8) ea tise con ta cts

.

h es e lemm s a e all pr etty ob vi ou s exc pt tw o which a e

T a r e , r

i mp ort n t on b l on gi n g to Book I ofth e tre tis n d th e oth er

a , e e a e, a

to Book II Th e tw o l emmas in qu es ti on h av
. lre dy been s et e a a

ou t a prop o ofth tr e ti s e ofA p oll on iu s (s ee pp 1 8 2 5

s e bov e )a .

,
a .

A s h ow e v r th e re
, e s ev er l c a
e ,
s of th e r s t (Pr op s 1 0 5
ar a se .
,

1 07 108 , on e c s, (Pr op 1 0 8 pp 8 3 6 d i ffer n t from

a e .
, . e

tha t before gi v en may b put d ow n h ere Gi ven a ci r le nd

,
e : c a

two poi n ts D E wi thi n i t, to d r , a w s tr a i ght li n es thr ou gh D , E

to poi n t A on the ci r cu mfer en ce i n s u ch a
a w a y tha t, if they
m eet the ci r cle a gai n i n B , C , B C s ha ll be par a l lel to DE .

We proce e d by an a ly s i s . S upp os e th e pr obl e m l d nd

s o ve a

DA E A , dr w n a to A in s uch a wa y th a t if A D , ,

A E m ee t th e circl e a g i n in B C
a , ,

B C is p ralle l to DE a .

Dr w th e t ngen t at B me ti ng
a a e

E D pr oduc ed in F .

Th n 1 FB D A A CB
e A A ED ;

th er efor A E B F a e con cyclic

e , , , r ,

an d c on e qu en tly s

B ut th e r ectangl A D DB is giv n s i n ce it dep end s on ly

e . e ,

on th e positi on of D in r el ti on to th e circl an d th e circl a e, e

is given .

Th r e for e rect ngl FD DE i g i ven

e th e a e . s .

A n d DE is giv n ; th e r e for e FD is giv en n d th r e for e F

e , a e .

If follow s th t the t ng nt FB is giv en i n pos iti on and

a a e
,

ther e for B i given Th erefor e BDA is giv en and con s

e s .
e

qu en tly A E als o .

To s ol ve th e probl em th e ef0 w e me re ly t k e F on E D ,
r 1 e, a

produc ed s uch th at FD DE th e gi ven r e ct n gl e ma d e by . _

a

th s eg men t s of n y ch ord thr ough D dra w th tan g n t FB

e a , e e ,

j oin B D an d produce i t to A and las tly draw A E through to ,

C ; B C is th e n p r ll el to DE a a .
 TH E C OLLEC TI O N . BO O K V II 417

Th e oth er pr oblem (Prop 1 1 7 pp 8 4 8 5 0 ) i s as w e hav e .

,
.

,

s een , e quival en t to th e f oll owi n g Gi ven a cir cle a n d th e : r e

poi n ts D E F i n a s tr ai ght li n e exter n a l to i t, to i n scr i be i n

, ,

the ci r cle a tr ia n gle A B C s u ch tha t i ts s id es pa ss sever ally

thr ou gh th e thr ee poi n ts D E For th e s o i on see , ,
F . lut ,

pp
. . _ 1 8 2 4, a bov e .

(6 ) Th e Lem mas p ll iu s (Props

to th e P la n e Loci of A o on .

1 1 9 26 pp 8 5 2 6 4 ) a e m os tly pr op os i ti on s in g ometric al
, .
r e

a lg br w ork d ou t by th e meth ods of Euel Book s II nd VI

e a e .
,
a .

We may m en t i on th e foll owi ng :

Pr op 1 2 2 i th e w e ll kn ow n pr op os it i on th t if D be th e
. s -
a ,

mi ddl e p oin t of th e s ide B C in a tr i angl e A BC ,

+ A cz
2 (A D2

rop 1 2 3 n d 1 2 4 a e two cases of th s m pr opo it ion

P s . a r e a e s ,

the en u n ci t i on b i ng m ark d by n xpr s s i on which is al s o

a e e a e e

fou n d in Euclid s Da t Le t A B B C b e g i v n r ti o n d

a . : a e a ,
a

D 0

le t th e r ectan gl e CA A D b gi ven ; th en if B E is a m an . e ,
e

prop or ti on l b tw een DB BC th e s qu r e on A E i s gr e ter

a e , ,

a a

by th e r ect angl e CA A D th n in th rat i o of A B to BC to th e a e

squ r e on E C by which is mean t th t

a a

AE 2
CA AD

(A E
2 CA . A D) : E C
Z
AB : Ba

Th e a lge br aical quival ent may b e expr es se d thu s (if A B =

e a,

BC : b AB = ,
a, Bs ):
( a t
s e r
(a w n
(a: b)2

P o r p . 1 2 5 is r emark ble If a : C D be two p oi nts

,
on a s tr ight a

li ne A B,

AD + 2
DB 2
A C + A C CB +
z
.
 TH E COLLE C TI ON . BOO K VI I 4 19

i (if
. e. DA A C be '

s ubtr acte d from each side)

that
i e (if A F . CD b e s ubtr cte d fr om each s ide)
a

FD DC + FD DB A C DB, .

FD CB . A C DB . :

which is tru e s i nce by

, , (1 ) abov e FD DB , A C : CB .

(f) Lemnw s to the P or is ms of E uclid

.

Th e 3 8 Lemma s to th e P or is ms of E uclid form an i mport nt a

coll ct i on which of cours e h s b en i n clud ed in on e for m or

e , , a e

oth e r in th e r es torati ons of th e origi nal treati s C has l es

1
e .

in p rticul ar gi v es a cl ass ic ti on of th em and we c ann ot

a a ,

d o b e tt e r th an u se it in th i pl ac e 2 3 of the Lemm s rel at e s : a

to r e ctili n ea l gur es 7 r fe r to the h armon ic r ti o of four ,

e a

poi n ts an d 8 hav e r eferen ce to th e circl e

, .

O f th e 2 3 r e l atin g to r e ctili n e al g ur e s 6 d ea l with th e ,

qu ad ril at eral cut by a tr n s ver s l 6 with th e e qu ality of a a .

th e an h rmon ic rati os of tw o s y s t ems of four p oi n t s ar i s i ng

a

fr om th e inter secti ons of four s traight li nes i s ui ng fr om s

on e p oi n t with tw o oth er s tr i ght li n es ; 4 may be r eg ard e d s a a

expr es i n g a pr op erty of th e h ex agon i n s crib ed in tw o s tr aight

s

li n es ; 2 giv e the relation betw e n the areas of two tr i n gl s e a e

which h ve two angles equ al o s upplementar y ; 4 oth er r fer

a r s e

to c ert in ys t ems of s tra ight lin es ; and th e l as t is

a s case a

of th pr obl em of th e Cu tti n g of

e
fof a n ar ea -
.

Th e l emmas r elati ng to th e qu adri la t er al and th e tr n s ver s l a a

are 1 2 4 5 6 an d 7 (P r op
, , , ,
1 30 1 3 1 1 3 2 s .
, , ,

P r op 1 3 0 is a g ener a l p rop o it i on ab out any tr n s v r s l

. s a e a

wh at eve r an d is e qui valen t to on e of the equ ati ons by which

,

w e e xpr es s th e i n voluti on of six p oi n t s If A A ; B B ;

. , ,

C C b e th e poi n t s in which th e tran s ver s al meet s th e p air s of

,

Ch l L t ot lim d P omm d E tid P ri 1 8 6 0 pp 7 4 q

'

as es , es r s es e s es uc e, a s, ,
. s .

E e 2
4 20 PA PPUS O F A LE XA N DR A I
pposite sid es and di agon al s res pecti vely Pa ppu s

o th e tw o ,
s

re lt is equi val ent

su to

AB B O . CA

A B . BO 0 91
P rops 1 2 7 1 2 8 a e p ar ti cular c s e s in which th e tran s vers al
.
,
r a

i s p ar all el to a s id e ; in P r op 1 3 1 th e tr ans v er s al p as s . es

thr ough th e p oi nt s of con cours of opp os it e s ides and th e ,

e

r s ult is equival ent to th f ct th at th e two di ag onals divid

e e a e

i n to pr oporti onal p art s th s tr ight li n e j oi ni ng the p oin t of

e a s

con cour se of oppos it e s ides ; Prop 1 3 2 is th e p articul r cas e . a

of Prop 1 3 1 in whic h th l i n j oi n i ng th e p oin t s of c on cour

. e e se

of o ppos it e s id e s is pa ra ll e l to a di a gonal ; in P rop 1 3 3 th e .

tr n s v ers al passes through on e on ly of th e poi n t s of con cou r e

a s

of oppos it e s id es and is par ll e l to a di agonal the r es ult b i n g

a ,
e

rop s 1 2 9
P .
, 1 4 5 (Lemmas 3 1 0 1 1 , , ,

1 9 ) es t abli s h th e e qu l i t y of th e an h ar monic r a ti os which

a

four s traight li nes i s s ui ng fr om a p oi n t d eter mine on tw o

tran s v ersal s ; but both tr n s v ers als r e supposed to b e draw n
a a

from th e same poin t on one of the four s traight lin es L t . e

0

A B A C A D be
, cut by tr
, an s v e s a s r l H B CD,
r quired to prove th at
e

II E . FG
_

E G EE .

Pa ppu s gi v es (Pr op . 1 2 9 ) tw o m e th od s of pr oof w hich e ar

pr ctically e qui valen t Th e followi n g is

a .
th e proof by com

poun d ratios
Draw H K paralle l to A F mee ti n g DA and AE produce d
 TH E C OLLE C TI ON . BOO K VI I 421

in K , L; an d dr aw LM p arall e l to A D mee ti ng GH pr o
d u ce d in M .

H E FG HE FG LH AF LH
m
.

" "

117 EX

31 11 0
In ex a ctly th e s ame way if DH produced , meets LM in [ 11

we pr ove that

3 11 3 0 117 2
H E FG E B CD
T h r e fore .
.

e
H G EF
_

. H D BC .

pr op ositi on is prov ed fo H BCD and any oth er tr an s

(Th e r

v r l not pass i ng through H by applyi ng our propos iti on

e sa

twice as us u al )
, .

P r op 1 3 6 1 4 2 ar e th e r e ciproc l ; Prop 1 3 7 i
s .
, p rticular a . s a a

c in which one of th e tr ns v rs ls is par lle l to one of the

as e a e a a

s tr ight li n e s P rop
a 1 4 0 a r e ciproc al of P rop 1 3 7
,
P rop 1 4 5
. .
, .

a n oth r c as e of Prop 1 2 9
e . .

Th e Lemmas 1 2 1 3 1 5 1 7 (P r op s 1 3 8 1 3 9 1 4 1 1 4 3 ) ar e , , ,
.
, , ,

e quiv al n t to th e pr op e r ty of th e h ex ag on i n s crib e d i n two

e

s tr ight li n e s
a v iz th at if th e v er tic es of a h ex g on a e
, .
,
a r

s it u te thr ee and three on tw o tr aig h t li nes the poi nts of

a ,

,
s ,

con cour of oppos it e s id es e in a s traight line ; in Props

se ar .

1 3 8 1 4 1 th e s tr aight li n es
, e p r l l e l in P r op s 1 3 9 1 4 3 n ot ar a a , .
,

p ara ll l e .

L mm s 2 0 2 1 (Pr ops 1 4 6 1 4 7 ) pr ove th at wh en one n gl e

e a , .
, , a

of on e tri an gl e is e u al o uppl em en t ary to on e n l of a

q g r s e

an oth e r t r i an gl e th e a r ea of th tria ngles ar e in th r tios

, s e e a

of th r e ctangl es c ontain ed by th s ides c ontaini ng th e qua l

e e e

or uppl em n t ary angl es

s e ;

Th e e ven Lemmas 2 2 2 3 2 4 2 5 2 6 2 7 3 4 (Pr op s 1 4 8 5 3

s , , , , , ,
.

nd 1 6 0 ) a e pr op os iti on s r e l ti n g to th e s eg men ts of
1 r tr igh t a a s a

l1 n e on which tw o i n t er medi te p oi nts ar e ma rk ed Thu s a . :

Pr op s 1 4 8 1 5 0 .
, .

If C D be two p oi nts on A B th n
, ,
e

(a) if 2 A B 0 0 AD 2
08 ,
2

A D
C
9 B

(b) if 0 11 2
, 1 13
2
1 11
3
1 03
2
,
 TH E CO LLEC TI ON . BO O K VI I 42 3

S i n ce A B bi se ct s
DE p erp en dicula rly , (ar c A E ) (ar c A D)
a n d A E FA A A FD or A F bi s e ct s th e a ngl e E FD
, .

S i n c e th e an gl e A FB is right , FB bi sect s A H FG th e , s upple

men t of A E FD .

Th e r e for e (Eu cl v i : 3 ) 0 3 . 3 11 03 : 3 11 0A A 11 ,

an d lte rn tely and i n v ers ely A H H B A G GB

, a a , .

P r op 1 5 7 i r em arka bl in th at (with out any men ti on of

. s e

a c on ic ) i t is pr actically iden tical with A pollonius s Con ic

s

III 4 5 b out th foci of a cen tr l conic P ppus s theor em

. a e a . a

is as foll ow Let A B b e th di m t er pf
s . m c cl and e a e a se 1 1r e,

from A B let two s tr igh t li n es A E B D be dr w n t righ t

, a ,
a a

an gl es to A B L t ny tr ight li ne DE m t th tw o pe p n
. e a s a ee e r e

d icu l s in D E an d th e s em icircl e in F
ar ,
Furth r let FG be . e ,

draw n at right ngles to DE meeti ng A B produc d in G

a ,
e .

I t is to b e prov d th a t e

A G GB . A E BD .

S i nce F ,
D G, B
,
ar e con cy clic , A B DG A E FG .
42 4 PA P PU S O F A LEXA N DR I A

A nd , i c
s n e A FB , E FG ar e both right an gl es , A BFG = A A FE .

But, i c s n e A E, G
, , Fa re con cycli c A A FE ,
A A GE .

The r efore A BDG A A GE ;

an d right
the -
an gle d tri angles DB G GA E ,
ar e s i m l ar
i .

Th er efore AG AE B D : GB ,

In A p olloni us G nd the corres p on di n g p oin t G on B A

a

produced wh i ch is obt i n ed by draw i n g F G p erpen di cular to

a

E D (wh er e DE meet s th e circl e gai n in F ) e th foci

a ar e

of ac en tr l conic (in thi s c se a hyperbola) an d DE i ny

a a , s a

t n g n t to th e con ic ; th e r ect ngl A E BD is of cours e equ l

a e a e . a

to th e s qu ar e on h lf th c onjug t e a xi s
a e a .

( 77
) Th e Lemmas to th e Con i cs of A p ollon iu s (pp 9 1 8 1 0 0 4 ) .

d o n ot c all fo ny e xt end e d n otic e

r a Th er e a l rg n u m b e r. e ar a e

of prop os iti on s in g eom tric l lgebr of th u s u al kin d

e a a a e ,

r lati ng to th e s egment of a s traight li n e m rk ed by a n um ber

e s a

of p oi n t s on it ; pr opos iti on s bout l i n es divid e d i n to propor

a

tion l s eg m en ts an d
a bout i milar gur s ; tw o prop os i ti on
a s e s

rel ting to th cons truction of a h yp rbol a (Props 2 0 4 2 0 5 )

a e e .
,

n d a pr op os i t i on (2 0 8
a
) pr ovin g th t tw o hyp erb ol s with th e a a

sa m e s y m ptote
a d o n ot m e t on e noth er
s eTh r e al s o a . e e ar

tw o pr op o iti on s (2 2 1 2 2 2 ) e qu i v l en t to n obvi ou s tr i gon o

s ,
a a

m etric a lfor mul Let A B CD a. be a rectangl e, a nd le t any

s tr ight li n e thr ough A

a m eet DC produce d in E an d BC
(produc ed if n ec es sary) in F .

EA AF E D DC + CB
. .
BF .
 TH E COLLE C TI ON . BOO K VI I 425

3 112 + A3 2
3 D 2
DA + 1 1 32 2
31
1 1

E D2 BC 2 CD2 RF Z

EA 2 + A F2 EF2 Z EA AF .

Th e r e for e

Z EA AF B A 2 + A FZ E F2

ED 2
BC 2
CD2 BE Z E F2

3 D2
D 3 2 W 3 11 2
( C )
2
( 0 31 )
+ 2 E D D 0 + CF + 2 6 B B F
2 2
E0 '
. .

2 E D DC + 2 0 B
. BF;

i . s . EA A F: E D DC + C B B F .

Thi s is e q ui valen t to s ee 0 cos e c 0 tan 0 cot 6 .

The lg ebraica l e quiva len ts of s ome of the res ults obtaine d

a

by th e u u a l g eome trical lge bra may be add ed

s a .

P r op s . 1 7 8 , 1 7 9 , 1 9 2 4 .

v .
)
P r op . 1 95 . 4 a2 2{ (a
P r op . 1 96 .

(a + b (w
P r ops . 197 , 1 9 9, 1 98 .

If
or if then =y
-
a .

or if (w+ y 31
2
,

2b
: Si :
-
a
P r op s 2 0 0 2 0 1 If ( + b)m bz then
'

.
, . a ,
(

(2 b + a )a (
a + b) (a + b
-

Prop . 207 . If (a + b)b 2 a

, then a b .

(0) Th e two Lemmas to the Su r fa ce Loci of Euclid ha ve

-

alr ea dy be en menti one d as s ignic ant Th e r s t has th e .

a ppe r n ce
a a of bei ng a g en er l a en unci ati on s uch , as Pa ppu s
 TH E C OLLE C TI ON . BOO K S VI I , V III 427

but th e genuin e proof is in di cated , a lthough brea ks

b efor e it is quit e c ompl ete .

Si nce A F : FB B G : GC,

A B : EB BC z GC,

Bu t , by hypotlfe si s , A B BC B G : GC

t h ere fore BF BG .

From thi s p oi nt the proof appar en tly proceede d by an lys i s a .

S upp o e it d on e (y ey o o) i e s upp ose th e pr op os iti on tru e

s u r c
-
. .
, ,

an d BE D p erp e n dicul ar to A C .

Th en , by si mil rity
a of triangl es , A D DB A B BC ;

there for e A F FB A D DB and con se quently the ngle

: : , a

A DB is bi s ect e d by DE .

S i m ila rly th e an gl e EDG i bi s ect ed by D G s .

Th r for e each of th e angles B DF ED G is h alf a right

e e ,

an gl e n d c on s e qu en tly th e n gl e FDG i
,
a right angle
a s a .

Th e r e for e B G D F a e con cyclic ; an d s i n c e th e an gl es

, , , r ,

FDB E DG ar e e qu al
,
FB BG , .

Thi s is of c ours th e r es ult a bove prove d

e .

Evi den tly th e i n t rp olator tri e d to cli n ch the a rgu men t by

e

proving that th e angle B DA could n ot be nythi ng but a righ t a

an gl e .

Book V III .

Book V III of th e Collection i s mai n ly on m e ch anic s alth ough ,

it con ta in s , in addi ti on, s ome prop os ition s of pur ely g eometrical

i n t er es t .
4 28 PA PPU S O F A LEXA N DR I A

H i s tor ica l pr eface .

It b g i n with n i nt r e ti ng pref c on th clai m of

e s a e s a e e

th ore tic al me chan i c s

e s di s t i n ct fr om th e m e r ly pr a ctic l ,
a e a

or i n du s tri l to b e r gard ed s a ,
math ematic l s ubj e ct e a a a .

A rchi m d e Ph il on H er on of A l e x an dri a e r ef rr e d to s
e s, ,
a r e a

th e prin cip al exp on en t s of th s ci n c e whil C rp u s of A n ti och e e ,

e a

is l o m en ti on d s h vi ng ppli e d g om try to c r tai n

a s e a a a e e

e

(pr actic l ) rt s

a a .

Th dat e of C arpu i u nc ertai n th ough it is pr ob bl e th t

e s s ,
a a

h e c am ft r G m i n u s ; th m os t l i k ely dat eems to b e the

e a e e e e s

r t o econ d c n tury A D
s r s S i m pl i ciu s g i v s th e a uth ority of
e . . e

I m blich u s fo th e s t ateme n t th t C arpu s s qu ar e d th circl

a r a e e

by m e ns of a c ertain curv wh i ch h e i mply c ll d curv

a e, s a e a e

g n er t d by d oubl e m oti on Proclus call h im C arpus th e

e a e a .
1
s

wr i ter on m ch n i cs (6 pnx s ) an d qu otes fr om w ork of

e a a v tk

a

hi on A s tr onom y s om r em rk s a bout th e r l ti on be tw en
s e a e a e

probl em s and the orems an d th pri ority in ord er of the e

for mer Proclu s ls o men tion s him as h vi ng h eld th t n

.
2
a a a a

n gl e b l on g s to th e c t egory of s i n c e it
a e
qu a n ti ty a

r epre n t s ort of di s tan ce betw een th e two lin es formi ng

se s a

i t thi s di s t n c e b e i ng ext en d d on e w y ( gb 8 8 69 )


,
a e a e 11 1 6 0 11

though in a di fferen t s n s e from that in w hich li n repr esen ts e a e

ext en s i on on e w ay s o th at C arpu s s vi e w a pp ear e d to b

,
th e e

greates t poss i bl e parad ox ; C rpu s s eem in r e li ty to h v e 3

a s a a

be n n t i cip ti ng th mod ern V i w of an angl e s r epres en ti ng

e a a e e a

d i ver gence r th er th n d i s t n c e n d to h v e m n t by

a a a , a a ea eu

i n on e sen se (r ot ti ona lly ) s di s ti n ct fr om on e w ay o in on

a ,
a r e

di men s i on (l i n early) .

P ppu t ll s u s th at H er on di t in gui s h e d th e logic a l i s

a s e s , . .

th or tic l part of mech n ic from th e pr ctical or m nu l

e e a ,
a s a a a

(x po py m ) th e for m e r bein g m ade up of g eom try arith

et v u , e ,

m tice s tron omy

,
n d phy ic s th e l t te r of w ork in m e t al
a a s , a ,

a rchit ectur carp en teri ng an d p in tin g ; th e man wh o h ad

e, a

be n tr i n d from hi y outh up in th e sciences for s id s w ell

e a e s a e a a

as pr cti s ed in th e id ar t w ould n tur ally pr ov e th e b s t

a sa s a e

a rchit ect nd i n v entor of mech n ic l devic es but a i t is d if

a a a , , s

cult o i mpos s ible fo th m e p r on to d o both th e necessary

r r e sa e s

1
lc
Simp i i us on A is C a teg , p 1 9 2 , K albeis ch r t . . .

2
r l
P oc us on Eucl I , pp 2 4 1 3 3
I b , pp 1 2 5 2 5 1 26 6
. . . . . . . .


TH E C OLLE C TI ON , BOO K V III 429

ma th e ma tic s an d th e pr actic al w ork h e wh o ha s notth e for mer ,

m u s t p er forc e u se th e res ourc es which pra ctic al e xp e ri en c e in

his p articular ar t o cr ft give him Other v ri e ti es of r a s . a

m ech n ic al w ork in clud e d by th a n ci en t u n d e r th e gen er l

a e s a

t e rm m e ch an ic s we re (1 ) th e u se of th e me ch anic l power s a ,

or d e vic e s fo mov i n g o lif ti n g gr eat w eigh ts by m an s of

r r e

s m all forc e
a
(2 ) th e c ons truction of engin e s of w a for
, r

throwin g proj ectil e s a long di s tan ce (3 )th e pu mpi ng of w ter ,

a

fr om gre t d ep th (4 ) th e dev i ces of w on d r work r

a s,

e -
e s

(C p av o py of ) ome d e p en d in g on pn e u m tic s (like H r on

aac v ,
s a e

in th e P neu m a tica ) om e u s i n g Str i n g &c to produce mov e, s s, .

,

m en t s lik e th ose of livi n g th i n gs (l i ke H er on in A ut omat nd

a a

B l an ci n g s
a om em ployi ng o t i n g b odi e (lik e A rchi m ed e
s e a s s

in Fl o ti n g a oth r s u i n g w t r to m eas ur e ti me e s a e

(lik e H er on in hi s Wat er nd l tly s phere maki ng

a as -

o th e c on tructi on of m e ch an ic l i m it tion s of th e mov e men t

r s a a s

of th e h v n ly bod i es with th e un ifor m circular moti on of

ea e

w te r s th motiv pow e r A rchi m d es s ys P ppus w s

a a e e . e ,
a a , a

h e ld to b e th on e pers on w h o h d u n d r s tood th e c u se an d
e a e a

th e r eas on of ll th es e v ri ou s d e vic es a n d h ad ppli ed his a , a a

e xtr or di na rily v ers tile gen iu s n d i n v en tiv en es s to all th e

a a a

purpos e s of da ily life n d y et although thi s brought him ,

a ,

u n e x am pl ed fame th e w orld ov e r o th at h is n ame w as on :

,
s

e v ry one s lips h e di s dain ed (according to C arpu s) to writ

e

,
e

an y m ch an i ca l w ork sa v
e a tr act on ph r e m ki n g bu t e s e -
a ,

dil i gen tly wrote all that h could in small compass of th e a e

m os t dv n c e d p art s of ge om etry nd of s ubj e ct s c onn e ct e d

a a a

with rith metic C arpu hi m self s y s P ppu s a w ll as

a . s ,
a a , s e

oth r a ppli e d g e om etry to pra ctic al

e s rts and wi th r ea on a ,
s :

fo g e om try i s in n o wi s e i njure d n ay it is by n tur e

r e ,
a

c apa bl e of givi ng s ub s tance to m n y rts by bei ng s oci t d a a a s a e

with th em n d s o fa from bein g i njured it may be s id

,
a ,
r ,
a ,

while it elf dvan ci ng th ose r t s to be h onour ed n d dor n d

s a a ,
a a e

by th em in return .

The ob ect o
j f the B ook .

Pa ppu s
th en d es c r ib es the obj ct of the Book n ame ly e ,

to s et ou t th e pr op os iti on s which th e an ci en ts es tabli s h e d by

geome trical meth ods b eside c e rtai n u se ful theorems d i ,
s s

c ov e re d by hi ms elf but in a s h or te r an d clear er form nd ,

a
 TH E C OLLE C TI ON BO OK V III 43 1

N ow , by h yp othes i s ,

CE z EA = B D : DC ,

wh en ce CA A E BC CD ,

an d if w e h al v e th e an t e c e d en t s
, ,

AK z A E = H C : CD ;

th re fore
e

wh en ce , co mponendo CE : E X , B D DH .

A F z FB = B D : DC =

(CE z EK ) (DH : DC ) .
(2 )
N ow ELD b e in g a
, tran s ver s l cutti nga th e s id es of the
tr i an gl e K H C w e h ave ,

11 3 KL (3 )
[Thi s is Menelau s s theor m ; Pappu s does n ot h ow ever

e

, ,

quote it but prov es the r el ti on ad hoc in an added lemma by

,
a

dra wi n g C M parall el to DE to meet H K produce d in M Th e .

proof is w ay for 11 3 3 3 H L LM ) LM
,
( ( :

(H D D 0 ) (0 3 ;

It follow s from (2 ) and (3 ) th a t

A F: 3 3 11 3 33 ,

and , i c
s n e A B is paralle l to H K ,
an d A H , BK ar e s traight
li n e s m eeti n g in G FGL is , traigh t li ne
a s .

[ Thi s is pr ov ed in an oth r e s y l e mma

e a by r e d u cti o ad

a bs u r
.
du m .
]
43 2 PA PPU S O F A LEXA N DR I A

We h av e
xt to prove th t E L LD ne a .

N ow [ g i n by M n l au s th eorem prov d

a a e e s ,
e

drawin g C N p ar ll el to H K to meet E D produc d a e

EL : LB (E K : K C ) (CH z H D) .

by ( 1 ) bov CE
Bu t,

a e, : EK B D DH ;

th re for
e e

o th t (EK K C ) C H H D) an d th r for from

s a
( 1, e e e,

EL LD .

It r e mai n s to prov th t F G e a 2 GL ,
wh i ch is o bvi ou by s

p rall ls
a e , i
s n e c FG : GL = A G : GH 2 : 1 .

r propo it i on follow w i th r e fer en ce to th cen tre

Two mo e s s e

of gravity Th e r t i Giv en a r ectan gl e w i th A B B C

. s s, ,
as

adj c n t id s to dr w fr om C s tr i ght l i n e m ti ng th e s id
a e s e , a a a ee e

opp o i t B C in
s poi n t D s uch th t i f th e tr ap iu m A DCB i
e a a , ez s

hun g from th poi nt D it w i ll r st w i th A D BC h or i ont l

e ,
e ,
z a .

In oth e r word gr v i ty m u t be in DL draw n

s, th e c n tr
e e of a s

p rp n d i cular
e e to B C Pappu s prov by an aly i s th t . es s a

CL 3 BL o th at th probl e m i r educe d to th at of
2 Z
,
s e s

d i vid in g B C i nto p arts BL LC s uch th t th i s rel tion h old s ,

a a .

Th latt e r pr obl em is olv d (Prop 6 ) by t akin g

e poi nt s e . a ,

s y X in CB such th t C X
a , 3 XB d cribi n g s m i circl e ona ,
es a e

BC di met r and dr wi ng X Y t right angl es to B C to

as a e a a

m e t the s mi c i rcl e in Y s o th at X Y
e e Tg BC an d th n ,
2 a Q
, e

div i d i n g C B t L s o th t a a

Th e c on d propo iti on is this (Prop 7 ) Given two s tr ight

se s . a

lin es AB AC nd B
, x ed poi n t on A B if CD be dr aw n
, a a ,
 TH E C OLLE C TI ON . BO O K V III 433

with its ex tr emi ti es on A C A B and so that A C B D is a given ,

r ati o th en th e cen tr e of gra vity of th e tri angl e A DC will lie

,

on a s tr ight lin e a .

T k e E th e middl e p oi nt of A C and F a p oi n t on DE uch

a , , s

th at DE 2 FE A lso l et H be a poi n t on B A uch th t

: . s a

BH 2 HA Dr aw FG p rall e l to A C
. a .

Th en A G A D an d AH AB; ,
:

th er e for e H G BD 1
.

A l s o FG AE AC Th ere for e
2 1
.
,

s i n c e th e ti o A C B D is giv en th e
1 a : ,

r ati o GH GF 5 gi ven : 1 .

A n d th e an gl e FGH ( A ) is giv en z
,

th e r for e th e tri angle FGH s given n

e 1 i

s p e ci e s n d con s ,
qu e n tl th e an gl e GH E
a e v

is giv en A n d H is a giv e n p oi n t
. .

Th e r e for e H F is giv en s tr ai ght lin e an d it c on tain s the

a ,

c en tre of gra vity of th e tr i an gl e A DC .

The i n cli n ed p la ne .

Pr op 8 is .con truct i on of a plan e at a giv eninclina

on th e s

t i on to n oth er pl an e p r llel to th e h ori on nd with thi s

a a a z , a

P ppu s l e a v es th eory an d pr oc eed to th e prac tic l p rt

a s a a .

P rop 9 (p 1 0 5 4 4 s q ) i n v es tig t es th e pr obl em Give n

. . . . a

a w e igh t which c n b e dr aw n long pl an e parall el to th

a a a e

h or iz on by a giv n forc nd a pl an e in cli n ed to th e h ori on

e e, a z

a t giv en n gl e to nd th e forc e r e quire d to draw th e w e igh t

a a ,

upw ards on th e i n clin ed plan e Thi s s ems to b e the r s t

. e

o on ly a tt empt i n anci nt ti mes to i n v e s tigat e moti on on

r e

an i n cli n e d pl n e an d as s uch it is curi ou s

a th ough of n o
, ,

v alu e .

L t A be th e w e ight which can be mov e d by forc e C al ong

e a

a h ori on t a l pl an e
z C on c eive a s ph r e with w eight e qu al to A
. e

plac e d in con tact t L w i th th e given i ncli n ed plan e ; th e circl e

a

OGL r e pr es en t s a s e cti on of th e s ph er e by v rtic l plan e a e a

p as s i ng thr ough E its cen tr an d LK th e li ne of gr e tes t lope e a s

dr w n through th e p oi n t L Dr w E GH h ori ontal and th er e

a . a z

fore p aralle l to M N in th e plane of secti on and dra w LF ,

p e p en dicula to E H P ppu s s eems to r egard the pl an e

r r . a

as r ough s i n c e h e pr oc e e d s to mak e a s y s t em in e quilibriu m

,

F f
 TH E COLLEC TI ON . B OO K V III 43 5

is l eft i n tact an d let it be r equir ed to nd th e di amet er of

,

a circu lar secti on of th e cyli n d er We t ake any tw o p oi nt s .

A B on th e s urfac e of th e fr gme n t and by mean s of th es e we

, a

nd v p oi n t s on th e s urfa c
e l l lyi ng in one pl n s e cti on e a a e ,

in ge n r a l obliqu e
e Thi s is d on e by t aki ng v e di ffer en t r adii
.

an d dra wi n g p airs of circl es with A B as c entr es an d with ,

e a ch of th e ve r ad ii s u c c ess i ve ly Thes e pairs of circles with .

e qu al ra dii i nter s ectin g at poin t s on the s urface d et ermine

, ,

vepoin ts on the plane bi s ectin g A B at right angl es Th e ve .

poi n t e th en r epres en t ed on ny pl ane by tri angul ati on

s ar a .

S upp ose th e p oi n t s ar e A B C D E a nd a e s uch th at

, , , ,
'

n o tw o of th e li n es c on n e ct i n g th e diff e r en t p ir s a p r ll el a re a a .

Thi s cas e can be re duc ed to th e c on s tructi on of a conic thr ough

th e e p oi nt s A B D E F wh e e E F is p arall l to A B
v , , , ,
1 e .

Thi s s s h ow n 1 11 a s ub s equ en t l emma (ch ap

i .

Fo if E F be draw n through E p ar all el to A B n d if CD

r ,
,
a

m e t A B in O and E F l n O w e h ave by th e w e ll k n ow n

e , ,

pr opos iti on about i n ters ectin g chord :

s,

C0 . 0 D : A O OB CO .

wh en c e O F is know n and F is determi ned

,
.

We h av e then (Prop 1 3 ) to con truc t a conic thr ough A B .

s , ,

D E F wh er e E F is p aral l el to A B
, , ,
.

B i s e c t A B E F at V W ; th en V W pr oduc ed b oth w ay s
, ,

is a d i ame ter Dr aw DR th e ch ord throug h D p r all l

. ,
a e

F f 2
43 6 P A P PU S O F A LE XA N DR I A

to th i di amet r
s e . T hen R is d termi n e d by
e m eans of th e
r lat i on
e

in thi w y s a .

Joi n DB R A meeti n g E F in
, ,
K , L r e p ct i v ly
s e e .

Th en by s i m i l r tr i ngl
,
a a es ,

RH . HDzK H . HL .

h er efor e by
T FH H E K H HL ,
.
,

wh en c H L is deter mi n d n d th er for L
e e , a e e . Th e i n ter s ecti on
of A L DH d et r mi n
,
R e es .

N ext in ord r to n d th e extr mi ti di m eter

,
P P e e es ,
of th e a

thr ough V W w e dr w E D R F m eeti n g P P

, ,
a ,

in M N ,
r es
pec
tiv ely .

Th en , as b for e e,

FW . WE z P W WP '
. FH H E : R H . . HD , by th e ell i ps e ,

F W WE . N ll df

, by s i mi l ar tr i ngl e a s.

herefore
T

and i mila
s rly w e c n n d th v lu of P V VP a e a e

. .

N ow s y s P ppu s s i n c P ll WP n d P V VP a e g i v e n

, a a , e . a . r

r s n d the p oi n t V W
a ea a g i v en P P giv en H is s ar e , ,

ar e .

d et ermi n ti on of P P mou nt (Prop 1 4 foll ow i n g ) to n

a ,

a s . a

el i mi n t ion of on e of th p oin ts n d the n d ing of th e oth er

a e a
-

by m ns of n equ t i on of th e econ d d egr e

ea a a s e .

T k e tw o p oi n t s Q Q on th d i m et r s u ch th a t

a ,
e a e

P

W WP . V W WQ .

QQ ,

ar e thu s k now n while P , ,
P

r emai n found .

P V : V W:
'
By (a ) QV : VP ,

wh en c e P

Wz V W : P Q: P V .

Th e r ef or e by ,
means of

PC P V= Q W: WP

 TH E C OLLE CTI ON . BO O K V III 43 7

so th at
P Q P Q= QV Q W
'
. . .

h
T us P can b e fou n d ,
an d si milarly P
.

Th e conjugate di ameter is fou n d by virtu e of th e r l ti on

e a

(c onj uga t e di am)

'
2
PP 2
p : PP .

w h e r e p is the l atu s r ectu m to P P d eter mi ned by the pr op rty

e

0 f th cu v
6 r e

2 ) 33 : A V 2 z P V VP .

P r oblem , Gi ven two j

con u ga te d i a m eter s of an ellipse,

to n d the a xes .

Las tly , Papp u s h ow s (Pr op 1 4 ch ap 1 7 )h ow wh en We a e

s .
, .
,
r

g i ven tw o c onjug t e diameter s w e can n d th e ax es Th e

a ,
.

c on tructi on is s follow s Let A B CD be conjugat e di ameter s

s a .
,

(CD b ei n g th e gr e t er) E th e cen tr e

a ,
.

P r odu c e E A to H s o th at .

hrough A draw FG p arall el

T to C D . B is c t E H
e in
dr w a right angl es to EH meeti ng FG in L .

With L as c en tr e ,
an d LE as r a dius d es cribe , a circle cutti ng

Join E F E G , , an d fr om A draw A M, A N parallel to E F, E G

r es p ectiv ely .
 TH E C OLLE C TI ON . B OO K V III 439

Th en h e pr ov e s th at if w e j oi n A B A B is , , e qu l a to th e l ength
of th e s id e of th e h ex ag on r equir e d .

P roduc e B C to D so th at BD BA , an d j oi n DA . A BD
is th en e quilat er al .

S i n c e E B i s a t an g e n t to th e se g men t , A E EC . E B2 or
A E EB EB EC , an d th e tri angles EA B E BC , ar e s i mil r a .

T h erefor e BA z z B C 2 A E Z : EB2 A E : EC 9 : 4 ;

an d BC :
2
BA ED , so th at BC 2 CD .

Bu t CF 20A ther e for e A C : CF DC : CB ,

an d AD ,

ar e p rall l
a e .

Th er e fore B F: A D B C : CD 2 1 , so th t a

BF : 2AB QA B .

ls o A FB C A BDA
A s o th at A A B F nd : a

th tr i n gl A B F is th er e for e e qu al an d s i mil ar to th e r equire d

e a e

tri angl e N LO .

Con s tr uc ti on of toothed wheels and i n d e nted scr ews .

Th er s t of the Book is d ev ote d to th e c on s tr ucti on (1 ) of

e

tooth d wh el s with
e given n umber of teeth equ l to th o e of
e a a s

a giv en wh eel (2 ) of a cyli n dric l h elix the co hli as i n d en t d

, a ,
c , e

so s to w ork on a t ooth e d wh ee l
a Th e t ext is e v i d en tly .

d f ctiv e nd t th e end n i nt erp olator h as i n serted xtract s

e e , a a a e

a b out th e m ech an ic l p ow e r s fr om H e ron s M echa n i cs

a .
 A LGEBR A : DI O PH A N TU S or A LEXA N DR I A

B egin nin gs l ear n t fr om E gypt .

IN a lg br
e geometry th e Gr eek l ear n t th e b ginn in gs
a , as in ,
s e

from th e Egypti n s Famili rity on th e p rt of th e Gr eek s

a . a a

with Egypti n m eth od s of calcul ti on is w ell ttes te d (1 )

a a a .

Th se meth ods a e fou n d in op er ti on in th e H e on ian wr i ti n g s

e r a r

a n d c oll cti on s
e 2 ) P s ellu in th e l e tt er publ is h e d by T nn ery
. s a

in h is edition of Di oph n tu s p eaks of th e meth od of arith a s

me t i c l c alcul ati on u se d by th e Egypti n s by which probl ems

a s a ,

in an ly s i s e h n dl e d ; h e a dd s d e t ail s d oubtl es t ken

a ar a , s a

from A n atoliu s of th t echn ic al t er ms u se d fo d i ff r n t ki n d

,
e r e e s

of n u mb e r s in cludi n g th e p ow e rs of th
,
u nk now n qu n tity e a .

(3 ) Th e s choli s t to P l to Ch mi d s 1 6 5 E s ays th at p art s

a a s ar e

of Aoy w m th r ci n c of c lcula ti on a e th e s o c ll ed Gr ee k
, e s e e a ,
r -
a

an d Egypt i an m eth od in m ultiplic ati on s nd d i vi i on s

s nd a s ,
a

th e a dd i t ion nd s ubtr acti on s of fr ctions (4 ) P l ato hi mself

s a a

in th e La ws 8 1 9 A C say th at fr ee b or n b oys s h ould s is th e

s -

, a

practic in Egypt l e rn s i d e by id with r e d i ng s i mple

e ,
a , s e a ,

m th em tic l c lcul ti on adapte d to th eir ge which s h ould

a a a a a s a ,

b e put i n t o for m s uch as to c ombi n e amus m en t w ith

a e

i ns truc ti on probl ems about th e d i tributi on of s y appl e o

: s ,
a , s r

garl and th e calcul ti on of mixtur s nd oth er qu es ti ons

s, a e , a

ari s i ng in m ilit ary o civil life r .

H au -
cal cul ation s .

Th e E gypt i an c lculati ons h er e in p oi n t (ap art from th eir

a

m eth od of writin g an d c lcul ti n g in fra cti on s which with a a

, ,

th e exc ept ion of g w er e alw ay d e comp os ed , n d writt en s a

as th e s u m of a di m i ni s hi n g s e r i e s of a liqu ot p ar ts o s ub r

m ultipl es ) e th e ha u c lcul ti on s
ar H a u m ean i n g
-

heap is
a a .
, a ,

th e t er m d en oti ng th u n kn ow n qu an tity and th e calcu l tion s

e , a
 H AU -
C A LC U LA TI O N S 44 1

in t er ms ofitar e equi v alent to th e s oluti ons ofsi mpl e equations .

with on e un kn ow n qu antity Ex amples from the Papyru s .

B hi n d c or res pon d to the followi n g e qu ati ons :

1 9,

33,

10 .

Th e Egyp ti a n s ticip at ed though only in an lementary

an ,
e

for m a favouri te method of Di oph antu s th at of th e false

, ,

s upp os iti on o regula fal i r A n arbitrary ass um ption is s

mad e as to th e alu e of th e u n know n and th e tru e valu e

v ,

is a ft erw ard s fou n d by a c om p ri s on of th e r es ult of s ub a

s ti tu tin th e wr on g va lu e in th e origi n al e x pr es i on with th e

g s

a ctu al d at Two ex ampl es m y b e gi v en

a . Th e rs t from a .
,

th e Pa pyru s B hi n d is th e probl e m of dividi ng 1 0 0 l oaves

,

amon g e p e rs on s in s uch
v w ay th a t th e s h ar s ar e in a e

a rith metic a l progr ess i on an d on e s ev en th of th e s u m of th e

,
-

rs t three s h ar s is equ al to th e s um of the oth r two If

e
_
e .

a + 4d a + 3 d
, a + 2d a +d , b th e s h ares th en
, ,
a e ,

3a + 9d

d = 5% a .

A h me s s ay s without any e xpl an ation make th e difference

, , ,

as it is , 5 % an d th en ss u m i n g a 1 writ es th e ser i es
, a ,

23 N i 1 2
, , 1 ,
Th e a dditi on of th ese giv es 6 0 and 1 0 0 is
. ,

ti m m says s i m ply m ultiply 1 g ti mes

13 A h an d

es 6 0 es
,
.

thu s gets th e corr ect v alu es 20 g , ,

Th e s e c on d e x ampl e (t k en from th e Berli n P p yru s 6 6 1 9 )

a a

is th e soluti on of th e e qu ati on s
2 2
x +y z 1 0 0,

or y = %w .

a: is r s t s s u me d to be 1 an d 56 + y
a is thu s foun d to be %5
,
2 2
.

I n ord er to m ak e 1 0 0 h as to be multipli e d by 6 4 or 8
2
.
,

Th e tru e v alu e of a; is th er e for e 8 ti mes I o 8 , r .

m s in th e Gr eek A n th ology

A r ith m etical epigr a .

Th e si m ple e qu ati on s s olv e d in th e Papyru s B hi n d ar e jus t

th e ki n d of e qu ations of which we nd many ex am pl es in th e
'
 EPI GR A M S I N TH E GR EEK A N TH OLOGY 44 3

ti ons of thi s typ e wi th the s ame n u mb er ofu n known qu an titi es

which w as giv en by Thy ma id s an e rly Pyth agorean an d r a , a ,

w as c a ll e d th e oi dnu ow er o bl oom of Thym id s

vr v a, r ar a

(s ee v ol i pp 9 4.
(3 ) Six mor e a e probl ems of the u s u l
, . r a

typ e a b out th e lli n g an d e m ptyi ng of v es s el by pipes ; e s

g . .

(x i 1 3 0 ) one pip e lls th e v ess e l in on e d ay a s ec on d in tw o

v .
,

an d a third in thr ee ; h ow l on g will all thr e ru nni ng tog e th r e e

t ak e to ll it ? A nother abou t brick mak ers (xiv 1 3 6 ) is of .

th e s m e s ort
a .

I n d e te r min ate e qu ation s of th e r s t d egr ee .

Th e A n th ol ogy con tai n s (4 ) two i n d ete mi n ate equation s of r

th e rs t d egr e which can b e s olv e d in p os itiv e i n t ege r s in an

e

i n n ite n u m b er of w ays (xiv 4 8 th e rs t is a d is t ib u .

, r

tion of apple 3 x in n u mb er i nto parts s ti s fyi ng th equat i on

s, ,
a e

w 3y y wh ere y is n ot l ess th an 2 ; th e c on d l ds to
se ea
,

three e qu a ti ons conn ecti ng four u n know n qu n titi es a :

m+ y w1 + yl a

th e g en e a r l
luti on of which is so 4 70 y Is as 3 10
so , , , ,

2 1
3 Th es e v ry e qu ti on s which h ow v er a e ma d
e a e r e
y,
.
, , ,

d et rm i n ate by ss u mi ng th at w y a y
e a 1 00 a s olv e d
"

, 1 ,
re

in Dioph I 1 2 . . .

En ough h s b een s aid to s h ow th t Di oph n tus w s n ot

a a a a

th e i n v e n t or of A lg e br a N o w s h e th rs t to s olv e i n d e
. r a e

te rm i n at e probl ems of th e s ec on d degr e e .

I n d e ter minate e qu ation s of s e cond d egr e e b e for e

Dioph an tus .

Tak e r s t th e probl em (Dioph II 8 ) of div i di ng s qu r . . a a e

n u m b e r i n t o tw o s qu r es ; o of n di n g a righ t n gl e d tri an gl
a r a e
-

wi th s id s in r ati on l n u mbers We h v e already s e n th t

e a . a e a

P yth agoras is cr e dit e d with th e di s cov ery of a g en er al formul a

for n di n g s uch tri an gl es n am ely , ,

r a w 1 )
2 = 14. (r a -

m
44 1 A LGEB R A : DI O PH A N TUS O F A LEXA N DR I A

wh r e e n isy u
an m b er n d P l t o with
od d n n oth r for m ul ,
a a a e a

of th e s am e ort n am ly ( 2 n ) + (n
s ,
2
(1 + e E ucl i d 2 1

1
2

(Lemma followi ng X 2 8 ) n d s th e followi ng more g en er l

. a

for m u l a

11 1
2 2
(m n p + m nq )} 2 2
(m np
z
m nqz )ji
.

yth agor n too s w e h v s een ( ol i pp 9 1

Th e P ea s ,
a a e v .
, .

solv d n oth r i n d e t r mi n at e probl m d i s c ov r i ng b

e a e
y m nse e ,
e , ,
ea

of th s ri es of s i d nd di m t r n u mb rs ny n u mb r

e e e a a e e -

e a e

of s ucc e iv e i n t egr al s olut i on s of th e e qu ati on s

ss

2 56 2 + 1 .

Di oph an tu s d oe s n ot p articula rly m en ti on thi s e qu ati on

but fr om th e Lemma to V I 1 5 i t is cl ear th at h e kn e w h ow .

to n d an y n u m b er of s oluti on s wh en on e is k n ow n Thu s .
,

s ee n i g th t a 2 w2 1 y is
2
sa ti ed by
s a: l, y l ,
he w ould
put
2 ( 1 + x )2 1 a s qu r e a

(Zw
2
0 > s ay ;

wh en c e (4
T k th e v alu e p z 2
a e n d w e h av a: ,
a e 4, a n
d
in thi s c a e 2 5 1 49 7s P utti n g 2 2
. :c + 5 in
w e c n n d a s till high er v alu
a n d s o on e, a .

I n d ete r m in ate e qu ation s in th e H er on ian coll e ctions .

furth e r Greek x mpl s of i n d ter mi n t e analys is a

S ome e a e e a re

n ow v il bl e a Th ey c ome from th e C on s tan ti n opl m n u s cri pt

a a .
e a

(pr ob bly of th e tw elfth c en tury ) from which S ch on e dit ed

a e

th Met ica ofH eron ; th y h v b een publi s h e d an d tr n s l t e d

e r e a e a a

by H ib erg with commen ts by Z eu th n Tw o of th e pr oblems

e , e .
l

(thirt en n n u m b er ) h ad b een publi s h e d in

e 1 l es s compl ete a -

for m in H u lts ch s H eron (Geep on i cu s 7 8

th e oth er s , ,

a r e n ew .

I Th rs t probl m is to n d tw o r ec tangl es s uch that the

. e e

p er i met r of th e s con d is three ti mes th at of th e r s t nd

e e
, a

th e r ea of th e rs t i thr ee t i mes th t of th e s e c on d
a Th e s a .

B ibli oth eca mathematica , viii a,

1
pp 1 1 8 3 4 See Geom
'

.
n ow
r r
.
.

2 4 1 1 3 in H e on , vol iv (ed H ei b e g), pp 4 1 42 6

. . . . .
 H ER O N I A N I N DETER MI N A TE E QU A T ONS I 4 45

n u mb r 3 is of cours e on ly an illu tr ti on an d
e s a , th e pr obl em
e qu i v al n t to th e s oluti on of th e e qu ati on s
e

(1 ) u +v n (az + y
(2 ) xy = n . uv

Th e s o lution gi ven . in the t ext is equiv al ent to

3
u n (4 u v

uth en s ugges ts th t th e s olu tion may h v e been obta i n d

Ze a a e

thu A s th e pr obl em i i n d t rmi n t i t w ould be n atur l

s . s e e a e, a

to s t rt with om hyp ot h s i s
a g to put v n I t w ould
s e e , e . . .

equ t ion (1
follow f ) th at u is m ultipl of n s ay
'
_ _ 1 0 11 1 a a e ,

We h ave th en
a
; y 7: 1+

3
ry
c n z ,

my n ,

? " 3
(
c n
c ) (y n ) n n3
(
An o bvi ou s so luti on is
3 3 3
13
5 91 n 1, y
n

which giv es e

2 n3 1 2 11
3
1 4 n3 2 , s o th a t
3
u nz n (4 u

II . Th e se c on d is a s i mil ar pr obl em ab out two r ctangle s

e ,

e
qu i v alen t to the so luti on of th e e qu tion s a

1 1 > w+ y = u + v

(2 ) pg n . uv
.

an d th e so luti on gi v en in th e te xt is

u n 1, v n nz l( )
2
11 1, y n (
n l )
In thi s case tri l a m ay h v e b e en
a mad e of th e as s u mpti on s
 H ER ON I A N I N DETER MI N A TE EQUA TI O NS 447

an d b . Th e method tak e the su m of th e ar e

e mpl oy e d is to a

an d th e p eri met er 3 + 2 8 s p ar t ed i nt o its two obvi ou s ,

e a

factors to put s (r + 2 ) A (th e gi v en n u mb er ) and ,

th en to s eparate A in to s uitabl e factors to which 3 nd + 2 a r

m ay be equ ate d They m u s t obvi ou s ly be s uch th t s r th e

. a ,

r i s di v is ible by 6 To t ke the rs t ex ample wh r

a ea , . a e e

A 2 8 0 : th e p os s ibl e fa ctors a e 2 x 1 4 0 4 x 7 0 5 x 5 6 7 x 4 0
-

r , , , ,

8 x 3 5 1 0 x 28 1 4 x 20
, Th e s uitabl e fact or s in thi s c s
, e. a e ar

r +2 8 s 3 5 b ec au s e
,
: is th en e qu al to 6 an d r s is
, r ,

a m ultipl e of 6 .

Th e au th or th en say s th t a

7 [s + 3 5
s 41
( 1)z 20
,

z 21 ,

C 35 6 29 .

tri angl e
Th e is th er fore (2 0 2 1 2 9 ) in thi s cas e Th
e , , . e

tri n gl es foun d
a in the oth r thr ee c as es by th e s ame m e th od
e , ,

ar e (9 ,
40, (s , ) a nd (9 1 2
1 5, 1 7 , ,

U n fortu nat ely th er e is n o gu i de to th e

dat e of the pr obl m e s

j us t given Th e pr oba bility is that the origi nal formul ti on

. a

of th mos t i mp ort an t of th e probl ms b elongs to th e p e r i od

e e

be tw n Euclid an d Dioph n tus Thi s s upp osition bes t gr

ee a . a ee s

with th e fact that the probl ms in clude nothing t ak en from e

th e gre t c oll ecti on in th e A r i thm eti ca

a On th e oth e r h an d .
,

it is s trange th at none of the s e v n probl ems abov e men tion d e e

is foun d in Di ophan tu s Th e e re lati ng to r ati on al r ight . v

an gl e d tri an gl es might w e ll h v e b een i n clud e d by h i m ; thu a s

h n ds r a ti onal right an gl e d tri an gl es s uch th at th e ar ea pl u

e -
s

o m i n u s one of th e p erp en dicul ar i s a gi v en n u mb er but n ot

r s ,

th e r a ti onal tri angl e which h s giy en ar ea ; and h e n d a a s

rati onal right angle d triangles s uch th at the area plu s o mi n u s

-
r

th e su m of two s id es is a given n um b er but n ot th e rati on l ,

a

tri angle s uch that the s um of th ar ea an d the thr ee s ides is e

a gi ven n umber Th e omitte d problems might it is true h v

.
, ,
a e

come in the los t Books ; but on th e oth er hand Book V I would , ,

h v e been the appropri at e pl ace fo th em

a r .

Th e crow n i n g ex ampl e of a di f cult i n d et er minat e pr obl m e

propoun ded before DiOph ntu s s ti me is the C attle Problem a

-

a ttribut e d to A rchi me d es d es crib e d ab ov e (pp 9 7 ,

.
44 8 A LGEBR A : DI O PH A N TU S or A LEXAN DR I A

N umer ical s ol ution of q u ad r atic equ ations .

The geometr i cal lg ebr of th e Gr eek s h as b een in ev iden ce

a a

a ll thr ugh
o ou r hi st ory from th e Py thagor eans dow nwards ,

a n d n o m or e n e ed b e s aid of it h e r e e x c ept th at its arithm e tic al

a
p plic t i on w
a as n o n e w thi n g in Di oph an tu s It i s p r obabl e . ,

fo r xample that the s oluti on of th e quadratic qu ati on

e ,
e ,

d is covered r s t by geome try w s appli ed for th purpos e of ,

a e

n d i ng n u mer ica l valu es fo th e u n k now n as early as Euclid r ,

if n ot earli er s till I n H e ron the n u merical s oluti on of

.

e qu t i on s is w e ll es t abli s h e d
a o th at Di oph an tu s w as n ot th e
,
s

rs t to treat equati ons algebraically Wh at he did w as to .

t k s t ep forw ard toward s n algebraic n otation

a e a a .

Th e dat e ofDI OPH A NTUS can now be x ed with fair certai n ty .

H e w s la t er than H yps icles from wh om h e qu ot es

a den ition
,
a

of p olygonal n umbe r an d earl i er than Th eon of A le x an dri a

a , ,

wh o h s a quot ati on from Dioph antu s s d e nition s Th e

a .

p oss ible li mits of d at e a e ther efor e s ay 1 5 0 B C to A D 3 5 0

r , ,
. . . . .

Bu t th e l tt e r of Ps ellu s already men ti oned s ay s th at A n atoliu s

e

B s h op of Laodic ea ab ou t A D d dic t d Di ph n tu s
( i 2 8 0 ) e a e to o . . a

a c on ci e treati s e on th e Egypti an meth od of r e ck on i n g ;

s

h en c e Di oph antu s mu s t h av been contempor ary s o th at h e e a ,

probably ouris h ed A D 2 5 0 o not m uch l at er . . r .

A n p i gr m in th e A n th ology gives s ome p er s onal p articul ars

e a :

his b oyh ood l as t ed gth of his life ; hi s b eard gr ew a fter T th l -

more ; h e marri ed afte r %th m ore an d h is s on w as bor n 5 ye r ,

a s

later ; the s on li ve d to half his fath er s age an d th e f ath er _

di ed 4 y ears after his s on Thu s if so was h is ag w h en .

,
e

h e di d e ,

4 x)

w hich gi v es a
s 84 .

W or ks of Dioph antus .

Th e w orks on which th e f a me of D o i phan tus res ts ar e

( 1 ) th e A r ithmeti ca (origi n ally in thirteen Book s) ,

(2 ) a tr act On P olygona l Nu m ber s .

 WO R K S 4 49

S ix Book s on ly of the former an d a fragment of the l tte r a

s urvi v e .

A llu s ions in th e A r i thmetica i m ply th e ex i s t en c e of

(3 ) A c oll ecti on of prop os iti on s u nd er th e titl e of P or isms ;

i n thr e e pr op os iti on s (3 5 1 6 of Book V Di oph an tu s quot es
) , , ,

as k n ow n c e rt ai n prop os iti on s in th e Th eory of N u mb e rs

,

pr ing to th e s tat emen t of th em th e w ords We h ave it i n

e x

th e P or i s m s th at
A s ch oliu m on p ss ag of I amblichu s wh er e I amblichu s
a a e ,

cites a dictu m of c ertai n Py th gor ean s ab out th u n it b i ng a e e

th e dividi n g li n e (p d p o ) b etw een n u m b er n d al i qu ot p arts

e t u a ,

s ay s thu s Di oph an tu s in th e M o i asti ca fo h e d s cribes r . r e

as p rts th progr s s i on wi th out li mit in the dire ction of

a e e .

les s th n th u n i t Th M o i as ti c m y be a s epar t w ork

a e e r a a a e

by Di oph n tus givi ng rules for r eckoni ng with fracti on s ; but

a

I d o n ot feel s ure th t th e r f r n ce m y n ot s i mply be to the

a e e e a

d niti on s t the beginni ng of th e A i thmeti c

e a r a .

Th e A r ithmetica .

The seven los t B ooks an d thei r pla ce .

N on e of th e man u s cripts wh i ch
p oss ss cont i n more we e a

th n ix B ook s of th e A i thmeti c th e only v ri tion b ein g

a s r a, a a s

th t s om e fe w divid e th e s ix Book i nto sev en while on e o

a s , r

tw o giv th fr g m en t on P olyg on al N u mb er s as V III

e e a Th e .

m i s in g Book s w er e e v id en tly los t t

s v ery e rly d t e a a a a .

Tan n e ry s ugg es t s th a t H ypati a s c omm n t ry e xt n d e d on ly

e a e

to th e r s t s ix B ook s and th at s h e l e f t u n touch e d th r em i n

, e a

in g s e v en which p artly s a c ons equ en c e w ere rs t forgotten

, ,
a

a n d th e n l os t (cf th e c s e of A pollon iu s s C on i c
. wh er th
a s, e e

on ly B ook s which h v s urviv e d in Gr ee k I I V a e th os

e ,

, ar e

0 11which Eu tociu s comm n te d) Th er e is n o s ign th t ven e . a e

th A r a bi an s e v e r p os s ess ed th m i s s i n g Book s
e Th F l h i e . e a c r ,

an lg ebraica l tr eati s e by A be B kr Mu h b al Has n l

a e . . a a

K rkh i (d
a bout con t i ns coll ection of problems in
. a a a

de t erm in te an d i nd e term i n ate n aly s i which n ot only s h ow

a a s

th at th eir auth or had deeply s tudi ed Di ophantus bu t in many

c as es a e t ken dir ect from the A r i thm eti ca s ometi mes with
r a ,

a ch n g e i n c on s t an ts ;
a in th e fourth s e c ti on of th e w ork ,

G g
 R ELA T O N I OF WOR K S 45 1

R ela ti on f the P or i s m s to the A r i thmetica

o .

Did the P or i sm s for m p art of th e A r ithmeti ca in its origi n a l

for m ? Th e phr as e in which th ey ar e a llud ed to and wh i ch ,

occur s thr ee ti mes , We h a ve it in th e P or i s ms th at s ugg es t s

.

th at th y w er e a dis ti n c t c oll ecti on of prop os iti ons con c erni ng

e

th e pr op erti es of c e r tai n n u m be rs th eir divi s ibility i nt o , a

c ert i n n u m b er of s qu ares a nd s o on ; and it is poss ibl e that

a ,

it w as from th e s m coll cti on th at Dioph an tu took th a e e s e

n u me rou s oth er pr op os iti ons which h e ass u mes explicitly o ,

r

im pl i citly If th e collec ti on w as p ar t of th e A r ithmeti c it

. a,

w ould be s tran ge to qu ot th e propos iti ons un d er sep ar t e a a

titl e Th e Po is m wh en it w ould h ve b een more n tur l

r s a a a

to r e f er to p rt i cul r pr op o iti on s of p articul ar Book

a and s s, a

m or n t ur l s till to say
e a C a
y l p n poddu x o s om e s uch T O TO e r az, r

phrase fo this h as been prove d with out any r eferen c to

,

r

, e

th e p a rticul r pl c e wh er e th pr oof occurre d

a aTh e xpr ss i on e . e e

We h av e it in th e P o is ms (in th e plura l) w ould b s till r

e

more i n appropri at e if th e P or ism s h ad b e en as T nn e ry , a

s upp ose d n ot c oll e ct e d t og eth er as on e or m or e B ook s of th

, e

A r ithm eti ca bu t ca tt e r e d ab out in th e w ork as co ollar ies to

, s r

p rticul r pr op os iti on s H n c e I gr ee w ith th e vi ew of

a a . e a

H u lt ch th t th e P o i sms w er e n ot i n clud e d in th e A r i th
s a r

m eti ca t ll but for m e d

a a p rat e w ork
, a se a .

If thi s is right w c annot ny longe r h old to th e V i ew of

, e a

N es s elmann th t th e l os t B ook w e r e in th e m iddl e n d n ot t

a s a a

th e en d of th e tre ti s e ; i n dee d T nn ery produces s trong a a

argu m en t s i n fa v our of th e c on tr ry vi e w th at it is th e l t a , as

a nd m o t di f cult Book s wh i ch e los t H repli es r t to

s ar . e s

th e as s u m pti on th t Di oph n tu s c ould n ot h v e proc ee d e d a a a

to pr obl e ms m or e difcult th n th ose of B ook V If the

a .

fth o th e s i xth Book of th e A i thm etica h ad been l o t w h o

r r s , ,

pr ay mong u s w ould h ave b eli e v d th t s uch pr obl ms h ad

,
a e a e

e v e r b e en att e m pte d by th e Gr eek s ? It w ould b e the gr eat es t

e rr or in any c se in w hich a thi n g c n n ot cl e rly b e prov e d

,
a a a

to h v e b een u n k n ow n to ll th e an ci en ts to m ai n t i n th at
a a , a

it could n et h av e b een k n ow n to some Gr eek m th ematician a .

If w e d o not k now to wh t l ength s A rchi med es brough t th e a

th eory of n u m b er s (to s ay n oth i ng of oth r thi ngs ) let u s e ,

a d mi t ou r ign or n c e Bu t be tw en th e f mou s probl em of th e

a .
,
e a

G g 2
45 2 DI O P H A N TUS O F A LEXA N DR I A

cattle an d th e m os t
difcul t of Dioph an tu s s problems is th er e

n ot suf
a ci en t g p to r quir e s e v en B ooks to ll it ? A nd
a e ,

with out ttribut i ng to the n ci en ts wh t m odern m th e

a a a a

m tici n s h av e di s c ov er ed m y n ot a n u m b er of th e thi ng s
a a , a

a ttribut d to the I nd i n an d A rabs h v e b en dr w n from

e a s a e a

Gr ee k s ource ? M ay n ot th e s m e b e sa id of a pr obl em
s a

s olv e d by Leon rd o of P i s a wh i ch is v e ry s i m il ar to th os e of
a ,

Di oph n tu s but i n ot n ow to be fou n d in th A i thm eti ca ?

a s e r

I n f ct it m y f irly be s id th t wh en C h s l es m d e h i
a ,
a a a a ,
a a s

r eas on bly probabl e r s ti tuti on of th P o is ms of Euclid h e

a e e r , ,

n otwith t n d i n g th t h h d P ppu s s l emm s to h e lp him

s a a e a a a ,

u nd rtook more di fcult t k than h e w ould h ve u n d ert k n

e a as a a e

if h e h d ttempted to ll up s e v en Di oph n ti n Book s with

a a a e

n u m r i c l pr obl e ms wh i ch th e Gr ee k s m ay r e as on ab ly b e
e a

s upp os d to h v e s olv d

1
e a e .

I t i n ot o e sy to gr e with Tan nery s vi ew of th e r e l ati on

s s a a e

of th e tr ti se On P olygon al N u m be s to th e A ithmetica
ea r r .

A cc ord i n g to him ju t s S e nu s s tre ti e on th e s cti ons

, s a re a s e

of c on n d cyli n d er s w s add e d to th e m util t e d C on ics of

es a a a

A p oll on i u c on s i s ti ng of f our Book s only in ord e r to m k e up

s , a

a c on v n i en t v olume s o th e tr ct on P olygon l N um bers w s

e , a a a

a dd d to th r em i ns of th A i thmeti ca th ough formi ng no

e e a e r ,

p rt of th l arg r w ork Thu s T nn ery w ould s em to deny

a e e .
2
a e

th e g nui n en s of th e wh ol
e tr ct on Polygon l N umbers
es e a a ,

th ough in h is t ext h e on ly s ignali s the portion begi nn i n g z e

w ith th en u n c i t i on of th e probl e m Giv en

e a n u m b e r to n d a ,

in h ow m any w ay s it c n b e polyg on al n u mb r s vain

a a e a a

a tt mpt by a commen t tor to s olv e thi probl em H u l tsch

e a

s .
,

oth er h an d th i n k s th t w e m
on th e
y c on clud e th t Dio
, a a a

ph n tu r eally s ol v e d th
a s probl m Th e tr ct b egi n s like e e . a ,

B ook I of th e A ithmeti ca w ith d e n iti on s and pr e li m i n ry

r , a

pr op os i ti on s ; th en com s th difcult probl m qu oted th e e e e ,

d i s cu s s i on of wh i ch break s off in ou te xt fter f w p ges r a a e a ,

an d to th e it w ould be e s y to t ck on a gr
es t vari ety of a a ea

oth r pr obl em s
e .

Th e n me of Di oph n tu s w as u s ed as w er e th n me of
a a
, e a s

Euclid A rch i m e d es n d H eron in th eir tur n for th e pur

,
a
,

p os e of p l m i n g off th compil ati on s of m uch l t er auth ors

a e a .

Di oph tu d T ry ol ii an s, e . an n e ,
v .
,
xx .

I b , p.. x v1 ii .
 R ELA TI O N OF '

WOR K S 453

Tann e ry in cludes in his editi on thr ee fr agments u n d r the e

h adi n g Di oph an tu s Pseu d epig ph us Th e rs t which is

e

ra

.
,

n ot fr om th A ri th m e tic of Di oph an tu s as its h e di n g s tat es

e , a ,

is w orth notic e as c on t i ni n g s om particul r s of on e of tw o a e a

m e th od s o f n di n g th e s qu r bot of n y s qu ar e n u m ber ; a e r a

w e a e t old to b egi n by writi ng th e n u mb er acc ord i ng to

r

th e a rr an g emen t of th e I n di a n m e th od i e in th e I n d i n

, . . a

n u m e ric a l n ot ati on which r e ch ed u s thr ough th e A ra b Th e a s .

s e c on d fr agmen t is th e w ork e dit e d by C H e n ry in 1 8 7 9 s . a

Opu s cu lu m d e mu ltipli ca tion e et d i vi s i one sexa gesi m a li bu s

D iopha n to vel P appo a ttr i bu end u m Th e third b egi nn i n g .
,

with A tocpd ur ov em rr edoy er pmd is a B y z an ti n e compil ation

'

from l ate reproduc ti on s of th e r

y emp er pouy eua an d or epe o

y pop
er of H e r onevaN ot on e . of th e ee thr fragmen t s h as
an ythi n g to d o with Di oph an tu s
I
.

Commen ta tor s fr om H ypa ti a d ow nwar d s .

rs t commen tat or on Di oph antus of wh om we h ear

Th e
is H yp ti a th ad aughter of Th eon of A l x ndri ; s h e
, e e a a

w s m ur d e r e d by C hri s ti an fan ti c s in A D 4 1 5
a I h ve a . . . a

a lr ea dy m en ti on e d th e ttr ctiv hypoth es i s of T nn ery th a t a a e a

H yp ti s comm ent a ry e xt en d e d on ly to ou ix Books

a a nd r s , a

that thi s ccoun t s fo th eir s urviv l wh en th e r es t w re l o t

a r a e s .

It is pos s ible th at th e remark s of Ps ellu s ( l ev n th c en tury) t e e a

th e begin nin g of h is l ett e r b out Di oph n tu s A natoliu s nd a a ,

a

th Egyp ti an me th od of ith m etical r eck on i ng w er t k n

'

e ar e a e

from H yp ti a s commen tary a

.

Georgiu s P ach y m e es (1 2 4 0 to ab out 1 3 1 0 ) wr ote in Gr eek

r

a p ar aph r ase of at l eas t p orti on of Di oph ntu s S ect i ons a a .

2 5 4 4 of t hi s c omm en t ary r e la ti n g to B ook I D f 1 to Pr op

'

e . .
,

1 1 s urviv e
,
M axi mu s Pl n u d es (about 1 2 6 0 1 3 1 0 ) l o wrote
. a a s

a s y s t m atic c omm e n t ary on B ook s I II

e A r bi n commen , . a a

t to s w e r e A b u l Wafa l B u jan i (9 4 0 Qu s t a b Luqa

a r a -
z .

l Ba l b akk i (d ab out 9 1 2 ) an d pr ob ably I bn al H ith m

a -
a .
-
a a

(abou t 9 6 5

Tr a n sla ti on s an d ed i ti on s .

To R e gi omon t an u s bel ongs th e cr edit of bei ng the rs t to

ca ll att n t i on e to th e w ork of Di oph ntus bei ng xt n t a as e a in
 TR A N S LA TI O N S A ND EDI TI O NS 4 55

u n fortun tely s p oil ed by c orr e cti ons mad e es p eci ally in Book
a ,
s

I II fr om s ome m n u s cript of the P lan ud ean clas s ; wher

, , a

e

t hi s is the case r ecourse mus t be had to Vat g 1 9 1 wh i ch . r .

was c opi e d fr om it be for e it h ad s uffere d th e g en er a l alterati on

r e f err e d to th ese r e the r s t two of th e manus crip ts u sed by
: a

Tann ery in his d e ni ti v e editi on of th e Gr eek t ext Teubne

( r ,

O th er
ditor s can only be s hor tly en umerat ed I n 1 5 8 5
e .

S i mon S t ev i n publi s h e d a Fr e nch v ers i on of th e r s t four

B ooks bas e d on Xy land er
, A lb ert Gir rd a dd ed th e f th an d
. a

s i x th Book s th e c ompl e t e e d i ti on appea i n g in 1 6 2 5 German r .

,

trans lati ons Wer e brought ou t by O tto S chul z in 1 8 2 2 and by

G Werth e i m in 1 8 9 0
. Pos lger tr ans la t ed th e fr gment on
. e a

P olyg on a l N u mbe rs in 1 8 1 0 A ll these trans l ati ons dep en de d .

on th e t e xt of Ba ch t e .

A r e producti on of Dioph an tu s in modern nota ti on With

i n tr oducti on an d n otes by th e present writer (secon d edition
1 9 1 0 ) is b s e d on th t ex t of T nnery an d ma cl ai m to b e th e
a e
y a

m os t com pl ete a d u p to d at e diti on

n e
- -
.

My a ccou n t of th A r i thmeti ca of Dioph an tus will be mos t

e

c on v eni en tly arran g ed un d er thr ee mai n h eadi ngs 1 ) th e

n ot ati on an d d e n i ti on s (2
) th e pri ncip l me th ods empl oy ed
,
a ,

ar as th e y can b e
so f
gen er ally s tated (3 ) the nature of th e ,

contents i n cludin g th e ass u me d Porisms w ith i n dicati ons of

, ,
.

th e d evic es by w hich th e probl ems ar e s olv ed .

Notation an d d en ition s .

w ork Die A lgebr a d er Gr iechen Nesselman n di s ti n

I n his
g u is h es th r ee s t ag s in th e e v oluti on of alg e bra
e

(1 ) Th e .

r s t s tage h e c alls R h etorical A lg ebra or r eckon i ng by

m eans of c ompl et e w ord s Th e char cteri s tic of thi s s t ag . a e

is th e abs olut e w an t of all sy mbol s the wh ol e of th e c alcul ,

a

ti on bei ng c rri ed on by mean s of complete words and formin g

a

in fact con ti n u ou s prose Thi s r s t s t ge i s r e pr es nt ed by

. a e

such write r as I amblichu s all A r abian a n d Persi an algebr ai sts

s , ,

an d th e old e st Ital ian a lgebra i s t s an d th e ir foll ow er s i n cludi ng ,

R egi omontan u s (2 ) Th e secon d s t age N ess elmann call s th

. e

S yn c op at ed A lg ebr e s s en ti lly lik e th e r t s r egard

a a s a s
,
456 DI O PH A N TU S O F A LEXA NDR I A

literary styl but m rk ed by th e u s of c rta i n abbr e i tion al

e, a e e v a

s ymbols fo c on s t n tly r e curri ng qu ntiti e n d op er ti on

r a a s a a s .

To thi s s t g b el on g Di oph n tu an d
a e fter him ll th la ter a s ,
a ,
a e

Europ e n s u n til bout th e m i ddle of th e e v en t en t h c en tury

a a s e

( W ith th e xc e pti on of V i t w h o w as th e r s t to es t abli s h

e e a, ,

u n d r th e n me of Logi s tica speci osa s di sti n ct from Logi s ti ca

e a ,
a

n u me os a r gul r s y t e m of r e ckon i n g with l e tt er

r a, e d n oti ng
a s s e

magn i tudes w ell s n u mbers ) (3 ) To th e third s t g

as a .
a e

N es selm n n giv s th e n m of S y mb ol i c A lge br which

a e a e a ,

u es a c omplete s ys t m of n ot t i on by s igns h avi ng n o v i i bl e

s e a s

conn ex i on with th e w ords o thi ng s which th ey r epr es en t r ,

a compl te l n gu ag e of s ymbol s wh i ch n tir ely s uppl n t s th e

e a ,
e a

rh toric l ys te m it bei n g po s ible to w ork ou t a oluti on

e a

s ,
s s

without u s i ng s i ngl w ord of ordi na ry l n gu ge with th ea e a a

e xcepti on of c onn cti ng w ord o two h ere and th er e u se d fo

a e r r

cl e rnes ake
a s

s .

S ign for the u n kn ow n a )

, and i ts or igi n .

Dioph an tu s s ys t m of n ot ti on th n is mer ly bbr ev i

s e a e e a a

tion l a We w i ll cons id er r s t th e r epr e en t t ion of th

. s a e

un known qu an tity (ou a) Di oph antu s den s th e un k now n r . e

qu n t i ty s con ta i n i n g a n i n d ete m in a te or u nd e
a a n d m u lti r e

tu d e of u n i ts ( 7 1 7 9 9 po d d w d pw o ) ddin g th at it is

17 1 0 u a r v ,
a

c ll d d p Cu CS i s n u mbe s i mply an d is den oted by a c rt in

a e t I

, . . r ,
e a

s i gn .Thi s s ign is th en u s e d all thr ough th e b ook I n th e .

ea rl ies t (th e M drid ) M S th ign t ke s th e for m q in a . e s a ,

M arc i n u s 3 0 8 it pp ear s s S
a I n th e pri n t e d editi on of
a a . s

Di oph n tu s b e for e Tanne ry i t w as r e pr s n t e d by th nal

a s e e e

s igm wi th an ccen t which is s u fci en tly lik e th e s con d

a a , e

of th e two for ms Wh er th e s ymbol t k s th e pl ac e of . e a e

i ne ct d forms ip e/ 6 d p dpo &c th e t er mi n at i on w s put

e c l 1 V, t ,
a

bove an d to th e right of th Sign like n expon en t e g 9 fo

a e a , . .

r

fo fo th e s y mb ol w as in

ip e/ 6 a
c l 1 V 6 s r r 7 11 , r ,

add i t i on d oubl d in th e plur al c ases thu s

,
e &c Th e ,
.

coefci en t is expr es s e d by puttin g th e re quir ed Gr eek n u mer l a

i mmedi ately ft r it ; thu s 1 1 d p dpo e quiv al ent

a e cat t

z,

to 1 1 50 ac and s o on
, T nn e ry giv s r e s on s for thi n k
, . a e a

ing th t in th e rch etyp th e c s e en di ng s did n ot app ar nd

a a e a -
e ,
a
 N OTA TI O N A N D DEFI N I TI O N S 457

th t th e s ign w as n ot duplicated for the plur al alth ough uch

a
, s

duplic ti on w as the pr actic e of th e By an ti n es Th t th e

a z . a

s ig n w s m e re ly an abbr evi ti on f
a or th e w ord d p 6 y 6 9 n d n o a 1 a

alg e bra ic a l s y mb ol is s h ow n by th e fact th at i t occur s in th e

man u s cript s fo d p 6 y 69 in th e ordin ry s e ns e s w ll as fo

r 1 a a e r

d p 6 p 6 9 in th e t e ch n ic a l sens e of th e u nkn ow n qu an tity

1 No . r

is it c on n e d to Di oph an tu s It appe r s in more o les s . a r

s i mil ar forms in the m nu s cript s of oth er Gr eek m th e a a

matician s e g in th e Bodl ei n MS of Euclid (D O ill e 3 0 1 )

, . . a .

r v

of th e n i n th c en tury in th e forms s a curv e d l i n e

0

( 9 o r a

s i m il a r to th e a bbr e vi a t on for i ) in the m nu s cripts of

.

i Ka ,
a

th e S a n d r eckon er of A rchi me d s in form ppr ox imat

( e a a
-

ing to wh ere agai n the re is c on fus i on c aus e d by th e

s i m i l arity of th e s ign s f o i p e/46 9 n d i in m n u s cript r c l a Ka , a a

of th e Geod aesi a i n clud e d in th e H e on ian c oll e cti on s edit e d r

by B ults ch (wh er e it appears in v ariou s for ms r esembling

s ome ti m es s ome t i m es
p s ome ti mes an d on c
g w i th 0 , e
:

, ,

c se en di ng s s up erpose d) an d in manu s cript of Th eon of

a -

S myrna .

Wh t is th e origi n of th e s ign ? It is c ert i nly not th

a a e

n l s i g ma as is prov e d by s ver l of th form s wh i ch it

a ,
e a e

ta kes I fou n d that in th Bodl i an m n u s cr i pt of Di oph n tus

. e e a a

i t is writt en in th form larger th n nd quite un lik th e

e a a e

nal s igm Thi s for m c omb i n e d w ith th e fact th at in on

a .
,
e

place Xylan d er s m n u s cr i pt read p fo th e full w ord s ugges t ed

a a r ,

to m th a t th e s ign m ight b e a s i m pl e c on tra ct i o

e n of th e r s t
two l tt er s of d p dpoe Thi s s eme d to b e con r me d by

e z e

G d th u sen s men ti on of con tr ct i on fo p in th e form Up

ar a a a r a ,

occurri n g in a p apyru s of A D 1 5 4 s i n c e th tr n s iti on to th e . .

, e a

for m foun d in th e m n us cripts of Dioph n tu s might e s i ly a a a

h v e b een m d e through an i n te rmedi ate for m $1 Th e l os of

a a . s

th e d ow n w rd s tr ok e or of th e l oop w ould giv e a cl o e

a , , s

appr oxi mati on to th e for ms which w e k n ow Thi s hyp oth i s . es

as to th e origi n of th e s ign has n ot s o f as I kn ow b ee n ,

ar ,

improv e d up on I t h as th e i mmen e a dvan t g e th at it m kes

. s a a

th e s ign for s i mil ar to th e s ign s for th e p ow e rs of

th e u n kn ow n e g A
Y Y
for se , 9 K fo, . .ao9 and to th e /1
x 1 1 ,
r K ,

s ig n N i for th e u n it the s ol di ffe r en c e bei ng th at the two

,
e

l e tt ers co les ce i nto one i ns te d of b ei n g s epar at

a a e .
 N O TA TI O N A N D DE FI NI TI ON S 9

Wh en ther e ar e units in a dditi on ,

th e u n its i ndicated by
ar e

th e ab br ev i ati on M; thu s K
Y
or A Y
t
y

s e M [3 c orr es p on ds to
3 2
x + 1 3 w + 5 w+ 2 .

The s i gn (A ) for mi nu s a nd i ts m ean i ng .

For s ubtracti on al one is .

a s ign u s ed . Th e full t er m for
wan ti ng is Ad m
in s , ppos e d to n pi s a for thcomi ng as o v a t

, ,

which denotes a p os iti ve term The ym bol us e d to indicate . s

a wa n ti n
g c orr es p ond in g to ou s ign for mi n u s is A which
, r , ,

is d es crib ed in the te xt as a xp tur n e d d ow nw ard s and

tru n ca te d (F AAm s i m o ) Th e d s cription is ev iden tly

e
Kar
-
ve y . e

i n ter p olated an d it is n ow c erta i n th at th e s ign h as nothi ng

,

to d o with No is it c on n e d to Dioph an tu s for it app ears r ,

in pr a ctic ally th e s ame for m in H ron s M etr ica w h er e in on e

1
e ,

place th e r eadi n g of th e m an us crip t is u o i w 8 T ,

vc
'
a 0

7 4 13 I n th e m anu s cript s of Di oph n tu s wh en th e s ign

1
'

. a ,
_

i s r es ol v ed by writin g th e f ull w ord i n s t ea d of it it is ,

g enera lly resolv ed in to A p th dative of M ixin g but in

e tx e t, e ,

oth er pl ac es th e s y mb ol i s u s e d i n s t e d of p art s of th e v erb a

M in w na mely Am w o A id s an d onc e ev en Aimw ;

r
-

a , a c /a t

s om eti mes A x
p in th e manu s cript s is foll ow e d by th e

et et .

accu s a ti ve which s h ow s th at in th e cases the s ign was

,
es

wrongly r es olv ed It is th er fore a qu es ti on wh eth er Dio . e

ph an tu s hi ms elf e v er u e d th d ati v e A id for mi n/us at all s e c /a .

Th e u s e is c er t ain ly for eign to cl s ic al Gr eek P tol emy h as a s .

in two pl aces h al res p ectively follow ed

an d A n o u

e / av et u av ,

prop erly by th e accus ativ an d in on e cas e h e h as T a d m

,
e,

)

? TA A upd tn b oi} i n ? 7 9 Z F (wh er e th e m eani ng i s

'

T e v r f ( ) 7 7

Z I z TA ) H en c e H r on w ould pr ob bly h ave writt en a

z
'
. e a

par ticiple wher e th e I occurs in th e e xpr ess i on qu ot ed abov e

,

8 h l dx ou On th e wh ol e

s ay [1 ?d 0 1/ 0 iwT p 0 eu r a a c ea a a a xa i ar

.
,

th er efore it is prob ble that in Di ophan tus and wh erev er else

,
a ,

it occurr ed A is a com pen dium fo th e root of th e v erb A u

,
r

etrr e z
,

in fact a A with I plac e d in th m iddl e (cf R an abbr ev i ati on e .

,

for r aiAa xr o) Thi s is th e hyp oth e i s which I pu t forw ard

/ v .
s

in 1 8 8 5 an d it seems to b e c onr me d by th e fr es h ev id enc e

,

now av ail abl e as s h ow n bov e a .

1
He ro n, M etr i ca, p 1 5 6 8 , 1 0 . . .
46 0 DI O PH A N TUS O F A LEXA N DR I A

A ttach ed to th e d en i ti on
me n t th at of mi n u s is th e s ate t
a wa n ti n i a m i n u s ) m ultipli e d b y a wa n ti n g ma k e s
g (

e . .

r thcomi n i l an d a wa n ti n g (a mi n u s) multi
a
f o g ( e a
p u s ) ; . .

pli e d by a for thcomi n g (a plu s) m ak es a wa n ti n g (a

S i n c e Di oph an tu s u se s n o s ign for plu s h e h as to put a ll ,

the p os i t i v e t erm s in an expr ess i on t og e th e r an d writ e a ll th e

n eg a ti v e t e rms tog e th e r a ft e r th e s ig n for m i n u s ; e g for . .

Y Y
o3
c 5x + 8x 2
c es sarily writes K 01 s 7 A A M a
1 h e ne 7 e .

Th e Di oph n ti n n otati on fo fr cti on s s w ll s fo l arg e

a e r a a e a r

n u m b er s h as b een fully e xpl i n d with m an y illu s tr ati ons a e

in C h pt r II abov e
a It is on ly n e c essary to add h ere th at
e .
,

wh n th n u merator an d den omi n at or c on s i s t of comp os ite

e e

e xpr ss i on s i n t e rm s of th e u n k n ow n
e n d its p ow r s h e puts a e ,

th n u m rat or r s t foll ow e d by an d th e

e e u op p o u op o ev
,
tc r
,
t v

d nomi n tor
e a .

mi mA
0 0

hus p AM
Y y
T gM x 63! u opL( M 7 )
/
A , a e
6 0 x 2 ), [V I . 12 ]

an d A
Y
te /h M Ag -

GV
p opfm A A a
l Aq /h A t
2
-

1 36
- 1 2 w)

For a lg brai c l xpress i on i a p ow er of a:

ter m in an a e a e , . e .

with cert i n coefci en t nd th e ter m con t ai n ing c ertai n

a a , a a

n u m b e r of u n it s Di oph an tu s u s es th e w ord 7 8 9 s p eci es

, 6 0 , ,

which pr i m r i ly me n s th e par ti cul r p ow er of th e v ariable

a a a

w i thout th coefci en t A t th e en d of th d en i tion s h e gi ves

e . e

dir ecti on s fo s i mpl i fyi ng equati on u n til e ch s id con tai ns

r s a e

pos i tive t er ms on ly by th e ddit i on o s ubtr ct i on of co f , a r a e

cien ts an d by g ett i n g r i d of th e n eg ativ

, t rms (which i d on e e s e

by dd ing th e n ces s ary qu nt i ti es to b oth s id s); th e obj ct

a e a e e ,

h e s y s is to reduc e th e e qu ti on u n ti l on t er m on ly i s l eft
a , a e

on ch s id e ; but he adds I w ill s h ow y ou lat er h ow in

ea

, ,

,

th e c al o wh er e tw o t e r ms a e l e ft e qu al to on e t e r m
as e s r ,

s uch a probl em is s olv e d We n d in fact th at wh en h e h s

.
, a

to s olv e a qu dr tic e qu ati on h e e n d eavour s by m ean s of

a a ,

s uit bl e ass u mpt i ons to r educ it eith er to a s i mple e quati on

a e

o r
pu r e q u dr t i c
a Th s olut i on of th m ix d qu dr tic
a a . e e e a a
 N OTA TI O N A N D DEFI N I TI O NS 46 1

in thr ee te ms i s c ea
r
l rly ass u med in sev er al places of the
A r i thmeti ca bu t Di oph an tu s n e v er gives th e n ec essary ex
,

plan ti on of thi s c s e s promi s ed in the pr e face

a a a .

B e for e l e av i n g th e n ot a ti on of Di oph an tu s w e m ob s e rv a
y e ,

that th e for m of it l i mits him to th e u s e of on e u nkn ow n at

a ti me Th e di s dv n t ge is obvi ou s
.
Fo ex ampl e wh er e
a a a . r ,

we can b egi n with n n u mb er of u n kn ow n qu n titi es n d a

y a a

gra dua lly eli mi n ate all bu t one Di oph n tu s has prac tic lly to , a a

pe rform his eli mi n ati ons b eforeh an d s o s to expr es s e very a

qu antity occurrin g in th e probl m in t erms of only one e

u nk n ow n Wh en h e h ndl es probl em s which

.
by n tur a ar e a e

i n det er mi nate an d w ould l ead in our notati on to n i n d e a

t er mi n ate e qu ati on con tai n i n g tw o o thr ee un k n ow ns h e h r , as

to s s u me fo one o oth e r of th es e s om p rticul r n u mb er

a r r e a a

a rbitr rily ch os n th e e ect b ei ng to mak th e problem

a e ,
'

de te rmi n te H ow v r in doing s o Di oph n tus is car e ful

a . e e , , a

to s ay th t we may for s uch n d s uch

a q u ntity put n y a a a a

n u m b r wh t e v e r
e s ay uch n d s uch a n u mb r ; th er i
a , s a e e s

th ere for e ( s a rule)n o r eal l os s of g n rality The particul r

a e e . a

de vic s by which h e con tri v es to xpr es s all his u n know n

e e s

in te r ms of on e u n kn ow n a e extr aordi n rily v ri ou s nd r a a a

cl ve r H e can of cour se use th e s ame v ari bl e 9 in th

e .
, ,
a e

s am e problem with di ffer ent s ignic tions s u ccess ively as a ,

wh en it is n e ces s ary in th e cour se of th e pr obl em to s olve

a s ub s idi ry probl e m in ord e r to
a n bl e h im to mak e th e e a

coefci en ts of th e di ff r en t t r ms of ex pres s i on s in a; s uch e e

a s will an s w e r h is purp os e an d e n bl e th e origi n al probl m a e

to b e s olv d Th er e ar e h ow e v e r tw o c as es II 2 8 2 9 wh re
e .
, , , .
, , e

fo th e pr op e r w orki n g ou t of th e probl em two u n kn ow n s a e

r -
r

i m p e r ti ve ly n e c es s ry We s hould of cours u s e a: and y ;

a a . e

Dioph n tu s c all s th e rs t 9 as u s u l ; th s e c on d fo w n t
a a e ,
r a

of a t r m h a gr es to c ll i n th e rs t i n s t an c e

one u ni t

e , e e a ,

ie 1
. . Th en l t e r h a vi n g c ompl e te d th e p r t of th e s oluti on
. a ,
a

n e c es s ary to n d a h e s ubs titut es its v lu e an d u s es g o e r

,
a v

ag a i n fo wh t h e h ad or i gi n ally c ll e d 1
r a Th at is h e h as to a .
,

put h is n ger on th e pl ace to which the 1 h s passe d s o as a ,

to s ub s titut e 9 fo it Thi s is a tou r ole for ce in th p a rticula r

r . e

c s es n d w ould be di fcult o i mpos s ibl e in more complic t d

a ,
a r a e

probl ems .
 DETER M I N A TE EQUA TI O N S 46 3

e quati on and neutrali e negative t erms by ddi ng to b oth z a

s id e s th e n t ak e lik e fr om lik e aga i n u n til w e h av e on e te r m

'

, ,

l e ft e qu al to one te r m A fter th ese operation s h av e b n . ee

pe rforme d th e equ ti on (after dividi ng ou t if both s id s

, a ,
e

con tai n pow er of to by th e les s er p ow er) reduc es to A tom B

a , ,

an d i s c on s ide r e d olv e d Di oph an tu s r egard s thi s s givi n g

s . a

one r oot on ly e xcludi n g n y n ega tiv e v alu e as i mp os sibl e

, a .

N o e qu ti on of the ki n d is adm itt ed which d oes not giv

a e

a r ti on al v alu e in te gr al o fr acti on l Th e valu to O i

a

, r a . e s

ig n or e d in the cas e whe r e the degr ee of the equ t i on is r e duc e d a

by d ividing ou t by any p ow er of a) .

(2 ) M ixed qu a d r a ti c equ a ti ons .

Di oph an tu s v er gives th e e xpl n ti on of the method o f

ne a a

s oluti on which he pr omi s e in th e pre f c e Th at h e h d s a . a

a d n it e me th od lik e th at u s e d i n th e Ge om e try of H e ron

e

is pr ov d by cl ear v erba l e xplan ti on in diff r n t prop os i ti on

e a s e e s .

A s h e r quir es th e e qu ti on to be in th e for m of tw o p os itive

e a

ter ms b eing e qu al to one pos itiv e t erm th e poss ibl e form fo ,

s r

Di oph an tu s a e r

(a ) m ac
2
+ pcc q , mx 2
px + q , (0 ) mac
2
+q pa .

It do s n ot app e r t t Di ophantus divided by m in ord er to

e a a

m k th e r s t te rm
a e s qu a r e ; r ath e r h e m ultipl i e d by m foa r

thi s purp os e It is cl r th t h e s t t ed th e r oots in th e a bove

. ea a a

c ases in for m e qui val en t to

a

29 + 73 +
3 3
m

%P+ t
z
p W Q)
m

Th e e xpl a na ti on s w hi ch h ow thi s s ar e to b e fou n d in V I 6 .

,

in I V . 39 an d 3 1, an d in V 1 0 an d V I 2 2 . . r e p ctively For
s e .

e xa m pl e in V . 1 0 he h as th e e qu ati on 17 7 2 a, an d he
sa ys
Multiply
h alf th e coefci en t of to i n to it elf nd w e h av s a e

1 296 ; ubtract th e produc t of th co fci en t of x and the

s e e
2

te r m in u nit s or 2 8 9 Th e r emai n d e r is 1 0 0 7 th e s qua r e r oot

,
.
,

of which i s n ot gr e t er th n 3 1 A dd h alf th e coefci en t of a:

a a .

an d th e r e ult i s n ot gr e t e r th an 6 7
s Divid e by th e c oefcien t a .

of 1 3 n d a: is n ot gr ter th n I n I V 3 9 he h th e
2 as
,
a ea a .
 4 64 DI OP H A N TU S O F A LEXA N DR I A

e quati on z a 18 nd s y To olv e thi s t k th e quar e

z
a a s,

s ,
a e s

of h alf th c o fc i n t of ac i 9 nd th e pr oduct of th e u n it
e e e , . e .
, a

ter m n d th e co fci n t of $ i e 3 6 A ddin g we h a ve 4 5

a e e
2
,
. . .
, ,

th e s qu r e r oot of which i n ot l
a th n 7 A dd h lf th e s es s a . a

coefc i nt of a: [an d divid e by th e coefci n t of

e wh en c e a: e

i n ot l e
s th n I n th es e c ses it will b e obs erv e d th t 3 1
ss a a a

a nd 7 n ot a ccur t
ar e li mit bu t ar e th e n e r e t i n t egr la e s, a s a

l i mits which will rv his purpos e se e .

Di oph n tu lw ays u s s th e p os itive s ign with the r dic l

a s a e a a ,

a n d th r h a b e n m uch d i s cu ss i on a s to wh e th e r h k n e w
e e s e e

th t qu dr ti c e quati on h as two r oot Th e e vide n ce of th e

a a a a s .

t xt is i n conclu s ive b c us e hi on ly obj ect in e very c s e is to

e e a s , a ,

ge t on e s olut i on ; in s ome c se th e oth e r r oot w ould be a s

n g ti v n d w ould th r for n atur ally b i gn ore d as b surd

e a e, a e e e e a

i m p os ibl I n y et oth r c ase wh e r e th e s c on d r oot is

o r s e . e s e

p os s i bl e i t n b s h ow n to b e us eless from Dioph n tu p oint

ca e a s s

of Vi e w Fo m y p rt I n d i t difcult o i m p o s ibl to
. r a ,
r s e

b li eve th t Di oph n tu w u n w r of th xi s t n c e of two

e a a s as a a e e e e

r l roots in s uch c s s It is o obvi ou s from th g om tric l

ea a e . s e e e a

for m of olut i on bas d on Eu cl II 5 6 n d th t con t i n d in

s e . .
, a a a e

Eu cl V I 2 7 9 ; th c on s tructi on of V I 2 8 too c orr s p ond s

. .

e .
, , e

in f ct to th e n ega ti v ig n be for th r dic l in th e ca s of th

a e s e e a a e e

p rti cu l r qu t i on th r s olv d wh i le qui t e obvi ou s nd

a a e a e e e , a a

s l ight v ri t i on of th cons tructi on w ould giv th e s olu ti on

a a e e

corr e pon ding to th po iti v s ig n

s e s e .

Th foll ow i n g p rticul r c s e of qu dr tic s occurri ng in

e a a a s a a

th A ithm etica m y be qu ot ed with th e r es ult s tat d by

e r a , s e

Di oph n tu a s .

4 513 4 ; th er e fore a
2 (I V 2 2 ) . .

3 w+ 1 8 ; a
'

(I V . 3 1)

84 . u
(V I . 6)

8 4 w2 7 w
(V I

. 7 )
2
6 30 w 7 S J; 6 ; a;
(V I

. 9)

7 3 56 6 a; is r ati onal .
(V I . 8)
2
B 60 a: n ot < 11 an d n ot > 12 .
(V . 3 0)
2
17 a + l7 a: n ot an d n ot (V . 1 0)

2 2 36 a
' 2
+ 60 2 4 a ; a; n ot 19 but 21 .
(V . 3 0)
 DETER MI N A TE EQU A TI O N S 46 5

I n th e r s t nd third of the l t three c s s th e li mit

a n ot as a e s ar e

a ccur ate but ar e i n teg a l lim its which ar e a for ti or i fe

, r sa .

I n th e s e con d $3 s h ould h av e b een gg an d it w ould h av e b e en ,

more corr ect to s ay t h at if a i s n ot gr eat er th an g; an d not ,

les th an $5 th e given conditi ons a e a fo ti ori s ati s ed

s ,
r r .

For c ompar i s on with Dioph antu s s s oluti on s of qu adr tic

a

e qu ati on s we ma
y r e fer to a few of h is s oluti ons of

(3 ) S i mu lta n eo
u s equ a ti on s i n volvi ng qu a d r a ti cs .

In I . 27 , 28, an d 30 we h ave th e followi ng pa rs i ofe qu ati ons .

(B) (7 ) n
1
l
'

s + r =B l =
a B
I u se the Gr eek l etter s for th e n u mb er s r equir e d to be fou n d
a s di s ti n ct fr om th e on e u n k now n w hi ch Di oph ntu s u ses nd a ,
a

which I h all call a: s

I n ( ) h e ay s le t f
a ,
s 2 m (5 ,

I t follow s by dditi on an d s ubtr acti on that g

, a +w ,
a ,

77 64 -
90 ;
t he r efor e $7 7 (a + a ) ( a w) a
2
a
2
B ,

c is
an d a fou n d from the pure qu adratic equ ation .

i m il rly u m m an d th e r es ulti n g
In (B) s a h e a s s es g q 2
i

,

2
qu ati on is 2 2
(a + a3)
z
( 2
) 2 a2 + c(
c)z: B
e + 77 a ac .

I n (y ) h e puts 5 + 7
7 2 x an d s o lv es as in th e c ase of ( ) a .

(4 ) C u bi c equ a ti on .

O n ly v ery p rticul r case occur s

on e a a . I nV I . 1 7 th e proble m
lead s to th e e qu ati on
3
x 3w 1
'

w2 + 2 w+ 3 x +3 .

Diophan tu s s ay s s i mply wh en c e a; is fou n d to b e 4 In f ct

a

th e equ ati on r e duc es to

(13
3 -

Fa; z: 4 w2 + 4 .

Di oph an tu s no doubt detected ,

an d d ivided ou t by , th e common
fact r o 90
2
+ 1, l eav in g a: 4 .
 I NDETER MI N A TE EQUA TI ONS 46 7

(B) W hen 0 isposi tive and a s quar e , say 0

2
;
in thi s cas e Diophan tu s put s A x? 0
2
(mm an d o btai ns

(y ) Wh en lution is kn ow n any nu mb r of oth er

one so ,
e

s oluti on s can be fou n d Thi s is s t at ed in th e L mma to . e

VI 1 5
. It Would be tru e n ot on ly ofthe cases
. A r

i O y

,

but of th e general c as e A 90 B x + 0 y Diophan tu s how 2 2

.
,

e v e r on ly s ta t es it of th e c a e A a
z 2
, c 0 y s .

H i m e th od of n di ng oth e r (great er) v alu e s of w sa ti s fy

s

ing th e e qu ati on wh en one (93 ) is k now n is as foll ow s If 0

.

A wo C 2
h e s ub s titu tes in th e origi nal equ ati on (mo+ tc)
' 2
(1 ,

for x n d (q kx) for 1 wh e r e k is s ome i n t eg e r

a ,
.

Th e n s i n c e A (r + 9 0 0
, (q hf
c) .whil e A mo 0 Q
0
2 2
,
z 2
,

it follow s by s ubtr acti on th t a

a lc A ),

wh en ce c
c 2 A wo+ lcq)
( /(l A
) o
2
,

2 (A cc + 10 q
an d th e n e w val u e of a: 1s a
o+
[02 1A
For m A x2 _
2
c y
e
.

Dioph an tu s y s (VI 1 4 ) th at a r ational s oluti on of thi s

sa .

case is on ly p ossi ble wh en A is the su m of two s qu ar es .

n fact if as s ati e th e e qu a tion an d A a c N

'
P 3
[ I p q ,
s s , ,

we h vea AP 2
o
2
g
z
k g e s
,

2
log
(72 ) (I )
cq
-

l
?

Form A a: C y 2 ?

Di opha n tu s prov es in th e Lemm to V I 1 2 th at this e qu a a .

ti on h as n in n ite n umber of olution s when A 0 1 s s quare

a s a ,

i e in the pa rticular cas e wh ere a 1 is a s olution (H e does

. .
.

n ot h ow e e
,
a lw ay s h ear th is in mi n d
v 1 ,
fo in III 1 0 h e ,
r .

r ega rd s th e equati on 5 2 x + 1 2 y as i mp os s i bl though 2 2

e

6 4 i s a s qu ar e ju s t s in III 1 1 266 m
2
10 a ,
.
,

,

i s r eg ard e d a s i mp os s ibl e ) .

S upp ose th a t A + O = q th e equ a ti on is th en s olv ed by 2 '

H h 2
 468 DI O PH A N TU S OF A LEXA N DR I A

subs tituti ng in th e origi nal e qu ti on 1 + oc for a; an d (q ko) a c

fo wh er e It is s ome i n teg r
r e .

3 For m A 1 + Bw+ C
2 2
.
y 1 .

Thi c n be r e duce d to th for m in which th e s e c on d t r m is

s a e e

B
w n ting by r eplacmg a: by
a
2A

Di oph antu s h ow e ver tr eat thi s c as e s e p ar at ely an d l es s

, ,
s

fully A ccordi ng to him r ti onal soluti on of th e equ ti on

.
,
a a a

y is only p o s ibl
2
An Bx + C s

s e

( ) wh e n A a i s p o s itiv e a n d a s qu ar e s ay a ,

( )
B wh e n 0 i s p os iti ve an d a s qu r e s ay 0 a ,
2

wh 3 A O is po itiv e an d a s qu ar e 3
(y ) en 4 s .

I n ca y i put qu l arc m) an d in c ase (B) y is put

( ) s e aset o ( a ,

e qu l to (mm c) a .

C s e (y ) is n ot e x pr s s ly n un ci ated bu t occurs a s it
a e e , ,

w r
.
e ccid
e en t ally (I V
,
a Th e qu ati on to be s olv d i . e e s

3 as 18 a y D i oph antu r t
?
s u m 2
e s 3 so
. 1 8 x 4 $ s s as
2
:
2
,

which gives th e quadr atic 3 + 1 8 but thi s is n ot 33

r ti on l Ther ef or e the ass u mpti on of

a a

. for y will n ot d o 2
,

n d w e mu s t n d a s qu r e [ to r e pl a c e 4 ] s uch th at 1 8 t i mes

a a

thi qu ar e m qu ar e Th e auxi li ary

'

( s 1 ) ( g)
s y b e a a s .

e qu tion is th erefore 1 8 (m + 1 ) g y or 7 2 7 7 1 + 8 1
a
2 .
z
,
2
a

s
qu ar e and Dioph an tu s ,
u mes 7 2 m 8 1 (8 m wh en ce
ass
2

m 18 :Th en as s u m i ng 3
. 1 8 x (1 8 ) x he obt i ns th e
,
a:
2 2 2
, a

e qu ati on 3 2 5 w 0 wh en c e a th a t is
2 7 8 9
3 91 18 3 53 ,
?

, , 2 5
.

( D u ble e u a ti on
2)
o q .

Th e Gr eek t er m is dt h ol o oms da rk ?) ia ms or dt h fa mous

'

, .

Tw o d i ffer ent fu n cti on s of th e u n know n h av e to b e mad e

s i m ulta n eou s ly s qu ar es Th e gen er al case is to s olve in
'

rati on al nu mber s the equ a ti on s

m a; 2 or a a

2
nw + c + b w2

Th e n e ess a c
ry pr eli mi nary con diti on is th at each of th e two
e xpr s i on s can b e ma d e a s qu r e
e s Thi s is a lw ays pos s ibl e a .

wh en th e r st t erm (in is w an ti ng We take thi s s i mpl es t .

c se rs t
a .
 I N DETER MI N A TE EQU A T O N S I 469

1 . Dou ble equ a ti on o the

f r s t d egr ee .

Th e e qu ati ons ar e

or d) a

Boc + l) = w2 .

Di oph a n tu s h as on e g en e ral meth od t a ki ng s lightly di fferen t

for ms a ccordi ng to th e natur e of the coefci en ts -

(a ) Firs t meth od of soluti on .

Thi s d e p en d upon th e i d n tity

s e

+ q)1
2
{ A( 10
-

{s0 9 l 199

diffe ren c e betw e en th e tw o xpr s i ons in a: c n b

I f th e e es a e

se p ar at e d i n t o tw o fa ct or s p q th e xpr e ss i on s th ems lv , , e e es

ar e e u at e d to nd (p q)} r e pe cti vely A 2

s
q a s .

Di oph n tu s hi m s lf s ay s in II 1 1 w e e qu at e e i th e r th e s qu are
a e .
,

of h lf th e di f
a fe r en c e of th e tw o factor s to th e l ess r of th e e

e xpr s i on s o th e s qu ar e of h alf th e s u m to th e gre t e r

es ,
r a .

W e w i ll con s ider th e gen r l c s e n d i n ves tig t e to wh t e a a a a a

p rt i cular cl s s es of cas es th e meth od is appl i cabl e fr om

a a ,

Dioph an tu s s p oin t of ew r em em b eri ng th at th e n al qu ad

v1 ,

ratic in a; m u s t lw ays re duc to s i ngle equati on

a e a .

S ubtr a cti n g w e h a v e (or B)x (a b)

, u w 2

S e p ar at e (or m
,

a: (a b) i n to th e fact or s
{ (a
We writ e a ccordi ngly
J (or (
a b)
1

Z9

u + w =p .

(a b) i
Thu s u = or x + a +p
19 f
t h e re fore (or B)ac+ a
b + p2 } 2

Thi s r e duc es to

(
Oi Bf w 2 m{ O
X (
a b)

+ (a b)2
 I N DETER M I N A TE EQUA TI ON S 47 1

Ex . from Di oph antu s

(I V 32 )
th refor e
e u

The di ffe rence 195 sa

y;

th ere for e s 4 e ; th at i s an d ac

T ki n g n ow th e c on diti on (2 ) th at a b i a s qu ar e w e s e
a
b s , e

that th e e qu at i on s c n be s olv ed in th e cases wh ere ith er a e

a nd b ar
a both qu e s o th e ati o of a to 1) s the r ti o of
e s a1 ,
r 1 1 a

a s quar e to a s qu re If th e e qu ati on s r e a . a

ax +
2
c =

Bac+ d = w2 2
,

and f ctors a e t k en of th di fference betw een the e xpress i on s

a r a e

as th ey s t an d th en s in ce on e factor p as w e s aw s ati s e s th
, , ,
e

e qu ati on 2 z 2 z
(c d )} 4c d z
p ,

w e mu s t h v e a

Ex from Di oph n tu s
. a :

1 9
-

5 5c + 4 : w2
(I I I . 1 5)

Th e di ffe r en ce is 5 a + s 5 (w+ th e s o luti on is given by

(% x + = 1 0 x + 9 an d as ,

A n oth e r m e th od is to m ult i ply th e

qu tion s by s quares e a

s uch th at wh en th e expre s ion s a s ubtr cte d the bs olut

,
s r e a ,
a e

ter m v n i s h es Th e c se ca n be w orke d out gen erally thu s

a . a , .

M ultiply by d and c r es p e cti v ely and w e h v e to s ol ve

2 2
,
a

Z 2 2
l a:
ao 0 d2 u
2 2 2
B c a3 + c 0l wz

Di ffe r en c e (or d z
B )tcc
2
pa: q . say .

T h en a is foun d fr om th e e quati on
z
rd d2 2
(
1
o c 2; pa: q) ,

which gi v es p
2
5):
2
2 :1 ; (pq 2 a d2 ) q
z
4 oz o
l 2
O,
47 2 DI O P H A N TU S O F A LE XA N DR I A

or ,
s n ei c pq ad
z
B
or rl
2 2
4 c2 d 2 0
(
2 2
o
c 2 r 9
p
-
.
.

rder th t thi may re duce to s i mple equ ti on as

In o a s a a ,

Di oph an tu s r equ r es th e b olut e t erm m u s t v n i s h o th t

i ,
a s a ,
s a

2 cd T h m eth od th r e foreon ly i ve s on e oluti on

g i nce e e s s
q . ,

q i s r trict e d to th
es v lu e 2 cd e a .

Ex fr om Di oph n tu s
. a

Di ffe r en c e c
rily
ne es s a t ak n e to be 2 s/ 4 or 4 ; factor s
q
th er e for e % c, 4
c . Th r efor e 8 4 e a; 3, (g r -
t an d a
c 112 .

c on d meth od of s olut i on of a doubl equ ti on of the

Se e a

r t d gr ee
s e .

Th er e i only on c of thi s in Di oph n tu s th e equ ti on s

s e ase a ,
a

bei ng of th e for m
2
(h + f)x + n
S upp os e ha'
n
2
(y n
2
) ; th er efor e hr y
2
2 n y,

(h + f) zc + n
2

{ (g 2 n y) .

It only em m to m k e th l tter xpr ess i on a s qu ar e

r a s a e a e ,

wh i ch i done by equ ti ng it to (pg n )

s a

Th c a e in Di oph n tu is th
e s me s th at l s t men t i on ed
a s e sa a a

(I V .Wh r e I h ve u s d y Di oph an tu s
e u s u l c ontriv
a e , as a es

to u se h is one u n kn ow n c on d t i me a se .

2 . Dou ble equ a ti on s o the second

f d egr ee .

Th e gen er l for m is
a

c + 0 =
+ Bc
2 2
A ir ~
u

2
A o
c B c
c O : 10
2

but on ly thr ee typ e s pp ar a e in Di o ph antu s ,

n a me ly

W h e re except I n on e case ,
a b
.

p w +6
g
9: b
 I N DETER MI N A TE EQUA TI ONS 47 3

2
a + a az +a u

Boc + a
z
= w2

(Th e cas e w here the abs olute t erms ar e in the r ati o of a s qu r a e

to a s qu ar e r educ es to thi s
) .

I n all e x ampl es of th e s e c as es th e u s u al meth od of solut i on

a ppl i es .

Th eu s u al met hod d oes n ot h er e ser ve , an d a s peci al artic e

is required .

Dioph an tu s as su m es u m w 2 2

Th en a: a
) and , by s ubs ti tution in th e s e on c d
e qu ation ,
we h av e

m a
, which m u st b e mad e a s qu are ,

a
Z
B ba (m a
) mu s t be a s qu are .

We h av e th er e for e to so lve th e equ ti on a

ab m+ a (a B a b)
2

whi ch can or c annot be s olve d by DiOphantu s s method s

a cc ordi n g to th e n a tur e of th e c oef

ci en t s Thu s it can b e .

solv e d if (a B a b) a i s a s qu ar e or if a b is a s qu ar e , .

Ex am pl es in V I 1 2 1 4 . . .

(b) I nd eter mi na te equ a ti ons of a d egr ee higher than the

s econ d .

1 ) S i n gle equ ati o ns .

Th e re clas s es n mely th os e in which ex pr es s i ons

ar e two ,
a

in a: h av e to be ma d e s qu ar es or cub es r es p ectiv ely Th . e

gener al for m is th er efor e

fi x +s L 2
y or
a
y .

I n Di oph an tu s n does n ot e xc ee d 6 , and in th e second cl as s

of cas e s , wh er e th e ex pr es s i on h as to b e ma d e a cube n does

,

n ot gen erally ex ee c d 3 .
 I N DETER MI NA TE EQU A TI ON S 47 5

a s quare Wh e e this does n ot h old (in I V 1 8 ) Dioph antu s

. r .

hark s back an d r epla ces th e e qu ati on x 1 6 52 w+ 6 4 y

1
3 z
2

by n oth er te 1 2 8 513 + cc 4 0 9 6 g
a ,
G 3 z
.

O f e xpr e ss i on s which h a ve to b e m ade cu be w e h a v e th e s,

foll owi n g ca es s .

1 . A oc2 + B x + C z
y
3

T h ere cas es of thi Fir t in V I 1 a 4 x 4

ar e on ly tw o s . s , .
,
2

h as to be m a d cub e b in g alr ady a s qu r e Di oph n tue a ,

e e a . a s

n tur lly m ak e s 5
a a 1 1 2 a cub e .

S e c on dly pecul i r cas e occur s in V I 1 7 wh er e a cube h

,
a a .
,
as

to b e fou n d e xc ee di n g a s qu ar e by 2 Di oph an tu s ass u me . s

(c fo th e cub e an d (513 + fo th e qu ar e
r Thi s giv s r s . e

x
3
3 x2 + 3 x 1 mz + 2 a3 + 3 ,

or by x + 1 an d so 4 It
4x + 4 2
. We divide ou t
2
, .

see ms vid n t th t th e s s u m pt i ons w er e m de with kn owl dge

e e a a a e

n d i n t en ti on Th t is Di oph an tu s k ne w of th e oluti on 2 7
"

a . a ,
s

a nd 2 5 n d d lib r t ly l ed up to it
a It is u n lik ly that h wa s
e e a e . e e

aw r e of tha fact ob rv ed by F r mat th t 2 7 an d 2 5

e th e ,
se e , a ar e

on ly i n t gr a l n u m b r s s ati s fy i n g the c on diti on

e e .

c+ D y wh er e e ith er A o D is a cub e
3 3
2 .Ao c + Bc c + Cc
2
,
r

n u m b e r o both e cub e n u m b e r
,
r Wh er e A i cube (a ) ar s s a
3
,

w e h v on ly to a s u me 3 an an d wh e r e D i a cub e s
a e ) s

(d ) y
3
,
a +d . Wh er e : A a
3
an d D d3 ,
we can us e

e i th er as s u mpti on o put y a x cl A pp ar en tly Di ophantu s ,

r .

u s e d th e las t a s umpt i on on ly i n thi s c fo in I V 2 7 h s ase , r . e

r ej e ct s s i m pos s ibl e th e e quati on 8 a a + 8 a; 1 y

a
3 ' 2 3
,

b ec u e th e a s u mpt ion 3) 2 90 1 giv a n eg t i v e valu

a s s es a e

a
t T
wh r eas e i th e r of th e
- -

1
2
,
b ov ss u m pti ons gi v
e a e a es

a r ation al v alu e .

(2 ) Dou ble equ a tion s .

H e re on e e xpr s si on h as to be mad a s quar e and nother

e e a

a cube . Th e c as es a e m os tly v ery s i m pl e g (V I 1 9 ) r e, . . .

s
4 w+ 2 y

thu s y
3
an d z 2 .
 47 6 DI O PH A N TU S O F A LEXANDR I A

M or e complicat ed is th e c a se in VI 2 1 .

2 w2 + 2 x 31
+ az = z
3 2 3
512 + 2 w

Di oph an tu s ass u m es y mo
o ,
wh enc e cc 2 (m
2

2
2
( 47 6
3

We h av e on ly to mak e 2 m 4
, or 2 m ,
a cub e .

II . M e th od of Limits .

As D i oph
u often h to n d s ri s of n u mber in
an t s as a e e s

ord er of m gn i tud e nd h do s n ot dmit neg ti ve

a ,
a as e e a a

s oluti on s i t i oft n n ec e s ry fo him to r ej ct

, s s oluti on
e s a r e a

foun d in th e u s u l c our s b cau e i t do s n ot s ti s fy the a e e s e a

n e c ess ry c on d i ti on s ; h
a i s th en oblig e d in m any c as e s to e , ,

n d s olut i on ly i ng wi thi n ce ta i n li m i ts in p l c e of th ose

s r a

r j ecte d Fo ex m pl e
e . r a :

1 It is requir d to nd v lu of a: s uch th at some pow er of

. e a a e

i t cc h ll lie betw een two give n n u m ber s say a n d b

,
"
,
s a , a .

Di oph n tu s m ultipli s b oth a n d b by

a an d s o on e a ,

s ucc s iv ely un til s om n th pow er is s e n which li es betw een

e s , e e

th e two product s S upp o th at c l i e b tw een tip and

. se
"
s e

th en w e c n put as c p fo a li es betw een a n d b ,

r a .

Ex To n d s qu ar e
. be tw een 1 4 n d 2 Di oph ntus
a a . a

multiplie s by qu r e 6 4 ; thi s giv e 8 0 an d 1 2 8 b etween

a s a s ,

which li es 1 0 0 Th er for e s ol v es th e pr obl em

. e

(I V . 31

To n d a s ixth pow er b tw e e en 8 ixth pow ers

an d 16 . Th e s

of 1 , 2 , 3 , 4 ar e 1 ,
6 4, 7 2 9 , 4096 Multiply 8 an d 1 6 by 6 4
.

an d we h av e 512 an d 1 0 24, b etw een which 7 2 9 li es ; 7 5 3 3 2 91

1

th r e fore e luti on (V I a so .

2 . S ome ti m es valu e of a a: ha s to b e fou n d which w i ll gi ve

 METH O D O F LI MI TS 47 7

so me fun ction of a; a v lu e i n ter medi ate b etw eenv

a the v lu es
a

of tw o oth e r fu ncti ons of a) .

Ex 1 . . In IV 25 . a va lu e of a; is r equir ed such th t a 8 (
a;
2
a
'

)
sh ll lie b etween to an d a; 1
a .

O n e p r t of th e c onditi on giv s 8
a 15
46 4 5 D ioph n tu s e
3 -
3
. a

a cc ordin gly ass u mes 8 which is

a + x
3
Thu s w+ 2
.2 o a 3 satis es on p rt of r e a

th e c on diti on I ncidentally it s ati s es the oth r n amely

. e ,

8 w+ 1 Thi s is a pi c e of luck and Di oph n tu s

. e , a

is s ti s e d with it s ayi ng n othi n g mor e

a , .

Ex 2 We h av e seen h ow Di oph an tu s c on clud es th at if

. .
,

gee ge
e
6 0) x

th ne is n ot l ess th an 1 1 nd not gr e ter th n 1 2 (V

a: a a a .

Th e pr obl em furth er r quir that a 6 0 s h ll b s qu r e es

a e a a e .

A um i n g
ss 60 (w w n d (m 6 0 ) 2 m e a:
2
.

S in c a 11 end 12 y Di oph ntu it follow th t

a ,
sa s a s, s a

24m m 2
+ 60 22 m;
fr om whic h he con clud es th t m li es a betw een 1 9 an d 21 .

P u tti n g m 20, h e n ds a: 1 14 .

III . M eth od of appr ox im ation to Limits .

H er e w e h av e a ve ry di s tin ctiv e m e th od call e d by Di ophan tu s

n ma e 67 1
7
-

9 or n a e 67 1 1 7 0 9 d y y
o
f Th e
m
obj e ct-
is to s olv e s uch
.

probl em s as th at of n di n g two or thr ee s quar e n u mber s th e

s u m of which is a giv en n u m b e r whil e each of th e
m e ith e r ,

a pproxi mat es to one and th e s ame n umb er or is s ubj ect to ,

li mits which may be the s me or differ ent a .

Tw o e x ampl es will b es t s h ow th e meth od .

Ex 1 Di v id e
. .
i n to two s qu r s each of w hich 6 (V a e .

T k e h lf of 1 3 i e 6 4 n d nd wha t s mall fr acti on 1 /a

' 2
a a ,
. .
,
a

add e d to it will gi ve a s qu r e ; a

61 or 26 1 mu s t b e a s qu ar e .
 METH OD O F A PPR OXI M A TI ON TO LI MI TS 4 7 9

t herefor e (11 2, an d 1 / a
'
an d 3 31; + 3 135 1 2 1
3 3 , quar e a s .

We hav e now , sa ys Dioph an tu s to di v i d e , 10 i nto thr ee

s qu ar es wi th s id es as n ear as ma
y b e to 1 1
5 .

N ow 10 3 + 2
(ef gy .

B ri ngi ng 3 , an d n to a com mon denomi nat or , we h av e

9 0 1 8 2
%
5
3 6 1
"

5 3 1 E an 5 g
?

w
l

n
c
A
;
n A
a

If now w e took 3 w
w ; g% as the s ides of s qua res
'

0 l f
,

th e s um of th e s qu r es w ould be o 1 which is > 1 0

a -
1 2
r
34 3
6 3 6
.
,

A ccordingly w e ss um e s th e id s 3 3 5 x 3 7 56 g 3 1 m
a a s e , , ,

w here it mu s t th ere fore be n ot e x ctly 3 5 but near it a

1
.

S ol v i ng (3 = 10 ,

10 1 0,

w e n d t
a
1 1 3
3 3 33 ;

t hu s th e s1 d es of th e r e u I r ed s u a1 es ar e
q q
32 1
7 17 3
4 2
7
l z e
vf f
i
,

th e qu ares th emselves a e 43 5 5 T1 3 5 555 5

s r
7 4 5 0 4
6 7 ,
1 9 5 2
,
l s fi 9 9
g ag g
t .

O th er i n s t an c es of th e pp l ic ti on of th e a a meth od . will be
fou n d in V 1 0 1 2 1 3 1 4 .
, , ,
.

P or is ms and pr opos ition s in th e Th e or y of Number s .

I . Thr ee
pr opos iti on s a e quote d as occurr in g in the P or i sm s r

We hav e it in the Por i s ms that an d some othe r

pr o
p osi tions ass u med W ithout proof may v er y like ly have come
from the same c olle cti on Th e thr ee propos itions fr om the .

P or isms ar e to th e fol lowin g effe ct .

1 If a is a given n umbe r an d cc 3; n umbers s uch tha t

.
, .

x +a m y+a th en if xy + a is als o a squar e m and n

i
, , ,

differ by unity (V .

[ Fr om th e r s t tw o e qu t ion w obt ai n eas ily a s e

xy + a m2 n 2 a (m 2
+n
2

and thi s is b i u ly
o v o s a s qu ar e if m 2
+ n
2
1 2 mn , or

m n i
480 DI O P H A N TUS O F A LEXA N DR A I
0

2 If m (m
. b c ons cutiv e s qu r
2 nd
,
third nu mber e e a es a a

be t ken equ l to 2 { m 2 o 4 (m + m
2
a (m ath e 2
,
r

thr e n u mb r h ve th property th at th product of ny two

e e s a e e a

p l u eithsr th e u m of th o tweo o th e r m i n i n g n u mb er s se r e a

giv s s qu r (V
e a a e .

n f ct if X Y Z d n ot e the n u mb er r e p e ctiv ely

[ I a , , ,
e s s ,

YY + X+ Y = XY + Z =

YZ + Y + Z (2 7 11
2
3 m+ YZ + X (2 m 2
3m+

Th e differen c e of a n y tw ocub es i al so th e s um of two s

cube s ,
i . e . can be tr n s for me d i n to th e s u m of tw o cubes
a

(V .

[ Di ophan tu s t t th i s with out pr ovin g it o s h ow mer e ly s a es r

in g h ow to m k th e tr n s for ma t i on Th ubj ect of the a e a . e s

tran s for m ti on of s u ms n d di ff r n c s of cubes w as i n v sti

a a e e e e

g ated by V i et B ch t nd F m t ] a, a e a er a .

II Of th e m n y other pr op o iti ons a ss u m d o i mpli ed by

. a s e r

Di oph n tu s wh i ch a e n ot r e ferr e d to th e P o i s ms w e m y
a r r a

dis ti ngui s h tw o cl ss es a .

1 . Th e rs t cl e of tw o s ort s ; s om
as s e m or e o l es s
ar e ar r

of th e na ture of id en tic l for mulae e g th f cts th at th e a , . . e a

expres ion s s b nd a e a a r

r p ectiv ly qu ar s th at a (a
es e
) is lways s e ,
2 a a a

cub n d th t 8 ti mes
e, a tr i n gul r n u mb er plu s 1 giv a a a a es

a s qu ar ie e, O th r s a e of th
. . e r e

sa me ki n d as th rs t tw o propo ition qu oted from the e s s

P or i s m s , e .
g .

( If X = a x + 2 in ther
2
1) a, or , o

w ord s if r X + 1 ,
. an d a Y+ l
th n X Y 1 is a qu re (I V
e s a . In f cta

XV + I

(2 ) If X+a m Y + ,
a an d Z 2 (X + Y ) 1,

th en YZ + a, Z X+ a, K Y+ a ar e al l s qua r e (V s . 3,
 P OR I SMS A N D P R O PO S I TI ON S A S S UMED 48 1

In fac t
Z Xt a -

XYi a

(3 ) If
X m 2
+ 2, Y :
(m + Z

t hen th e s ix e xpr ess i on s

YZ ZX XY
XY Z
ar e all s quar es (V .

In fa ct
YZ 3 m + 3 )2 , 17 2 26 : (2 47 1.
2
1
L &c
.

2 . Th e se con d cl
uch more i mportant c ons is ti ng of
as s is m ,

prop osition s in th e Th ory of N u mb r s which w e n d rst

e e

s ta t e d o as s u m e d in th
r A i th n ti ca It was in explana
e r 1 e
-

ti on o extens i on of the s that F r mat s most famou s not es

r e e

w er e writt en H ow f Di oph n tu s p o s essed s ci entic proofs

. ar a s

of th e th eor ems which h s sh mes mu s t r emai n l arg ely a e a

matt e r of s p e cul ati on .

(a ) Theor ems on the co mpos iti on f n u m be s as the su m

o r
o two s qu a r es
f .

(1 ) A ny quare n u mb r ca n b res olved i n to tw o s quares i n

s e e

an
y n u m b e r of w ay s (II .

(2 ) A ny n u mb e r which is th s u m of tw o s qu ar es can be e

r es olve d in to tw o oth er s qu res in ny n umber of w ays (II

'

a a .

(It is i mplie d through out th t th e s qu res may be fractional a a

a s w e ll as i n t egra l ) .

(3 ) If th er e a e two whol n u mb r ach of which is the

r e e s e

s um of two s qu ares th e pr oduct of th e n u mb er s can be

,

r es ol ved in tothe s um of tw o s qu ar es in tw o w ays .

I n fact (a b?)(c
2
d ) ( c bd ) ( a
2
d 1Fbc
)
z
a
2 ?

Thi s pr op os iti on is u s ed in III 1 9 wh e r e the probl em is .

,

to n d four r a ti onal right an gl e d tri angl es with th e same -

I i
 N U MBER S A S TH E S U MS O F S QU A R ES 483

a
g1 v en u mbe r is added to eithe r p rt th e r esult will be a
n a ,

s qu r e Th e c on diti on is in tw o p art s Th e r e is n o d oubt s

a . . a

to th e r s t Th giv en n u mb er m u s t not be od d [i

,
e no . e .

,
n u m b e r of th e form 4 n + 3 o 4n 1 can b e th e s u m of tw o r

s qu ar es ] th e t e x t of th e econ d p r t is corrupt but the w ords s a ,

a ctu lly fou n d in th

a tex t make i t qu i te likely th t corre ction s
e a

m d e by H n k e l an d T nn ery give th e rea l m ean i ng of th e

a a a

origin al n o m u s t th e d oubl e of th e given n u m be r

plu s 1 be

, r

mea ure d by an y pr i m e n u mb e r which is les s by 1 th n a

s a

m ultiple of 4 Thi s i s tol er bly n e r th e tru e c on diti on a a

s t t e d by Fe mat Th e giv en n u mbe r m u s t n ot be od d nd

a r , ,
a

th d oubl e of it i n cr ease d by 1 wh en divid e d by th e gre t es t

e ,
a

s qu ar e which me s ur es it mu t n ot be divi ible by a pri me

a , s s

n u mbe r of th e for m 4 n

(B) On n u m ber s whi ch ar e the su m of thr ee s qu ar es .

In v u m b er . h s to be di vi ibl e i n to thr ee
1 1 th e n a s

s qu ar e s Di oph an tu s y s that a mu t not be 2 o any

. sa s r

m ultipl e of 8 in cr eas e d by 2 Th t is n u mb r o f the a ,

a e .

fo m 2 4 n 7 can n ot be the s u m of thr ee s qu a es

r A m tt r r s a a e

of fa c t th e f ct or 3 in th e 2 4 i s irr e l e v an t h er e an d Di oph an tu s
, a ,

mi ght h av e sai d th t a nu mb er of th e for m 8 n + 7 c an n ot be a

th u m of thre e s qu r es
e s Th e l tte r con dition is tru but a . a e,

doe n ot in clude a ll th e n u mber which cann ot b the u m of

s s e , s

thr ee s qu res Fer m t gives the con di tion to which a mus t be

a . a s

s ubj ct provi n g th t 3 a + 1 c an n ot b e of th e for m 4 (2 4 1 + 7 )

"
e ,
a 6

or 4 (8 k
"
wh ere 7 0 o ny i n teg er 6 r a .

(y ) Comp os iti on o n u mber s a s the su m o

f ffou r s qu a r es .

h r e a e thre probl m s I V 2 9 3 0 nd
T e r e it e ,
.
,
a V 1 4 in wh i c h
.
,

is r quire d to d i vid a n u mb r i n t ofour s qu ar e

e Di oph n tue e s . a s

s t t es
a 0 n ec e ary c on diti on in thi
11 c as h e d oe
ss wh en s ase , s

it is ques ti on of dividi ng a n u mber in to th ee o two s qu r e

a r r a s .

N ow ever y n u m ber is ei ther a s qu a r e or the m of tw o thr ee

su ,

f
or ou r th eor e m e n u n ci at ed by
s qu ar es (a Fer mat and pr ov ed
by Lagrange wh o follow ed up res ul ts obtai ned by Euler) nd ,
a

thi s s h ow s th at n y n u mb er c n be divide d i n to four s qu r es

a a a

(a d m itti n g fr cti on al as w ell as i n t egr l s qu r s )

a i nc ny a a e , s e a

s qu are n u mb e r can be divid e d i n t o tw o oth e r s qu ar s i n t eg a l e , r

I i 2
484 DI O P H A N TU S O F A LEXA N DR I A

or fr acti onal
It is p oss ibl e th er for e th at Dioph an tu s w s
.
,
e ,
a

emp ca lly aw re of th e truth of th e th eor e m of Fer mat but

ir i a ,

w e c ann ot b e s ur e of th i s .

C on s pectu s of th e A r ithmetica , with typical s ol ution s .

h r e eem s to b no m ns of con veyi ng n idea of th e

T e s e ea a

e xt n t of th
e probl m s olv ed by Di oph n tu s exc ept by g i vi ng
e e s a

a con s p ctu s of th w hol e of th e si Book Fortu n t ly thi s

e e x s . a e

c an b e d on e by th h lp of m od er n not ti on with out occupyi n g

e e a

too m n y p g s a a e .

It w ill b e b s t to cl ss ify th prop os iti on s ccordi ng to th eir

e a e a

ch ar ct r r th r th an to g i ve th em in Dioph antu s s ord r It

a e a e

e .

s h ould b e pr emi d th t as y th e r s t s c on d
se a , , ,
e

a n d th i r d n u m ber r quir d d o n ot me n th t Dioph n tu s s e e a a a

i n d i c at es any of th em by his u nknow n h e giv s h i u n e s

kn ow n in ch cas th s i gn i c ti on wh i ch is mos t con v en i n t

ea e e a e ,

h i obj ct b ei n g to xpr ess all his r qu i r e d n u mb ers at on c e in

s e e e

t rm s ofth on e u nk n ow n (wh ere po s ible) th e eby voidi n g th

e e s ,
r a e

n c s i ty fo
e e s li mi n t i on s Wher I h v e occ s i on to pe cify
r e a . e a a s

Dioph n tu s s u n kn ow n I s h ll s a rul e c ll it 5 exc ept wh e n

a , a a a ,

a pr obl m i n clud s subs idi ry pr obl em nd it is con ve ni en t

e e a a a

to u s e diffe ren t l ett r s fo th e u n kn ow n in th e orig i n l n d e r a a

s ubs idi ary pr obl ems r s p ectively in order to mark cl arly th e , e e

d i s ti n ct i on b tw een th m W h n in th e equ at i on xpr es s i on s

e e . e s e

s id to b thi m e n s imply th t th ey 2 z 2 2
ar e a u v t e , , i0 , s a s a

ar e to b e mad e s qu r s Giv en n u m b er will b e i n dic t e d by

a e . s a

a, b c ,
m n n d will t k e th e pl ac
, of th n u m b er s u s d
a a e e e

by Di oph ntu s which a lw ys p cic n u mb er s

, ar e a a s e .

Wh r the oluti on s o p rticul r d vices empl oy d a e

e e s , r a a e e , r

s p ci lly i ng n i ou o i nt res tin g th meth ods of oluti on will

e a e s r e , e s

b e shortly i n dic t d Th ch r ct r of th b ook will b b s t

a e . e a a e e e e

a ppreci t d by m an of s uch i llu tr ti on s

a e e s s a .

[Th probl em m rk ed with an s t ri k a e probably

e s a a e s r

s puriou s ]
(i ) E qu t i on s a of th e r t d gr
s e ee with on e u n know n .

I . 7 . c a
c m (tc b) .

I . 8 . a +a
 DETER M I N A TE EQU A TI O N S 48 5

9 . a x m (b c
c
) .

I . 10 . x + b m (a -
w) .

I . l l . x +b m (r a
) .

I . 39 .
-
l
or (a
. b)

or

Di oph a n tu s t t
s a es thi s pr obl em in thi s f o rm ,

Giv en
tw o n u mbe r s (a b) , ,
to n d a third nu mb er s uch that
th e n u m bers

(a + b)9c
ar e rit hmetic l progr s s i on
in a a e .

Th e r esult is of c our se di fferen t accordi ng to th e ord er

of m ag n itud e of th e thr ee e xpr ess i ons If a > b (5 n d 3 . a

ar e th e n u m b ers in Di oph ntu s ) th en (a + w)b (b + 56 )a ; a ,

th er e e con s e qu ently three lt ern ti v s s in c e

ar a a e ,

m u s t be eith er th e l s t o th e m iddl e n d (b w) e ith erea r , a a

th m iddl e or th e gr eat e s t of th e thr

e products We may ee .

h v
a e

(a + b)cc
an d th e corres p on d i ng equations ar e as s et ou t a ove b .

i( i ) Dete rm ina te s y s tems

of e qu ation s of th e rs t d gr ee e .

I . 1 . x + y : a, :c
y zz b .

I 2 . x +y a, so

I . 4 . :c y a, a:

I 3 . w+ y a, c
c

I . 5 . w+ y a, i s: =
y b , s ubj ect to necessary c onditi on .

1 l
I . 6 . a +y z a, w -
=
y b ,
 DETER MI N A TE EQUA TI O N S 48 7

my ,
2
na
e .

I n36 . so my y ,
2
ny .

my 31 2 . M c
a v)

a : u mm + .

(
n sc y) .

II . o
c q -

y a, to y
2
a y+b .

IV 36. .
ye z o
o my

[ lv e d by m e n s of Lemma
:S o s ee u n de r a : Ind e

t r m in at e equ ati ons of the rs t de gr ee ]

e

(iv ) De t er m inat e sys tems re ducible to qu ti ons e a of

s e c on d d egre e .

[ Dioph t t . s a es th e c
ry con dition n
n e es s a ,
a m ely th t a

b m u t be quar e w i th th e word o

%a
2
s a s , s
-

r t d 7 0 01 -

wh a op a n x v, w hi ch n o doubt me n s th i s is of th e

a

na tur e of a formula (eas ily He puts

w v = 2 ~

5]
30 . az y at, my b .

[ N eces sa ry con diti on (with th e me w ord )4 b 2

sa s a

a s qu ar e w l y is put .
- -

2
I 28
. . Ct, x
2
+y l) .

e c ess ary c diti b quare

2
[ N on on 2 -
a a s . x

l . a
3
+y = a,

Dioph put s (l s y 2 5 wh enc e w= % b + g y l b

[ .
g :
, , .

Th e n u m b e r s a b a r e s o ch os en th a t (a b3
% )/ 3 b is ,

a s qu ar e ]
4 88 DI O PH A NTU S O F A LEXA N DR I A

IV 15
. .
(y + z )rc a, (
z )y
+ 5c b ,
c .

[ Dioph . takes th e third n u mber 2 as hi s u n know n ;

at y c
/z .

A s s me u a
:

p z , y q T h en

+q = b .

h ese equ ati ons

T i nc on i s t en t u nl ess p q a b
ar e s
.

W h ave th er efor e to d t m i n e p q by di v idin g c i n t o

e e er ,

two p rts s uch th t th ir dif

a f r n ce a a b (cf I e e e . .

A very i n t er es ti ng u s fals e hyp oth s i

of th e

e e s

(Diophan tu s r s t t k es tw o bi tr a r y n umb er fo p q
a ar s r ,

s uch th at c, an d n d s th a t th e valu es t ak e n h v
p +q a e

to b corr e ct e d)
e .

2
Th e n al e quation b i ng 22 wh er e ar e
e
p a, p q ,

d et er mi ned d es cribe d z pq (a p) o
in th e w ay ,
r

pq/ ( b
q) ,u b r s b e h av e to b e such th t
an d th e n m e a, ,
a

ei th er of thes e ex pr es si on s g i v e a s qu ar e ] s

IV 34 . a
2 I
,

1 .

[ Dioph st ates
. ry con diti on for a r at i on l
as th e c
n e es s a a

soluti on th at e ach of th e thr c ons tan ts to which th ee e

thr ee expr essi ons a to be qu al mu s t be s ome squ r re e a e

d i mi nis h ed by l Th e tru e con diti on is s een in ou

. r

n ot ti on by trans for m i n g th
a e qu ati ons or
yz e ,

B y i nt o
,
 DETER MI N A TE EQUA TI O NS 489

wh en c e
or 1

and it is on ly n ecess ry th at (or 1 ) (B l )(y 1 ) s hould a

b a s qu r e n ot th at ea ch of th e ex pr ess i on s or + 1 B 1
e a , , ,

y 1 s h ould b e a s qu ar e .

Dioph n d s in . Lemma (s ee u n d er (vi ) b elow ) a s olu

a

ti on eud opi p (i n d et r mi nat ely) of acy l (cc + y)

ar c k e -

which practic lly me n s n di ng y in terms of an]

a a

IV 35
i
2
. .
ye a l , z a bz 1,

2
ate 0 1

[ Th e r e mark s on th e l s t pr opos iti on pply mu ta ti s

a a

m u ta n d i s . Th e l e m ma in thi s c se is th e i n d et er mi n t e
a a

so luti on of wy

37 .
ya : a s; ( are :

[ A noth er in t er es ti ng cas e
fals e hypoth es i s Dioph of .

r t gi v e cc + y + n a bit a y valu e th en n ds th t
s s z a r r r ,
a

th r s ult is not r ti on l
e e n d proc e d to s olv th e n ew a a ,
a e s e

pr obl m of n di ng valu e of a; + y z to t ke th e pl c e of
e a a a

th e r s t v lu e a .

If w x + y + z w h v to cw / y z w / y s o th t ,
e a e ,
: a ,
a

ac
acw
/y bw by hyp oth es i s ; th r efor e y
z 2
e
2

b
For a r ti on al s olu tion thi s l as t express i on mu s t b e
a

qu ar S upp os e th er e for th t w nd w h v
2
a s e .

77, e, a ,
a e a e

77 5
y :
, z :

E m li i n ati ng '
a, y , 2 , we o bt i n g
a a c,

an d

re y

Le mma to V 8 . .
yz a
z
, 2 51; b 2
, m
y 0
2
 I N DETER MI N A TE A N A LY S I S 49 1

ly 1y l a; 1a
IV 33 . . 96 + m y
( ) ,
y n
(a
)
[ Dioph . as s u me s
i -

(v i) I n d ete rmi nate e qu ti on s a of th e rs t d egree .

Le mma to I V 34 my + (cc fy)

[Sol
(L
u ti0 11 s e v d o
pia r w
. . .

IV 35 . . my (cc y) a .
y pr actically foun d
IV 36 . . my in t e rm O f a ] s

(vi i ) I n d t er m i n at e
e ana lysi s of th e se on c d d egr ee .

2 2 2
8 +y

. . U (t .

[y
2
a
2 x2 mu s t be a s qu are (mas
a ) sa
y]
aa h y -
2
a
2
+ b2 .
[ Pu t a
+ a,
y i n
g -
b]
z 2
fe y a .

[ Pu t a
"

y+ m , ch oos i ng m s uch th t a m1a a .

]
II . 1 1 . w+ a = u
2
,
m+ h z v
2
.

2
. a zc u

2
(Ii l) 0 .

lv es II 1 1 an d 1 3 (l ) by means of th
[ Dioph . so .
, e

d oubl e qu tion (s e p 4 6 9 bov ) (2 ) w i th out a d oubl

e a

e . a e , e

e qu t i on by putt i n g c i a n d e quati n g (5 i ) b
2 2
a c a

m
) I n II 1 2 h e put s a:
2
to a . .

1 4 = III 2 1 o y= a x+z y+z =

2 2
c+ . .
,

[ D i oph an tu s t k s as th u n know n and puts a e 2 e ,

u
2
v ( + n) Th e r e for a 2 me m 2
a
2
. e
2
,

an d z is fou n d by s ub s tituti on in th e rs t
2
y 2 na+ n , ,

a (m n )
2 ?

e qu a ti on to b e ,
I n orde r th at th e s oluti on

m ay b e r at i on al m n mu s t sati s fy a c e rta i n c on diti on , , .

Dioph t a k es th e m s.uch th at m2
+ n
2
a but it is s u f ,
'

ci ent if m n th at a mn s h ould
,
b e n ]
2
,
.

15 III . 20 . c+
c y a, z
Z
x u
z
, z
Z
y v
2
.

,
luti on is s i m ilar and si milar r emark appli es
[ Th e so ,
a

to Dioph an tu s s i mpli e d c on dition ]

492 DI OP H A N TUS O F A LEXA N DR I A

II . 16 .

56
~
m (y
2 q

m+y
2
97
2
4-
50

[ A s s u me y 2 mac m 2
,
an d on e c on diti on is
c
2
c y = u y
z c
c v

con d i tion

2
v
u y .

2 mm+ m ]
2
[ Put x +y .

2
74
2
.
lf
e (m+ m 1

(w+ u , (m y ) + 31 v

[ A ss me au
; (m
2
y (qi
z

[ Pu t y mz a

[S n i ce m 2
n.
2
2 m n is a s q uar e , ass u me
e
f
y a nd x +y z 2 mn f
put 96 pg y , q 5, wh er e
pg 3 m 2
+ 71
2
; th en

[ S upp os e w m m w h i ch is a s qu ar e
2 2 .
, , an d

formul a ( )
2 Wi
2
m2 + 2 2 m m a s qu ar e
]
 I N DETER M I NA TE A N A LY S I S 493

34 = u
f 2
.

-
l
-
e )
[ S i n ce
mn i s a s qu ar e tak e an y n u mbe r
(m n )}
2
,

s e p ar abl e i n to tw o fact or s
(m n ) in three w ays Thi s ,
.

gives thr ee valu e s say p q r for &(m n ) Pu t , , , ,

.

z m g ; th er e for e
z
514 :
pg y q ,r
5 an d a +y+ n , ,

m n gz and g is fou nd ] ,

2 2
35 . 96 u , v r (w+ y + z l

form ul
[U s e th e a n )}
2
mn a
'

s qu r e a an d

proc ee d s i mil rly ] a

III .
(m+ y + e ) az
2
u
2
,

y v
2
,

(fc + v Z )
III .
+ 0; v
2
,

III . 5 . x +y+ z t, y+ 2
z a
'
u
2
,
e +x
' -

y v
2
,

w+ y ~
z

[Th e rs t so luti on of thi s probl em as s u mes

2 2
w+ y + z 5
2
l 10 1, ,

wh n c e y f
e ou n d in t e r ms of g and z + zc
96 , ,
z y
ar e ,
~

is th n m d a s qu ar e
e a e .

Th alt e r n tive s oluti on h ow e v er is m uch mor e ele

e a , ,

g n t an d c n b g ene r li ed thus
a ,
a e a z .

We h v e to nd a y s o th t
a , ,
2: a

a s qu r a e

s qu r e
v y+ . z a a

x + a s qu r e a
y
x + y+ z a s qu ar e

Equ at th e r s t thr ee e xpr e s i on s to a b 0 be i n g

2 2 2
e s , , ,

s qu a es s u ch th at th eir s u m i s al s o a s qu are
2
r

10 s y , a .
 I N DETER M I N A TE A NA LY S I S

2 2 2 2 2
14 .

yz + x u , e st +y v , /+ 2
e
ag

15 . u
2
, v
2
,
W
[Lemma If a, a 1 b e two con secuti ve n u mb e r s ,

d
2
(
a a
2
(a is a s quar e . Le t

y m2 , (m
Th ere fore (m2
2m 2 )cc (m
(m 2
1 )x m2

h v e to be m de s qu ares This is s olve d as d oubl e

a a . a

e qu ti on ; in Diophan tu s problem m 2
a

s .

L t so be th e r s t n u mb er m tli
'
S con d s olu ti on
e . e ,
e

s e con d ; th en m + l 9c + m is a s qu ar e
y ; th er e
2
( ) n s , a

fore a: (n / (m + whil y
2
m W h v e th en e . e a

s qu are
(m + 1 )z m a

a s quar e
Di oph an tu s h a s m 3, n 5, so that the expr i
e ss on s

to be ma d e s qu ar es a r e with h im
4z + 3

6%e + 5% l
T hi s pos s ible becau se of th e corre pon di ng coe f
is n ot ,
s ~

cien ts n e ith e r pair ar e in th e r ati o of s qu r s

, I n ord r to a e . e

subs titute fo 4 c oe fci en t s which

,
r e in th e r ti o , ar a

of s qu ar e to
a s qu r e h e th en n d s tw o n u m b r
a s y a e s, a ,

p q to r pl c e
,
3 s uch th at p q + p + q
e a qu ar e n d a s , a

s qu re H s u m es g nd a 4 5+ 3 a . e as a ,

which s ti es th s econ d c onditi on n d th e n solv es fo g

a s e , a r ,

which mu s t s ati s fy
a s u r
q y a e sa ,

which g ives 5 $5 44 : , .

H e th en s ol ves fo 2 th e third n u mbe r the double ,

r , ,

equ ati on
s gz 44 s qu r
] a e
9

qu arc i
H 3
3 1 5
I

N
s
4 96 DI O PH A N TUS O F A LEXA N DR I A

aft e r multiplyi n g by 25 a nd 1 00 res p ectiv ely ,

m akin g
e xp es s i on s
r

1 3 Oa 105

1 30 m+ 30

b v qu ti w h uld o n ly h v e to m k e a a
I n the a o e a on s o e s e

qu r th m ultiply th r t by n 1 an d

n
2
1 e n d
a s e n a ,
e as

th e se c on d by (m +
Do i ph n tu with h i no
a t ti on
s, w a s h a rdly m po s t0n
s a ,
a 1 1

to: s olv e s w h ould by writ i ng

,
a e s ,

2
66 + l a

(9 + 1 ) (m+ 1 ) bz + l >

2
0 + 1,

which g i v es x + 1 4/ 1 ) (0
2
+ l l} ,
&C

[ Thth od is th
e me m mu ta ti s e sa e m u ta n d i s th e

s e c on d of th bove oluti on s ] e a s

III = +w=
2
. 17 . u ,
azy

19 .
(a, at
,
50
3
w, ) 2
j; a} ,
l
l

(95 1 5Us i $
2

(56 , + a2 +
'
96
3
w, )2 i x
3

2
( 55 1 90 3 w
+ 4) i

56 2 c
t
4

[ Di opha n tu s
n d s in th w y h av e en (p , e a se .

four diff r n t r ti on l right angl ed tri angle w ith th e

.

e e a a -
s

s me hyp ot en u s
a n m e ly (6 5 5 2 (6 5 6 0 e, (6 5 a , , , , ,

(6 5 6 3 o wh at i th e sam e thi n g
, ,
s qu ar e r ,
s ,
a

which is d i vi s ibl i n to tw o s qu r es in four differ en t w y ;

e a a s

thi s will solv e th probl em s i nce if h p b be th e three e , , , ,

s id es ofa right n gl e d tri an gl e h i 2 p b a e b oth s qu ar e s

2 '
-

a ,
r .
 I N DETER MI NA TE A NA LY S S I 49 7

P u t th ere fore

an d 93
1
: se : 2 25 6 0 g, 2
,
. .

2
2 . 16 . 63 g ;

thi s gi ves 127 68 g

2
65 5 , an d e
f les be e
-

]
+y = m+ y =
2 2
4 . a u , u .

5 . a
2
+y = u, 96 +y = u
2
.

13 . w+ 1 = t2 y + ,
l = u
2
, y

[P u t a: c d nd 1 = m2 2 2 m ; th e s e on a

third con diti on s r equir e u s to nd two squares with a: as

differ en c e Th e d i ff r en c e m 5 2 m is s eparat ed i n to
. e
2 2

th e factors 5 2 m 5 th e s qu ar e of h alf th e d i ffer

67 1
2
,

en c e P ut thi s e qu al to y + 1 s o ,

th at y (m m (m 1) m 1 an d th e 2 2 2
,

rs t thr ee con diti on s r e s ati sed The fou rth gi ves a .

Mm 6 m 1 ) (m 3 m)5 m a s qu re which
4 2 2 3 2
a ,

w c n equ at to (n
e a e

2 2 2
= 2
14 . x +y + z
(x z 2
) .

16 . w+ y + z = t2 , w -

y = u
2
, y +
2
z =

[ Pu t 4 m for y by mean s of th e f ctors 2 m g 2 , an d

.
a 6
,

w e can sat i s fy th e s ec on d c on diti on by ma kin g n o equ l a

to h alf th differ n c e o m g l Th e third con diti on

e e ,
r .

is s a ti s e d by s ubtr cti ng (4 m ) fr om s ome s quar e s ay a

2
,

th erefore z 8 m + 1 By the st con '

. r

di ti on 1 3 m g m u s t b e s qu ar e Let it b e 1 6 9 7 ; th e a . 1
2

n u m b ers a e th e r e fore 1 3 0
2 2 2
. 1 52 7 r1 04 1 1 an d , 1 7 ,

th e l a s t c on diti on giv es s qu are

2
221 7 1 a ,

i e 1 08 1 6 7 + 22 1
. . qu ar e (1 0 4 ,
7
2
sa
y Thi s a s 7 .

gives th valu of nd s olv es the probl m]

e e a e

= 2 = 2 2 x =
x
2 2
17 .
y u , y z v , z

19 .
yz + 1 =u , z w+ 1 = v
2
, a
c
y+ 1 = w2 .

W ked l thi s in det erminately ( ?

[ to s o ve
"

e ar e as eu T c)

s ome s qu ar e m i n u s 1 s y m
2 2
d opia r rp) -
. Pu t for ye ,
a

+2 m g; one conditi on is n ow sati s d Pu t 2 f e . . ,

th at y m 2
+2m .
 I NDETER MI N A TE A NA LY S I S 49 9

IV 29
. .
a .

[S i n ce u re
2
56 to+
1
7; is a sq a ,

2 2
+ a)
2 2
( 96 (y + y) ( s + e ) w
( + w)+ 1
is th e su m offour
quar es s , and w e on ly ha ve to s e p a r at e
a 1 i nto four s quar es ]
30 .

IV 31. . x +y l , (y + b) z : u
2

IV 32. . w+ y + z a , xy + z = u
2
, a
y
IV 39. . w y = m (y z ) , y+ z = i
2
, z + ac = 2
v , w+ y = w .

40 .
2
x 1
2 = m (y e ) y + , s =u , w+ y = w
1 . 132 :
y
2
, o a
a =u 2
, y
a = 2
v , z a = w2 .

2 . we = y2

, x +a =u 2 y + a = , v
2
, z + a = w2

3 . v
. +a r
2
, y+ a s
2
+a = t2 ,

yz + a =u2 , z zc + a v , ay +a =w .

V . 4 . c a
c r , y
a = s2 , z a = t2 ,

yz a u
2
, z x a = v2 , n
a
y
a : w .

[ S olv ed
by means of the P or isms th at if a be the ,

given n umb er the n um b ers m a (m + 1 ) a s ti s fy ,

2
,
2
a

th e con diti ons of V 3 nd the n u mb er s m + a .

, a
2
,

(m + a th e c on di ti on s ofV 4 (s ee p 4 7 9 bov e) Th e . . a .

thi rd n u mbe r is tak en to b 2 (m + l ) + } 1

2
e a ,

an d th e t h r ee n u mb e r s a ut omatically s ati s fy tw o mor e

con dition s (s ee p 4 8 0 above) It on ly r emai ns to m ke . . a

2 { m a + (m + Fa } 1 + a a s qu r e
2
a ,

4m + 4m +3 a + 1 a s qu ar e
2 :
,

which is eas ily s olved .

With Dioph antu s 5 + 3 takes th e place of m in V 3

'

an d 5 t ak es its pl ac e in V 4 w h il e a is 5 in V 3 an d 6 .
, .

in V 4 ] .

2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
5 .
y z +a r , z x +y 3 , x y +z t, ?
1

wy +w + y2= w2 2 2 2

[ S ol v ed by means ofth e Pori sm nu mber ed 2 on p . 480 .

x k 2
500 DI O P H A N TU S O F A LEXA N DR I A

V . 6 . 511 2 =r , y
2 = s2 , z 2 = t2 ,

z +
z u o z c
z o c v
2
x w y
y = w2
y y , , ,

y=
o
o v a z
y

y s a z u z :

[ S olv ed by means of th e proposi ti on n u mb er d e

p 48 1 ] .

2
Lemma 1 to V . 7 . tey + ao + y
2
u .

V 7
u
2
2
i < 66 + v+ 6 l ( v

(v
.

[ S o lv e d by mean s of th e s ub s idi ary pr obl e m (Le mma 2 )

of n d i ng three r a t ion a l right a n gl e d tri an gl es with -

e qu a l a r ea If m , n s ati s fy the con diti on in Lemma 1 ,

.

i . e . if m n m2 n
2
p
2
,
th e tri angl es a r e formed fr om
th e p irs
um b er s (p m ) (p n ) (p m + n ) es p c
a of n , , , , ,
r e

ti ely Di oph an tu s as s u mes thi s but it i s eas y to pr ov e

v .
, .

I n hi c se m 3 n s 5 s o th at p
a 7 N ow in _
:
, ,
.
,

a right angl d tri ngl (hypotenu s ) i fou tim s r ea

-
e a e, e
2
r e a

i s s qu r W e qu t e th er fore oc + y + z to f our
a a e . e a , e ,

ti m s th e com mon r ea mult i pli d by 5 nd th e v r l

e a e
2
,
a e s e a

n u mb er s ac y z to th e thr e hyp ot n u se m ult i pli e d by

, , g e e s ,

nd qu at e th e tw o v lu es I n Dioph n tu s cas e th
a e a . a s e

tri ngl s a e (4 0 4 2
a e (2 4 7 0 7 4 ) n d (1 5 1 1 2
r , , , ,
a , ,

a nd 2 45 5

V 8 .
ye i 1

wv x + v+ v =

[ S olve d by mean s thr ee rat i onal righ t

of th e s am e
angl d tri angl es e foun d in the L mma to V 7 t ogeth er e .
,

with th e Lemm a th t we c n s olve th e e qu ati ons ye = a

a a 2
,

z o
o b2 , o
c
y c
2
.

]
9 .

(C f . II . fc + y = 1 x + a = u
2
, y+a
= = y+a =
. 11 . c+
o y+ z l ,
to+ a u v s +a z
, ,

[Th es e ar e th e probl e ms of na m6 e
-
7 17 7 0 9 d y coy
 I N DETER MI NA TE A N A LY S I S 50 1

d rib ed abov e (pp 4 7 7

esc Th e probl em is to di v id e .

u n ity into two (or thr ee) parts such that if on e and the ,

s am e gi v en nu mb er be add e d to eac h p art th e res ult s ar e ,

all s qu ar es

10 . m+ y = l, m+ a u
2
, y+b = v
2
.

12 . x +y+ z = 1, a + a = u
2
, y+ b = v
2
,
z +c =

[ These problems precedi ng x cept th at ar e like the e

d iger en t given n u m b r s e a dd ed Th e s c on d of th e
'

e ar . e

two pr obl ems i s n ot w ork e d out but the r s t is w or th ,

repr oduci ng We mu s t take th e par ticular gur es u ed

. s

by Di ophantus namely a 2 b 6 We h av e th en to , ,
.

d i vide 9 i nto two s quares s uch that one of them li es

b etw een 2 an d 3 Take two s quares lyi ng b etw een 2 .

and 3 say ,
We h av e then to nd a s qu re 5 a
2

lyi n g betw een th em ; if w e can d o th is w can m ke ,

. e a

9 a s qu ar e an d s o s olv e th e pr obl em ,
.

Pu t 9 5 y s o th at g
2
(3 s a ,
:

an d m h as to b e d e te r m in e d s o th at
g lies b tw een e

H an d
1 9
1 2
.

17 6 m 19
I h er efor e
f
o

12 m 2
+ 1 12

Di oph antu s , as we h a v e see n , n d s a for ti or i in t egra l

li m i t s for m by solvi ng these in equ alities makin g m not ,

gr eat e r than as and not less th n 23 (see pp 4 6 3 5 above) a .

.

H e th en ta kes m n d pu ts 9 5
2
3% (3 a

w hi ch gi v es 5 gs .

V I3.
\ . x +y+z a, y+z u
2
,
z + a>
2
v ,
w+ y w 2
.

2
V . 14 . a, o
c+ y+ z 8 , y+ e +w t,
2
z +w+x u
2
, w + w+ y v .

[ Th e meth od is th e s ame
]
21 . a
2
y
2
z
2
+a
2
u
2
, my 2 2
z
2
+y
2
v
2
,
w2 y2 z 2 + 2 2

22 . wy 2 2
z
2
w 2
u
2
,
x
2
y
2
z
2
y
2
v
2
,
wy 2 2
z
2
z
2
w

23

x
2 2 2
u
2 2
wy 2 2
2
2 ,
0
2
2
2
my 2 2
2
2
x
y 2 y
_ _
.
,

[ S ol v ed by means of right -
an gled tr i angl es in rational
n u m b er s ]
 I NDETER MI NA TE A N A LY S I S 50 3

Let th e rs t p rt 5 3 a :
; th er e for e (s ec on d part)
1 1 4 3 , or secon d p art 92 8z .

h ere for e
T 8z 7 2 4 an d 2 ,

th erefore th e n u mber of e drach ma meas ures is v -

th e n u mb e r of eigh t dra ch ma meas ur es 44 -

.

Lemm 2 to V I 1 2 a cc
a b u (wh ere a b 0 ) see p 4 6 7 2 2 2
(
. .
.

Lemma toV I 1 5 61 56 b= u (wh er e ad. b bove )

.
2 2 2 a .

x+ 1
'

2
x
y u , w l 2 (y l) .

m+ 1

2
10 , y
2
+ 1 z

0
2
, w2 .

(vii i ) I n det ermin at e an a lys i s of th e degree .

3 . a
y = u, xy = u
3
.

6 . w3 + y2 u
3
, z
2
+y
2
v
2
.

7 . w3 + y u
2
, 2
2
+y = v
3 2
.

3 3
8 . c+
a
y u ,
so+ y u .

9 . w+ iJ3 u, 56 + y u
3
.

(r ea ll yreducible
10 . $
3
+y
3
a: +y . to th e se c on d

3 3
d gr ee )
e .

1 1 ' x y a: y .

th e sa me problem .

12 . a: +y =y + 96 .

[ We may gi ve as e x am ple s th e so luti ons of IV . 7 ,

IV 8, IV 1 1 . . .

IV . +y 7 . Si n ce
cub e s upp os e 2 + y w z
2 2
a ,
2 2

To m k e s qu ar e put x a + b y z a b 2 2 2 2 2
+y a a , , ,

whi ch al so s ti s es 96 y 3 We have th en to m ke
a
2 2 2
. a

2 ab s qu ar e Let a
a 5 b = 2 ; th er ef or e a + b
. 55 ,
2 2 2
,

g n d we h av e only to mak e
2
2 ab 45 y e , ,
a

5 5 a cub e n d 96 = 1 2 5 y = 1 0 0 3 2 2
g
2 5 . 25 :
,
a ,
z .
504 DI O PH A N TU S O F A LEXA N DR I A

S upp os e n
IV 8 . .
y = m ; th r e for ,
3 3 2
e e u (m +
mu s t be th e s id e of th e c u be m + f an d 3 3
,

m (m m
3 2 a 2
+ 1 3 + )5
1 .

To lve thi w e mu s t h v
so s, a e 3 m 2
3 m 1 (th e di ffe r enc e
betw een con secutive cub ) es a s quar e . Pu t

nm m
2

) ,
an d

IV 1 1
. . A s s me so u y mg ,
an d we h ve
a

to ma ke
m3 + 3 m 2 + l )
(3 e qu al to 1, i . e . we h ve
a

on ly to ma ke 3 m 2
3m+ 1 ,
a s qu r e
]a

+y =
3 3 2
18 . x u , y +x
24 . a +y z a, og
c / = w2

[y a c
c; th er e for e a w sc
2
h a s to be ma de a

mi n u s its s i d e , s ay (mac -

(m a
T her for x 56
e e a
2
m 3 96 2 3 m 2
2 ma .

To r educe thi s to a s inr

ple e qu ati on , we ha v e on ly to
put m a .
]
f
a v)+ (
af z
)}
3

(f: l
y z )
[ Th e cube 8 (x z
)
3
. Let x z m g so ,

that y g/ (m 2
m ) an d w e h a v e
8 , on ly to c on triv e th t a

8 / (m 2 m) li es b etw een m an d m 1 . Dio p h t a k es th e .

r s t l i mi t 8 m 3 + m 2 and puts ,

8 _
m
( +4)
1 3
or m 3 + m2 1
m + 4l 7 ,

wh n ce m 4 ; th er for e a:
e e
3 g, y :
5 5 z , Or ,

multiplyi n g by 1 5 w e h v e 4 0 5, y
, a a 27 5 , z _
25 5 .

Th e r s t e quati on th en giv e s

3
u , asy + y v .

3
u , o
c
y y v .

28 .
u , oy
c v
3
.

[ 96 + 4( u
3
v
3
) , to? th er e for e
3
i( 66 2

which l att er e xpr es si on h as to be ma de a s quare .

 I N DETER MI NA TE A N A LY S l S 50 5

Di ophan tu s as s u me s u 5 1 , v g l, whenc e
s ag
mu s t be a s qu are , or

9 54 s qu a r e = 2
(
3 say ;

th er efor e 3 2 5 3 6 5 an d g 3
Thu s to v e fou n d
2
, ,
ar ,

an d th en at
y , .

Th se con d ( lt e r n ti ve) s olu ti on u ses th e for mula th t

e a a a

a cub e Pu t y = .

an d on e c on diti on sat i s ed W e th en on ly h v e to
is . a

ma k e o 25 cub (l e s th n r
3 2
a e s a
3 2
1 - 9 -
5 2 5 (t a
$9
l
38 .

[m+ y + z
3
,

[ S upp os e z then
2
x +y 5 ;

u (u 1) v

2 152 5
th ere for e u w 1) v
2
10
3
.

Di oph an tu s put s 8 fo
but w e may t k any cube a r a e ,
s

m ss u m
fo whic h w e might 2 2
an d h (5 e a es v r

s ub titut e
s
(g n ) W th n h av e th t iangu l
Z 2 2
. e e e r

n u mb e r m S i n c e 8 ti mes 2 2 4 3
2n 5 n f
. a

trian gular nu mb r plu s 1 g i v e a s qu ar e s e,

16n 2
g
z
8 n
4
8 m 3
+ 1 a s qu r a e (4 91 5 70 2 , sa
y ,

an d th e probl em is so lv ed ]
V 15 . +y =v ,

=5 3 3 3 3
w = P3
[ Let x + y + z L 5 U 1 5

, : " a

th er e for e
g {(m 3

thr ee cub es m n 29 such th at

'

3
a nd we h av e to n d ,

m a+ n 3 s qu ar e Di ophan tu s as s u mes as
3
+y 3 a .

th e s ides of th e cubes (2 2 ; thi s giv es

 I N DETER M I NA TE A N A LY S S I 50 7

(ix ) I nd et er mi nat e an a ly i s of th e fourth degr e

s e .

4 4 4
29 0 211 z

Why
y s Fermat did not Di ophantu s s eek two

, sa ,

'

four th p ower s s uch th at th eir su m is a s qu r e Thi s a .

pr obl m is in fact i mp oss ible as by my method I m

e , , , a

a bl e to pr ov e with all rig ou r N o d oub t Di oph an tu s

knew thi s truth empirically Let 513 31 p .

2
:
2
,
2

=q Th e r e fore + p + q = a s qu ar e
2 2 4 4 4

z . s
y; a

th ere fore = (r 1 ) an d w e h v e to m ak
2 2 4
e

a .

thi s e xpres s i on a s qu are .

Di oph an tu put s r 19 4 Q 4 s o th t th e xpre s

2
,
2
,
a e s~

s i on r e duc es to 8 To ma k 2
p / (2 p
2
8)o r e 4

thi s s qu are let 23 4 (p

a s ay th er fore p 1
,
2
e
1

2

(m ultiplyin g by 4 )
2
nd
2
a
p 24 q 4 r 64; o , , r

2 5 which s olv es th e pr obl m ]

2 2
20 9 9 16 r , ,
f
, e

[V x
2
+y +
2
z
2
3 = u
4
.

(S ee a bov e u n der V .

(x ) P r obl em s of c ons tructi n g right an gl e d tri n gl es w ith -

a

s id es in r ati on al n um b e r s n d s a ti s fyi n g v ari ou s a

oth e r c on diti on s .

[ I h all in all c ses c all th e hyp ot en u s

s z an d th

a e ,
e

oth e r two s i d es a
s y s o th t th con diti on w + y z 2 2 2

, , a e

appli e s in all cas es in addition to th Oth er con diti on s , e

spe ci d ] e

[ Le mm a to V . my c
p l yl xz yz .

y =
VI . 1 .
v .

[ For m gle d tri ngle from g on s o th t

a r ight -
an a , ,
a .

5 + m $0
2
y g m
; thu s y
2
2 m
,
2 2
z
2
,
'

an d as thi s mu s t be a cub e w e put m 2 ; th er for e

'

,
e
,

z w= m u s t be cube or g 2 = cub
2
a ,
a e,

s ay n
2
, an d = n2 + 2 ]

VI 2 . . z +w= u , z +y = v .
50 8 DI O PH A N TU S O F A LEXA N DR I A

w a =
3 .
4 y + u .

upp r quir d tri gl e to b e k g 0 b

1 5 g th r e e
os e th e n
[ S e e a , ,

e r at o of a
.

s qu r n d th 2 i
fore 4p? )$ a e 2 sa
y a a a , ,

to 7 1 u t
m s b e th e
2 r ti o o f a s qu ar e to '
a s qu ar e a
.

om
To n d at p b o to s ti fy thi c d t
s
,
s on
,
i on
f r s as a i ,

1
right gl ed tri angl e from m ,
a an ,
a
-

th erefor e 4pb m 2
A s s me u n
2

or 4 a2 + h a s to b e ma de a s quar e . P ut
m
m 2
a (4 a
2
-
1) z :
( 2 am lc)2 , an d we h ave a s oluti on .

Di oph an tu s h a s l e di ng to l oom a s qu ar e
2
a 5, a 505

(1 0 m y sa which ,
giv s m 2
4 an d n 5
4 e
4
4
1 3

h ,p ,
b ar e thu s d ter mi n d in s uch a way th at
e e
1
6 2
17 17 5 + 06 07
2
5 g i v e a r t i on l s oluti on ]
2
s a a

. 5 . a

6 .
4my + m
[A ssume th e th at tr i n gl e
a to b e k g, p f, b g, so

41 6 g + p g a n d fo
7
2
r ti on l s olution of thi s e qu a
,
a r a a a

ti on w e mu s t h ve (4p) a (% pb) s quar e Dioph an tu s a

2
a .

as s u mes 1 b m wh n c 4 am or z am + 1 e e r
p , ,

a s qu are .

Bu t s in c e th e tri n gl e is r ti on a l m2 } 1
, a s qu ar e a a , .

Th at is w e h v e double e quation Di fferen ce

,
a a .

m2 2 am m (m 2 a) . Pu t

z a m+ 1 = { 4(m m an d m (
a
2

Th e id es of th ux i l i ry tri ngl e ar e t hu s deter mi ned

s e a a a

in s uch a way th at th e or i gi n l e qu ati on in g is s olv e d a

rati onally ]
7 .
in C
B a .
 I N DETER MI N A TE A N A LY S I S 50 9

8 . a .

[ With th e sa me as s u mpti ons h ve in th es e c s es

we a a

to ma ke { 4 03 + p ) a s qu are Di ophan tu s
b .

as sumes s b efor e 1 a , m for th e v lu e s ofp b and obt ai ns

a , ,

th e doubl e qu ati on e

(m 4am s qu r a e

m2 +1 1 s qu r e a ,

s qu ar e

m s qu are
2
1
so lvi ng in th e u s u al w ay ]

1 1 .
4xy
th es e cases th e auxi lia ry right
[I n -
an gl ed triang le
to be fou n d s uch th at

a s
q u re a .

Di oph antu s as s umes it formed from 1, m 1 thu s

+ m 2
+ 2 m }
2
m
( +
2
2 m + )
1 2
,

a ( 2 m) ,

Th e re for e

m 4
+ (a + + (2 a + 4 )m + i

a s quare
{ 1 ( a 2 )m m2 } 2 , sa
y;
an d m is fou n d ]
Le mma 1 to V I 1 2 . . a: u
2
,
w y v
2
, 4xy + y
VI 12 4my + m x
y iy
- -
. .

ay
2
VI . 13 .
4 x y 93 n y 4 .

[ Thes e p r obl ems and th e two foll owi ng

i nter esti ng ar e ,

but th ei s oluti ons un to some len gth ; therefore only

r r

one c s e c n h e r e be giv en
a We wi ll t ak e V I 1 2 with
a . .

its Lemma 1 .
 I N DETER MI NA TE A N A LY S I S 511

[Th e uxili ary right

a -
an gled tri angl e in thi s c ase mu s t
be s uch th at

m 2 hp 4pli p (h p ) is a Squ ar e .

If ys Di oph n tu s (VI
, sa w e for m tri ngl e fr om
a . a a

th e n u mb e r s X X n d s upp os t h t p 1
2X X
, n d if
2
a e a
1 2 , a

w e th en divid e ou t by (X X which is qu al to h p 1
e -

w m u s t n d a s qu r e 7
e m (X X s uch th at a 0
2 2
l

7 i 4 pb p is a s qu r e
0
2
a .

Th e pr obl em s ys Di oph n tu s c n b e s olv e d if X X

, a a , a
1 , 2

(n u m ber s s uch s (1 6 g a b)
/

s i m il r pl an e n u m b r s


a re a e a , .

7 7.

Thi s is t t d with out proof but it can

s a e , eas ily be v eri ed
th t if 7
a X X th e expr es s ion is
,
6
2
1 2 , a s qu are Dioph . .

t akes 4 1 the numb er s so th at 7

,
as , 6
2
4. Th e e qu a ti on
fo m b e com es
r

8 . 17 m2 4 . 15 a s
q u r a e,

l 36 m2 432 0 a s qu r a e .

Th e luti on
so m2 36 (d e riv e d fr om th e f ct th t
a a

70 2
X
m /( 1 2
X2)
2
, or 4 m 2
/ 3 2)

sa ti es
s th e con dition th t a

m 2 hp 4 pb p (h p ) is a s qu ar e]

VI . 16 .
= a, g/ n = y/z .

[To ndrati on l right angl ed tri ngl e s uch th at th e

a a -
a

n u m b e r r e pre s en ti n g th e (p orti on i n t e rc pt e d withi n e

th e tri an gl e of th e) bi s e ctor of an cut e n gl e is r ati on l a a a .

Let th e bi sector be th e s eg men t B D of th bas e 3 5 e ,

s o th at th e p e rp en dicul ar i s 4 5 .

Let CB 3m Th en A C A B CD DB ,
512 DI O PH A N TUS O F A LEXA N DR I A

so th t a AO 4 (n T h er e for e (Eucl I . . 47 )
1 6 (n 2

so th t 5
a 7 n
- 2
/ 32 n - 7
4 2 n. [ Dioph . h as n 1 ]
17 .
4xy + z u w+ y + z =

[ Let 5 be th e a ea r an d le t 2 [0 2 5 . S i nc e
my 2 5, s uppos e a: 2, y 5 . T h er for e e 2 + 10 2 mu s t
be a cube . h ve s e n
A s we Di oph an tu s a e
(p .

ta k es
(m fo th cub e an d (m + 1 ) fo
r givi ng
e
2
r

m 2
3 m2 3m 1 =m 2m 3 wh en c e m 4 Th er 2
'

,
: . e

for e k 5, an d w s um y
x 5 z 2
e 5
5 w ith
as e , ,

a: 2, y 5 s b for e aTh en w e h ave to m k ee . a

2
(2 5 4 + 5 , an d 5 124 24 1 .

0
d

18 .
4 xy +z = u , x +y+ z

19 .
4 93 y + m= u
2
, w+ y + z =

re r i ght ngl d tri angle is formed from one odd

[H e a -
a e

n u m b er y ccordi n g to th e Pyth agor e n fo

, sa a a r

m ul m + { 4 (m a
{ 4 (m +
2
wher m is n 2 2
e a

odd n u mb r Th i de th r efor e 2 5 + 1 2 5 + 2 5
e . e s s ar e e ,
2
,

2 5 + 2 5+ 1 2
S i n c th p ri m t er cub
. e e e e a e,

a o ub e .

Or ,
if w e divid e th e s i de s by 5+ 1, h a s to be
mad e a cu be .

A g ai n 5 933! a: a s qu r e a ,

wh i ch reduc es to 2 5 + 1 qu re
a s a .

B u t 4 5 + 2 is ,
a cub e . We th er e for e put 8 for th e cube ,

an d
5 :

20
% wy + x _
M
3
, w+ y + z

VI 2 1. . x +y+z =

[ For m r i ght angl ed tri angl e from 5 l i s (2 5 5 1

a -

, ,
. .
,
2
,

5
2
Th e n 2 5 + 2 5 mu t b e a s qu ar e an d 2
5 + 25 + 5
2
s ,
2
 I N DETER MI NA TE A N A LY S I S 513

a cube . Pu t m 2 52 , so that 5 2 / (m
2

an d we h av e to m ke a

8 8 2 m4
or d cub 6
(m (m 2
2 2
) (m

2

Ma k e 2m a cube n
-

so th at 2 m4 m2 n 2

, an d
8
th e re for e 5
an d
5 mu st be m a de
n 8
greater th n 1 in ord r that 5 a , e
2
1 m ay be pos itiv e .

Th e re fore 8 at

16 ;

thi s is s ati s e d by at 1 4 4 o 2 9
r n an d m

22 m+ y + e z a

Fir s t s e k a r ti onal right e a -

angl d tri angl s uch

e e

th t its p erim ter nd its are

a e a a r
a e giv en numbers ,

sa
y m .

Let th e p rpen dicul rs

e a be
, 2 m 5; the r efor e the hyp o

ten us e
p
2 m5 , an d (Eu cl . I . 47 )
2 20
4 mp5 + m 5,
4 2 2

5
2 9
2
+ 4m 4 mp 5 + 1
1
3 ,

5
th at is , ( 19
2
+ 4m )5 4 991 23 52 + 2 p

(2 ) In o rd er th t thi s a may h v a e a r tion l

a a luti on
so ,

{4 p
2
4 m)} 2 8 29 2 m mu s t be a s qu rea ,

4 m2 6 p2 m + 410
4
z a s qu are
qu re m 2
gp m + 4 4 p
2 1 4
a s a

A l s o by th e s e c on d c on diti on m p
,
a s qu are ,

To s olv e thi s w e mu s t ta ke fo p s om e n u mb er w hi ch
,
r

is both a s qu ar e and a cub e (in order th at it may b e

p os s ibl e by multiplyin g th e secon d equ ati on by s ome
,

s qu r e to m ak e th e c on s t n t t er m e qu al to th e c on s tan t
a ,
a

L l
 TH E TR EA TI S E O N PO LY GON A L NU MBER S 51 5
Py th agor ean s W hil e P hilippu s of O pu s and S pe u s ippu s carri e d
,

on th e tr a di ti on H ypsicle s (a b out 1 7 0 B C ) is twic e men

. . .

tion e d by Dioph an tu s as th e auth or of a den iti on of

a p olygonal n u mb er w h ich lthough it does not in term s ,

a

menti on n
y p olyg on al n u m b e r b ey on d th
a pen t gon l e a a ,

amou n t to s ayi ng t h at th e n th a gon (l c ou nti ng as th e

s -

r s t) i s

4 { n 2 + (n 1 ) (ct

Th e on S myrn a , N icomach u s an d I amblichu s all d evot e

of
s om e s p a c e to p olyg on al n u mb e r s N icomach u s in p articul ar .

g i v e s v a ri ou s rul es for tran s for mi ng tri angle s i n to s quares ,

s qu a r es i n t o p en t agon s &c , .

1 . If w e put tw o con s ecutive tri angles togeth r e , w e get a s quar e .

I n fact
( )
n + ( )
1
n l 2
n n + 1

2 . Ap en t gon is obt i ned from a s qu re by ddi ng to it

a a a a

a tri an gl e th e s ide of wh i ch is 1 le s than th t of th e s qu r e ; s a a

si mil rly a h x ag on from a p en t gon by ddi n g a triangl e

a e a a

th e s id e of which is 1 l s th an th at of th e p en t ag on an d o on
es , s .

I n f ac t

50 5 )n
1
)( a l ,

+ (n

3 N icoma ch u s set s ou t th e r s t tri an gl es , s qu ar e s

. , p entagon s ,

h ex agons an d h e pta gons in a di agr am thu s :

1 3 6 10 15 21 28 36 45 5 5,

1 4 9 16 25 36 49 64 81 1 00,

P en t g on
a s 1 5 12 22 35 51 7 0 92 1 17 1 45 ,

H e x ag on s l 6 15 28 45 66 91 1 20 153 1 90,

H e ptagon s 1 7 18 34 55 81 1 12 1 48 189 2 3 5,

an b r
d th at
o se ves

E ch p olyg on is equ al to the p olygon i mme di t ely a b ove it

a a

in th e di gr m plu s th e tri angl e with 1 l ess in its id e i e the

a a s , . .

tri angl e in th e prec edi ng colu mn .

L l 2
516 DI O PH A N TUS O F A LEXA N DR I A

4 . v er tic l columns e n rithmetic l progre ss i on th e

Th e a ar i a a ,

common di ffer nce bei ng th e tri ngle in th pr ecedi ng column

e a e .

Plutarch a c on t mp or ry of Nicomach u s m en ti on s anoth er

, e a ,

m e th od of tr n s for m i ng tri ngl s i n to s qu ar es

a E ver y tr i a e .

an
gu la r n u mber take n ei ght ti m es an d then i n cr ea s ed by 1
gives a s u ar e
q .

f ct In a ,

On ly fr g men t of Dioph n tu tr eati se On P olygon l

a a a s s a

Nu m be s urviv es I ts ch ar act er i s en tir ely diffe r e nt fr om

r s .

th at of the A ithmetica Th e method of pr oof is s trictly r .

g eom etr i c l nd h th e d i advan tag e th e refor of b i n g l ong

a , a as s ,
e, e

an d i n v olv e d H e begi n s with ome pr e li mi n ry prop os it i ons

. s a

of wh i ch tw o m y be men ti on e d Prop 3 prov s th t if a b e

a . . e a ,

th r t n d l th l t t r m in
e s a n arith m e tic l pr ogr ess i on
e as e a a

of n t er m s n d if s is th e s u m of th e t e r m
, a 28 s,

Pr op 4 pr ov es th t if 1 1 + b
.
1 b b
) an
a , , , e

A P and s th e u m of th e t er m
. .
, s s,

n {2 + (n

i n r s ult obt i n d in th e fr gm nt s w h v it
Th e m a e a e a e a e a e

is gen er li tion of th e formul 8 % n (n 1 ) 1 (2 n

a a z a a

P r op 5 prov s th e f ct s tat d in H y psicle s d e n ition an d l o

. e a e s a s

(th e gen er li ti on r e f rr ed to) that

a z a e

8 P (a 2 ) (a a s qu r e a ,

wh ere P is any p olygon l n umber with a an gl es a .

It is l s o prove d th at if P be the n th a gon l n umb r

a ,
-

a e

( 1 b i n g th e r t )
e s ,

8 P ( a -
2) (
a {2 + 2 n ( 1 ) (a

Di oph an tu s de duces rules as follow s .

1 . To nd the n u m ber fr om i ts s id e .

{2 + (2 n 1 ) (a
(a 4 )
8 (a 2 )

2 . Tor wl the sid e fr om the n u m ber .

x/ { 8 P (a
a 2
 TH E TR EA TI S E O N POLY GON A L N UM BER S 517

Th e l ast pr op os iti on which br eaks

, f in th e
of m iddle is
,
:

Given a nu mber , to nd i n how m a n y wa ys i t ca n be

p olygon a l .

Th e prop os iti on begi ns in a way which s ugges ts th at

Dioph n tu s r s t prov e d geometric ally th at if
a ,

8 P (a
2 + (2 n 1 )(a

2P n { 2 + (n 1 )(a
We rth ei m (in diti on of Di oph an tu s) h as sugges te d a
h is e

res torati on of th compl ete proof of thi s propos iti on and

e ,

I h av e s h ow n (in my editi on ) h ow the proof can be mad e

s h ort e r We rth ei m dd s n i n v es tigation of th e m ai n pr o
. a a

bl em b ut n o doubt O pini ons will c on ti n ue to di ffer s to

,
a

wh e th er Di ophan tu s actu lly s olved it a .

 S ER EN U S 51 9

survi v e in Greek Tan nery as w e ha v e s een conj ec tur ed .

, ,

th at in like mann er th e rs t s ix of th e thirt een Book s of

, ,

Dioph n tu s s A r i thm etica s urviv e b e c au se H yp ati a wr ot e

a

commentari es on these Books only an d did not r each the

oth e r s .

rs t writer wh o call s for notice in thi s ch ap ter is one

Th e
w h o w as r ath er mor e th an a c ommen t ator in s o f r as he a

wr ote a coupl e of treati s es to s uppl emen t th e Con ics of

A p oll on iu s I m ean S ER E NU S S er e n u s c am fr om A ntinoeia
, . e

o A n tin ou olis a city in Egypt fou n d e d by H adri an A D

r
p , ( . .

117 H is d at e is u n ce r tai n but h e m os t pr ob ably be ,

l on g e d to th e fourth c entury A D an d came b etw een P appu s . .

,

an d Th e on of A l x n dri a H t e ll s u s hi ms e lf th at h e wr ot e
e a . e

a commen t ry on th e Con i cs of A p olloniu s

a Thi s h as .
1

p eri s h e d an d p r t from c rtai n pr op os ition of S e nus

, a a a e

r e

th e phi l os oph e r fr om th e Lemmas pr ese rv e d in c ert ai n m n u

,
a

s cript s of Th eon of S m yrn a (to th e e ff ct th t i f n u mb er of e a , a

r e ctilineal an gl es b e s ubten ded t poi n t on di meter of a a a a a

circle which is n ot the cen tr e by e qu l arcs of th t circl e th ,

a a ,
e

a n gl e n r r to th e c n tre is alw y s l ess than th e ngl more

ea e e a a e

r emot ) we h ve only th e two s mall tr ti s es by h im en titl d

e ,
a ea e

On the S ection o f (1Cyli n d er an d On the S ecti on of a Con e .

T he s e w ork s c ame c ct d fr v th c tury

to b e onn e e om th e s e en en ,

on w a rd s with th Con i cs of A p ollon iu s on a cc ou n t of th e

,
e ,

a in ity of th e s ubj e ct s and thi n o d oubt cc oun ts fo th e ir ,

s a r

s urviv a l Th y w e r e tran s l at e d i n to Latin by C omm nd inu s

. e a

in 1 5 6 6 th e r s t Gr ee k t e xt w as brought ou t by H all ey l ong a

with h is A pollon ius (O xford an d w e n ow h v th e a e

d e n iti v t ex t e dited by H eib erg (T u bn

e e er

( ) a On the S ecti on fa
o Cyli nd e r .

Th e o ccas i onbj e ct of the tract On the Se ti on of

an d th e o c

a Cyli n d e ar e s t at e d in th e pr e fac e
r S e en u s obse rv s th at . r e

m an y p ers on s w h o w er e s tud en t s of geometry w e re u n d e r th e

e rr on eou s i m pr es s i on th at th e obliqu e s ecti on of cyli n der a

w as di ffe r en t fr om th e obliqu e s e cti on of con e k now n as n a a

e llip s e wh e r ea s it is of c ours e th e s ame curv e

,
H en c e h . e

thi n k s it n e c es s ary to es t abli s h by a r egu l r g eome tric al ,

a

S r Op cml
1 d H ib rg p 5 2 2 5 6
e en as , us a, e . e e , . .
-
.
5 20 C O M M EN TA TOR S A N D B Y Z A N TI N ES

proof that th e s id oblique s ect i on s cutt ing ll th gen er tors

,
a a e a

ar e e qu ally llipses wh eth r th ey e s ecti on s of a cyli n der o

e e ar r

of a c on e H e b gi n with mor g en er l d en ition of

'

. e s a e a a

cyli n d r to i n clude ny obl i qu circul r cyli n d r If in tw o

e a e a e .

e qu l a n d p r ll el circl es which r em ain x e d th e di m e t e r s

a a a a ,

whil e r em in i ng p r ll el to one nothe r thr ough out a mov d

a a a a ,
re e

roun d in th e pl nes of the circles bout th e cen tres whicha a ,

r em in xe d an d if th y c rry roun d with th em th e s tr ight li ne

a ,
e a a

j oin ing th eir extr miti es on th same s id u n til th y bri ng it e e e e

b ck g i n to th s ame pl c e l t th e s urf c e des cr i b ed by th

a a a e a ,
e a e

s traight l in e o c rr i e d r ou n d b e c all d

s cyli n d r i ca l s u r f
a ace e a .

Th e cyli n d er is th e gur e c on t ai n e d by th e p ar a ll e l circl es an d

th e cyli n dric l s u r f c i n t rc pted by them ; th e par llel
a a e e e a

circl es a e th e bas s th e axis i th s tr ight li n e dr awn

r e ,
s e a

through th eir c en tr es ; th g ner t i ng tr ight lin e in any e e a s a

pos ition i s id e Thirty thr ee propos iti on s follow Of thes e

s a .
-

P rop 6 pr ov es th exi s ten ce in an obliqu e cyli n d e r of th e

. e

p r ll el circul r cti on s s ubcon trary to th e s er i es of which

a a a se

th b ses
e two P rop 9 th t th e s cti on by any pl an e n ot
a ar e , . a e

parall el to that of th e bas es o of on e of th e s ubcontr ry r a

s ct i on s but cutt i n g
e ll th e g en e rat or s is n ot circl e ; th a a e

n xt pr op os i ti on s l e d up to th e m ai n r es ult
e n m e ly th ose in a s, a

P rop s 1 4 n d 1 6 wh e re th
. a id s cti on is prov e d to h ve th
,
e sa e a e

prop rty of th ellip se which w writ in th for m

e e e e e

2
CD

QV PV P V 2 2
. CP ,

an d rop 1 7 wh r e th e pr operty i put in th e A poll on i n

in P .
,
e s a

form i n volvi ng th e l tu s r ectu m QV P V VR (see gur e a ,

2
.

on p 1 3 7 .bov ) which i expr s ed by s y i n g th t th e s qu ar e

a e , s es a a

on th e s e mi ordi n t e is e qu al to th
-
r ect ngl e ppli d to th e
a e a a e

l tu s r ectu m P L h vin g th
a bs c i s P V s bread th n d falli ng
, a e a sa a a

s h ort by r ct ngl e s i mi l ar to th e re ct ngl e c on t ai n d by th e

a e a a e

d i ameter P P an d th e latu s ctu m P L (wh i ch is d eter mi ned

r e

by th con diti on P L P P 3 17 an d is dr w n at r ight an gl s

e .

:
2
a e

to P V ) P r op 1 8 pr ov es th e c orr e p on d in g pr op er ty w ith
. . s

r ferenc e to th conjugat e di met r DD an d th corr es p on d

e e a e
'
e

ing l atu s r ectu m n d P r op 1 9 giv e s th e m ai n pr op e rty in th e

,
a .

form QV P V P V 2
z P V Th en c om es the
.
'
.
'

prop os iti on th t it is pos s i bl e to exhibi t a con e n d a cylind er

a

a

wh i ch ar e alike cut in on e a n d th e s ame llips e (Prop e

.
 S ER ENUS 521

S er en u s th en s olv es s uch probl ems as th es e Gi ven a con e :

(or cylin d er )and an e llip s e on it to n d th e cyli n der (c on e ) ,

w h ich i cu t in th e same e llip se s th e cone (cyli nder )

s a

(Prop s 2 1 . giv en a c one (cy lin d e1 ) to nd a cyli n der

, ,

(con e) an d to cut bot h by on e and th e s ame plane s o th at th e

se ction s thu s mad e s h ll b e s i m il ar e llip s e s
(Prop s 2 3 a .
,

P r op s 2 7 2 8 d eal wi th s i m ila r e lliptic s e ction s of a s c al en e

.
,

c yli n d e r n d con e th ere e two pair s of i nn ite s ets of th es e

a ar

s i m il r to an
a
y on e giv n se cti on th r s t p air b ei n g th os e

e ,
e

which ar e par alle l and s ubc on trary r es p ctiv ly to the giv en e e

s e cti on th e oth er p ai r s ubc on tr ry to on e an oth e r but n ot to

, a

e ith e r of th e oth e r s e t s an d h a v i n g th e c onjugat e di am t e r e

occupyi ng th e c orr es p on di n g pl ac e to th e tr an s v r s e in th e e

oth er s ets n d vic e v e r s a

,
a .

I n th e pr opos iti on (2 9 3 3 ) from thi s p oi n t to th e en d of s

th e b ook S e en u s d ea ls with wh at is r eally an optic al p o

r r

b le m . It i in tr oduced by remark b out a c ertai n g eometer

s a a ,

Peith on by n am e w h o wr ot tract on th e s ubj ect of

, e a

p arallels Peith on not bein g s ati s e d w ith Euclid treat

.
,

s

m en t of p rall el s th ought to d e n pa rall e l s by me n s of n

a ,
e a a

illus tr ati on obs er v in g that par all els e uch lin s s a e

, ar s e a r

s h ow n on a w all o a r oof by th e s h d ow of pill r w i th

r a a a

a light b hin d it Thi s den iti on it ppe rs was g en er lly

e .
,
a a , a

r idi cul e d ; an d S er enu s ee k s to r e h abilit at e Pe ith on wh o s ,

w a s h is fr i en d by s h owi n g th t his s tat emen t i

,
ft r ll a s a e a

math e matic lly s ou n d H e th er e for pr ove s w i th eg rd to

a . e , r a

th e cyli n d r th t if any n u m b e r of r y s fr om a p oi n t out s id e

e ,
a ,
a

th e cyli n d r a e draw n t ouchi n g it on both s id es all the ray s

e r ,

p as s thr ough th s ides of a par allelogr am (a s e cti on of th

e e

cylin der par allel to th e axi s) Prop 2 9 an d if th ey e . ar

produce d far th er to meet ny oth r plane p arallel to th at a e

of th e p arall e l ogr am th e p oi n t s in which th ey m et th e pl an e e

will li on two par llel l i nes (Prop 3 0 ) h e a dds th t th e lin es

e a . a

w i ll not s eem p rall el (vi de Euclid s Opti s Prop a Th e

c , .

probl em about th r y touchin g th e s urface of cylin d er e a s a

s ugges t s th e s i m i l a r on e bout any n u mb er of r y s from an a a

e xt e r n al p oi n t t ouchi n g th e s urfa c e of a con e ; th es e m ee t th e

s urfa c e in p oi n t s on a tri an gul r s e cti on of th e c on e (P rop 3 2 ) a .

an d,
if produce d to meet plane par llel to th t of the a a a

tri angl e mee t th at plane in poin ts for mi ng a s i milar tri angl e

,
 S ER EN U S 5 23

O b s ervi n g th t th s u m of x
a e
2
an d r
2
c
2
c is cons t an t, we
s ee that A 2
, a n d th er e for e A is ,
a ma xi mu m wh en
.
2 2 2
r c
c +h , or w

an d, i c
s n e ac gr eate r th n r it follow s that fo a r eal
is n ot a , ,
r

v alue of m (oth er th an ) h is les th n r o the c on e is obtu se r ,

s a , r

an gl e d Wh en h i not l s s than r th e m ximum tri ngl is

. s e , a a e

th e tri an gl e thr ough th e ax i s an d v ic ve r s a (Props 5 e .

,

when h th e maxi m u m tri n gl e is a l s o right angl e d

r ,
a -

(Pr op .

If th e tri ngle with b s e 2 0 is equ al to th tri n gl e through

a a e a

th e a xi s h r c (r
,
2
o. (r c
2
)( 0 h
) 0 2
nd
2
r
2
.
2 2 2
,
a ,

s in ce c < h = c s o th at h <
r , (Pr op If x li es betw e n
, r . e r

an d c in thi s c as e
'

(93 h )> O o m (
2
( a: ,h )> h r
2 2 2
r
2
r
2
a3
2 2 2
r ,

an d th tri angle w i th b s e 2 98 is gr ater than e i th er of th

e a e e

e qu a l tri an gl es with ba ses 2 2 0 o 2 h (P r op r , ,

r .

I n th e c as of th e s c l en e c on S er en u c ompar es i n div i dual

e a e s

tri an gul r s ecti on s b el on g ing to on of thr e cl ss s w i th oth er

a e e a e

s e cti on of th e s m e cl ass as r eg rd s th ir ar e
s Th e cl s s e s
a a e a . a

ar e :

(1 ) x i al tri angles in cludi ng all ecti ons th r ough the axi

a ,
s s

( )
2 i s os c e l es se cti on s i th e se ction s th e b ses of which e , . e . a ar

pe rp en dicul r to th e pr oj ecti on of th axi s of th e con e on th e

a e

pl ne of th e b s e
a a

(3 ) s t of tri n gul ar s ct ions th e bas es of which a e ( ) th e

a e a e r a

di am et er of th e circular bas e which p s es thr ough th e foot of as

th e p e rp en dicul r from th v ert ex to th pl n e of th e b as

a nd e e a e, a

b t h e ch ord s ofth e circul ar b se p rall l to th at di am e t e r

( ) a a e .

A fte r two pr li m i nary prop os iti on (1 5 1 6 ) n d s om

'

e s , a e

le mm as S e enu s com par s th r as of the r t class of

,
r e e a e s

tri n gles through th e xi s If as w e s id p is th e pe pen

a a .
,
a ,

d icu la from th e v e rte x to the pl an e of th e b ase d th e di s tan c e

r ,

of th e foot of thi s p e rp en dicul r from th e c en tre of th e base a ,

a n d 0 th e an gl e w hi ch th e b se of n y xi al tri n gle with r ea a a a a a

A m k es with th e b as e of the a xi al t ri angl e p as s i ng thr ou gh

a

pth e pe rpen dicul ar ,

2 2
A r /
s (p
2
i
d s n

Thi s a ear is a m i n imu m wh en 6 O, an d i n cr eases with 6

5 24 COM MEN TA TO R S A N D B Y Z A N TI NES

until 6 = 4 wh en it is a maxi mu m th e tri angle being th en

1r ,

i sos cel es (Prop .

I n Prop 2 9 S er enu s t ak es up th e third cl ass of secti on s with

.

bases par allel to d If th e bas of s uch a s e ction is 2 x . e ,

2 2 2
A a s/ ( r 9c +p )
an d , as c ase of th e right c on we mu s t h ave for a r eal
in th e e,

ma xi mu m valu e
4 (r + p ) whi l e a: r
2 2
, ,

s o th at for a r eal valu e of a; oth e r th an

, p m u s t b e l es s th an r ,

r,
an d if p is n ot l e ss th an
,
th m x i m u m tri angl e is th at r ,
e a

which is per p en di cular to th bas e of th cone and has 2 r for e e

its bas e ( P rop If p < r th e tri n gle in qu es ti on is not

.
,
a

th e max i mu m of th e s et of tri n gl es (P opi a r

C omi n g now to th e i s o ce l es s e cti on s w e may s upp ose s

2 6 to b e th e angl e s ubt en d e d t th e c n tr of th e bas e by th e a e e

base of the secti on in th e directi on w ay from th e proj ecti on a

of th e v ert ex Th en .

If A be th e ar ea of th
0
e i s os c e l es tri n gl e thr ough
a th e a xis ,

w e h av e
A O
2
A 2
r
2
(p
2
d 2
) r 2 s in 2 6
(p
2
+d
2
r
2
cos
2
6 2 d r cos 6)
r
2
(p
2
d 2
) cos
2
6 r
4
s in
2
o
2
6c s 6 2 dr 3
cos 6 sin
2
6 .

If A A w e mu s t h v e fo tr i an gles
O,
a r on th e s ide of the
centre of th e bas e of th e c on t ow ard s the e v e rt e x of th e c on e

(s i n ce cos 6 is negativ e for s uch tri an gl es )

(Prop
22 2 2
p + d <r s in 6, an d a f or ti or i p2 d2 < 7 2 .

If p + d > r A is alw ys gr t er than A s o th at A is the

2 2 2
, O
a ea , O

max i mu m i sos c eles trian gl e of th e s et (Props 3 1 .

,

If A is th e area of n y one of th e i s os celes triangl es with a

bas es on the s ide of th e c en tr of th base of th e cone aw ay e e

from the proj ecti on of th e vert x cos 6 is pos iti v e and A is e , 0

prov ed to be neith er th e m ini m um n o th e max i mum tri angle r

of thi s s et of tri an gl e s (P rop s 3 6 4 0 .

,

I n Pr op 4 5 Ser en u s r e tur n s to th e s et of tri angul ar s ecti ons

.

thr ough the ax is provi ng tha t th e feet of the p erp endicular s

,

from the v ert ex of the con e on th eir bas es all lie on a circle
th e di amet er of which is th e s tr aight line j oi ni ng the c entr e of
 S ER ENU S 525

th e b as e of th e c on e
proj ecti on of the vertex on its to th e
pl n e ; th e areas of th e axi al tri an gl es ar e th ere for e pr op or
a

tion al to th e g en er ator s of th e con e with th e s aid circl e as

b se and th e s me v ertex as th e origi n al cone Prop 5 0 is to

a a . .

th e e ffe ct th at if th e axi s of th e c on e is e qu l to th e r diu of

,
a a s

th e b as e th e l e s t a xi al tri an gl e is a me n prop or ti on al
,
a a

b etw een th e gr eates t ax i al tri n gl e an d th e i s os c les tri angular a e

s e cti on p e rp en dicu l r to th e b ase tha t is wit h th e b ov n ota

a ,
a e

ti on if r ,
/(
p + d ) th en
x / ( +d ) rp
p
2
p p J(
2
d )
,
r s
2 2
'

r r
2 2
,

which is i n de ed obvi ou s .

P r op 5 7 is i n te r s ti n g b e c u s e of th l emm s l eadi n g to it
. e a e a .

I t pr ov e s th a t th e gr e t er ax i l tri angl in s c al en e c on e h a sa a e a

th e gr eate r p eri m e t er an d c on v ers ely Thi s is prov e d by ,

.

means of th e l emm (P rop ppli ed to the variabl e s ides

a . a

of xi l tri an gl es th at if a + d b + c an d a > b c > d 2 2 2 2

a a , ,

th en a d < b c (a d e th s ides oth r th n th e base of one , ar e e a

a xi al tri an gl e nd b th os e of th e oth er axi al tri ngle com

,
a ,
0 a

p re d with it ; nd if A B C A DE b e tw o x i l tri angl es nd

a a ,
a a a

O th e c en tr of th e b s e B A
e A C = DA A E be c u s ea ch ,
2 2 2 2
a ea

of th ese s u m s is e qu al to 2 A O Pr op Thi s prop os i 2

2 B0 2
, .

ti on gai n d ep en ds on th l emm (Prop s 5 2 5 3 ) th t if

a e a .
, a ,

s tr igh t li n es b i nfle c ted fr om th e en d s of th e b se of

a e a

a e g m en t of a circl e to th e curv e (i e if w e j oi n th
s en d . . e s

of th e bas to an y p oi n t on th e curv ) th e li n e (i e th e s u m of
e e . .

th ch ord ) is gr eat es t wh n th e p oin t t ak n is th m iddl e

e s e e e

p oin t of th e a c n d di min i s h as th e poi n t i taken f rth er

r ,
a es s a

an d f rth r fr om th t p oi n t
a e a .

Let B b e th e m iddl e p oi n t of th e
ar c of th s e g men t A BC D E
e ny , ,
a

oth e r p oi n t s on th e curv e t ow ard s

C ; I s ay tha t

With B a s ce ntre and BA

radiu s as

des cribe a circle an d pr oduc e A B , ,

A D A E to mee t thi s circl in F G

,
e , ,

H . Join FC C C H C , ,
.

S in ce A B BC B F w e h av e A F A B + BC ,
.

an gl es B FC B CF ar e e qu al n d each of th em
, ,
a

th e angl e A BC .
 TH EO N O F A LEXA N DR I A 52 7

pp 5 8 .
hi s torical n otic es we may menti on the
Of th e
foll owi ng (1 ) Th eon m en tion s th e tr eati s e of Men elau s On
.

Chor d s i n a Ci r cle i e Men el au s Ta bl e of C h ord s which c me

, . . s

, a

b etween th e s imilar T bles ofH ipp archu s n d Ptolemy (2 ) A a a .

qu ot ti on from Dioph an tus furn i s h s i n cidentally a low er li mit

a e

for th e d at e of th e A r i thm etica (3 ) It is in the c omm entary .

on Pt ol e my th t Th eon t ell s u s th at the s e c on d p art of E uclid

a

V I 3 3 r el a ti n g to sector s in equ al circl es w

.
i ns rted by him as e

s e l f in hi e diti on of th e El em n ts a n otic e which is of c apit al

s e ,

i mport n c e in th t it en ables th e Th eonine m n u s cripts of

a a a

E uclid to b e di s ti n gui s h d fr om th e n t e Theon in e and i e a -

,
s

th e r e fore th e k y to th e qu tion h ow f the gen ui n text

e es ar e

of E uclid w as lte r ed in Theon e editi on (4 ) A s w h av

a

. e e

s e e n (pp 2 0 7 Th e on a pr op os of an a llu s i on of P tole my

.
,

to th e th ory of i op eri m tric gur s h s pr es erv d fo u

e s e e , a e r s

s v e r l pr op os iti on s from th e tr eati se by Z enod o u s on th at

e a r

s ubj e ct .

Th eon

s
'

ed iti on of E uclid s E lem nts

e .

We judge of th
ar e a bl e to diti on of e ch racter of Th on
a e

s e

E uclid by comp ris on betw en th Th eonin m nu s cr i pts

a a e e e a

an d th e f m ou V tic n M S 1 9 0 wh i ch c on t i ns n arl i r
a s a a .
,
a a e e

e di ti on th an Th eon s togeth er with c rtain fr agmen t of

,
e s

a n ci n t p apyri
e It pp e r that while Th eon t ook som
. a a s , e

trou bl e to fol low olde r m n u crip ts i t was n ot s o much hi a s , s

obj e ct to get th e m os t uth oritativ e t ext as to m ke wh t h e

.
a a a

c on s ider e d i m provem n ts of on e s ort o oth er (1 ) H e mad e e

r .

a lt e rati on s wh e r h fou n d o th ought h e foun d mis tak s in

e e ,
r , e

th origi n l ; whil e h e tri e d to r emov e s ome r eal bl ot s h

e a , e

a lt er e d oth e r pas s ages too h as tily wh n a little mor e con sider e a

ti on w ould h av e h ow n th t Euc lid s w ord s e r ight o could

s a

ar r

b e xcu s e d
e n d off e r n o difculty to
,
a n i n t llig n t r e d e r a e e a .

(2 ) H e m a d e emen d ti on in ten d e d to i mpr ove th form o a s e r

dicti on of Eucl id in gener l th ey w r e pr ompt d by d s ire a e e a e

to eli m i na te an ythi n g which was out of th e c ommon in xpres e

s i on o infor m in ord e r to r e duc e th e l n gu ge to on

r ,
an d th e a a e

s me s t an d ard o
a n or m (3 ) H b es tow d h owe v er mos t
r . e e , ,

att en ti on up on dd i ti ons d es ig ne d to s uppl em n t o expl i n

a e r a

th e origi nal ; (a ) h e i n t erp ol t e d wh ol e prop os iti on wh er e h a s e

th ough t th em n ecessary or u se ful e g the a dditi on to V I 3 3 ,

. . .
528 C O M MEN TA TO R S A ND B Y Z A N TI N ES

a lre dy referr ed to a s econ d c e to V I 2 7 a p ori sm o corollary

a ,
as . r

to II 4 s e c on d p ori m to III
.
,
a 1 6 th e prop os iti on V I I 2 2 s .
,
.
,

a l emm fte r X 1 2 bes id es l tern tiv e proofs h re and there ;

a a .
,
a a e

(b) h e dd d w ords fo the purpos of makin g s mooth er and

a e r e

clear er o more pr eci s e thi ng s which Euclid h ad e xpress d

, r ,
e

with un us u al bre vity h r s hn ss o careles sn es s ; (0 ) h e sup ,

a e ,
r

plied i nt erm edi te s te ps wh re Euclid s argu men t s e em d too

a e

e

di fcult to follow I n s hort while mak i ng only in con s id er .

,

a ble dd i ti on to th e c on t n t of th e E leme n ts h en d e vour d

a s e ,
e a e

m o e d ii cu l ti th t might b e fel t by le rn ers in s tudy

'

to re v es a a

ing th e b ook as m od r n e dit or m i ght d o in e ditin g a cl ss ic l

, a e a a

t ext book fo u s e in s ch ool ; an d th e re is no d oubt th at his

~
r s

e diti on w ppr ov ed by his pupils t Al exan dri a fo wh om it

as a a r

w as writt en s w e ll as by l t e r Gr e k s w h o u s e d it al mos t
, a a e ,

e xclu s iv e ly with the r s ult th at th e m or e an ci en t t ext is only

, e

pr s rved compl et e in one m n u s cript

e e a .

E di ti on of th e Opti cs of Euclid .

In a dditi on h on dited the Optics of

to th e Elemen ts ,
T e e

Euclid ; Th e on re cen i on as w ell s the g n uin e w ork i

s s a e s

i n clud d by H i b rg in h is di ti on It is poss ibl th at th

e e e e . e e

Ca topt i ca i n clud e d by H ib erg in th e s am e v olu m e is al s o by

r e

Th on e .

N xt to Th eon s h ould be m n ti on e d his daught er H YP A TI A

e e ,

w h o is m en t i on e d by Th eon hi ms e lf s h vi n g s s i s t e d in the a a a

re vi s i on of th e commen tary on Ptolemy Thi s l e rn d lady . a e

is s id to h av e b een m i s tr s of th wh ol e of p gan s ci en c
a e s e a e,

e p e ci a lly of phil os ophy an d me dic i n e

s nd by h e l oqu en c , a er e

an d uth ority to h v tt i n d uch i nflu n c e th t C hri s tian ity

a a e a a e s e a

con i d r d its el f thr e t ned n d h w s put to d eath by

s e e a e , a s e a

a fan tic l mob in March 4 1 5 A ccordi ng to S u id s h wr ot

a a . a s e e

commentar i s on Di oph ntus on th e A s tron omic al C anon (of

e a ,

P tol my ) n d on th e C on ic of A p ollon iu s
e a Th ese w orks s .

h v e n ot urviv d but it h s b een c onj e ctur e d (by Tann ery)

a s e ,
a

that the r emarks of Psellu s (ele v en th cen tury ) t th e begin a

ni n g of his l etter about Di oph an tu s A n toliu s and the , a ,

Egypti an m e th od of a ri th metic al r e ck on i n g w ere tak en b odi ly

from s ome manu s cript of Di ophan t us contai n in g an n ci ent a

an d s y s t ematic c omm en t ary which ma

y v ery w ell h av e b een
th t of H yp ti Pos ibly h e commentary may have extended
a a a . s r
 H Y PA TI A
'

. P O R PH Y R Y 29

on ly to th e rst six Book s in which case the fact that H yp ti , a a

wrote commentary on th em may account for th e s urviv l of

a
a

t h s Books wh ile the rest ofth e thirteen w ere r s t forgotten

e e

an d th n l os t e .

It will be c on veni ent to t ke n ex t the s eri es of N eo a

Pl ton i s t commentators
a
It does not app ear th at A mmoniu s
.

S accas ( bout A D 1 7 5
a th e found er of N eo P la toni s m or
. . -

hi pupil P loti n u s A D 2 0 4 who r s t expoun d d th e

s
( . .
e

doctrin es in s ys tematic form had any s pecial conne xi on wit h ,

math m tic s bu t PO R P H YR Y
e a ,
( b out 2 3 2 th e di s cipl e of a
Pl oti n u s n d the r ev i s er and e dit or of his w orks
a pp ar to a e s
,

h av e writt en a c ommentary on th e Elemen ts Thi s w gath er . e

from Proclu s w ho qu otes from Porphyry c ommen t on Eu cl

, s .

I 1 4 an d 2 6 an d alt ernative proofs of I 1 8 2 0 It is poss ibl e

.
.
, .

th a t Por phyry s w ork ma h av e been u sed l at er by Pappu s in

y
writi n g hi own commen t ry and Proclus may h ave got his
s a ,

re fe r n ce from Pappu s bu t the form of th ese referen ces s u g

e s
,

ges t s th at h e had direc t acc ss to the original commen t ry of e a

Porphyry .

I AM B L I C H US (di e d a bout A D . . 330 ) was th e a uthor of a com

me n t a ry on ithmeti ca of Nicomach u s a nd
th e I n tr od u cti o ar ,

of oth e r w ork s w hi ch h av e a lre ady b een men ti on ed H e w as .

a pup i l of Porphyry as w e ll as of A n atolius al s o a di s c i pl e of

,

P orphyry .

B u t th e mos t importan t of th e Neo Platon i s ts to the hi s -

tori n of m athematic s is PR O CLU S (A D 4 1 0

a P roclu s . .

re ce ive d his early tr ai ni ng at A lex andri a where O lympio ,

doru s w s his i ns tructor in the w ork s of A r i totle an d

a s ,

m ath em tics w as t aught hi m by one H eron (of c our s e a

a

di fferen t H eron fr om the me h nicu s H er o of the Metr i ca

c a

H e a ft erw ard s w ent to A th ens wh ere h e l e rn t the ,

a

N eo P la ton ic p h ilosophy from P lut arch th e grands on of N es

-
,

n d from hi s pupil S
to iu s
r ,
a y i n u s and b ecame on e of its r a ,

m os t promin en t exp on ents H e s peaks ev erywh e r with th e . e

high es t r s pe ct of his maste s an d w as in tu rn reg rd e d with

'

e r , a

ex t r a vag an t v en er ati on by hi s c on t emp orari es as w e l ear n ,

from Marin u s his pupil and bi ogr aph er On the d eath of

, .

Syr ian u s h e was put at th e h ea d of th e N eo Plat on ic s ch ool -

.

H e w as a man of u n tiri n g i n du s try as is s h ow n by th e ,

M m
 PR O C LU S 53 1

v ia te dform u s u al with an ci ent writers Now in the sec ond .

book of the hi s tory of geometry h e write as follow s In s

lik e mann er Eu tocius s peak s of th e par al ogi m h n de d d ow n

s s a

in c onn e xi on with the att e mpts of H ipp ocr at es nd A n tiph on a

to s qu ar e th e circl e with which I i magi n e th t all p er s on s ,

a

ar e ccurately a cqu i n te d w h o h v exa mi n ed

a a a e

th e g e ome tric al hi s t ory of Eu d em u s an d k now th Ce i a e r

A r i s toteli ca
Th ere fer en c s by P roclu to Eu d mu by n m e e n ot s e s a e ar

i n dee d n u me rou ; th ey r e e in n u mb e r ; but on th e oth r

s a v e

h n d h e give t least a many oth er hi s toric l d ta which c n

a s a s a a a

with gr t pr obability be attribute d to Eud mu s

ea e .

P r oclu s w e ve n m or e i n d e bt e d to G mi n u s from wh om
as e ,

h b orrow s l on g
e xtr act often men ti on i ng him by n ame
e s,

th r e a e s ome eight een s uch re fe r en c es but often omitti ng

e r

to d o s o W e . bl to for m t ol er bly c rt i n judg

e ar a e a a e a e

m e n t a s to th e origi n of th l tte r cl s s of p ss ag es on th e a a a e

s tr en gth of th s i m il ar i ty of th e s ubj e ct s tr eat e d

e n d th e vi ew s a

e xpr e s e d to th o e fou n d in th e
s cknowl edg d e xtr ct s A
s a e a . s

we h v s een th e w ork of Gemi n u s m i n ly cit d e ems to

a e ,
a e s

h av e b orn e th e title The Doctr i n e o Theo y of th Ma them tics r r e a ,

which w s a v ery compr h n s ive w ork d eal i ng in porti on of

a e e , a

it w i th th e cl as s ication of m th e m tics
,

a a

.

W e h a v e lr eady di s cus sed th e qu es ti on of th e a uth ors hip

a

of th e f m ou s hi s t oric l s u mm ary giv en by P r oclu s

a a I t is .

divide d as e v ry one kn ow s i n to tw o d i s ti n ct part s b etw een

,
e ,

which comes th e r em rk Th os w h o compil ed hi s tori es a ,

e

bri n g th d v l opmen t of thi s s ci en c e up to thi s p oi n t N ot

e e e .

m uch y ou n ger th an th es e is Euclid w h o &c Th e ul ti m te

, ,
. a

s ourc e a t an y r at e of th e e rly p rt of th e s u mm ry m u s t a a a

pr es u mably h av e been th e gr e t w ork of Eu d emu s bov a a e

m en ti on e d .

It is e viden t th at Pr oclu s had b efor e him th original w ork s e

o f P l t o A ri s totl A rch i m e d es n d P l oti n

e,u s th e E t of a v tK r a
a , yp ,

P or phyry n d th e w ork s of hi s m a s t er S yr i nu s as w e ll a
a a , s a

group of w ork s r epr en tin g th e Pyth agor e n tr diti on on its es a a

m y tic s s di ti n c t fr om its math e matic a l

,
a s s id e from P hil o , ,

lau s d ow nw ards and compri s i n g th e mor e o l es pocryph al

,
r s a

Si mpl i ci o A ri t P hy
1
p 6 0 2 8 Di l us n s . s , . . , e s .

A r him d 2
d H ib ol iii p 2 2 8 1 7 1 9
c e es , e . e .
,
v . , . .
.

M m 2
53 2 C O M MENTA TO R S A N D BY Z A NTI N ES

lepbs Ay os of Pyth agor as , th e Or acles (Ay ca ) an d O rphic

r
v e s es .

The followi ng w i ll be a c on v en i ent s u mmary of the othe r

w ork us ed by Pr oclu n d will at the same ti me gi ve an
s s, a

i n dicati on of th e hi toric al v lu of his commen t ary on s a e

Euclid Book I ,

Eud emu s : H i s tor y of Geometr y .

Ge mi n u s : The Theor y f the M a thema ti cal S ci e nces

o .

H e ron : Comm en ta r y f E u clid

on the E leme n ts o .

Porphyry
Pa ppu s :

A polloniu s of P rg A w ork r l ati ng to e l ementary e a : e

g eome try .

P t ol emy O n the p a llel pos tu l a te

: r a -
.

Pos id oniu s A book contr ov ert in g Z eno of S id on

: .

C rpu s A s t onomy
a : r .

S yr ian us A d i cu s i on on th e a ngle
: s s .

(5 ) Cha r a cter o f the Comm e nta r y .

We know th atin the N e oP l at on i c s ch ool th e pupil s lear n t

math e matics ; and it is cl ear th a t P roclus t aught thi s s ubj ec t,
an d th at thi s w as th e or i g i n of h i s commen t ary M an y -
.

p as sages s how him as a m as t e r s p eaki ng to s ch olar s ; in one

place h e s p e k s of my h ear er s
a Fur ther the pupil s wh om

,

h e w as addr es s i n g w ere begi n n e s in m th ema tic s ; thu s in one r a

passage h e s ay s that h e omi ts fo th e pre en t to s peak of the r s

di s coveri es of th os e wh o em ploye d th e cur ve s of Nicomedcs

an d H ippi as for tri se cti n g n n gl e n d of th os e w h o u s e d the a a ,
a

A rchi me d ean s pir al fo di vidi n g n angl e in a gi v e n ra ti o r a ,

because these thi ng s w oul d be too di fcult for begi nners

Bu t th ere ar e s igns th t th e c ommen tary w as r e is ed an d a .
v

r e e dit e d f
-
o a l rge r public ; h e
r p eak s for i n s tan ce in one
a s

pl c e of th ose w h owill com e cro h is w ork

a

Th er e ar e a ss

a l s o p as sag es e g p as g bout th e cyli n drical h eli x con

, . . sa es a ,

choid s an d ci s s oid s which w ould n ot h v e b een un d er s t ood by

,
a

th e b egi nn er s to wh om h l ectur e d e .

Proclu o E l I p 2 1 0
s n I b p 27 2 12
ue .
, . . .
,
. . .

3
11 p . 9 .
 P R O C LU S 533

Th ecomm en tary op ens with two Pr ol ogu es Th e rs t is .

on ma th em atic s in g en e ral and its r elati on to an d u s e in ,

phil os ophy fr omwhich Proclu s p asses to th e cl as s i cation of

,

m ath e matic P rol ogu e II d eal s with geometry g ener a lly an d

s .

its ubj e ct matt er a cc ordi ng to Pl at o A ri t otl e an d oth e r s

s -

,
s .

A fte r thi s e cti on c omes th e f mou s s u mmary (pp 6 4 8 )

s a .

e n d i n g with a eul ogiu m of Euclid with p articul a r r e fer en c e ,

to th e a d m ir abl e di cr et i on s h ow n in th e s el e cti on of th e pr o
s

pos iti on s which s h ould c ons titute th e Elem n ts of geometry e ,

th e ord e ri ng of th e wh ol e s ubj ect m tt e r th e ex act n ess nd -

a ,
a

th e c on clu s i v en e s s of th e d m ons tr ati on s an d th e p ow e r w i th e ,

whic h e very qu es t i on is h n dl ed Gen e raliti s follow s uch as a . e ,

th e di s cu s s i on of th e n atur e ofelem en ts th e di s ti n cti on b etw een ,

th eor ems an d pr obl ems according to di ffe ren t auth or i ti es and ,

n lly div i i on of B ook I i n to thr ee m i n s ecti ons (1 ) th e

a a s a ,

con s truct i on an d pr op rti s of tri angles an d th eir parts n d e e a

th e c om p ari s on b tw een tri ngl in r es p e ct of th e ir ngl es

e a es a

an d ides (2 ) th e pr op ert i e s of p arall el n d p ra ll elogr am

s , s a a s

n d th e ir c on s truct i on fr om c ert ai n d at a an d (3 th e bri n gi n g

a
) ,

of tri n gl es an d p r all el ogr m s i n t o r l ti on

a ar eg rds r ea a e a as a a .

C om i n g to th e B ook it s e lf Pr oclu s d e l s hi t oric lly an d ,

a s a

crit i c lly w i th all th e d en iti on s p o tul at

a n d axi om in , s es a s

ord e r Th e n ot es on th e p
. os tul at e s nd xi oms a e pre ced ed a a r

by a gen eral di s cus i on of th pri n c i ples of g eometry hyp o s e ,

th e ses pos tul t es n d xi om an d th ei r r elati on to on e

,
a a a s,

an oth e r ; h e r e as u s u al P r oclu quotes th opi n i ons of all th e s e

i m p ort an t uthoriti e A gai n wh en h e c om s to P rop 1 h e

a s .
,
e .
,

d i s cu sse s on c mor th e diff r en c e betw een th or em an d

e e e e s

pr oblems th n s et s ou t an d expl in s th e formal divi s ions of

,
e a

a prop os ition th e n u nci a ti on (wp m s ) th e s etti n g ou t

,
e r a ,
-

(3x 6 ecn g) ,
th e d e n i ti on or ica ti on
sp ec the con

s tr u cti on clu si on th e p r oof th e con

n d n ally n u m b er of oth r t e ch n i c al t er ms
a a e ,

e g . . thi ng s s aid to be give n in th e var i ous s ens es of thi s t erm , ,

th e lemma , th e case, th e por ism in its tw o s en s es , th e objecti on

th e r ed u ction of a pr bl
o em r ed u cti o a d a bsu r d u m , ,

a n a lysi s an d syn t es is h .

c ommen t on the s e p r te pr op os iti on s Pr oclu s

I n h is s a a

g enerally pr ocee ds in thi s w ay r s t he gi ves expl anati on : s

r egardi ng Eucl i d s p oofs c on dly h e giv es few di ffer ent

r ,
se a
 PR OC LUS 535

se con d Book But at the ti me wh en th e comment ary on

.

B ook I was w r it ten h e w as evid en tly un c er t i n wh ethe r h e

'

w ould be abl e to con ti n u e it fo at th e end h e s ay s Fo my ,

r ,

r

p art if I s h ould b e able to di s cu ss th e other Books in the

,

s me w a
a
y I s h ould giv e th an k s to th e god ; bu t if oth er
, s ,

c ar es s h ould dra w me aw y I beg thos e w ho e ttracted by a ,

ar a

thi s s ubj ect to c omplet e th expo iti on of th e othe r Books s e s a

w ell followin g th e same meth od nd addre ing th ems lves

, a ss e

through out to th d eep e r an d mor h arply den ed que ti ons e e s s

in v olve d W ch s muth n d in g a V tican m n u s cript con t i n

a ,
a a a

in g colle cti on of ch oli a on Book

a X h ead ed E ly a
s s , 7

E iz K Aetdou 631; H pK AO U on opci dm

'

or mxefa n poAa p Ba l / y eua 5

1 K 7 f

Ka i K ar

i g th at th e ch li
m r op u kI w r
, a n d s ee n s o a on Boo e e

e xtra ct s fr e xt an t c omm en t ry of P r oclu s

om th e con cluded a ,

th at th os e on th e oth r Book w r e l so fr om Proclus but e s e a

th e po in wpoA / y
7r r th er s ugge t s th t only th
a i av eu a a s a e

s ch oli to Book I
a e fr om P roclu s H eiberg fou n d n d ar . a

publ i h ed in 1 9 0 3 a s ch oliu m to X 9 in wh i ch Proclus is

s .
,

e xpr e ly qu ote d as th e uth ority but h e does not r eg rd

ss a ,
a

thi s circu ms tan ce a c on clus ive On th e oth e r h nd H eiberg s . a ,

h s n ote d tw o fa ct s which go ag ai n s t th v i ew th at P r oclus

a e

wr ot e on th e l t er B ooks (1 ) th s chol i ast s copy of a : e

P r oclu s w n ot m uch b tt er th n ou m n u s cripts ; in

as e a r a

p r ticul r i t h d th e s am e l cu nae m th e not s to I 3 6

a a ,
a a e .
,

37 ,
n d I 4 1 3 ; thi s m ak e s it i m probabl e th t th e s ch oli
a . t a as

h ad furth e r c ommen t r i es of P r oclu s which h v e v n i s h d a a a e

fo u s ; (2 ) th e r
r is n o tr c e in th e s ch oli a of th e n ot e s
e a

which P r oclu s prom i se d in th e p ssag es alr dy r eferre d to a ea

A ll th er e for e th t w e c n s y i th at whil e th e Wach s m uth

, ,
a a a s ,

s ch oli ma y be e xtr ct s from Proclu it is on th e wh ol

a a s, e

i mproba ble .

H ypotypos i s o f A s tr on omi cal H yp otheses .

A n oth e r e xt an t w ork of Pr oclu s which s h ould b e r e fe rr e d

to i s his H yp otyp osi s of A s tr on omi ca l H ypotheses a s ort of
-
,

r eadabl e an d ea s y in troducti on to th e as tronomical s ys tem

of H ipp archu s an d Pt ol e my It h as been w ell e dited by .

Man itiu s (Teubn er Thr ee thi ngs may be n ot e d as .

1
P ocr l us on Euol I , p 43 2 9 1 5
. . . .
53 6 C O MMEN TA TO R S A N D B YZ A N TI NES

r egards t his w ork I t con tai ns d s cripti on of the method .

1
a e

of meas uri ng th e s un s app r en t d i am et e r by mean s of

a

H eron s w at er cl ock w h ich by c om p ri on with th e c orr e

-

,
a s
,

s pon d in
g d es cripti on in Th e on s c ommen t ry to th e S yn ta xis

a -

of P t ol emy is seen to h av e a common s ourc e with it

,
Th a t .

s ourc e i s Pappu s an d i n s much Pr oclu s h as a gur e (r epr o

'

, a as
,

d uce d by Man itiu s in h is t ext from one et of manu s crip ts ) s

corres pondin g to the d cr i ption whil th e t ex t of Th eon h as es ,

e

n o gure it i clear that Proclu dre w d irectly on Pappu s

,
s s ,

w h o d oubtl e s s gav e in his ccou n t of the pr oce dur e a gure ,

a ,

taken from H eron s own work ou w ater clock s A s i mpl e

'

-
.

proof of the equi val en ce of th e e picycl e nd eccentric hypo a

th es es is quote d by P roclu from on e H i la riu s of A n ti och s .

2

A n i n teres ti ng passag i th t in ch ap 4 (p 1 3 0 1 8 ) wh e r e e s a . .
,

S os igenes th e Perip at tic is id to h v e r e corded in h is w ork e sa a

on r ea cti ng s ph e r es that n n u l r e clip s e of th e s u n is

n a a a

s ome ti mes ob s e r v ed at t i m of p e r i g ee ; thi s is s o far as es ,

I know th e on ly allu si on in n ci n t ti m es to annular e clip s es

,
a e ,

an d P roclu s hi m s e lf qu ti on th e c orr ctnes s of S os ig en es s

es s e

s t at emen t .

C omm e ntar y on th e R ep ublic .

Th e commen t ry of Pr oclus on th e R epu blic c on tain s s ome a

p ass age s of great i nt er s t to th hi s tori an of math ematic s e e .

Th e m os t i mp ort an t is th t i n which Pr oclu s i n dicat es that a

2

P r ops 9 1 0 of Euclid Book II a e Pyth ag or ean propos i

.
, , ,
r

ti ons in ven ted for the purpo e of provi ng g eome trically the s

fu n d amen t al prop erty of th s e ri es of s id e and di a met e r e

n u mbe rs givi n g s ucc es s i v ppr oxi m tion s to the v alu e of

, e a a

x/ 2 (s ee v ol 1 p Th e xplan ti on of th e p ass age i n

.
, . e a

Pl ato bout the G ome tr i c al N u m b e r is d e fe cti ve and d is

a e

app oi n ti ng bu t it con ta i ns an i n te r es ti ng r e fe r en ce to one

,

Pate iu s of d a te pres u mably in te rm di t e be tw een N es t oriu s

r , e a

an d Proclu s Pater iu is sa id to h a v e m d e a ca lcul ati on in

. s a
,

u ni ts and s ubmultiples of th l en gth s of di fferent s egmen t s of , e

r cl
P o us , H ypotyp os is 4 , pp 1 2 0 2 2 c
c
, . . .

2
Ih, 3 , pp 7 6 , 1 7 s q
. . . .

3
P r ocli D iad och i in P la toms R emp u bli cam C ommentar n
,

ed .
r ll
K o
vol ii , p 2 7
,
. . .

4
I b , vol 1 1 , pp 3 6 4 2
. . .
-
.
 PR O C LUS . M A R I NU S 537

s traight li nes in a gur e for med by t aking a tri angle with

s id es 3 4 5 as A B C th en drawi n g
, , ,

B D fr om th e right angle B e e n
p p r

d icula to A C and l as tly drawi n g

r E ,

p erpen diculars DE DF to A B B C , , .

A di gr m in th e t e x t w ith th
a a e

l en gths of the s eg men ts s how n along

s id e th m in the u sual n u meric l
e a

n ota ti on s h ow s th a t Pate iu obt ain e d from th e d at AB 3 r s a .

BC 4 CA 5 th e foll owi ng
, :

F0 B5 K ,
2 5 5 10
1 65 [ = 2 25l
FB = a
w e
s e a 14 ]
= [ = l ffl

BE '
: a SY
f V 12 3r5

5 5

T hi s is x ample of th e Egyptian meth od of s t ting fr c

an e a a

ti on s pre cedi ng by s ome thr ee o four centuri es th e expo i t i on r s

of th e s m e m e th od in the p p ru s of A kh mi m
a a
y .

M A R I NUS pupil and biograph er of Proclu s

of N eapolis th e , ,

wrote a commen tary or r th er in troducti on to th Da ta of a e

Euclid l It is ma i n ly t ak n u p with a di s cu ss i on of th e
. e

qu ti on t 6 8 8 y uou wh at is meant by gi ven ? Th er e

es r 7 6 0

e ,

w re app r ently many differen t d enition s of th e te rm gi v n

e a e

by earli r and lat er auth oriti es Of th ose wh o tri ed to d e ne

e .

it in th s i mples t w ay by me n s of a s i ngl e lier en ti a thr ee

e a c ,

a e m e n ti one d by name A p oll on i u s in his w ork on to s -

r . ve a

an d h is gen er al treati se (pr u mably th at on l emen t ry

es e a

geom etry) des cribe d the giv n s ass igned or xed ( y e a T er a

u o ) Diod or us c a ll e d it kn own
y v ,
oth er s r egard e d
,

i t as a ti on a l (5 7 7 6 ) and P tol emy is cl ass e d with th ese r a the r

r 1 17 ,

oddly b e c a u se h e call e d th ose thi n gs gi v en th e m e s ur e of

,
a

wh ich is gi v en either ex ctly or approx i mat ely O th er s a

.

H i b rg d M g Eu l i d ol i pp 2 344 6
'

S 1
ee e e an en e s c , v . v , . .
 DO M N I N U S . S I M PLI C I U S 539

so phy at A t hen s , th e l as t memb er s of th e

chool i ncludi ng s ,

Dam asciu s n d S i mpliciu s migra a t ed to Per si a but r etur ne d , ,

a b out 5 3 3 to A th en s wh e r e S i mpliciu s c on t i n u e d to t ea ch for,

s ome ti me th ough th e s ch ool r em ai n e d cl os e d .

E x tr a cts fr om E u d em u s .

To S impliciu s w e long extract s of capital i mpor

'

ow e tw o

t c
an e for th e s o hi t ry of m th em tic and tr onom y Th a a s as . e

r s t is his ccou n t ba ed up on and to a l rg exten t qu ote d

a , s a e

t e xtua lly from Eud emu s s H i s to y of Geomet y of th att mpt

r r ,
e e

by A nt i ph on to qu r th c i rcle an d of th e quadratur es of s a e e

lun es by H ipp ocrate of C h i os It is con tain ed in S i m plic i u

'

s . s s

commen tary on A ri s totl e P hysi s l nd h b een the ubj ct

s c , a as s e

of a con id er ble lit ratur e xt en din g fr om 1 8 7 0 th d t

s a e e ,
e a e

wh n B ts ch n eid e rs t c ll ed att en tion to i t to the l tes t

e r e r a ,
a

critical e diti on with tr n s l ti on nd not e by R udi o (Teu bn a a a s er ,

It h s alre dy b en d i cu ssed ( ol i pp 1 8 3
a a e s v

Th se con d n d n ot l ess i m
. .
,

e p ort n t of th e tw o p s g i
, a a ,
a sa es s

th at cont i ni ng th e el borate n d det ail ed accoun t of th

a a a e

s y s t e m of c on c en tric ph er as r t i n ven t d by Eudox u fo s es , s e s r

e xpla i n i n g th e app r n t m ot i on of th e u n m oon an d pl an e t s

a e s , , ,

an d of th e m odic ti on m d e by C llippu an d A ri s t otl e It

a s a a s .

is c on t i n d in th comm nt ry on A r i st otl e s De caelo ;

2
a e e e a

S i m pl i ciu s quot es l rgely fr om S o i g n es th e P r i p at t i c a s e e e

(s ec on d c en tury ob s er v i n g th t h e in hi turn dr ew a s

from Eu d emu s w h o de lt w ith th s ubj ect in th secon d

,
a e e

book of hi H i s to y of A s tr on omy It is thi s p as sage of

s r .

S i m pl i ciu wh i ch l on g with a p s s ge in A ri s totle M eta

s ,
a a a s

h
p y s i cs n
,
bl3
e d S chi par e lli to r e c on truct E ud oxu s s sy s t m
e a a s

(s e ol 1 pp 3 2 9
e v .
,
N o mu s t it b forgott en th at it is in
. r e

S i m pliciu s s c omm n tary on th e P hys i cs that th e extr ct

e a

fr om Gem i n u s s s u mm ry of th e M eteorologica of Pos idon iu s

a

occur s which w as u s e d by S chi p relli to s upport his vi e w a a

.

th t it was H er aclid es of Pon tus n ot A ri s tarchu s of S mos

a , a ,

w h o r s t pr op ou n d e d th e h li oc n tric hyp oth e i e e s s .

S i m pliciu s a l s o wrote c ommen t ry on Euclid s E lemen ts

a a ,

B ook I from which an N i i i th e A r bi an c omment tor

,
-

a r z ,
a a ,

Si mpl i P h y pp 5 4 69 d Di l
e e s
n s . . .

d pp 49 3 5 0 6 d H ib rg
.
.
,

Sim pl o A ri t D io p 4 8 8 1 8 2 4
2
. n s . e cne ,
. . an .
,
e . e e .

3
M t ph A 8 1 0 7 3 b 1 7 1 0 7 4
e a 14 ,

a .

d Di l
. .

Si mpl i Ph y pp 2 9 1 2
e e s
. n s ,
.
,
. .
5 40 C O M MEN TA TO R S A N D B Y Z A N TI N ES

ma d e valu abl e extr ct s i n cludi n g th e accoun t of th e a tt m pt of a ,

e

A gani s to pr ov e th e par llel p os tul t e (s e pp 2 2 8 3 0 ab ov e )

a -
a e .
.

C on em t
p or ry with S i mpliciu s o s omewh at earli er was
a ,
r ,

EUTOC I U S th e omm c n t a
,
t o r o n A rchi m e d e s n d A p oll
e
on iu s a .

A s h e d d i c at e d th e c omment ary on Book I On the Sp her e

e

a n d Cyli n d r to A m m o n i u s ( pupil
e o f P r o clu s a n d t each e r a

of S m i pliciu s ) w h o ca n h a rdly h av e b e
,
e n a l i ve a ft e r A D 5 1 0 . .
,

Eu tociu s w probably b or n ab out A D 4 8 0 H is d t e u s e d

as . . . a

com
to b e put s ome fty y ar s l t er b e c u e a t th nd of th e a a s ,
e e e

men ta i s on B ook II On the Sphe e a n d Cyli n d er

r e
n d on r a

th e M s ur eme nt of a C i cle the r e is a n ot e to th e effe ct that

ea r ,

th e e d i t i on w r evi sed b y I idoru of Miletu the m ech an ic l

as s s s, a

n gi n ee r ou Bu t in v i e w of th e r el ti on to Am mo

e tea h ,
r c er .
,
a

niu s it i ,
i mpo s ibl th t Eu tociu s can h v e b een pupil of
s s e a a a

I s id oru s w h o w s you nger th n A n themiu of Tr lle th e

,
a a s a s,

a rch i t ect of S i nt S ophi a at C on s t n ti nople in 5 3 2 wh os e

a a ,

w ork w c onti n u d by I s idoru s fter A n th emiu s d ath

as e a s e

ab out A D 5 3 4 .M ore ov er it w s to A n th m iu s th t E u tociu s

. . ,
a e a

d edicated ep r at ly th e comm n t ri e on th r t four

,
s a e ,
e a s e s

B ook s of A pollon iu s s Con i cs a ddr es s i n g A n th em iu s a my

s
,

d e r fr i en d H en c we c on clud th t Eu tociu s w as n eld er

a

. e e a a

con t m p or ry of A n th mius and th at th e r efer en ce to I s i d oru s

e a e ,

i by n d i t or of Eu tociu s comm en t ari es w h o w as pup il of

s a e s a

I i d orus Fo a lik r eas on th r feren c in th e c omment ry

s . r e ,
e e e a

on B ook II On the Sphe e a n d C yli n d r d ns 1

to r e a ta

i n v nt ed by I s idoru ou t ach r fo dr wi n g p ar bol

e s

r e e

r a a a a

m u s t b c on s ider ed to b e an i n t erp ol a tion by th e same e d i t or

e .

Eu to iu s s c omm n tari es on A rchi me d es a ppar en tly e x

c e

t n d d on ly to th thr ee w orks On the Sphe e a n d Cyli n d r

e e e ,
r e ,

M su r m nt of a Ci le an d P lan e E qu i li br iu ms n d th os
ea e e r c , a e

on th Coni cs of A p oll on iu s to th e r s t four B ook s on ly

e .

W e i n d ebt e d to th e com m en t ari es fo m an y v alu a ble

ar e se r

hi s toric l notes Th os e d es ervin g s p eci l m en ti on her e a e

a . a r

(1 ) th e cc ou n t of th e oluti on s of the pr obl em of th e duplic

a s a

tion of the cub e o th e n di ng of two mean pr oportionals , r ,

by Pl ato H eron Philon A p ollon iu s Di ocles P ppu s

, , , , ,
a ,

S p orn M en aech mu s A rchyt as Erat os th en es Nicome d cs (2 )

s, , , , ,

th fr ag men t di s cov e r d by Eu tociu s hi ms elf c ont ai n i ng the

e e

A r him d d H ib rg ol iii p 8 4 8 1 1
1
c e es , e . e e , v .
,
. .
.
 EU TO C I U S . A N TH EM I U S 541

mis s i ng luti on promi s ed by A rchi me des in On the Sphe e

so , r

and Cyli n d er II 4 of th e a uxili ary pr obl em amou n ti ng

, .
,

to th e s oluti on by mean s of comics of th e cubic e qu ti on a

(Ct w)50

bc (3 ) th e s oluti on s (a ) by Di ocl es of th origi nal
2 2
, e

pr obl em of II 4 with out bri ngi n g in th cubic (b) by Dion y

. e ,

s od o u s of th e a uxili ry cubic e qu ati on

r a .

A N TH EM I US of Tr alle th rchit ect men ti on d b ov w as s, e a , e a e,

hi ms elf n able math ematici n

a is en fr om fr gment of a , as se a a

a w ork of his O n B u ni n Thi s is docu men t of

g mi r o r r r s a
-

, .

c ons i d r ble i mportan ce fo th hi s tory of con ic s ections

e a r e .

O rigi n lly dit d by L Dupuy in 1 7 7 7 i t w s re pri n t e d in

a e e .
,
a

Wes ter m ann s 8 0 5oypoi 950 1 (S cr iptor es r er u m m i r a bili u m

II a pa
-

Gr aeci ), 1 8 3 9 pp 1 4 9 5 8 Th e r t
s ,an d third p rti
o on s of
. .

th e fr g
a me n t ar e th
os e which i t r t
n e es us
1
Th e sr t giv es .

a s oluti on of th e pr obl em To c on tr i v th at y of th un , e a ra e s

(a d m itt ed throug h a s m all h ol e o w i n d ow ) h ll f ll in r s a a . a

given p ot with out movi ng aw ay t ny hour n d e s on

s , a a a s a .

Th i i c on triv d by c on tructin g an e ll i pt i c l m i rror on e focu

s s e s a s

of which i t th e p oi n t wh er e th dmi tt d
s a
y of th e u n i e ra s s a e

whil th oth r is at th e poi n t to which the y i r equ i r ed

e e e r a s

to b e r e e ct e d t ll ti m es Le t B b e th e h ol A th e p o
a in t
a . e,

to wh i ch r e cti on m u t lw ay s t ak e pl a c e B A be i ng in th e
e s a ,

m er i d ian n d p r ll e l to th e hor i on
a Let BC b e t right
a a z . a

angl e s to BA o th t CB i an equi n oc ti l
,
s
y ; n d l et B D b e a s a ra a

th e y t th s u mme r s ol s tice BE
ra a e wi n t er ay , a r .

Tak e F t con ven i en t di s t n ce on B E an d meas ur e FQ

a a a

e qu a l to FA Dra w H FG th ough F bi s ecti n g th e

. ngl r a e

A FQ nd l t B G b e th e s tr aight li n e b i se cti ng th e n gle E BC

,
A

a e a

b etw n the win te r n d the e qui nocti l r ys Th en cle rly

ee a a a . a
,

s ince FG bi s e ct s th e n gl e QFA if w e h av e pl n e mirr or in a ,

a a

the p os iti on H FG th a
y B FE e n t e ri n g at B will b e r e e cte d
,
e r

to A .

To get th e qu in octi al ay i mil rly r e cte d to A j oi n GA

e r s a e , ,

an d with G s c en tre n d GA a radiu s dr w

a circl e meetin g a s a a

B C in K Bi e c t th an gl e K GA by the s traight li n e GLM

. s e

m ee tin g B K in L and t er min t d at M a p oin t on th e bi s ct or a e ,

e

of th e an gl e CB D Th en LM bi se cts th e ngl e K LA l s o n d
. a a , a

KL an d K M MA If th en GLM is a plane mirror : .

,

th e ay B L will b e r e e ct e d to A
r .

1
See B z bliotheca mathematica , vii 1 90 7 22 5 3 3
'

, pp . .
 A N TH EMI U S 5 43

the focu s to th e i n ters ecti on of two tang en ts bi sects the angl e

b e tw een th e s tra ight li n es j oi n i ng th e focu s to the two poin t s

of c on ta c t r e s p ectiv e ly .

I n th e third p orti on of th e frag men t A nth emiu s pr ov e th a t s

p arall l r ys can be r ected to one s i ngl e poin t from a p r

e a e a a

bolic m irror of which th p oi n t is the focu s Th e di r ectr i x is e .

u s d in th e cons truc ti on which follow s mu tati s mu ta n d i s th e

e , , ,

s m e c our s
a s th e bove cons tructi on in th e c s of th e ellips
e a a a e e .

A s to th e upp os iti on of H ib erg t h t A n th miu m y al s o

s e a e s a

b th e uth or of th e F gmen ta m m a them a ti cu m B obien se s e

e a r a ,
e

a bov e (p .

The P apyr us o j A khmi m .

N e xt inchron ologic l ord r mu s t pp ar en tly b pl c d a e a e a e

th e P pyru s of A kh mi m
a man u l of c alcul ati on writt n , a a e

in Gr e k which w s fou n d in th e me trop oli s of A kh mi m

e , a ,

th en ci en t
a P n op oli s nd is n ow in th
a Mu s d u , a e e

Gi e h z It w as e dit d by J Baillet in 1 8 9 2 A ccord

. e .
1
.

ing to th e edit or it w s writt n b etw een th , i x th n d a e e s a

n i n th c n turi e by a C hri s t i n It is i nt res t in g b c u

e s a . e e a se

it pre erv th e Egypti n m th od of r eckon i ng w i th prop er

s es a e ,

fr cti ons written s the s um of prim ry fr cti ons o s u b

a a a a r

m ultipl es m e th od which urviv e d al ong s ide th e Gre k n d

,
a s e a

w as e m pl oy e d an d ev en xclu iv ely t aught in th E s t

,
Th e e s ,
e a .

a dv n t ag e of thi s p pyru s
a comp r d with A hm e s i th t
a , as a e s

,
s a

w e c n g ath er th e for mul

a u se d fo th e decompos i ti on of ae r

ordi n ry prope r frac ti on s i n t o s u m s of s ubm ultipl e

a Th e s .

for m ul fo d ecompo i ng prop er fr ction i nto th s u m of

ae r s a a e

tw o s ub m ultipl s may b e s h ow n thu s e :

a l
1 +
be b+ c
b .

(L

1 1 3 1 1 18
EK am p es

es

n 11 0 7 0 7 7 32 3

1
M emoir es pu bl is p a r les membr es d e la M ission ar cheol ogi u e fr angaise
'

g
an C ai r e, vo l. ix , pa rt 1 , pp 1
89
. .
544 C O MMENTA TOR S A N D B Y ZA NTI N ES

1 1 1
an d 2 22 7 7 1 7 0 80
7
( 3
16
3 2

E xam pl e .

28 28 l l 1

1 320 1 20 90 99

28

Th e o bj ct is
c ur se to ch oos th e factor s of th e d n omi
e ,
of o ,
e

n at or n d th e multipli e r m in
, a in s uch a w ay a to m a k e s

th e tw o den omi nat or s on th e right h an d s id e i ntegr al -

.

Wh n th e fraction h as to be dec ompose d i n t o a s u m of thr ee

e

o mor
r s ub m ultipl ese w e t ake ou t an ob v i ou s s ub m ultipl e ,

rs t th en if n ec es sary a s c on d un til on e of th e formul ae

,
e ,

wi ll sep r te what r emains i nto two s ubmultipl s Or w e

a a e .

take ou t par t which is not a s ub multipl e but wh i ch can be

a

divide d i n to two submultipl s by on of the formula e e e .

Fo xam pl to d e compos e 4 4 4
r e Th e fa ctor s of 6 1 6 a e
e, 7 3 1
. r

0 1 7 38
'
T ke ou t 3 3 and th
- '
i a
5 3 5

7 7
1
5 5 7 7 7 7 ; s
1
2 4
1 6

2 1 1 2

an d 4 4 by for mul ( I ) o that 4 4 4

2 1 1 2 1 1 1
44 4 4 4 4
1
4 4 4
-

a s
4 , 4 .

T k 44 4 a The fa ct0 s of 6 4 6 0 1 e 8 5 7 6 0or

e
2 3 9
4 . Tak e 1 a .

4 4 4444 A g i n take ou t 4 4 an d w h a v e
6
1
4
. a
1
, e
-

8
1
4 4 4 24
1
o 44 44 4 4 Th ctu l probl e m h e r e is to nd
4 r
1
. e a a

4 44 d of 1 1 4 4 4 4 4 4
r which latter expr ess i on r e duces to
1 1
,

1
_

4
239 .

rt of problems solve d in th e book ar e (1 ) th e di vi s ion

Th e so

of a n u m b r i n t o parts in th e proporti on of c e rt ai n gi v en
e

n u mb r s (2 ) the s olution of s im pl e qu ati on s s uch s thi s :

e , e a

Fr om c r t in treasure w e t ake aw ay 4 4 th th en from the

a e a 1
,

r emai nd er 4 4 th of that remain der an d w e nd 1 5 0 unit s left ;

1
,

l
wh at w th e tr eas ur e ? as a; m a:
b u L
 TH E PA PYR U S O F A K H M l M . PS ELLUS 5 45

(3 ) s ubtr action s s uch ubtract 4 4 Ti e as :

3 6 3 3
Fr om g s
1 1
0 2 2
1 1 "

A n s w er 7 5
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1~ 1 1 1 1 1
I o o es 15 7 e 5 9 W E r r t
_

4 4 5 0 5 5 s 7 7 a 0 9 , 1 5 0
"

Th e b ook end s with l ong t ble s of r es ult s obtai n ed (1 ) by a

multiplyi n g s ucc es s iv e n u mb ers t en s hu n dred s an d th ou s an d s , ,

up to by g 4 4 4 &c u p to 4 (2 ) by multiplyi ng
, , , , .
,
1
4 ,

all th e s ucc e s s i v e n u m ber s 1 2 3 n by l wh er e n is s ucce s , , ,

7b

s ively 1 1 12 an d 2 0 ; th e r es ult s ar e al l a rran ge d

, , s th e a

s u m of i n t ger s an d s ub multipl es
s e .

Th e Geod a esia of a By z an ti n e a uth or for merly c a lle d with ,

ou t y a uth ority H e ron th e Y oun ge r w as tr ans l at e d i n to

a n ,

Lati n by
r ciu s in 1 5 7 2 n d th e Greek t ex t was publi s h d
Ba o , a e

with Fren ch tr anslati on by V i n c en t Th e pl ac e of th e

a .
1

a uth or s ob s erva ti on s wa s th hipp odrome at C ons tanti nopl

e e,

an d th e d t e a ppa re n tly a b out 9 3 8

a Th e tr eati s e was mod lle d . e

on H r on of A l ex andri a e p ci lly the Di o tr a whil e s ome

e s e a
p , ,

m eas ur eme n ts of ar eas n d v olu m e s ar e t ak en fr om th e a

lived in the latt er part of th e ele ve nth

M I CH A E L P s ELL Us
c en tury s in c e his l ates t work b e r s th e d ate 1 0 9 2 Th ough
, a .

he w c lled r st of philos oph ers it cannot be s id th at

as a

, a

wh at urvives of h is m th em tics s uit s this titl K yl n der

s a a e . a

e di t e d in 1 5 5 6 th e Gr ee k te xt with a Lati n tr n s l t i on of

, a a ,

a book purp orti ng to be by P s e ll u s on th e four m th e m tic al a a

s ci en ce a rith metic mus ic geometry and as tronomy but it is

s, , , ,

e vid en t tha t it c ann ot b e en tire ly Psellu s s own w ork s i n c e

,

th e as tr on omic al p orti on is d at e d 1 9 0 8 Th e arith me tic con .

t i n n o mor e th an th e nam s an d clas s ic ati on of n u mber s

a s e

an d r ati os Th e g eometry h as th e ex tr aordi nary r m rk th t

. e a a ,

whil e opin i on s differ ed as to h ow to nd the are of circle a a ,

th e m e th od which fou n d mos t fa vour w as to t ak e th e a rea as

th e g e om e tric mean be tween th e i ns crib e d a nd circu m s cribe d
s qu a r s ; t h i s gi v es
e /8 8 2 8 42 7 1 Th e on ly thi ng of
11 x -

P s e llu s which h as any v alu e fo s is the l e tt er publi s h e d by r u

T n n ery in h is edi ti on of Di oph an tu s I n thi s l ette r P s ellu s 2

a .
_

s ay s th at b oth Di oph an tu s an d A nat oliu s (Bi s h op of Laodic ea

a b out A D 2 8 0 ) wr ot e on the Egypti an meth od of r e ck on i n g

. . ,

N oti t t it i pt 2 P ri 1 8 58
1
ces e ex r a s , x x, .
, a s, .

Di oph ntu ol ii pp 37 422

a s, v .
, .
-
.

N n
 P S ELLU S . PA C H Y MER ES . PLA N U DES 5 47

R echen bn ch d es Ma xi mu s P l a n ud es in Gre ek by Gerh ardt

(H all e , 1 8 6 5 ) an d in a German trans l ati on by H Waes chk e .

(H all e 1 8 7 ,
Th e r e w as h ow e v e r an earli er book u n de r th e , ,

si milar titl e p ; 3 ? u y i Ans i I 8u<s \

r
I 7 opf 9 (si c)
1 7 ,
e c Ka

v
*
f7 l a ,

writt en in 1 2 5 2 which is e xt ant in th e Pari s M S S uppl G

,
. . r .

387 ; n d Pl n u d es seem s to h a v e r id e d thi s w ork

a a He a .

b egi n s with an accoun t of th e s y mbols which h e says w ere , ,

i n v nt d by certa i n di s ti ngui s h ed s tronomers fo the mos t

e e a r

con v en i en t n d accurat e xpres s i on of nu m ber Th e re a e

a e s . r

nin of th es e s y m bol s (ou 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

e to wh i ch is r , , , , , , , ,

added anoth er c lled Tz if a (cyph er ) writte n 0 n d d noti ng

a f
r ,
a e

ero Th e n i n e s igns a s w ll as thi s on a I n di n

z . e e re a .

Bu t thi s is of cours e not th e r s t occurr n c e of th e I n di n

, ,
e a

n u me r l s ; ath ey w ere kn ow n exc ept th ro to Ge b e t , e z e ,

r r

(P o p e S yl v es t e r II ) in th e t en th c n tury n d w er e u s e d by e , a

Leon ard o of Pi in his Li be a baci (writt en in 1 2 0 2 an d

sa
'
r

r ewritt en in Plan u d es u s e d th e Pers i an for m of th e

n u me ra l s di ff ri n g in thi s fr om th e writ er of th e treati s of
,
e e

1 2 5 2 r ef rre d to w h o u e d th e form th n curr en t in It ly

e ,
s e a .

I t c arc e ly b elon gs to Gr e k m th ematic to give n cc ou n t

s e a s a a

of Plan u d es s m th od s of s ub tr c ti on m ultiplic ti on &c

e a ,
a ,
.

E xtr action f the

o s qu a r e r oot .

Asregards th e x tr acti on of the s qu ar e root h e clai ms to

e ,

h ve i n v en te d meth od differen t fr om th e I n di n meth od

a a a

a n d fr om th a t of Th e on It does n ot pp e r h ow ever th at . a a , ,

th r e w a nythi ng n ew bou t it Let u s try to s in wh t

e s a a . ee a

the s upp os e d n ew m e th od c on s i s t e d .

P lanu d e s d s crib es fully th e m eth od of xtr cti n g th

e e a e

s qu ar e r oot of n u mbe r with s eve ral digit s a me th od which

a ,

is e s s en ti lly th e s am e a our s
a Thi s app ar s to b e wh a t h es . e

refer s to l at er on s th e I n di an m thod Th en h e tell s u s

a

e

.

h ow to n d a r s t ppr oxi mati on to th e root wh en th e n u m b r

a e

is not c om pl te s qu ar e
a e .

Tak e th e s qu ar e root of th e n ext low er actu a l s qu are

n u mb e r an d d oubl e it : th en from th e n u m b e r th e s qu ar e root

, ,

of which is r e quir e d , s ubtr ac t th e n e x t l ow er s qu ar e n u m b er

s o f ou n d an d to th e r emai n d e r (as
n u me r at or) giv e as d e
,

n omi n at or the d oubl e of th e s qu ar e r oot alrea dy fou n d

.

N u 2
5 48 C O M M EN TA TO R S A N D B Y Z A N TI N ES

x ampl given is
Th e e e x/ S in ce 4 2 : 16 is th e ne xt
2
low r s qu r e th pprox m te s qu ar root
e a , e a i a e is 4

Th e form ul u sed is th r efor e a a + ap r o i

p ,
e ,
x

m t ly
a e (A n exam pl e in l rge r n u mb r s is
. a e

/ (1 6 9 0 1 9 6 7 8 9 ) 4 1 1 1 2 4 4434 approxi mat e ly )

x
-
.

Pl n u d e s mult ipli es 4
a by it s elf an d obt i n 1 8 4 4 which 1
7, a s
1
,

s h ow s th t th e v lu e 4 4 is n ot accur t e
a H e a dd s th t h e will
a a . a

e xpl ai n later m thod which is m or e ex act nd n rer the a e a ea

truth m thod wh i ch I cl i m
, a e a d i s c ov e ry m d e by m e

a as a

with th h lp of God Th en c omi n g to th e meth od which h e

e e

.
,

cl i ms to h ave di cov er ed Plan ud es ppli es it to / 6 The

a s ,
a x .

obj ct is to d e v el op thi s n u n t s
e n d s e x g e s i m l fr cti on i i a a a a s .

Pl n u d e b egi n s by mu lt i plyi ng th e 6 by 3 6 0 0 maki n g 2 1 6 0 0

a s ,

s ec on d ixti e th s and n ds th e s qu ar e root of 2 1 6 0 0 to lie

-

s ,

b etw een 1 4 6 an d 1 4 7 Writi ng th e 1 4 6 s 2 h e pr oc eed s.

a

to n d th e r t of th e ppr oxi m t e qu r e r oot (2 2 6 5 8

"
es a a s a

by th e s m e proc edur e as th t u s d by Th eon in extr ctin g

a a e a

th e qu ar r oot of 4 5 0 0 an d 2 2 8 r es p e c tiv ely Th e di f fr

'
s e . e

en c e i th t in n e ith r of th e l tt e r c s es d oes Th e on m ultiply

s a e a a

by 3 6 0 0 so a to re duc e th e u n it s to secon d s ixti eth s but h e

s -

b egi n s by t kin g th e appr oxi mate s qu r e r oot of 2 i 1 ju s t

a a ,
v z .
,

a s h e d oes th at of 4 5 0 0 ( i It is th en th e m ul tiplic ti on v z .
, , a

by 3 6 0 0 o th e r educt ion to s econ d s ixti th s to s tart with th at

,
r -

e ,

c on t i tute the di ffer n c e from Th eon meth od an d thi s m u s t

s s e

s ,

th er efor e be what Pl n u d s takes cr dit fo a n e w d is a e e r as

I n s uch a c a / 2
( / 3 Th eon s meth od
co e y v r . s o se a x r s ,

h a th e i nc onv n i n c e th t th e n um b e r of m i nu tes in th
s e e a e

s e c on d t rm (3 4 in th e on e c s e n d 4 3 in th e oth e r c n n ot

e
) a a a

b fou n d with out s ome tr oubl e a di f

e cul ty which is void ed , a

by Pl n ud s s expedi en t Th r efor e the me th od of Pl n u d es

a e

. e a

h ad its dvan t ag e in s uch a cas e

a B u t th e di s c ov ery w as n ot .

n ew Fo it will b e r mem b er ed th at Ptol e my (an d d oubtle s s

. r e

H ipp rchu s b e fore him) expr es se d th e ch ord in

a circl e sub a

ten ding n an gl of 1 2 0 t the c entre (in t erms of 1 2 0 th p arts

a e

a

of th e di am et er ) s 1 0 3 5 5 which i n dicate th t th e rs t
'

10
a s a

t p in calcul ati ng / 3 was to multiply it by 3 6 0 0 m ki n g

s e x
, a
1 0 8 0 0 th e n e r es t s qu ar e b el ow which is 1 0 3
, a In
2
 PLA N UDES . MO S C H O POU LO S 5 49

th e ch oli a to Eu cl Book X th e s ame meth od is appli e d

s .
, , .

Ex a mpl es ha v e b e en gi v en ab ov e v ol i p Th e s upp os e d
( .
,
.

n e w meth od w as th e re for e n
ot on ly alre dy k n ow n to th e a
s ch oli as t but goes b ack in
al l prob ability to H i
,
ppa chu s , , r .

Two pr oblems .

Two pr oblems given at the end of the Manu al of Pl nu d a es

ar
w orth men tion The r s t is s tate d thus A certai n man
e .
:

ndi n g hi ms elf t the poin t of d eath h d hi d es k or afe

a a s s
brought to h im an d div i ded his money among his s ons w i th
th e foll owi n g w ord s I wi s h to di v ide my money equ lly
a
,

be tw een my s ons th e r s ts h all h v e one p i ec e and 4th of th e

: a

res t th e s econ d 2 and 4th of the remai n d er th third 3 nd

,
,
e a

%th of th e rem ai n d er A t thi s p oi n t th e fath e r di e d with out

.

ge tti ng to th e en d eithe r of hi money o th e nu mer ati on of s r e

h i s s on s I wis h to know how man y son s h e h d and h ow

. a

mu ch mon ey Th e s oluti on is giv en as (n

.

fo th e nu mb r r e

of c oi n s to b e div i d d an d n 1 ) fo th e n u m b er of hi s s on s ;
( e r

o r ath er thi s is h ow it m igh t b e t t ed fo P l n u d es t k

r s a r a a es
,

n 7 a rbitrarily C omp ari n g th e s h r es of th e rs t two w

. a e

mu s t cl early h av e

1 1 513 1
1 +
n
(x 1 ) 2 +
n
{ oc (1 +

whi ch gi v es a: (n th erefor e each of (n 1 ) s ons r ecei ved

(n
Th e oth er probl em is on e which we h av e already m et w i th ,

th at of n din g tw o r ectan gles of e qu al p erim t er s uch th t e a

th e rea of one of th em is a giv en multiple of th e ar ea of

a

th e oth e r If n is th e given m ultiple th e r ect ngl es

.
,
a ar e

l
) r es pectiv ely
Z
( n l n n
) a
, n d (n
3
n n 2
Plan u d es ,
3
.

s t t e th e s oluti on c orr e ctly but h ow h e obt ai n e d it is n ot cl e r

a s , a .

We n d al s o in th e Manu al of Plan u d es the proof by n in e

(i e by cas tin g out n in es ) with s tat emen t that it w s d is

. .
, a a

covere d by th e I n di ans an d tr ansmitted to us through th e

A r abs .

MA NU E L MOS C H OP O U L OS a pupi l an d fri en d of Max i mu s ,

P lanu d e s li v ed app a ren tly u n d er th e Emp er or A n dr onicu s II

,

(1 2 8 2 1 3 2 8 ) an d p erh aps u n d er h is pr ed eces sor M ichael V III

al s o A m an of wid e l ear n i n g h e wrote

(at th
( 1 2 6 1 8 2 ) -
. , e
 MO S C H OPOULOS . R H A BDA S 551

of S myr n a , a rith metici an

g eometer 7 17 P d at th e an d , 0

a ,

instan ce of th e mos t r evered Master of R e qu es ts Georgi us ,

C h atz yces an d mos t easy for t hos e wh o d es ir e to s tudy it

.
,

A lon g p ass a g e c all ed xc d eal s

'

p p acn s r oi}
, d x h u o y p o
a r v c er v,

with a method of nger notation in which the ng ers of eac h -

han d h eld in di ffer en t pos itions ar e made to r epr es en t n um

b re s
1
. Th e ng ers of th e l eft h an d s erve to rep r e sen t all th e
un it s an d t ens th os e of th e right all th e hu ndr ed s nd
,
a

thous an ds up to 9 0 0 0 for n u mbers above thes e it is n eces

sary to u se writi n g th e h an d s n ot s uf cing to r e pres en t s uch

,

n u m b er s Th e n u mb er s b egi n with th e little n ge r s of e ch

. a

h an d ; if we call the thu mb and th e ng er s afte r i t the 1 s t ,

2 nd 3 r d 4 th an d 5 th ng ers in th e Ger man s tyl e th e s ucc es

, , , ,

s i v e s ig n s ma b e thu s d es crib e d pre mi s i n g th at wh er ngers e

y , ,

ar e n ot eith er b en t or h alfcl os ed clos ed

or

( o h h i p o ) th ey ar e s uppos ed to b e h eld ou t s traight

cv r e eu r ,

(a ) On the l eft han d

for 1 , h lf clos e th e 5 th n ger
a -
ly ; on

2, 4 th an d 5 th n ge rs on ly ;

3, 3 d 4 th an d sth n g er s on ly ;
r ,

3 d an d 4 th ng ers on ly
r

3 d n ger on ly ;
r

6, 4 th

7 ,
close th e
ng er on ly ; 5 th

8 4 th an d 5 th nger s on ly

9 3 d 4 th an d sth ngers on ly
,
r ,
.

6 Th e same op er ati on s on th e ight ha n d giv e th e than

() r

an d s from 1 0 0 0 to 9 0 0 0
s ,
.

()c On the l eft ha nd :

for pply the tip of th e forenge r to the rs t j oin t of

1 0, a
th e thu mb s o th at th e r es ulti n g gur e re s embl es ; a

A i m l r d cri pti o occur i th work of th V

s i a es n bl B d s n e s e e n er a e e e

c
D o p m
e ut o l l o qu l d i g it o
verum fo r m g h p t
e ar of D t mpom m in c a e
_

1 e e

tion )
ra wh re p r i o e e ex l o q ot d fro m S
e sst J r om (d
n s ar e a s4 20 D ) u e . e e . A . .

howing th t h too w cq i t d wth th y t m (Th M ll o

as s
,

a e as a ua n e i e s s e e i s ce ane us

Wo kr f
o th sV bl B d
e d J A G
ener a l ol e 1 8 4 3 pp 1 4 1
e e, e . . . i es , v . vi , ,
.
552 C O MM EN TA TO R S A N D B Y Z A N TI N ES

for 2 0 tr etch ou t th for enger s traight n d v ertic l

, s e a a ,

k eep n gers 3 4 5 togeth er but se p ar t from i t , ,

a e

n d i n cli n e d s li ghtly to th e p al m ; in thi s pos iti on

a

touch th fore ng er with th e thu mb ; e

3 0 j oi n th e t i p s of th e for e n g er an d thu mb
,

4 0 pl a c e th e thu mb on th e k n uckl of th e for n g er

, e e

b eh in d m ki ng a gur like the le t ter r

,
a e

5 0 m ak ,
l i k e gur with th e thu mb on th e kn uckl e
e a e

of th for e n g r i n s id e ; e e

6 0 pl ac e th e thu mb i n s i de th e for e n g er a s fo 5 0 n d
,
r a

br ing th e for ng r down over th e thu mb t ouch e e ,

i ng th e b ll of it ; a

7 0 r e t th e for e n g r rou n d th e tip of th e thu m b

,
s e
_
,

maki n g curv e l i k s p i ral ;a e a

8 0 n g r s 3 4 5 b ei n g h e ld t og e th e r an d i n cli n d
,
e , ,
e

t n an gl e to th p al m put th e thu m b a cross th e

a a e ,

p lm to touch th e third ph l n x of th m i ddl e

a a a e

nger (3 ) n d in thi s p os it ion ben d th e for en g r

a e

bov th e r s t j oint of th thu m b ;

a e e

9 0 cl o th e for e ng r on ly as c om pl t ely a s p os ibl e

,
se e e s .

(d ) Th s am op rat i on s on th i ght ha n d g iv e th e hu n
e e e e r

d ed s fr om 1 0 0 to 9 0 0
r , .

Th rs t l ett r al s o c on t i n t bl es fo additi on an d s u b
e e a s a r

tr ct i on n d fo m ulti pl i c t i on nd divi i on ; as th es e a e said

a a r a a s r

to b e th e i n v e nti on of P l me d s w e m u s t s upp os e th t

a a e a
,

such tabl s w er e in u s fr om a r mote antiquity La tly th

e e e . s , e

r s t l e tt er c ont ai n s s t t em n t which th ough ppli ed to

a a e , a

p rticul r nu m b r xpress es th eorem to th e ffect th t

a a e s, e a e a

is n ot 10 m + n+ 2
,

wher e a
0 , a
1 u m bers fr om 0 to 9
be, 6 1 ar e an
y n .

I n th e s econ d l e tt er of R h bd as w e n d s i mpl e alge br ic l a a a

pr oblems of th e s me s ort as th os e of th e A n thologi a G eca

a r a

an d th P apyru s of A kh mi m
e Thu s th e r e ar e ve probl ems .

le d i ng to equ ation s of th e type

a

6
 R H A B DA S 553

R ha bd as s o v es lpr actically as w e
th e e qu ati on 2 a,
m
S h O U Id by m ultiplyi ng up to et rid of fr ct ion s wh en c h e a e
,
g ,

obt a i n s se m n a / (m n ) A g in h e solv es th s i m ult n eou s . a e a

e qu at on s 90 4 i
31 a mm n al s o th e p ai r of qu ati on s ? e
-

: CL .

7 1;

Of c our s e , m , n, a h ave p articul ar n um r i c l valu

e a es in
all cases .

R ha bd a s
s R u le for ap r oxi ma ti n g to the s qu a r e r oot o f
p
a n on s -

qu a r e nu m ber .

We quiv l n t of th e H on i n formul
nd in R h abd as th e e a e er a a

fo th e pproxi m t i on to the s qu r e root of a non s qu r

r a a a -
a e

n u mb r A a 6 n me ly
e 2
,
a

a :

he furth r obs e rves th t if

e ppr oximat i on by exc ess a , or b e an a ,

th en a A or is an app ox m tion by d fe c t n d 4
,
r 1 a e ,
a

i s n a pproxi m t i on n ear er th n i th e r
a Thi s l s t for m is of
a a e . a

c our x ctly H eron s formula or

( The f ormul

se e a 1 a a
4

w as l
known to Ba laam (pr s en tly to b m enti on ed) who
a so r e e ,

al s o i n dic at es th t th e pr oc e dur e can b e c on ti n u d i n d e n it e ly

a e .

It s h ould her e b add d that th er e s i nt er s ting ev i d en c e e i e e

of th e Gr ee k me th od of pprox i m ti n g to s qu r e r oot s in tw o s a a a

d ocu men ts publi h d by H eib erg in s Th e r s t of

e

th e docu m n t (from man u cript of th fteen th cen tury

se e s a s e

a t V i en n a ) giv e th a pprox i m at s qu r e r oot of c ert i n n on

s e e a a

s qu a r e n u mb e r s fr om 2 to 1 4 7 in i n t eg e r s n d pr op e r fra ct i on a s .

Th e n u m e r l s e th e Gr e k a lph b tic nu meral s but th ey ar

ar e a a e ,
e

gi v en pl c e v lu e l i k e ou n umer l s thu s on) 1 8 0185 1 4 7

a -
a r a : , ,

Qty 13
an d s o on 0 is i n dic t e d by q o s om eti mes by : a r , ,

Br 28
A ll th e s e s qu a r e r oot s s uch as 44 4 x/ 3 5
( ) 51 4 , , ,

x/ (1 1 2 ) 1 0 4 94 an d s o on can b e obta i n e d (e ith er e x a ctly or

, , ,

in a few c a se s , by n e gl e cti ng or addi ng a s m all fracti on in th e

1
By z an ti ni sch e A nal ekt e n

in A bk . z ur Gesek d M a th ix H e
. . . . ft ,
1 8 99 ,

pp 1 6 3 s qq
. .
 P EDI A S I MU S . B A R LA A M . A R GY R U S 5 55

ordin ar y fr acti ons and s ex ages i mal fracti ons (prin t ed at

S tr as s burg in 1 5 9 2 and at Pari s in Bar laam as we ,

h a v e s een knew th e H e onian for mul ae for ndi ng s ucc es s i ve

, r

approx imation s to s qu ar e r oot s an d was aw are th at th ey c ould ,

be i n d e n it ely c onti nu ed .

I SA A C A R GYR U S a mon k who li v ed before 1 3 6 8 was on e of

, , ,

a n um b e r of By z an ti n e tr n s l t or s of P e rs i an s tr onom ic al a a a

w orks I n mathematics h wrote a Geod aesia and s choli a to

. e

th e rs t ix Books of Eucli d s E lemen ts Th e form er is con

s .

t in ed in th e Pari s MS 2 4 2 8 and is c all ed a m e th od of

a .

g odes y or th e meas ur em n t of s urfac es exact and s hort n d

e e ,
e e

th e i n troduct ory l ett er a ddr e e d to one Colyb os is f oll ow ed ss

-

by a c om pil ati on of ex tr ct s fr om th e Geometr i ca an d S te eo a r

m etr ica of H er on H e i app ren tly the auth or of ome

. s a -

furth e r a dditions to R h abd as s r evi s ion of the M n u l of

a a

Plan u d es con tai ned in th e s m e man u s cript A s h ort tra ct a .

of his O n th e di s c ov ery of th e s qu ar e roots of n on r t ional a

s qu r e n u mb e r s is me nt i on e d as c on t ai n ed in tw o oth e r m an u
a

s cript s at V e ni c e an d R ome r es p e c ti v ely (C odd M arc i an u s Gr . .

333 n d V atic an u s G
a wh r e it is follow ed by table
r . e a

of th e s qu ar e r oot s of all n u mb e r s fr om 1 to 1 0 2 i n s x a e

e s im l fr ac ti on s (e / = 1 43 56
g a
g 2 1 24 51 .
'
3 .

H i b rg By n ti i ch A l kt in A bh G k d M th i
1
e e z a n s e na e en , . z ur es e . . a . x,
,

pp 1 6 9.
7 0 .
 A P P EN DI X

On A r chi m ed es s pr oof of the s u bta n ge nt pr oper ty f

-
o

a s ir a l
p .

TH E se cti on
tr eat i e O n Spi ls from Pr op 3 to
of th e s r a .

Pr op 2 0 is an el aborat s eri es of pr op os it i on s le d in g up
. e a

to th e proof of th e fu n d am en t l pr op rty of th s ubt an ge n t a e e

c orres pon di ng to the t angen t t any p oi n t on ny turn of the a a

s p i ral Li bri d oubtl e s w i th thi s s eri es of pr op os iti on s in

.
, s

m i n d r m ark s (H i s toi e d es sci n c s m a thma ti qu es en I ta l ie

,
e r e e ,

i p 3 1 ) th at A pr e vingt s i ecl s d tra va ux et d e d cou

, .

s e e

ver t l es i n telligen ces les plus pui s n t es vi enn ent en cor

es , sa e

ch ou r c on tr l a sy n th ese d ifli cile d u T a i t d es Sp ir a les

e e r e

d A chim ed e Th er e i n o fou n d ati on fo thi s s ta t em en t

r . s r ,

wh i ch eem to b e a too h s ty g enera li ation from a dictu m

s s a z ,

a pp ren tly of Fon ten ll e in the H is toir e d e l A ca d mi e d es

a e ,

S ci n c pou r l a n n ec 1 7 0 4 (p 4 2 of th e e diti on of

e es .

who ys of th e pr oofs of A rchi m d es in th e w ork On

sa e

Spi als r Ell es s ont s i l ongu e

:

e t s i d ifciles a em br s s er s, a ,

qu e comm e on l a p v oir d ns l P ef ce d e l A naly e d e

,
a a r a s s
_

I n nim n t p etit s M B ouill ud a v ou qu il n e l es av oit

e , . a a

j m i s bi en en t n du es et qu e V i ete les a i nju s temen t s oup

a a e ,

conn ees d e p aral ogi s me p arc qu il n a oit p n on p lu s

,
e v

p arv en i r a les bi en en ten dr e M i s tout es les pr eu v es qu on . a

p eut d onner d le ur d ifcult et d e l eur obs curit t ourn ent

e

a l gl oire d A ch imed e ; ca qu ell e vigu e ur d es prit qu elle

'
a r r ,

quan ti t d e v ues d i ffr n t s qu ell e opiniat et d e tr v il n a e e , r a a

t il pas fallu p our li er et p our di p os e r u n r ai s onne m en t qu e

-
s

qu elqu s un s d nos plu s gr an ds geometr es n e p eu vent s uivre

e -
e ,

t out li t t out d ispos e qu i l es t?

e

P Tann ery h as ob s er ve d th t as a matte r of fact no

.
1
a , ,

math em tici an s of r ea l authority w h o h ave a ppli e d or ex

a

t n d e d A rchi me d es s me thods (s uch men as H uygen s Pas cal

e

, ,

R ob erv l nd Fe m t wh o al on e c ould h a ve e xpr es s e d an

a a r a ,

opi n i on w orth h av in g ) h ave eve r c ompl i n ed of th e , a

B ll ti d i n
u m thm tiq
e n 1 8 95 P rt i pp 2 6 5 7 1
es s c e ces a a u es , , a , .
.
 A P PEN DI X 557

b curi ty of A rchi mede s ; whil e as r eg ard s V i e ta h e h s

o s

, ,
a

s h ow n th at th e s t atem en t qu ot e d is b s e d on an en tire mis a

a ppr h en s i on an d th at s o far
e , from s u sp ecting a f llacy in
, a

A rchi m e d es s proof V i et a mad e a s p eci l s tudy of th e treati s e

s, a

O n Sp ir a ls an d had th e gr eat es t ad mira ti on for th at w ork

. .

B u t as in man y c ase in Gree k g eometry wh e r e the an aly

, s

s is i omitt e d o e v e n (as Walli s w as t em pt e d to s upp ose) of

s r

s et purp o e hidd en th e r e di ng of th e c om pl e t e d s y n th etic al

s ,
a

proof leav es cert i n i mpres s i on of my s tery ; for th e r e is

a a

n othi n g in it to s h ow wh
y A rchi m ed es s h ould h av e t aken
pre ci s ely thi s li ne of rgument o h ow h e evolve d it It i a , r . s

a fac t th t as Pappus s id th e s ubtangent property c n be

a , a ,
-
a

es tabli s h e d by pur e ly plan e meth od with out recours to

s, e

olid m g (wh eth er actu lly s olv e d o merely as s u med

a s ue a r

c p abl e of bei ng s olv ed) If th en A rchi med es ch os e th e mor e

a .
, ,

difcult meth od which we actu ally nd him employin g it is ,

s c arc ly p os s ibl e to as s i g n an
e
y r e s on e xc ept h is d e n it e a

pre dil ecti on fo the for m of pr oof by ed u ctio ad a bsu d u m

r r r

bas ed ultim ately on h is f mou s Le mm o A xiom a

a

r .

It s eems w or th wh i l e to ex min e th whol e qu es ti on of r e -

a e

th e di s c ov ery n d proof of th prop rty n d to see h ow

a e e , a

A rch i me d e s argu men t c omp r es with n e s i er pl n e proof

s a a a a

s ugges t e d b th e gur es of s om of th e v ery prop o iti on s

y e s

pr ove d by A rchi m edes in th e tr eati s e .

I n th e r t pl a c e w e may b e ur e th t th e prop e rty w

s ,
s a as

n ot d i c over e d by th e s t e p s l eadi ng to th e pr oof as i t s t n d s

s a .

I cannot but thi n k th at A rchi m ed es d ivin ed the r s ult by n e a

a rgu m en t c orr es p on di n g to ou u s e of th e d iffe r e nti l c lculu r a a s

fo d et er mi n i n g t an ge n t s
r H e m ust h v con ider d the . a e s e

i ns tan taneous di re cti on of th e moti on of th p oi n t P d esc ib e r

ing th e s pir al u s i ng fo thi purpo ,

th p arall e l ogr am of r s se e

ve lociti es Th e m oti on of P is compoun d d of tw o mot ion s

.
e ,

one a l on g OP a nd th e oth e r at right ngl es to it C om p ri ng a . a

th e d i s t an c e s tr av er s ed in an i n s t n t of ti me in th e tw o d i ec a r

ti on s w e s ee th at c orr s p on di ng to a m all in cr eas e in th e

, ,
e s

radiu s v e ctor r w e h a ve a s mall di s t n c e travers e d p erp on

,
a

d icu l ly to it
ar ti ny c of a circle of r diu s s ubten d d by
, a ar a r e

th e an gl e r e pr es en ti ng th e s i m ult an eou s m ll i n cr e as e of th e

s a

a ngl e 0 (A OP ) N ow r h s a c on s tant rati o to 0 which w e call

. a

a (wh en 6 is th e circul r m eas ur e ofth e an gl e C ons equ ntly

a e
 A PPEN DI X 5 59

Bu t by hypothes i ;
(ar c A SP ) OT, s

th e r efor e it w as n ecessary to prove a lter na n d o that , ,

(3 ) F R : (ar c R P )

R O : OT , or P O z OT,

P M : MO , wh er e OM is p erp endicul r to S P a .

S i m ila rly , in ord er to s ti s fy

a it was n e ces sary to
prove th at
(4 ) FQ: (ar c P Q) P M : MO .

N ow , as a matt er of a f ct , (3 ) is a
for t
i or i sa ti sed if
FR (chor d R P) P M : MO ;

:

but in th e cas e of (4) we c nnot s ub s tit ute the cho d P Q for

a r

P Q and w e h ve to ub s titut e P G wh er e G is th e

th e ar c ,
a s ,

poi n t in which the tang en t t P to a

th circl meets OQ produc d ; for e e e

of c ours e P G (ar e P Q) s o th t (4 )

,
a

S a f or tio i s a ti s ed if
I r

FQz P G P M z Mo

.

rchi m d sIt is r e mark abl e that A e e

u s es fo his proof ofthe two c s es Pr op

r a .

F 1 IG . 8 n d P rop 7 r es p e ctiv ely

. n d m k es
a .
, a a

n o u s e of P rop s 6 and 9 wh e reas ,

th abov e rgu men t p oi n t s pre ci se ly to the u se of the gur es

e a

of th e tw o l at ter prop os iti on s on ly .

Fo in th e gur e of P rop 6 (Fig

r if OFP i ny r diu s . . s a a

cuttin g A B in F and if P B pr oduced cut s OT th p r l lel to

, , e a a

A B thr ough 0 in H it is obvi ou by p aralle l s th t

, , s, , a

P F (ch ord P B ) OP P H : : .

A l o P H b ec omes gr t r th e farth er P mov e s from B

s ea e

toward A s o that th e r ti o P F P B di mi ni s h es con t i nu lly

s ,
a : a ,

whi l it is always l es s th n OB B T (wh er e B T is th e t ngen t

e a : a

at B n d m ee ts OH in T) i e
a lw ys les s than BM M O , . . a a : .

H e n c e th e r el ati on (3 ) i s a lw y s ati s ed for any p oi n t R of

a s

th e s pir l on th e b ackw rd s id e of P
a a .

B u t (3 ) is equi val en t to from which it follow s th t F R

a

is alw ay s les s th an R R s o th at R a lw ay s li es on th e s ide

,

of TP tow ard s O .
560 A PP E N D IX
N e xt for th e p oi nt Q on th forw rd s ide of th e s piral


e a
,

from P s upp o ,
se th at in th e gure of Pr op 9 o Prop 7 (Fi g 2 ) . r . .

an
y r diu s OP a of th e circl e m e t s A B p od u ced in e r

FI G 2 . .

th et ng nt t B in G ; an d dr w BP H B GT m eting
a e a a ,
e

p r ll el thr ough 0 to A B in H T
a a . ,
.

Th n P F BG
e FG B G i n c P F FG : : , s e ,

OG GT by p r ll l ,
a a e s,

OB : BT , a for ti or i ,

an d bv i ou ly
o P m ov e w y from B tow rd s OT i e
s ,
as s a a a ,
. . as G
m ov es aw ay fr om B long B T th e r t i o OG GT i n cr a ,
a : eas es

con ti nually wh i l a h ow n P F B G i lw ys B M
,
e, s s ,
: s a a : MO ,

an d , a for tior i ,

P F: (ar c P B) BM : MO .

hat (4 ) i lw y ti sed fo ny p oi n t Q of th e pir l

T 18 s a a s sa r a

s a

forw rd of P s o th t 2 ) is l s o s ti ed n d QQ is lw ay
a ,
a a a s , a

a s

less th n QF a .

It will b obs rv ed th t n o S e n d n othi n g b ey on de a V GUO L

'
, a

pl n m th ods is r qu i r d in th e b ov proof n d P ppu

a e

e ,
e e a e ,
a a

s s

cr i tici m of A rchi m d s pr oof is th r for e j us ti d

s e e

s e e e .

L t u n ow c on id er fo
e m om en t wh t A rchi me d es ctu ally
s s r a a a

d oes I n Pr op 8 whic h h e u s s to pr ov e ou prop os iti on in

. .
,
e r

b ckw rd c as e (R h e s h ow th t if P O O V

R

th
"
e a a , , s a ,

i s n y r ti o wh t v er l es s th n P O OT o
a a P M M O w cana e a r : ,
e

n d p oi nt F G c orr es p on di ng to n y r ti o P O DV where

s , a a

O V i e w e can nd p oi n t F c orr es pond i ng to

OT OV ,
. . a

a rati o s t i ll n e r r to P O OT th n P O O V is Thi s pr ov s
a e a . e

th at th rati o R F P G whil it i lw ay s l es s th n P M M O
e

: , e s a a : ,
 A P PEN DI X 56 1

approach es th at r ati o with out li mit as R approach es P Bu t .

th e pr oof does not enabl e u s to sa

y th a t PR) ,

which is R F P G is ls o lways l es s th n P M M O A t
: , a a a .

r t s ight th er e for e it w ould s eem th t the pr oof mu s t f il

s , , a a .

N ot s o h ow ever ; A rchi me d es is n e ve r th el s s able to pr ov e

, e

th at if P V and n ot P T is th e t n gen t at P to the s piral n

, a , a

absurdity foll ow s Fo his pr oof es t ablis h es th at if P V i the . r , s

tan gen t and OF is draw n s in th e propos it i on th n

a , e

FO RO

OR : OP ,

or FO
which i i mp oss ible Why thi s is i mposs ibl e
OR

,

s

.

do s n ot app ar in Pr op s 1 8 n d 2 0 but it follow from th

e e . a , s e

a rgu men t in Pr op 1 3 which pr oves that a tangen t to th e s piral .

,

cann ot meet th e curv e agai n an d in fact th at th e s pir al is ,

e ve rywh er e c on c v e t ow ard s th e origi n a .

S i m il ar r e m rk s pply to th e pr oof by A rchi med s of th e

a a e

i mpos s ibility of th e oth er lt ern tiv uppos iti on (th at th e tan a a e s

gen t t P me ts OT at p oi nt U ne r r to 0 th n T is)
a e a a e a .

A rch i m e d s s pr oof is ther e for e in b oth p art p erfect ly v alid

e s ,

in s pit of ny pp ear an ces to th e c on tra ry

e a Th e on ly dr w
a . a

b ck th a t can be urge d s ms to be that if w a u m e th

a ee ,
e ss e

tang en t to cut OT t p oin t ver y n e to T on e ith er s id a a ar e,

A rchi m e d s s c on tructi on bri ng s u s p e ril ou s ly near to in ni

e s

te im ls an d th e pr oof may app ear to h ang as it w er e on

s a , , ,

a thr ead alb eit thr e d s tr on g enough to c rry it Bu t it is

,
a a a .

r emark able th t he s hould h ave elabor ted s uch a d i fficult

a a

pr oof by m ean s of Pr ops 7 8 (i n clu d i ng th e s olid f s of .

,

r e /a r
:

P r op wh n the gur es of Pr op s 6 n d 7 (o 9 ) thems el ves

. e . a r

s ugg s t th e d i r ect proof bove given which is in dep en dent of

e a ,

an
y u e a w .

P Tann e
. ry l in a p pe r on P p pu s s cr i tici s m of the proof s
,
a a

a

u nn e c s s arily i n volving s olid method s h giv n noth er

e

,
as e a

pr oof of th e s ubt ng nt prop rty b se d 0 pl ne method s a e -

e a 11

a

on ly ; but I pr e f er th m th od wh i ch I h v e gi ven bov e e a a e

b ec au s e it c orr es pon ds mor cl os ely to th e pr eli mi nary pr op os i e

ti ons actu ally giv n by A rchi m ed es e .

T ry M moi 1
i tiq i 1 9 1 2 pp 3 0 0 1 6
ann e ,

e r es s c en ues , , ,
.

.
 I N D E X O F GR E E K W O R DS

[Th e pages ar e tho s e ofth e r t ol

s v ume e xc pt wh r oth r wi
e e e e s e s a ed tt ]

(1 8 0 5, dBa mov 47 . i epqr uais ,

t pt 6 v : 6 11 1 611 17 1 1 10 ) cloa -

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.

6 6 19 cla im ) (P a o) 1 1 1 35 5 . . 611 1 6 11 6 9 , n u mbe i : d en i i ons of t

a dte ir
f qr os , ou, a can n o be gon e -
th t t
nu 111 b e 1 69 7 0 : in Di op an s,

h tu
t uh
h o g , i e i nni e 3 43 . . t . u s ed for n kn own q an i y u (as) u tt
( idv va r os ,
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6 11 1 011 0 0 7 611 e ip o a of 6 p1 011 69
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(= x ) in Dio p an s 1 1 45 8
dxoucr pan xoi 1 1 .
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tr t h r
6 pfx1 8 0 1 6 1r m 1 , 1 0 pe s e c e s 1 2 1
1 -

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r 1 1 1<1 s~ a 7 1,
n ns , -
es eve n
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e a eans 72-

r 1 6 1<1 s~wcpc
. .

d vah qppa ii 2 8 7 . 6 p~ r r r , eve nti mes

od d 7 2 -

dwi Aoyov, pr op0 1 tion al : s ed as ad

'
u dp orr e 17 7 0 9 , even od d , 1 e s t1 icted -
"

jective 8 5 . eo P y thag0 1 eai 1s to fo m

-
r
d ua hvope vos (7 67 0 s ), Tr eas u r y of 1 72 -
.

A na l ys is 42 1 2 , ii 3 9 9, 40 0 , ii

1 1 r 1 os a , 0 11 , even 7 0
- '

p
-
. .
, .

42 6 .

A pxa 1 , a os wo1 k of A 1 ch i me d es

l t
dmimz h w i nve s e y 38 5 : dwin a h w
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11

M a w 11 4 0 0 . A o r poeemf
al . of E a os r t th enes 1 1 . 1 09 .

rch
.

dva a r pcyl/ a un ior polui Bov 6pya vov of H i ppa

'
0 0 7 7 08 1 us
'
(

tend o 38 6 . ii 25 6 . .

dy a d onve si on ib c r . 6 0 611 11 6 7 11 0 9 , ou, i n omme ns u ab e c r l

d va or potpmos (n in e s), a c ass of oc s
'
l l u 1 57 .

ii 1 8 5 6 1r v11 7 rr wr os , ov , n on~secant -

c t
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A va opu 6 9 by H ps icl es 11 213 6 17 11 11 0 6 7 0 9 , rw , i n ompos i e 7 2

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a ue hir
r ew
'
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6 1 0 11 0 1 , ou, i nd ivis ib e 1 8 1 : A is o
-
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ax s i 34 1 . tl
e i an 1r ep1 111 611 111 11 ypa m ui w 1 5 7 ,
-

dopw r os , ou, nd en ed : Ande s no -

u
wido w d opw r ov u nknown , x ) ' -
ou, ab s
46 2 urd 11. .

94 , ii 45 6 : e v dopia r w ii 489, 49 1
. . . 11 1356 11 6 1 11 : r
pls 11 11 517 06 1 9 (P a o)3 0 6 7
'
lt .

m m ar yq, r ed uctwn 3 7 2 : (in s is ), 7 p1 r n, 2 9 7 : 1 143 11 1 11 a v g17 , 2 97

' '
a ir E r -
. .

a uy a r ou t ed u cti o a d a bs u r d um 6 11 57 0 1 : 305 6 n
1 .
, '

37 2 a vr o a r on o1 n
p r 1 x1 1 1
1 3 08 . .

t rcl l t
.

6 41 1 s , s e men of ci e ess han a

a 0 6 6 1 61 9 , p 7 0 0f 3 7 0 1 1 5 33 .

g
dtr oxa r amr a xos , r) , ou, r ecur r ing 1 08 -
. semicn cle i i .

a n oa r a m s , d i s an e or d i mens ion t c
3 0 5 n , or i nter val 3 0 6 n . B apovlucos of H e1 on 1 1 . 309 , ii 3 46 7 . .

n
a h as , s oemaker s kn i e 1 1 2 3 ,


h
f . B eh mr od xa of H e i on 18 , ii 2 9 8 , ii. .

ii 1 0 1 2 , ii 3 7 1 7 3 02 , ii 308 9 . .

forc
. . .

: BeBr a a ml/ os , ed

a tdpqn x r} , th 8 0 1 y of n u mb ei s , opp Buffe t nu

01
p
.

to hoytcr n m; 1 3 1 6
'

.
"

na tur l a ii 3 6 2 . .
 56 4 I N DEX O F GR EEK WO R DS

Bwpioxos , littl lt r prop rly

e a a
'
, e a 81 6 50 8 1 1 59 (1 6 m g ), a s pe ci es of ocus l
w d g h p d ol id ii 3 1 9 ii 333
e e s -
a e s : ii 1 8 5 .

t
. . .
,

m r m t of(H ro ) ii 33 2 3
eas u e en e n , .

: dti or dum d1)
e(

3 1 6 17 7 61 9 , e x en d ed

d mi ) f
o rt i ki d v a xos O a ce a n n one way 11 42 8 . .

of ol id umb r 1 0 7 ii 2 40 ii
s n e dcxh ovpor , ov, wi ce un a ed 1 07 -
t -
tr c t .

tr
.
, .
,

315 . 6 io7 r r pa , d iop a , q v

-
. .

81 0 7 r r pucq 1 8
'
'
.

ew 8 1 1 1 a a = m en su r ation 1 6 SLOpl few duo /1 1 0 11 61 17 B etef

y
ll u
.

P ewur po p e va of H e on ii 3 1 8 , ii r . .
mina te Section, by A po on i s
45 3 ii 1 8 0 . .

t l tt
.

yluo xts (a ow h ead ), Py ago ea n

'

rr -
th r stopto p o s , d e n i i on , d e i m i a i on :

n am e for an g e 1 6 6 l two s e nses ( l ) a con s i u en pa t t t rt

t r r
.

18 of a h eo em or p oblem 37 0 ,
tt t t
.

7 1 11 1611 111 1 , gnomon , q v : K a r rz yucbpova (2 ) a s a e me n of con d i i ons of

1

lt r l
. .

= 0 1 en d i cu l ar
p p poss i b i i y of a p ob e m 3 03 3 1 9 ,

y udi p1 11 0 9 , ov,
-
an 20 4 2 8 ii 4 5 , .

lt r t
a e n a i ve te1 m foi 8 6 8 0 11 611 0 11 , 6 , ii 1 2 9 3 2 , ii 1 6 8 , ii 2 3 0
.
-
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o
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du r h os , 47 , oDv : 8 1 7 0 6 ] p vpuis -

ypd ppa , g u e or p opos i i on, of

r
r t (Apo l on iu s ) 40 : l
t r
h eo em of Eu cl 1 4 7 , 1 4 4 . . . Za r qs , foa m s , d ou b e equ a l -

ypn pp q : 6 1 1 or 6 K r a w y pa nnwv of

t i on (Di oph an us ) ii 4 68 t . .

th e0 1 eti cal p oo i i 2 5 7 , 2 58 r f . . Somg , beam a c as s of s o i d n u mb e

, l l r
r ,
; i n ea : u s ed of -
l r 1 0 7 ii 24 0 . .

pu me n um b e 1 s 7 3 : ypa pp u ml doxs Sold ? 1 1 3 1 5 . .

C ons id e i ations 0 11 s i gn for , 3 1 , 4 9 , 5 0

em u r d a e i g ,
-
.

r
Cu ves , b y Dem e i u s ii 3 5 9 :

tr . r l
6 611 1 11 1 9 : i n com m en s u ab e s i d e of
ypa ppuk cb s , g a ph i ca y 93 '
r ll . sq r oti i g ua e o q r c n a n n a n n s -

ua e

pe w, to d aw or w i e on 1 5 9 ,
ypd c r rt nu mb r of it of r 2 0 3 4e un s a ea :
1 7 3 : a s o to p r ove l 3 39 . sq r o ua e
q r root 2 0 9 r s ua e n .
,

297 q r of k ow q s tity ua e un n n uan

OGOOGV U S , Yl, ou, g ir en : s ens es of, ) (Di oph t ) ii 45 7 8

2
x an u s

:
- -
.

ii 5 3 7 8 d dp i q r 1 87 3 08

. . vu et, n s ua e ,

6 6 1 10 1 1311 1 1 1 , to p ov e 32 8 r . r er
p hf) 83 1
-

ighth pow r
a rr 1 11 0 1 19 e e
6 6 111 : 6 6 2 617 3 7 1 .
(Egypt) ii 5 46 p ow i er n
t
.

86 67 6 11 0 9 , s econd a r y : of com pos i e m h i 4 45

ec an cs
r
.

n u mb e s 7 2 : oe ur pa 11 11 11 1 6 9 dv v a p du p oq r q r va ts , s ua e s ua e
40 . fo rth pow r (H ro ) ii 45 8
u e e n .

6 10 6 737 17 9 , com passes 3 0 8 , ii 5 40 . . fo rth pow r of u k ow (Dio

u e n n n
81 a 1 pei v : 8 1 5 11 6 11 7 1 , s ep a r a n d o or d iv ph t ) ii 4 5 8 ii 5 46
an u s
tr fr t rt
.
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1 6 q r b
K11 fth os , s ua e cu e,
' -

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e t ) un n an u s
\
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'

8 1 a1 p6 1r 1 s : ) 6 you, s epa r a tion of a ii 45 8 .

rt
.

a i o 3 8 6 : we pi 6 1 a 1 p60 6 wv 6 1 8 6 17 1 11 , 8 11 1 1 11 0 0 7 61 , Suva podvvapoa r v, & c , .

0 71 d i vis ions (Of gu r es ), b y r r l

eci p oca s of pow e s of nknown r u
E uc i d 4 2 5 l .
(Di op an s ) ii 4 5 8 h tu . .

8 1 d o r aa 1 s , d i men si on 1 T pl 8 1 11 1 7 6 oua odm , tobe eq u i va en i n squ a e l t r

o ews , a w o k of P o e my ii 2 95 r tl . . to, i e to b e th e s i d e of a s qu a e r
tr l t
. .

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gi ve n a ea) 8 11 11 11 11 6 1 17 r
2 39 . 3 0 5 6 11
rc r r r t
.

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dvva cr Opp to Sw a pevq

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t r l
.

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r tr
.

b e s as su ms of e ms 1 1 4 .

81 8 611 a 1 : 8 1 6 0 11 611 0 11 , given , s e nses ii co ic ii

A

g u r e
'
of

. d oor , a n .

537 8 . s
pemes

pa rt l r pow r
i cu a e
 I NDEX O F GR EEK WOR DS 565

o u nk ow fo term i n qu n n, r , an e a a cl ass of o l cu s 11 . 1 85 ,
t on (Di oph t ) ii 460
i an us . . ii . 1 93 .

6 7 y i on
9, E h iw n,rl
v
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,

s eve a e
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on
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70 ( 11 7 l
6 11 , eve or ba an e wept r l c
r rh
.

l qy t dm to i trod c o a w o k of A c i med es ii 2 3 4,
pl i n
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-

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213 .
ii . 35 1 .

gk ee m s , s etting ou t 3 7 0, 5 33
r ti o of

m
-
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tdh z os , 1 01
.

crit r ou, a

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E 1 1 r er tiopa r Demo
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Of 17 8,
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ptwhtov s n
-
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p (1 1510 0 5 ) 1 1 2 8 8
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1 . .

18
4 fa ll ing s h ort(in appl i cati on
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61 1 19
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-
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.

c as e e c , 0 6 17 6 1 6 v 9 6 iu ts , on S ai g
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tr ht
ii 45 9 t

P Ah m mi

g i ven i n posi i on 1 1 4 2 6

s ec n .) ue ov . .

8 0 0 6 5 lt r n t ly (i proporti o )
. .

11 1 1
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3 85 .
4 39, ii 1 1 1 ii 1 2 5
oti o
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n n ns ax s
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us ed by P a
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.

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11 0 7 11 0 1 9 , ec n th e ea 3 1 4 1 5 .

qu l q l mb r
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, .

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u u 2 1
0 1 1 192 1 0 1 , e a an e ua nu e
of ti m q l m ltipl i d by
.

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q l 2 04
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1 10 0 1 7 1 111 11 o

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i. .

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q il t 6v l of or , -
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q r mb r (Pl to) 2 0 4
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of Thy mar id as :

e n a ud

s ua e n u e a
qpa ,
a s ys tem of li r n ea equa ons s o ved ti l i pp m
ao q i l ibri m o 1 w pp n, e u u : 11 6 1 1 o o

94 .
3 work by A rchi m d
1 1 1 1 11
,
ii 24 e es .
,

en a c r
l, p

co t ct n a C ontacts ii 3 5 1 . .

ll u qu l

or Ta ngencies , by A po on i s ii w as 8 , e q li (i a : 1 1 1r ov, ex ae ua n

proporti o ) 3 8 6
.
" '

181 .
8 ns : 1 1 a ov eu

e m , on 6 0 0 20 11 (5 (Or 3) K p yp y i h ym 3 8 6
'

: 7
'
r a a

a ( 1 a o
11 6 0 .

rch c t qu t io
,

a a i fo r

the poi n K

1 99 : o 4 68 r 1 17 11 1 0 1 9
,
e a n 11 . .

1) 4] 77 A B
th e s aig tr ht l i ne i qui y Pyth gor
1 11 r o 1 a
p
-

,
'
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e
fo g om try 1 6 6
,

A B ib r e e .

pow r (in m ch ni c ) 445

.

e mpep

g , s up er pa r tiens , wx vs , e e a s .

r tio 1 a + Ka
y p t r i g poi t in r c
nr , u n n -
n a e
m+ a cour 1 1 4 se .

e

m pdptos , s up ei p ar ticu la r is r tio
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d i fferi n g fr o m E u c l i d s
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A r th m et c (1 J th e ry f i o o n u mb er s
b l m o f two m e an pr o p o rt i onal s
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u u I t od n r A 97 1 1 2 .
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r s ai c h o f Sa m os us . o ri gi nated w ith Ph o e n i c i ans 1 2 0
25 1 d a te 11 2 7 f . . . O K(1
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,
A r i th m et i c a l o pe ra t i ons A dd i : s ee

g o om t i l p rp os e ii 5
n e r ca m u . nu ti on S ub tr a cti on &
, , c .

ber s i n 3 9 fr a ct i ons i n 4 3 , ,
. o f Z e no 2 7 6 ,

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r s nOv as e o f 1 6 2 us, . A y b h tt 2 3 4
r a a a
A r i s t o ph an e s 4 8 1 6 1 2 2 0
.
,

, ,
. A s clep i u s o f Tr a lle s 9 9
A r i s t o tel i an tre a t i s e on i n d i v i s i b le
.

A s tr ono my i n l m t y d tio e e en ar e uca n

l in e s 1 5 7 346 8 ,

. 1 9 as s ec on d a y s bj ect 2 0 1 r u
A th lh d o f B a th r s t tr a sl a t o r
.

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r s 348 er us . e ar n
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,

.
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s ci e n ce 8 on m ath e ma ti c a l b . su A th e na eu s 1 44 1 45 , .

j t 1 6 1 7 o tp i ip1 de
ec s : n is 1 nc es , A th e na eu s o f Cy i c s 32 0 1 z u

a x i o ms 33 6 8
.

iti o po t l t A tt i c (o r H er o d i a i c ) n u m eral s

n ns, s u a es , . n
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u 3 48 w o r ks an e

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th e g no mon 7 7 8 8 3
,

, . Ri i g d S tti g 3 5 2 3
s n s an rel a e n s

As tronomy Pyth g sy s . a 0 1 ean t i on t o E cl i d 3 5 1 2 u

t m 1 6 4 5 on hyp o the s i s o f c on
.

e , A u ver us , C ii 2 6
ce n tri c ph
. . .

3 2 9 3 35 ii 244
s e i es , , ,
A x i o m s A ri s t o tle : Com
on Pl at o s i ew ab o ut th e th
V e ai mo Notio i n E ucl i d 3 7 6 A x i o m
n ns :
3 14 15 -

. o f A rch i mede s 3 2 6 8 ii 35 -

, . .
 E N G L I SH I N DE X 57 3

Ba byl oni ans c i v il i a ti on o f 8 9 : z , ,

: C a ll i ppu G re a t Y e a r 1 7 7 sy s te m o f
s: :

s y s te m o f m l 2 8 9 s ex a nu ei a s : c on ce n tri c s phere s 3 2 9 3 35 ii 2 44
g im l f a ct i ons 2 9
, .

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. .

es a perfe ct 1 :

s .

p op tio
r 86 0 1 n
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. C m a i J oa c h i m
e r ar u s , 27 4 11
B a ch et ed i t o f D i oph t ii
.
,

Ca merer J G ii 3 6 0
.

, 01 an us . . . .
, .

4 54 5 i i 4 8 0

, . C a mp an u s trans l a t o r o f E ucl i d
B a c on R og on E ucl i d 3 6 7 8
,

, ei z
363 4

B a i llet J ii 54 3
. .

, . . . C o i
an n c th e o ry f mu s i a l i n ter o c
B a ld i B ii 3 0 8
, . . . v al s 1 7 .

B l m ii 324
ar aa ii 5 54 5 . n .
, .

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B a r o c i u s ii 5 45
. . .
,

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,
.

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, , , , ,

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, , 1 8 2 ii 2 0 3 ii 2 0 7
, . .

on B ook V 3 84
, .

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1 1.
B th y l
a 1 42c es
, 35 9 .

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u S S 1 46 an a . . . Cas e (m am ) 3 7 2 , 1 1 5 3 3 .

B ay na r d D ii 1 2 8
.

, . . . C ass n
i i ii 2 0 6 . .

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, . as n -
nn s
C t i g ou t i e 1 1 5 1 7 , 5 49
11
Be n edett i G B 34 4 4 4 6
. .

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a the o ry o f mi rro rs 1 8
r z c,
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B ei tr a n d , J ii 3 2 4 n . . . C top t ic
a tre a t i s e s b y E cl i d (i )
r a : u t

B es sai ion 4 4 2 by The on , 444 by A r c h i ,

B es th om , R 3 6 2 , ii 3 1 0 . O . . . m ede s 4 44 d H er on 444 ii 2 94 , an .

s S H
, ,

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.
, .

.

B jor bn o A A l 9 7 n , 36 3 ii 2 6 2
, . . .
, . . Ca ttle pr o ble m o f A r c h i m ede s 1 4
-
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, . .

ass
, ,

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F 182 . . Ca v al i er i B 1 8 0 ii ,
.
,
.

B oeckh , A 5 0 , 7 8 , 3 1 5 . . C e nso r i n s 1 7 7 u .

o s '

ans a on o
B eti u 3 7 4 7 9 0 : tr l ti ,f , C e n tre o f gr a v i ty de n i t i ons 11.

E ucl i d 3 5 9 . 3 0 2 , ii 3 5 0 1 4 30 . , ii . .

B oiss on ad e ii 5 3 8 C eri a A ms totel i ca ii 5 3 1

. . . .

o aa
B m bell i R f el , 1 1 4 5 4 , . . Ch al cid i us 24 2 , 2 44 ii . .

o a
B rch rdt , L 1 2 5 =1 2 7 . . C h ld ea a ans m e u re me t ofangl e s as n
o
B rell i , G A ii 1 2 7 . . . . by ells 2 1 5 1 6 : rder f pl etii . o o an s
o a a s
B u i ll ud (B ull i ldu ) ii 2 3 8 , 1 1 . ii 24 2
. .

556 . Ch ar man d r us 1 1 3 5 9 . .

A on
B r au n m uh l , v , ii n , ii . . . . as s M ii
C h le , 1 9, 2 0 : on Po i s s r m . .

2 8 8 , ii 2 9 1 ii
4 35 7 , 41 9 . .

o s a s o
. .

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(d e C h mp ) 4 3 6 , ii 3 6 0 ,
. . . C h rd , T ble f, 45 , 1 1 2 57 , 1 1 . .

B r ets ch n eid e r , C A 1 49 , 1 8 3 , 3 2 4 5 , -
2 5 9 6 0 .

si s n i i on
. .

ii 5 3 9 . Chry ppu 1 7 9 : de t ofu n it69

i o
.

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.
,

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qu r g f, 1 7 3 , 2 2 0 3 5 ,

son
. .

n i on
.

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ss s i a
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by A rch mede p r l 2 2 5, 2 3 0

an
. . . .

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a a i A o on i s
. .
, .

B u z en g eige r ii 32 4 n .
q u dr tr x 2 2 5
9, p ll u
s a o i a i ons
.

2 2 5 , C al pu 2 2 5 ; ppr x m t -

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o
t 1 r 1 24 , 2 32 5 , ii ii
1 94 , 2 53, . .

a
C lcul t i a on a a
pr ct i c l : the b cua a s ii 5 45
. .

i sso i o D i o s
,

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d s ub t1 acti on C d f cle
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Cl u e , h 2 0 0 . .

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? 53 n

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) 1 eek
(iigypt i C le an ii
the s 2 . .

aa o ia i s
.

5 3 8 , di vi i s on
5 8 6 0 , e x t1 action Cl e om ed es : p r d x c l ecl p e 6 :

o o o
f s quai e i c t 6 0 3 , f cub e i oot De motu ci r cu lar i 2 3 5 8 , 2 44 ii . .

6 3 4 1 1 34 1 2, . .
Cl eon id e s 444 .

Ca a s
ll i m chu 1 4 1 2 .
Cochl i as 2 32 , 1 1 1 9 3 . .
 E NG L I S H I N DE X 57 5

44 8 : w rk o s an i i ons ii
d ed t 448: me n t of pyr a mi d s 1 2 6 8 m a p s .
-
:
5 5 : A r ithmeti ca 1 5 1 6 : fr ct a i ons (re gi ona l )1 39 a lg ebr a i n P a py s ru
in , 42
4 : n
o a i on an
t t d de t n ni io s Bh i n d & ii 44 0 1 , c . .
.

ii 4 5 5 6 1
.
gs i ns o n no n
f r u k w (or ) E i s e l o hr A 1 2 3 1 2 6 1 2 7 n , .
, , .

an o s ii
d p we r o
4 5 6 9 , f r m in us E i s e n mann H J ii 360
.
, . . . .

ii .4 5 9 : meth d o s ii 46 2 7 9 : de E le m e n t s as k no w n t o Pyth . a

i na
term te e qu t a i ons ii 4 62 5 , go 1 6 6 8 pr o gre ss i n d ow n . r ean s
: ,

4 8 4 90 : -

in
deter m te i na ana s i s
ly t o P l a t o 1 7 0 1 1 7 5 6 2 0 1 2 2 09
,

,

,

i i 4 6 6 7 6 , 491 5 1 4 :
.

r Po i s s ii
m 13 216 17 wr i te r s of E le m e n t s
.
,
-

44 9 , 45 0 , 4 5 1 , ii
4 7 9 8 0 : pr p o o H i pp o cr a te s o f C h i os 1 7 0 1 2 0 1
.

,

s i tion s in o o
th e ry f n u mb ei s 1 1 2 Le o Th di 32 0 1 o ther .
, n, eu us -

48 1 4 : c ons so
pect u f A 7 1 thmeti ca c on tr i but o r s t o L od m A , e a as , r

ii .48 4 5 1 4 : On P olygonal N u m hyt 1 7 0 2 1 2 1 3 The a etet s c as ,

, u

i
be7 8 1 6 , 8 4, l 5 1 4 1 7 : MD I OH aS tM a 2 0 9 1 2 3 54 H motim
. o f C ol o
, , er us
ii 4 49
. . ph on 3 2 0 E d o x s 3 2 0 3 23 9 , u u ,
-

i o a ii
D ptr 1 8 256 e1H on s D i op ti a 3 54 E l m t o f E cl i d 3 5 7 4 1 9


. . . : e en s u
1 1 345 6
. . the o c alled B ook s XI V XV s -

,

i i s i on E
Dv :
gypt i anm eth d 5 3 , o 41 9 2 1 -

a
Gree k 5 8 6 0 ex m ple w th ex i s a E ll as m e as re o f an gle s 2 1 5 1 6 ,
u 11 .
-

gesimal r ct f a i ons T on o
( he f A lex E m ped o cle s on Pyth ag o r as 6 5 .

an i a
dr ) 5 9 6 0 E t om G ii 3 4 1 2
. n es r ,
. .
-

Di vi s i on s (ofFign r es ) On by u cl d E i Enn e a gon H er on s m e as re me n t :

u

si i a in of i d ii 2 59 ofa re a ii 32 8 9
,

4 2 5 30 : m l r p1 obl e ms s e .
, .

.

H one r i i 3 3 6 4 0 . Ep th m o f Th y m id .
( sy s te m an e a ar as

o a on a a o ii
D dec g , re f, 32 8 o f s i mp l e q a t i ons ) 94 o th er e u :

type s red ced t o 9 4 6

. .

Do dec a h edr on d i s c o very a ttr i buted u ,

-
.

t o Pyth a g o r as Pyth a go re ans E q a ti ons s imple i n Pa py ru s 01

u ,

1 58 ly o cc r Bh i n d & ii 4 4 1 i n p th ea i u , c . . e an eni a

r e n ce 1 6 0 i ns c i b ed i n ph : o f Th ym id an d i n I mbli h r s ei e ar as a c us

( E ucl i d )4 1 8 1 9 1 Pa p p s ) 36 9 94 6 -
i n G ree k an th o l o gy ii u
O

11

.

i n deter mi na te I nd e
,

A p o ll on i s on 4 1 9 20 v o lu m e
u 44 1 3 , :

: s ee

o f ii 3 35 . ter mi na te A naly s i s l o s ee a s

Qu a dr a t i c C b i c
.
,

Dom i ii 5 38
n nu s ,
u .

E ra t os the n e s ii 1 l 6 d ate &

. .

Do ith s ii 3 4 e us .
, , c .

ii 1 0 4 i ( d m ) fo r n d i g
. .

D h m P 44 6
u e . : s et e K o uu u n
pr i me s 1 6 1 00 ii 1 0 5 on dupl i
. .
,

D p i s J ii 2 39
u u , , . :

c a t i on ofcube 2 44 6 2 5 1 2 58 6 0
. . .
,
- -

, ,

Ea rth m e as re m e n ts f ii 8 2
: the P l to i ii 1 04 5 O M
u o ,
.
,
a n cu s .
n ea ns

(E r a t os the n e s) ii 1 0 6 7 (Po id o 11 1 0 5 6 ii 3 5 9 M . m t of -

, s .

, . eas u r e en

n i u s ) ii 2 2 0 . . th 1 06 7 2 4 2 ii 3 4 6 ear 11 .
-

,
11 .
,
. :

E cl i pt i c obl i q u i ty d i s c o vered by
: as trono my ii 1 0 7 9 chr ono l ogy .
'

O e no p i de s 1 7 4 ii 2 4 4 e s t i m a te an d G og phi ii 1 09 on 0 t
,
. : e r a ca . : c a
'

o f i n cl i na ti on 1 E r a t os th e n e s Pt o t i ih ,
er s .

l my ) ii 1 0 7 8
e . E y i 3 5 9 3 65 8 r c nus r r .
,

.

E ucl i d 2 3 93 1 3 1 d ate & 35 4

.

E yh
c t 3 1 7 ii 2
an u s ,
. .
-

, , , c .

E df Te mple o f Ho ru s 1 2 4
u, 6 s t o r i e s o f 2 5 354 3 5 7 rel a : , , ,
:

t i on t o predece sso r s 3 5 4 3 5 7
.

E gypt p i s ts 4 5 8 9 el a ti ons
: r e ,
: r ,

w th G 1 8; ig i ofg om t y
1 e ece Pa pp s on 35 6 7 Oi n e e i u ,

.

i n 1 20 2 i t ti o o f te mple s : 01 A i th met i c cl ass i c a t i on an d

en a n r :

de n i ti ons o f n u mber s 7 2 3 3 97
,

1 22
, ,

E gypt l i an m a the m a t i c s n m er a l perfect n m ber s 7 4 40 2 fo r : u

u , :

y t m 2 7 8 fr a ct i o s 2 8 m lt i m ul a fo r r i g ht an gled tr i an g le s
D

s s e n , u
-

i n r a t i ona l n u mbers 8 1 2 4 0 5
,

pl i c a t i on 8 1 4 1 5 5 2 3 ge o 60 - -
:
tD
-

, .

4 38 9 ii 1 2 1 2 f c s
, ,

t y (m e ns ur a t i on ) 1 2 2 8
n1 e 1 i i C i : r an cs
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, o u
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.

1 4 7 v a lue oi : m e as ure ell ip e 4 39 ii 1 1 1 ii 1 25

n
' '
s . .
, . .
 57 6 E N G LI S H I N DE X
Data
42 1 5 , Di vis ions (of xh u t , m e th od of, 2 ,
-

E a s i on -

fig ur es ) 42 5 3 0 , -

ii
3 2 6 , 3 27 9 z d evel p
. -
o
E lemen ts : text 3 6 0 1 , The on s m e t f, by A r ch m ede

n o i s
ed t i i on 3 58 , 36 0 ,
-
5 2 7 8 , tr 35 6 ii . ans
a i on o i s a i
.

l t by B et u 3 5 9 , A r b c
tr l t ans a i ons an i n
36 2 , c e t com F l e h y p the : gy pt u e 11 as o si s E i an s
nais
.

m e t r e 3 5 8 9 , ed iti o p r in cep s 44 1 : i n -

ph tu i i 4 8 8 48 9 D i o an s . .

of G G so
,

reek text 3 6 0 , ree k text f Fe r m t 7 5 n , ii 2 0 , 1 85 , i i a P

ii , . .

G o P a s Hi
.

reg ry , eyr r d A ug u t , e 4 54, 48 0 , 48 1 4 : , r m ii ii on Po is s .

a i n ans a i ons
be rg 3 60 1 : L t tr l t 4 35 ,

A th elh ar d 3 6 2 3 , Gh e r a r d 36 3 F te elle 1 1 5 5 6 . on n
a an s
. .

C m p u 3 6 3 4 , C omman d inu s Fr acti ons z g y pt ( u b mult ple E i an s i s

s in
3 65 : r t pr ted ed t i i ons ,
R at except a ) 2 7 8 , 4 1 : ree k sy s G -

o
d lt 3 645 , Z amber ti 3 6 5 : r t s te m 4 2 4 : ree k t t ih s G no a i on
i o
n tr d u ct i on i n o En an
t gl d 3 6 3 : ex g e m l r t ,
B ab y l o s a s i a f a c i ons
s En i s i i ons i i n s
r t gl h ed t ,
B ll g le y , 2 9, reek 4 4 5 n i an i n G .

& c 36 9 7 0 : . E i i
u cl d i n M ddl e

Fr e dly u mber 7 5 i n n s
s
.

a ni s i s
A g e 3 6 5 9 , t U ver i t e 3 6 8
9 : ana si s o
ly a an
f, 3 7 3 4 1 9 : rr g e l le 344 , 446 Ga i i .

n o os a s
m e t f p t u l te an d a io s x m Geep on icus , L i ber , 1 2 4 , 1 1 30 9 , 1 1 . .

361 : o i i na
h ow r g o
lly pr ved 318 344 , ii . .

1 47 9 : aa os a
p r llel p t ul te 3 5 8 , e m u 1 1 9 , 1 1 2 2 2 34 : r th G in s on a i .

7 5, ii2 2 7 30, ii ii
2 95 7 5 34 :
-
me t c d l g t c 14 : dv i an o i s i on i i
s i ons o f o i s on
. . .
,

a
s o c lled
-

o s
B ok XI V, XV 4 1 9

pt c , & c 1 7 1 8 : .

21 r g n l tep i n pr f f Eu cl I oi i a s s oo o .

on a a s
.

M ech an i s
c 445 6 M u c 444si 3 2 , 1 35 6 : -
p r llel 35 8
5 , S ecti o ca n on is 1 7 90, 2 1 5 , tte m pt t pr ve p r llel p t u a o o aa os -

a ii on o i i na a
,

44 4 5 : Op ti s 1 7 1 8 , 44 1 4 : Ph ae c l te 22 7 3 0 :
-
rg lw y .

n omena 349 , 3 5 1 2 , 4 40 1 , f pr duc g the thre e c c - -

ii o o in on i s
n a i o on
.

2 4 9 : P or is ms 43 1 8 , le m m t , 1 1 1 : e cycl op ed c w rk as o ii .

ii4 1 9 2 4 : Ps end a r ia 4 3 0 l S u r
.
-
m th e m t c 2 2 3 3 1 a a i s ii on Posi .

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 E N G LI S H I N DE X 57 7

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 E N G L I SH I N DEX 57 9

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 EN G LI S H I N DEX

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 E N G L I SH I N DE X 581

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58 4 E N G L I SH I N D E X

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. .

S yra cu s e 8 : T on o S na
he f myr 1 2 , 7 2 , 7 3 , 7 4, 7 5 ,
a s
7 6 , 7 9 , 8 3 , 8 7 , ii 5 1 5 : tre t i e .

Table o f C h o rd s 45, ii 2 5 96 0, ii . of, ii 2 3 8 44 : . on s

i de an -
d
a n s
.

283

d i m eter u mber 9 1 3 , 1 1 2 :

fo r m s o f n u mbers wh i ch c anno t
.

Td i ttir l ya S a rnhi td 1 46
be s qu a re s 1 1 2 l 3
.

Tan ne r y , P
8 7 , 8 9, 1 1 9, 1 3 2 , . .

T he o phr ast s 1 5 8 1 6 3 on Pl a t o s
.

1 8 0, 1 8 2 , 1 8 4, 1 8 8 , 1 9 6 n , 2 3 2, u , :

v i ew o f th e e arth 3 1 5
.

2 7 9 , 3 2 6 , 44 0 , 51, 1 05, ii . ii . ii .
.

2 0 4 5 , 215, 218 ii
25 3 , ii ii Th d i
eu 320 1us -
.

Th th E gypt i an g o d reputed i
. . .
,

ii317 , 45 3, 48 3, ii
5 1 9, ii ii eu , , n
to o f m a the ma t i c s 1 2 1
. . . .

ii
5 3 8 , 1 1 5 45 , 54 6 , 550, 55 6 , ii ii ven r .

T h eve no t M ii 3 0 8
. . . .

ii
56 1. . ,
. . .

T s on on a
ele s ec a i on
d ry educ t Th
21 yll 97 1 7 6 1 7 7 24 1 . r as us , , ,
11 .
,
11 .

T os i ns i i on
e cr pt 3 2 , 34 2 43 .

T h cy d i de s 2 0 7
.

Tetr ad aofA p ll o on i s u 40 u 1 1. .

Thy m id a de n i t i on o f u n i t 6 9
.

T a on ons
etr hedr : c t r uct i on 41 6, 11 ar s
rect i l i n e a r pr i m e n u mb er s
.

o
3 6 8 : v lu m e f, o ii 335
dqp a s y s te m o f i mple
. .

T h ab i t b Q rr a tr ansl a t o r o f E u 72 u : evr

u a, s
e qu a t i ons so lved 94
.

cl i d 36 2 36 3 o f A rch i m ede s s :

.

o f T i ma eu s o f L o cr i 8 6
,

I lb/ mp to m ii 22
er ass u r u : .

T i ttel ii 3 0 0 30 1 3 04
.

(I o i V V I I ii 1 2 7

A poll o i n us s n cs
: .
, ,
.

o f M e n el a u s E l m t of G o To (o r an ch o r ri ng) by A r
.

e en s e re
-
: u se
s

m t y ii 2 60
e r o f Pt o le my ii h yt 2 1 9 247 9 s ecti ons o f
: c as ,
:

(P er eu ) ii 2 0 3 6 v olu me o f
.
.

27 4 5 -

.
s s , . :