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RADIO ENGINEERING
Jorma Kekalainen
Contents
Electromagnetic radiation
Radio communication
Electrical Noise
Communication link calculations
Microwaves
Maxwells equations
Application of Maxwells equations
Some passive microwave devices
Signal flow graphs and scattering parameters
Introduction to transmission line theory
Smith chart and impedance matching
Waveguide theory
Radio wave propagation in more or less free space
Microwave link design
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Lecture notes Radio Engineering by Jorma Kekalainen
Books
Following references can be useful:
Bennett, Electrical Noise
Freeman, Telecommunication System Engineering
Freeman, Radio System Design for Telecommunications
Forouzan, Data Communications and Networking
Gardiol, Introduction to Microwaves
Goldsmith, Wireless Communications
Krauss, Bostian, Raab, Solid State Radio Engineering
Lee, Statistical Theory of Communication
Ramo, Whinnery, Van Duzer, Fields and Waves in Communication
Electronics
Roddy, Satellite Communications
Skolnik, Introduction to Radar Systems
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Electromagnetic radiation
Nature of
electromagnetic radiation
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Lecture notes Radio Engineering by Jorma Kekalainen
Radiation models
Electromagnetic radiation is usually described in one of three
ways:
Ray model
In the classical physics light consisted of rays that could be
reflected and refracted through mirrors and prisms etc.
Although this simple description cannot explain many of the
phenomena we meet in radio and optical communications, ray
model is much-used in telecommunications.
The problem is that when we try to study rays very closely
they start behaving like waves.
In general, the ray model is good when the distances involved
in the device are much larger than the wavelength.
5
Radiation models
Wave model
In the context of telecommunications, the best
way of regarding electromagnetic radiation is
to think of it as an electromagnetic wave.
It is a fair generalization to say that
electromagnetic radiation may be looked on as
a wave in situations where we are studying
transmission or propagation.
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Lecture notes Radio Engineering by Jorma Kekalainen
Radiation models
Particle model
In many contexts, electromagnetic radiation behaves as
though it consists of tiny particles called photons
(quanta).
Electromagnetic radiation may often be regarded as a particle
when we are studying its interactions with matter.
Note. We are used to thinking of electrons as classical
particles but quantum mechanics assigns to them wave
properties, matter waves, as it assigns to the electromagnetic
waves particle like properties. This is wave particle duality.
The fact is that rays, photons and waves are all useful
analogies that help us to understand what electromagnetic
radiation really is from different viewpoints. 7
Electromagnetic waves
In the electromagnetic wave theory, radiation beam is
represented by electromagnetic waves propagating in space.
An electromagnetic wave consists of two fields
an electric field and
a magnetic field.
Both of these fields have
a direction and
a strength (or amplitude).
These fields oscillate in time and space as the beam
propagates.
Within the electromagnetic wave the two fields are oriented at
90 to one another.
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Lecture notes Radio Engineering by Jorma Kekalainen
Electromagnetic waves
The fields move (by
definition at the speed of
light) in a direction at 90 to
both of them.
In three dimensions, we
could consider the electric
field to be oriented on the x-
axis, and the magnetic field
on the y-axis.
Direction of travelling
wave would then be along
the z-direction.
Travelling wave
In three dimensions, we could consider the electric field to be oriented on
the x-axis, and the magnetic field on the y-axis.
Direction of travelling wave would then be along the z-direction.
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Lecture notes Radio Engineering by Jorma Kekalainen
Polarization types
A wave is said to be elliptically polarized if the curve traced by the
end point of the electric field vector is an ellipse (in the xy-plane).
The special cases of the elliptically polarized wave are:
circularly polarized wave
Electromagnetic wave is said to be circularly polarized if the electric
field vector uniformly rotates in the xy-plane.
So, wave is circularly polarized when the tip of the electric field vector
describes a circle.
linearly polarized wave
Electromagnetic wave is said to be linearly polarized if the electric
field vector vibrates in a constant direction in the xy-plane (plane
polarized wave).
So, wave is linearly polarized when the tip of the electric field vector
moves along a straight line.
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Electromagnetic spectrum
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Electromagnetic spectrum
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Maxwells equations
Maxwells equations govern the propagation of
electromagnetic waves in various media, including
free space,
waveguides,
optical fibers, and
optical crystals.
All
electric,
magnetic,
electromagnetic, and
optical phenomena
are governed by the same fundamental laws of
electromagnetism.
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Maxwells equations
These laws are written mathematically in terms
of the Maxwells equations:
D
B 0
B
E 0
t
D
H J
t
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Maxwells equations
In these equations, the quantities D and B are called the electric
displacement or the electric flux density vector (in coulombs per square
meter) and magnetic induction or the magnetic flux density vector (in
webers per square meter), respectively.
These two vectors (D ,B) include the effect of the electromagnetic field on
matter.
The quantities E and H are the electric field vector (in volts per meter) and
magnetic field vector (in amperes per meter), respectively.
These two field vectors (E , H) are employed to describe an
electromagnetic field or wave.
The quantities and J are the electric charge density (in coulombs per
cubic meter) and electric current density vector (in amperes per square
meter), respectively.
The electric charge and current may be considered the source of the
electromagnetic radiation, represented by the E and H vector fields.
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Maxwells equations
These four equations completely determine the electromagnetic field and
are the fundamental equations of the theory of such fields, that is, of
electrodynamics.
Maxwells equations cannot be solved uniquely without the known
relationships between
B and H
E and D .
To obtain a unique determination of the field vectors, Maxwells equations
must be supplemented by the so-called material equations,
D E For anisotropic
material e.g.
B H
where the parameters and are are known as the dielectric tensor (or
permittivity tensor) and the permeability tensor, respectively.
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D E 0 E P
where P is the electric polarization and 0 is the dielectric constant of
a vacuum.
Analogously, the magnetic field can also produce a magnetization in
materials.
B H 0 H M
where M is the magnetic polarization and 0 is the magnetic
constant of a vacuum.
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Vacuum
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Lecture notes Radio Engineering by Jorma Kekalainen
Notes
Note. The permittivity of a vacuum is constant
0=8.854 x 10-12 F/m.
The constant 0 is the permeability of a vacuum and
has a value of 0=410-7 H/m.
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Material parameters
For most applications, material parameters can be assumed to
be independent of the field strengths.
However, if the fields are sufficiently strong, the dependence
of these quantities on E and H must be considered.
These strong fields produce nonlinear electromagnetic effects,
which may be harmful or useful depending on the application.
The fields can be sufficiently strong, for example, if we focus
an intense laser beam on a thin fiber or apply a strong static
electric field to an electro-optic crystal, or transmit very high
power RF beam through the atmosphere.
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Lecture notes Radio Engineering by Jorma Kekalainen
Electromagnetic radiation
Remote sensing
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Lecture notes Radio Engineering by Jorma Kekalainen
Remote sensing
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Remote sensing
Note various paths
Source to sensor direct?
Source to surface to sensor
Sensor can also be source
radar, lidar, sonar (i.e. active remote sensing)
Reflected and emitted components
Several components of final signal captured at sensor
Note: Radar (RAdio Detection And Ranging) is an object detection system which uses radio
waves to determine the range, altitude, direction, or speed of objects.
Lidar (Light Detection And Ranging) is an optical remote sensing technology that can measure
the distance to, or other properties of, targets by illuminating the target with laser light and
analyzing the backscattered light.
Sonar (originally an acronym for SOund Navigation And Ranging) is a technique that uses sound
propagation (usually underwater, as in submarine navigation) to navigate, communicate with or
detect objects on or under the surface of the water. 28
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Lecture notes Radio Engineering by Jorma Kekalainen
Electromagnetic environment on
Earth
Mainly determined by solar radiation and properties
of atmosphere
Solar radiation spectrum
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Atmospheric attenuation
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Atmospheric windows
Radiowave window
Visible window
(clouds are transparent)
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Energy transport
Conduction
transfer of molecular kinetic (motion) energy due to contact
heat energy moves from T1 to T2 where T1 > T2
Convection
movement of hot material from one place to another
e.g. Hot air rises
Radiation
results whenever an electrical charge is accelerated
propagates via EM waves, through vacuum & over long distances
hence of interest for remote sensing
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Electromagnetic wave
35
Wave motion
All waves characterized
by:
Wavelength, (m)
Amplitude, a (m)
v
Velocity, v (m/s)
Frequency, f (s-1 or
Hz)
Sometimes period, T
(time for one
oscillation i.e. 1/f)
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Wave motion
Velocity, frequency and wavelength related by
1
f
proportional to 1/ (constant of proportionality is wave
velocity v
v f
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Sinusoidals
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Lecture notes Radio Engineering by Jorma Kekalainen
Maxwells equations
Four equations relating vector
E
electric (E) and vector magnetic 0
fields (B)
B 0
0 is permittivity of free space
B
E
0 is permeability of free space t
E
B 0 J 0 0
t
1
0
c 0
2
Maxwells equations
1. Gauss law for electricity: The electric flux out of any
closed surface is proportional to the total charge E
0
enclosed within the surface
2. Gauss law for magnetism: The net magnetic flux out B 0
of any closed surface is zero (i.e. magnetic monopoles
do not exist)
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Lecture notes Radio Engineering by Jorma Kekalainen
EM spectrum
EM Spectrum
Continuous range of EM radiation
From very short wavelengths (<10-12m)
o high energy
To very long wavelengths (cm, m, km)
o low energy
Energy is related to wavelength (and hence frequency)
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Electromagnetic spectrum
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Lecture notes Radio Engineering by Jorma Kekalainen
Units
EM wavelength is m, but various prefixes
o cm (10-2m)
o mm (10-3m)
o micron or micrometer, m (10-6m)
o Angstrom, (10-8m)
o nanometer, nm (10-9)
f is cycles/second or Hertz (Hz)
Electromagnetic spectrum
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Lecture notes Radio Engineering by Jorma Kekalainen
EM spectrum
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Electromagnetic spectrum: IR
Longer wavelengths (sub-mm)
Lower energy than visible
Arbitrary cutoff
IR regions covers
reflective (shortwave IR SWIR)
and emissive (longwave or thermal
IR TIR)
region just longer than visible
known as near-IR NIR.
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Blackbody
All objects above absolute zero (0 K or -273 C)
radiate EM energy (due to vibration of atoms)
We can use concept of a perfect blackbody
o Absorbs and re-radiates all radiation incident upon it at
maximum possible rate per unit area (Wm-2), at each
wavelength, , for a given temperature T (in K)
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Stefan-Boltzmann Law
Total emitted radiation from a blackbody, M, in Wm-2,
described by Stefan-Boltzmann Law
M T 4
T is temperature of the object in K; and = is Stefan-
Boltzmann constant 5.6697x10-8 Wm-2K-4
So energy T4
o Tsun 6000K M,sun 73.5 MWm-2
o TEarth 300K M , Earth 460 Wm-2
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Lecture notes Radio Engineering by Jorma Kekalainen
Stefan-Boltzmann Law
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Stefan-Boltzmann Law
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f (T )
E (
5
At what m is maximum radiant energy emitted?
Comparing blackbodies at different T, note mT is
constant, k 2897mK i.e. m = k/T
o m, sun 0.48m
o m, Earth 9.66m
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Increase
(displacement) in m
as T reduces
Increasing
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E hf
E is energy of a quantum in Joules (J); h is Planck constant
(6.626x10-34Js) and f is frequency of radiation
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2c 2 h 1
E
5 hc
e kT
1
dE()/d gives constant of Wiens Law
E() over all results in Stefan-Boltzmann relation
Blackbody energy function of , and T
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Plancks Law
Explains/predicts shape of blackbody curve
Use to predict how much energy lies between given
o Crucial for remote sensing
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Photosynthetic pigments
o Basic driver of nearly all life on
Earth!
o Source of all fossil fuel
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E0 , T
F0 , T
T 4
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Lecture notes Radio Engineering by Jorma Kekalainen
F00.38 , T F00.38 2 x103
2.193 2
0.193
6
8
.738
.856
F00.38 3x10 F00.38 2 x10
3
3
32
10
12
.914
.945
14 .963
F00.38 , T 0.067
16 .974
18 .981
0.193 20 .986
0.273 0.067
Problem
Show that ~38% of total energy radiated
by the sun lies in the visible region
(0.38m < 0.7m) assuming that
T (mK x103) F0(T)
solar T = 5770K (dimensionless)
2 .067
3 .273
o Hint: We already know F(0.38m), so 4 .481
calculate F(0.7m) and interpolate 5
6
.634
.738
8 .856
10 .914
12 .945
14 .963
16 .974
18 .981
20 .986
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Lecture notes Radio Engineering by Jorma Kekalainen
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Recap
Objects can be approximated as blackbodies
o Radiant energy T4
EM spectrum from sun a continuum peaking at ~0.48m
o ~39% energy between 0.38 and 0.7 in visible region
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Radio communication
Radio communication
system
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Lecture notes Radio Engineering by Jorma Kekalainen
Electromagnetic spectrum
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Radio engineering
Radio engineering is a technical science that deals with
the electromagnetic waves at the frequencies below the
infrared frequencies (e.g. from 30 Hz up to 3 THz)
Word radio comes from Latin: radius and/or radiare
(= to radiate)
An oscillator generates high-frequency alternating
current which is radiated as radio waves by the
antennas
Millimeter wave frequencies become more important
all the time.
lack of frequencies, higher data rate, improved technology,
new applications
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Lecture notes Radio Engineering by Jorma Kekalainen
Electromagnetic spectrum
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Radio transmission
(a) In the VLF, LF, and MF bands, radio waves follow the
curvature of the earth.
(b) In the HF band, they bounce off the ionosphere.
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Lecture notes Radio Engineering by Jorma Kekalainen
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Transmitting system
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Transmitter
Stable transmit frequency: stability 10-9 - 10-10 / day
Phase-locked loop (PLL) used to lock the frequency
Reference by using a stable quartz crystal resonator
oscillator
Modern fast way: direct digital synthesis (DDS) => waveform
created with digital-to-analog converter (DAC)
Simple direct conversion transmitter with PLL
oscillator
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Transmitter
Low or medium power transmitters use semiconductors
Solid-state transmitters can now provide tens of kW for TV
bands
The highest power transmitters use electron tubes
Such as magnetrons in radars because high peak power is
needed
International broadcasting stations at low frequencies could
transmit even 1 MW but modern radio communication
mostly uses much less transmit power
Portable devices work typically with powers up to 1 - 2 W; short
range devices even with much less power
Transmit power is controlled as needed and best for service,
without excessive power (e.g. cell phone systems)
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Receiver
Good filters, an accurate LO frequency, low-noise components
LO can be realized similarly as in transmitters
Superheterodyne receiver uses an intermediate frequency
stage - or two at different frequencies
Received signal level may vary a lot => automatic gain
control
Demodulator extracts information from the IF signal
Typical simple radio communication receiver
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Receiver specifications
Several parameters determine the ability of a receiver to
successfully demodulate a radio signal.
Receiver sensitivity is the minimum input voltage that
produces a specified signal-to-noise ratio at the output of
the IF section.
Dynamic range is the difference between the largest input
signal that will not become distorted and the smallest signal
that can be discerned, and is measured in dB.
Selectivity specifies a receivers ability to discriminate
against adjacent channel signals.
It is a function of the IF strips BPF.
Noise figure indicates how much the receiver degrades the
input signals signal-to-noise ratio.
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Superheterodyne receiver
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Double-conversion receiver
83
Direct-conversion receiver
Frequency conversion direct to baseband for data
demodulation
Attractive for realization in integrated circuits (IC)
Characteristics more limited than in complex receiver
designs
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Software radio
Progressively faster digital technology allows also
the use of software defined radio
Typical radio device components used only as antenna
and in receiver front-end and then ADC, followed by
digital processing with software
Digital technology and software-defined
operation is used also for transmitters
After software controlled parts and DAC follow radio
devices: up-converter, power amplifier, filter and
antenna
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Transceiver
Much of radio communication needs a two-way device to
both transmit and receive => transceiver combines these
Basic transceiver device problem: high power TX & low
power RX
How to get necessary isolation when connecting to
common antenna?
If a frequency division duplexing (FDD) system is used => a
duplexer filter separates TX and RX bands (which are different)
If a time division duplexing (TDD) system is used => separate
TX and RX times allow simply a switch to be used only
transmitter or receiver is connected to antenna at any time, not
both simultaneously
For example, cell phone network devices may use both systems
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Multiplexing
A separate transmission line or separate radio
path for each signal would not be feasible from
either an economic or a practical standpoint.
Hence the overall communication system must
provide a means for simultaneous transmission
of a number of signals either by shifting them
into different parts of the frequency spectrum
or by sending samples of the signals on a time-
shared basis.
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A simplified block
diagram of a radio
transmitter and
receiver illustrates
the signal
processing that
takes place in a
radio system.
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95
5. Modulator
The modulator combines the signal and carrier
frequency components to produce one of the varieties
of modulated waves (AM, ...)
In our simplified system the output signal spectrum
lies in the vicinity of the desired RF carrier frequency.
In many transmitters a second oscillator and mixer
(similar to blocks 10 and 11) are inserted between
blocks 5 and 6 in order to shift the modulated wave to
a higher frequency range.
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Note: The carrier may be a sinucoidal wave or a train of pulses.
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Lecture notes Radio Engineering by Jorma Kekalainen
97
8. Receiving antenna
The receiving antenna may be omnidirectional for
general service or highly directional for point-to point
communication.
The wave propagated from the transmitter induces a
small voltage in the receiving antenna.
The range of amplitudes of the induced antenna
voltage may be from tens of millivolts to less than 1
microvolt, depending upon a wide variety of
conditions.
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Lecture notes Radio Engineering by Jorma Kekalainen
9. RF amplifier
The RF amplifier stage increases the signal power to
a level suitable for input to the mixer and it helps to
isolate the local oscillator from the antenna.
This stage does not have a high degree of frequency
selectivity but does serve to reject signals at
frequencies far from the desired channel.
The increase in signal power level prior to mixing is
desirable because of the noise that is inevitably
introduced in the mixer stage.
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12. IF amplifier
The IF amplifier increases the signal to a level
suitable for detection and provides most of the
frequency selectivity necessary to pass the desired
signal and filter out the undesired signals that are
found in the mixer output.
Because the tuned circuits in blocks 11 and 12 always
operate at a fixed frequency (fIF), they can be
designed to provide good selectivity.
Ceramic or crystal filters are often used.
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104
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Radio communication
Radio transmission
Power gain
Let it be an linear time-invariant (LTI) system whose
input signal has average power Pin.
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108
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110
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Transfer function
Now consider a system described by its transfer
function H(f).
A sinusoidal input with amplitude Ax produces the
output amplitude Py
Ay = |H(f)|Ax,
and the normalized signal powers are
Px= Ax 2/2 and Py = Ay2/2= |H[f)|2Px.
If the system has the same impedance level at input
and output
Py/ Px = Pout/ Pin = |H[f)|2=g
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Problems
113
Solution
(a) Verify that dBm = dBW + 30 dB.
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Solution
115
Transmission loss
In addition to any signal distortion, a
transmission system also reduces the power
level or strength of the output signal.
This signal-strength reduction is expressed in
terms of transmission power loss.
Although transmission loss can be
compensated by power amplification, the ever-
present electrical noise may prevent successful
signal recovery in the case of large
transmission loss.
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Transmission loss
Hence
117
Attenuation coefficient
In the case of transmission lines, coaxial cables,
and waveguides, the output power decreases
exponentially with distance.
Well write this relation in the form
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Lecture notes Radio Engineering by Jorma Kekalainen
Example
119
Solution
Use dB equations to find the signal power at:
(a) the repeaters input;
(b) the final output.
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Radio transmission
Signal transmission by radio wave propagation can
reduce the required number of cable repeaters, and has
the additional advantage of eliminating long cables.
Here we examine the transmission loss for line-of-
sight (LOS) propagation (illustrated in the following
Fig.) where the radio wave travels a direct path from
transmitting to receiving antenna.
This propagation mode is commonly employed for
long-distance communication at frequencies above
100 MHz.
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Free-space loss
The free-space loss on a line-of-sight path is due to
spherical dispersion of the radio wave.
This loss is given by
123
Note: Here LdB is the free-space line-of-sight attenuation and doubling the path length
can violate this free-space line-of-sight assumption. 124
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Antenna gain
125
126
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Example
Satellite relay system shows a transoceanic radio system with a satellite
relay serving as a repeater.
The satellite is about 40000 km from either ground station, and the signal
frequency is 6 GHz.
The satellite has a repeater amplifier with gamp = 80 dB, and the input
power at the ground station is Pin = 100 W .
127
Solution
Free space loss equation gives the uplink and
downlink path loss
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Solution
Note: Very small power levels are typical for satellite systems. 129
Ground reflection
Often, there are multiple
signals arriving to the
receiver due to the
reflections from the
ground, water, building
etc.
Multi-path propagation
For the horizontal polarization the
Very simple case: direct reflection coefficient is -1.
Expression r1+r2-r0 2h1h2/d
wave and one reflected
wave. =2/
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Example
There is a lake between a transmitter and a receiver (distance
d).
The height of the transmitter antenna is H (H<<d).
Calculate the optimum height of the receiver antenna when the
frequency is f.
The polarization is horizontal and the lake is an ideal reflector.
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Solution
There is a lake between a transmitter and a receiver (distance d).
The height of the transmitter antenna is H (H<<d).
Calculate the optimum height of the receiver antenna when the frequency is
f.
The polarization is horizontal and the lake is an ideal reflector.
The total electric field at the antenna site is
=2/
Numerical version
There is a lake between a television transmitter
and a receiver (distance 5 km).
The height of the transmitter antenna is 50 m.
Calculate the optimum height of the receiver
antenna when the frequency is 500 MHz.
The polarization is horizontal and the lake is
an ideal reflector.
The optimum height is
h=15 m
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Multi-path propagation
The waves reflect and refract from obstacles and
they arrive to the receiver along different paths.
In the antenna the waves interfere and thus in the
receiver only one signal appear.
The phase difference between the arriving signals affect the
total received signal
When the receiver moves, (e.g. in mobile
communication), the received signal changes
significantly as a function of the distance.
Fast signal fading takes place within the distance of one
wavelength.
135
Antenna parameters
Radiation pattern (Directional pattern )
The directional dependence
of the power density radiated
or received by the antenna
Directivity D
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Antenna parameters
Radiation efficiency rad
Gain G
137
Antenna parameters
Input impedance Zant
Zant(f) = Rrad(f)+ Rloss(f) + j X(f)
When the input impedance Zant of the antenna
differs from the characteristic impedance of the
feed line Z0, part of the power is reflected
Polarization
Is defined as the direction of radiated/received
electric field vector of the antenna.
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Low-frequency antennas
f< SHF
Wire antennas, microstrip antennas
High-frequency antennas
0.1 mm (3 THz)
Reflectors, horns, dielectric antennas
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Friis formula
Received power
Note:
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Solution
The wavelength
143
Non-idealities
It is impossible to implement this theoretical distance in
practice, because there are many non-idealities, so the distance
is significantly shorter due to the following factors:
The attenuation in the air (moisture, rain)
For instance, at 58 GHz the attenuation of the air is significant due to
the resonance mode of oxygen molecules at 60 GHz
Obstacles (buildings, forest, hilly terrain etc.) between the
antennas
Reflections from the ground and other obstacles
Polarization mismatching
Impedance mismatching
Pointing error of the antennas
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145
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147
Problem
There is a 45-km radio link from a mainland to
an island. The operation frequency is 6 GHz.
What is the required heights of the link
antennas when the first Fresnel ellipsoid is free
of obstacles?
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Problem
r0=45000m, f=6GHz, K = 4/3, R=6375km
149
Solution
Radius of the 1st Fesnel zone
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Atmospheric scattering
Inhomogeneity in the atmosphere cause scattering
We can think that scatterer operates as a isotropic antenna
which radiates power uniformly in all directions, taking its
power from passing by EM wave.
Atmospheric scattering
Sometimes this weak
scattering effect can be
exploited.
In that case the radio wave
propagates behind an
obstacle or far beyond the
horizon where it would not
propagate otherwise.
In weather radars, the
scattering signals from
hydrometeors (raindrops,
fog, hails or snow flakes) are
measured. 152
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Summary
A radio communication system is an economic compromise
between information transfer capacity needs, available
frequency bands, propagation and equipment characteristics
(propagation attenuation, size of the antenna ).
Examples
FM radio waves propagate very well because the frequency is
small (about 100 MHz), but the required antenna is large-
sized.
GSM 900 (900 MHz) operate well in rural areas where the
waves can propagate far
GSM 1800 (1800 MHz) operate better in urban areas where
the base stations are close (cell size is small) and a number of
frequency bands can be larger than at 900 MHz.
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Radio communication
Fundamental limitations
Fundamental limitations
There are two general kinds of constraints when designing a
communication system.
On the one hand are the technological problems, including
hardware availability,
economic factors,
federal regulations, and so on.
These are problems can be solved in theory, even though perfect
solutions may not be practical.
On the other hand are the fundamental physical limitations dictating
by the laws of nature.
These limitations ultimately dictate what can or cannot be
accomplished, irrespective of the technological problems.
The fundamental limitations of information transmission by
electrical means are bandwidth and noise.
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Bandwidth (B)
The concept of bandwidth applies to both signals and
systems as a measure of speed.
When a signal changes rapidly with time, its frequency
content, or spectrum, extends over a wide range and
we say that the signal has a large bandwidth.
Similarly, the ability of a system to follow signal
variations is reflected in its usable frequency response
or transmission bandwidth.
All electrical systems contain energy-storage elements,
and stored energy cannot be changed instantaneously.
Consequently, every communication system has a finite
bandwidth B that limits the rate of signal variations.
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Noise
Noise imposes a second limitation on information
transmission.
Why is noise unavoidable?
According to kinetic theory at any temperature above
absolute zero, thermal energy causes microscopic
particles to exhibit random motion.
In electrical communication systems the random
motion of charged particles such as electrons generates
random currents or voltages called thermal noise.
There are also other types of noise, but thermal noise
appears in every communication system.
159
SNR
We measure noise relative to an information signal in
terms of the signal-to-noise power ratio (SNR or S/N).
Thermal noise power is ordinarily quite small, and S/N
can be so large that the noise goes unnoticed.
At lower values of S/N, however, noise degrades
fidelity in analog communication and produces bit
errors in digital communication.
These problems become most severe on long-distance
links when the transmission loss reduces the received
signal power down to the noise level.
Amplification at the receiver is then to no use, because
the noise will be amplified along with the signal.
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Hartley-Shannon law
Taking both limitations into account, Shannon
(1948) stated that the rate of information
transmission cannot exceed the channel capacity
C=Blog2(1 +S/N)
with the zero-error probability (pe0).
This relationship, known as the Hartley-Shannon
law, sets an upper limit on the (error-free)
performance of a communication system with a
given bandwidth and signal-to-noise ratio.
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Electrical Noise
Introduction
164
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165
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167
168
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Random noise
Noise can consist of signals from unwanted
sources plus random fluctuations of voltages
and currents caused by physical phenomena.
There are various types of random noise
thermal noise,
shot noise, and
flicker noise
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170
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Stationarity
171
p f pa f 2G f , f 0
and the total available noise power is
N pa f df
0
Likewise, the one-sided mean square voltage and current densities are equal twice the
172
two-sided frequency functions for f0.
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Lecture notes Radio Engineering by Jorma Kekalainen
173
174
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Thermal noise
175
Thermal noise
Available noise power of thermal noise in a 1-Hz bandwidth is
given by
p(f) = kT,
where k is Boltzmanns constant and T is the temperature of
the noise source in kelvin units.
This expression applies from direct current (dc) to high
microwave frequencies.
If the bandwidth were allowed to extend to infinity, the
available power of a thermal noise would appear to be
unlimited also.
However, results from quantum mechanics indicate that
physical thermal noise sources, although extremely wide band,
have a power spectrum that drops to zero at arbitrarily high
frequencies.
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177
178
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179
180
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PN B
The noise power that is transmitted through a
circuit is proportional to the circuit bandwidth.
Consequently, the circuit bandwidth should
never be greater than that necessary to transmit
the desired signal if the maximum output
signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) is to be achieved.
181
Example
Calculate the mean-square noise voltage
produced in a 100-k resistor in a bandwidth
of 106 Hz at room temperature (T=20C = 293
K).
Vn2=4kTRB
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Comment
183
184
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185
186
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Example
Suppose the source in question happens to be a
thermal resistance R at temperature T.
Then the one-sided available power density
p f kT
and setting Z(f) = R yields
4kT
vn2 f 4 RkT and in2 f
R
These constant densities correspond to white
noise, at least up to infrared frequencies.
187
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Note
The noise Thvenin equivalent is different from the signal Thevenin equivalent
of the same circuit, where a signal source is driving a hypothetical noiseless
load resistor Ri (representing the input of an amplifier) through three noisy
resistors R1, R2, and R3.
Thevenin equivalent circuit for signal computation
The signal voltage at the load is found by the conventional voltage division, but
the noise voltage is found from a circuit in which the noise source is related to
the Thevenin resistance of the resistive network rather than the voltage divider
ratio.
189
Note
The process of combining the resistors in a network to obtain
an effective noise resistance is equivalent to combining the
mean-square noise voltages of the resistors themselves to
obtain the net mean-square noise voltage.
This is consistent with the statistical principle that if two or
more independent random processes are combined, the mean-
square value of the resultant is obtained by adding the mean-
square value of each process.
Thus the mean-square noise voltage of a group of resistors
connected in series is the sum of the mean-square noise
voltage across each resistor.
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191
Nyquists formula
When the resistances are in thermal equilibrium at
temperature T, Nyquists formula states that
vn2 f 4 R f kT
Hence, the mean square voltage density takes the
shape of the equivalent resistance R(f).
Nyquists equation includes the special case of an
all-resistive network whose equivalent resistance
will be independent of f.
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193
194
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Note: Nyquists formula does not hold when the resistances are at different
temperatures or the network contains non-thermal sources. However, such cases are
easily analyzed provided that the sources are independent. Using superposition and
summing mean square values the resulting frequency density can be found. 195
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Example
197
Example
The admittance of the circuit is
Y G j C
The mean-square voltage at the port is
I n2( f )
V 2
n ( f ) 2
Y
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Example
G
R f
G (2fC ) 2
2
199
Example
To complete the calculation of Vn2, it is
convenient to change the variable of
integration to and after some manipulations
kT
Vn2
C
Note: Suprisingly, Vn2depends on C but not on R (or G), even though the noise source is
actually thermal resistance! The explanation of this paradoxical independence from R is
included to the equivalent noise bandwidth (B1/R) of GC-filter. 200
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Example
Example
By the comparison of
Vn2 4kTRB
with the previous result,
Vn2 4kTR f 3dB
2
the equivalent noise bandwidth is seen to be
equal to /2 times the half-power bandwidth.
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Problem
Problem
Then introduce the substitution given by
G
3dB 2f 3dB
C
and change the variable of integration to
x = /3dB.
Show that the value of the definite integral that
results yields
kT
Vn2 4kTR f 3 dB
2 C 204
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206
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207
Example
Suppose that a 200-ohm antenna exhibits an
rms noise voltage of 0.1 V at its terminals,
when measured in a bandwidth B = 10 kHz.
By the use of the equation
Vn2 4kTA RB
Vn2 1014
TA 90.6 K
4kRB 4 1.38 10 23 200 104
208
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209
Shot noise
The most common type of non-thermal noise in
electrical circuits is shot noise.
This phenomenon occurs whenever charged
particles cross a potential barrier as in
semiconductor junctions or vacuum tubes.
Small variations of kinetic energy among the
individual particles cause random fluctuations of
the total current.
Schottky first studied this effect in a vacuum-tube
diode operated under temperature-limited
conditions.
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Shot noise
Schottky found that shot noise could be
represented by a current source with
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213
214
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Non-white noise
Transistors, vacuum tubes, resistors, and other devices exhibit a low-
frequency phenomenon known as flicker noiseoften called one-
over-f noise because the mean square density is proportional to 1/fn
with n1.
Some semiconductor devices also produce burst or popcorn noise,
whose waveform resembles the random telegraph wave.
Flicker and burst noise pose serious problems for low-frequency
applications, but they usually can be ignored at frequencies above a
few kilohertz.
At much higher frequencies, capacitive coupling and various other
effects tend to increase noise in electronic devices.
Non-white noise may or may not be significant, depending on the
device and the application.
215
Semiconductor noise
Figure illustrates the frequency variation of
semiconductor noise caused by flicker, burst,
and white noise.
216
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Electrical Noise
Noise terms
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219
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Minimum SNR
221
Noise sources
Note that as a signal passes through a cascade of
amplifier stages, the SNR continually decreases
because each stage adds additional noise.
In most systems, however, the amplified output noise
is due primarily to
(1) the noise present along with the input signal, and
(2) the noise contributed by the first two stages
(such as the RF amplifier and mixer stages in a
receiver).
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Noise bandwidth
Noise bandwidth
If the amplifier had a Constant gain characteristic, with
cutoff at fc
constant gain Av up
to some frequency fc
and zero gain
thereafter, the noise
bandwidth B would Filter with voltage gain Av (f), power
clearly be equal to fc. gain proportional to Av(f)2.
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225
Filter
Consider a filter, as shown in figure, that has
voltage gain Av(f)=V2/V1.
Filter with voltage gain Av (f), power
gain proportional to |Av(f)|2.
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Frequency response
Illustration of
noise-equivalent
bandwidth B,
defined by equal
areas under the
dashed and solid
curves. 227
Filter output
If the input to this filter is white noise with mean-
square voltage v1n2/Hz, the corresponding mean-
square output voltage in a 1-hertz interval at
frequency f is
228
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Noise-equivalent bandwidth
The value of the integral on the right side is the area
under the solid-line curve of |Av(f)l2 in Fig..
The dashed line shows a rectangular spectrum of the
same maximum height lAm|2 and with bandwidth B.
Illustration of
noise-equivalent
bandwidth B,
defined by equal
areas under the
dashed and solid
curves. 229
or
230
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Comment
This is the value of B that should be used in equations
earlier, and obviously it must be evaluated for the
particular system being analyzed.
The integral is not always easy to evaluate.
However, in many RF amplifiers, the bandwidth is
established by tuned RLC circuits for which the noise
bandwidth is /2 times the 3-dB bandwidth of the
circuit.
231
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233
234
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Amplifier noise
A detailed circuit model showing all the
individual noise sources within an amplifier
would be very complicated and of little practical
value.
Consequently, alternative methods have been
devised for the analysis of noise in amplifiers.
Two particularly useful measures of amplifier
noise are the effective noise temperature and the
noise figure.
Both of these measures involve the concept of
available power gain.
235
236
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237
238
Note: Rs and R2 are the real parts of corresponding impedances.
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239
Voltage relations
Examination of the network yields the
following relations:
Z1 Z s 1 Z1 1
Vs V1
Z1 Vs Z 1 Z s V1
Construction of Vo/Vs:
Vo 1 Z1 V Z1
Vo o H f
Vs Vs Z1 Z s V1 Z1 Z s
240
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Lecture notes Radio Engineering by Jorma Kekalainen
into
241
Remark
The two-port model applies only if the network is
unilateral (no reverse transmission).
For this case it is worth emphasizing that Ga given by
the previous expression is independent of the value of
ZL.
The available gain of several cascaded unilateral
networks is equal to the product of the Ga values of
the individual networks.
Note that Ga is not the actual gain of the network the value of Ga would be obtained in
242
practice only with ideal matched conditions (Z1 = Zs*and ZL = Z2*) at both ports.
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Note:
243
244
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Noiseless network
245
246
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247
and
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Note: Watch out for several variations of the term with subtle differences that can be
249
confusing.
I/O-powers
Figure shows a noisy network with input
signal and noise powers and Psi and Pni
respectively, and corresponding output signal
and noise powers Pso and Pno.
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251
252
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253
254
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255
Note
In practice, the value of Pno is measured over a
small bandwidth f that is more than 1 Hz due
to the practical limitation on filter bandwidth.
The equation for NF then becomes
256
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258
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From
259
gives
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Lecture notes Radio Engineering by Jorma Kekalainen
261
262
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Note that the input source temperature does not appear in the expression.
Pne is a symbol for additional noise power at the output caused by noisy network. 263
264
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in
265
Conclusion
266
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If Ts T0=290K
By definition, the standard noise figure is the
ratio of the input SNR to the output SNR with
the input source at the standard 290 K noise
temperature.
In many practical cases, however, the input
noise temperature is not 290 K and the
standard noise temperature does not describe
accurately the SNR degradation from input to
output of a system.
267
in which TsT0.
This value is related to the standard noise
figure evaluated for Ts=T0 by the relation
268
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Example
Calculate effective temperatures and noise figures for the
receiver front end shown in below. The antenna has a
(radiation) resistance of 70 ohms and an effective temperature
of 20 K due primarily to external radiation.
The noise contributed by the receiver local oscillator is assumed to be negligible (which
269
is not always the case).
Solution
Noise figures and gains for the RF amplifier
and mixer are given in decibels, and must be
converted to actual values for use in the
computation.
For the RF amplifier, NF1=2, and Ga1 = 10.
For the mixer, NF2 = 4.47 and Ga2 = 7.94.
270
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Solution
By the use of
271
Solution
Then from
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Lecture notes Radio Engineering by Jorma Kekalainen
Solution
The overall noise figure can be calculated from
either
or
273
Comment
In the preceding example, the value of NF was found
to be 2.35 or 3.7 dB.
However, since the antenna temperature was 20 K,
the use of
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Electrical Noise
Noise calculations
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Lecture notes Radio Engineering by Jorma Kekalainen
Example
Solution
d
f df
2 2
1 4kTG
Vn2
2 G (C ) 2
0 2
d
4kTG d
2 0
2G C 2
1 ( )
G
4kT d
2G 0 1 ( C ) 2
G
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3dB
4kT kT
arctan x0
2C C
0
2
279
Example
Show that
4kTG
V
n
2
df
0 G 2 (2fC ) 2
yields
1 G
Vn2 4kTR f 3dB , when f 3dB
2 2 C
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Lecture notes Radio Engineering by Jorma Kekalainen
Solution
4kTG 4kTG df
Vn2 df
0 G 2 ( 2fC ) 2 G 2 0 2fC 2
1 ( )
G
4kT df 1 2C
G 0 f
,
f 3dB
G
1 ( )2
f 3dB
4kTf 3dB dx f
G 0 1 x2
,x
f 3dB
df f 3dB dx
1
G
4kTf 3dB
arctan x 0 4kTR f 3dB
R
G 2
0
2
281
Example
According to quantum mechanics the spectral density of
thermal noise can be expressed in form
hf V2
Gnoise f hf
Hz
e kT
1
where k=1.38*10-23 J/K
h=6.62*10-34 Js
is the proportionality symbol
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Frequency [GHz]
283
Solution a)
Of course, we can approximate with series expansion of e
2
hf
hf
hf kT
e kT
1
kT 2
hf hf
, 1
kT kT
Now we get
hf
G f kT , 0 1
kT
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Solution a)
Lets select the standard temperature T=T0=290K and a
rough but conservative estimate
hf upper kT0
0.1 1 f upper 0.1
kT0 h
Substituting numerical values kT0 4 10 21 J
and h 6.62 10 -34 Js
f upper 1012 Hz
This upper limit is in the infrared portion of the
electromagnetic spectrum.
285
LHospitals rule
If lim M f lim N f 0
f 0 f 0
286
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Gnoise(0)
Lets denote Mf hf V2
Gnoise f
N f hf
Hz
e kT
1
d
hf
Mf M f df
lim
f 0 N f
lim
f 0 N f
lim
f 0 d
hf
e kT 1
df
h kT
lim hf
lim hf
kT
f 0 h kT f 0
e e kT
kT
Gnoise(0) kT 287
Example
Reduce the circuit
288
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Solution
289
Solution
Note: Removing the voltage source means that we replace the source voltage with
short-circuit.
Note: In circuit noise analysis we simply use the thermal noise source model
vn2(f)=4kTRTh , not the signal source model based on the voltage division as in this
problem. Circuits containing more than one resistor may be analyzed by reducing them
to one (Thvenin) equivalent resistance RTh and applying vn2 (f)=4kTRTh to obtain the
mean-square noise voltage density. So the noise Thevenin equivalent of such a circuit
is then a voltage source with this mean-square voltage density in series with an ideal
(noiseless) resistor RTh. 290
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Example
In the network below R1 and R2 are thermal resistances
at different temperatures (T1T2). Let R2 = R1 = R and L
= R/(2). Obtain expressions for vn2(f) and p(f).
291
Solution
Now resistances are at different temperatures
(T1T2) Nyquists formula
vn2 f 4 R f kT
is not valid.
However, the sources are independent.
Thus, we can use superposition and sum mean square
values to find resulting frequency densities.
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Solution
Applying superposition the total short-circuit mean square
current density is
vn21 f vn22 f
in21 f in22 f 2
2
Z1 Z2
where vn21 f 4 RkT1 and vn22 f 4 RkT2
2
R
R jfR R fR
2 2
R j 2f 2 2
Z1
2
2
Z2 R2
4k T1
in2 f T2
R 1 f 2
293
Solution
Z Th f ( R jfR) || R
R( R jfR) R1 jf
R ( R jfR) 2 jf
Z Th f
2 R1 jf
2
R2 1 f 2
2 jf
2
4 f 2
According to Ohm' s law
v f Z Th f
2
i f
2 2
4kR T1 1 f 2 T2
n n
4 f 2
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Solution
R1 jf
Z Th f
2 jf
ReZ Th f Re
R1 jf 2 jf R 2 f 2
2 jf 2 jf 4 f 2
p f
vn2 f
k
T1 1 f 2 T2
4 ReZ Th f 2 f 2
T1 T2 T
Note : p f kT
295
Note
When the resistances are in thermal equilibrium at
temperature T, Nyquists formula states that
vn2 f 4 RTh f kT , RTh f ReZTh f
Z Th f RTh f jX Th f
Hence, the mean square voltage density takes the
shape of the equivalent resistance RTh(f).
Nyquists equation includes the special case of an all-
resistive network whose equivalent resistance will be
independent of f.
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Note
297
Example
Lets study the circuit model of a noiseless amplifier inserted
between a source and a load.
For simplicity, we have omitted any reactances that might be
associated with the source, amplifier, or load impedances.
In this analysis we use spectral density functions
298
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Noisy amplifier
Well assume from now on that the source generates
white noise, thermal or non-thermal, with noise
temperature Ts.
Then pas(f) = kTs and the available noise power
density at the output of a noiseless amplifier will be
301
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303
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305
Block-diagram representation of a
noisy amplifier
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The available signal power from the source is Ss and the signal
spectrum falls within the passband of the amplifier so the available
signal power at the output will be
So = gSs.
307
308
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Note
Although the source noise does not necessarily have a defined
bandwidth, the source signal-to-noise ratio is taken by convention to
be
S def . S s
N s kTs BN
which just corresponds to the signal-to-noise ratio produced by an
ideal noiseless filter with unit gain and bandwidth BN.
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SNR comments
Note that in case of a noisy amplifier
(S/N)o< (S/N)s.
We also see that the degradation of signal-to-
noise ratio due to a noisy amplifier depends upon
the value of effective noise temperature relative to
the source noise temperature.
In particular, if Te<<Ts then (S/N)o (S/N)s
Meaning that under this condition the internal
noise has little effect and the amplifier appears to
be noiseless.
311
Mismatching comments
When impedances are not matched at the input or
output all signal and noise powers will be less
than the available powers.
Nonetheless, the previous SNR calculations are
still valid because they express power ratios
measured at specific points, so the impedance
mismatch factor cancels out along with the gain.
The effective noise temperature is therefore a
significant parameter, irrespective of impedance
matching.
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Lecture notes Radio Engineering by Jorma Kekalainen
when Ts T0
F vs. Te
Conversely
Te F 1T0
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315
Spot noise
Equation
No T
F 1 e
gkT0 BN T0
defines the average or integrated noise figure in the sense that
No involves the integral of p0(f) over all frequency.
But sometimes we need to know how the internal noise varies
with frequency.
The spot noise figure F(f) contains this information in the form
po f
F f , when Ts T0
kTs g a f 316
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317
N1 CN o Cgk T0 Te BN
where the proportionality constant C includes any impedance
mismatch factor at the output.
2 Increase the source temperature to Ts=T0+Tx such that the
power meter reading has doubled
N 2 Cgk T0 Tx Te BN 2N1
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Then form
N 2 Tx T0 Te
2 Te Tx T0
N1 T0 Te
The final result follows substituting Te
to noise figure expression
No T T T T
F 1 e 1 x 0 x
gkT0 BN T0 T0 T0
Example
An amplifier with g = 60 dB and BN =2 MHz has No = 40 nW
when the source noise is at room temperature.
(a) Find the effective noise temperature Te and noise figure F.
(b) Calculate the increased source temperature Ts needed for
the second step of the previous measurement procedure.
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Solution
An amplifier with g = 60 dB and BN =2 MHz has No = 40 nW
when the source noise is at room temperature.
(a) Find the effective noise temperature Te and noise figure F.
The total output noise power
N o gk T0 Te BN 106 k T0 Te 2 10 6
T0 Te
2 1012 4 10 21 40 10 9
T0
T0 Te
So 5 Te 5T0 T0 4T0
T0
Te 4T
F 1 1 0 5
T0 T0
321
Solution
An amplifier with g = 60 dB and BN =2 MHz has No = 40 nW
when the source noise is at room temperature.
(b) Calculate the increased source temperature Ts needed
for the second step of the previous measurement procedure
From a)
T
F x 5 Tx 5T0
T0
Ts =T0+Tx=6T0=6*290=1740K
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323
Block-diagram representation of a
noisy amplifier
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325
N o gkTs BN 1 g kTamb BN
1
gk Ts L 1Tamb BN , L
g
we obtain the effective noise temperature
Te L 1Tamb
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No T
F 1 e
gkT0 BN T0
we obtain
Tamb
F 1 L 1
T0
Note: If a lossy two-port is at room temperature, then Tamb = T0 and F = L. 327
328
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329
BN B2B1 g = g1g2
We further assume that the passband of the second stage falls
within the passband of the first stage, so B2 B1 and the
overall noise bandwidth is
BN B2.
This condition reflects the sensible strategy of designing the
last stage to mop up any remaining noise that falls outside the
signal band.
The overall power gain then equals the product
g = g1g2
since the first stage amplifies everything passed by the second
stage.
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Te
F 1 .
T0
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General case
The foregoing analysis readily generalizes to the case of three or
more cascaded LTI two-ports.
The overall effective noise temperature and noise figure are given
by
T2 T
Te T1 3
g1 g1 g 2
F2 1 F3 1
F F1
g1 g1 g 2
Both expressions bring out the fact that the first stage plays a critical
role and must be given careful attention in system design.
333
T1 L1 1Tamb Te L 1Tamb
The overall noise temperature thus becomes
T2 T
Te T1 3
g1 g1 g 2
L1T3
L1 1Tamb L1T2
g2
Note: L1 (>1) multiplies the noise temperatures of all subsequent stages. 334
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T2 T
Te T1 3
g1 g1 g 2
T1 , g1
The system noise is then determined primarily by the preamplifier.
The remaining stages provide additional amplification and filtering,
amplifying the signal and noise without appreciably changing the
signal-to-noise ratio.
The design of low-noise receivers is usually based on this
preamplification principle.
335
Complete receiver
Here a complete communications receiver has been
divided into two major parts, a predetection unit
followed by a detector.
The detector processes the amplified signal plus noise
and carries out a nonlinear operation, i.e., analog
demodulation or digital regeneration.
It is the reasonable assumption that the detector
introduces negligible noise compared to the amplified
noise coming from the predetection unit.
We are concerned here with the predetection signal-to-
noise ratio denoted by (S/N)R.
Note: When the predetection unit includes a frequency converter, as in a
superheterodyne receiver, its conversion gain takes the place of available power gain. 336
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Communications receiver
(a) Communications receiver; (b) noise model of predetection unit.
BT is the transmission
bandwidth required
for the signal
337
Predection unit
The predetection portion of a receiver is a cascade of
noisy amplifiers and other functional blocks that act
as LTI two-ports under the usual small-signal
conditions.
Hence, as indicated in the previous block diagram a),
the entire predetection unit can be characterized by its
overall effective noise temperature calculated from
the general equation
T2 T
Te T1 3
g1 g1 g 2
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where p k TR Te kTN
339
340
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Example
The signal received at a satellite ground station is
extremely weak.
Fortunately, the accompanying noise comes
primarily from cold atmospheric phenomena
and has a very low temperature.
Minimizing the receiver noise is therefore
essential.
In contrast, a receiving antenna pointed at or
below the horizon picks up blackbody radiation
from the hot earth; then TRT0 and receiver
noise will be relatively less important.
341
Example
Calculate a) the overall effective noise temperature Te
b) the system noise temperature
c) the predetection signal-to-noise ratio(S/N)R
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Lecture notes Radio Engineering by Jorma Kekalainen
Solution a)
Calculate a) the overall effective noise temperature Te
b) the system noise temperature
c) the predetection signal-to-noise ratio (S/N)R
T1 L1 1Tamb Te L 1Tamb
T2 T
Te T1 3
g1 g1 g 2
L1T3
L1 1Tamb L1T2
g2
1.05 170 1.05 1860
Te (1.05 1)290 1.05 9
100 100 10
14.5 9.5 1.8 2.0 27.8 K
Note: The waveguide loss accounts for half of Te, while the noise from the FM
receiver has been nearly washed out by the preamplification gain. 343
Solution b)
b) Calculate the system noise temperature
TN TR Te 30 K 27.8 K 57.8K
0.2T0
344
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c) Predetection (S/N)R
(a) Communications receiver; (b) noise model of predetection unit.
BT is the transmission
bandwidth required
for the signal
S S SR 10 12
R 50 17 dB
N R pBT k TR Te BT 0.2 4 10 25 10
- 21 6
Note: This SNR would be too low for analog communication without the further
345
improvement caused by FM demodulation.
Example
Suppose the parametric amplifier in the figure below could be
mounted directly on the antenna, ahead of the waveguide.
Find the system noise temperature TN with and without the
FET preamplifier.
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Solution
Find the system noise temperature TN with and without the
FET preamplifier.
347
Note: FET increases (S/N)R by 58.7/42.9=1.371.4 dB
Electrical Noise
Recap
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Noise
Thermal noise: electron collisions with the lattice structure in
resistive materials
For a resistor, we have a noise voltage
Receiver noise
Characterization of receiver noise (as well as noise of other devices)
relies on some main points and parameters to be remembered
For use as a noise reference:
Available noise power of a matched load
For use as parameters of the receiver or device:
Noise factor (noise figure when in dB)
Noise temperature
Noise temperature is applicable also e.g. to antenna then it is
called antenna noise temperature
Also noise bandwidth is a useful and effective concept
Idea: All of these simplify handling noise very complex subject
otherwise
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Reference noise
Available noise power of a matched load
351
352
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Noise factor
Noise factor (F) indicates how many times larger the output
noise power of a device is compared to a noiseless device
when both have a 290 K resistive termination in input
Note: Here noise temperature has to be reference value T0 = 290 K, not some
freely chosen temperature 353
F =SNRin/SNRout
354
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Noise figure
Note: Some authors use these two concepts just the other way round. 355
356
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357
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Noise bandwidth
Equal
areas
Note
Through this way we can use Gt,max and Bn as
simple parameters in noise power calculations
of device.
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Example
Picture shows a G-curve of a receiver low-noise amplifier
(LNA) with 13 dB of maximum gain.
Define the noise bandwidth Bn of the LNA.
G(f)
361
Noise of an attenuator
Noise temperature of a resistive attenuator
362
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Receiver noise
Receivers are chains of stages - some noise is added
and also amplified in them - how to calculate it all?
Noise factor and noise temperature of a chain of
stages
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Comparing amplifiers
When amplifiers are compared, the noise
measure counts:
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Example
Lets consider a simple example of two amplifiers in
chain
How about combined noise?
First amplifier (LNA stage): T1 = 100 K, G1 = 13 dB (=>
G1 = 20)
Second amplifier (gain stage): T2 = 300 K, G2 = 26 dB
(=> G2 = 400)
367
Comment on example
We notice that of the noise added by amplifiers,
100 K/115 K 87 % is from the 1st and only 15
K/115 K 13 % from the 2nd amplifier => we
have a typical dominating first stage
If we use the amplifier chain with a 290 K input
termination, then 290 K /(115 K + 290 K) 72 %
of noise in the chain output is amplified noise
from the input termination while amplifiers
contribute 25 % and 4 %, respectively
In practice, of course, input noise depends on
application
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Molecular
resonances of water
vapour and oxygen:
loss as in an
attenuator => also
noise
Background
noise of the
Big Bang
Note: The HEMT or High Electron Mobility Transistor is a form of field effect transistor,
FET, that is used to provide very high levels of performance at microwave frequencies. 369
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371
Radio link
Signal-to-noise ratio is a critical parameter for a radio link
For example, frequency modulation requires SNR 10 dB
Usually also some margin is needed due to fading etc.
SNR depends on received signal power and noise power of the
receiving system
By calculating SNR we get a link budget where the effects of
different factors are easily seen
372
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Radio link
Received signal power Input noise power of
receiver system
373
374
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375
Example
376
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377
378
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Communication link
calculations
Communication link
All communications links comprise
a transmitter,
a channel and
a receiver.
A channel might be
a radio or optical link through the atmosphere,
an optical fiber,
a coaxial cable,
a twisted pair cable, or
a telephone wire on a pole.
Links have performance attributes throughput/capacity,
error rates, bandwidth etc.
The type of channel determines the design of the
transmitter and the receiver.
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Shannons model
381
382
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383
Transmission media
There are basically two types of media, wired or
wireless.
Here, we are dealing with the wireless medium
only.
Electromagnetic waves travel through the earths
atmosphere in the following four ways:
Ground wave propagation
Ionospheric propagation
Tropospheric scattering
Line of sight
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385
Ionospheric propagation
Frequencies between 3 and 50 MHz are
reflected by the ionosphere and can travel
much further than ground waves.
386
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Tropospheric scattering
Above VHF, we see a phenomena where the signals are
scattered by the troposphere.
The scattered waves are very weak, but they can be received
and demodulated.
This mode of media behavior is called tropospheric scattering.
387
Line of sight
This is the mode for satellite communications and also for
terrestrial microwave links.
For frequencies above 3 GHz to about 10 GHz, the earths
atmosphere offers practically no degradation.
Frequencies above 10 GHz suffer from oxygen and water
vapor absorption and cause degradation.
388
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Link budgets
The designer hopes that the signal will complete its trip
through link chain with just enough power to be decoded at
the receiver with the desired signal quality.
With digital signals, the quality is measured by the Bit Error
Rate (BER).
If we want our signal to have a low BER, we would start it out
with higher power and then make sure that along the way it
has enough power available at every stage to maintain this
BER.
The signal can get extra power infusion along the way from
intermediate amplifiers such as microwave repeaters for
telephone links or from satellite transponders for satellite links.
389
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Erfc
According to the previous formula the BER of
any signal is related to its Eb/N0 by the
complementary error function
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BER of a signal
393
394
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395
Bit energy
To compute Eb, we divide the average signal power by
its bit rate
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Noise density
In the denominator of Eb/N0, the quantity N0 is called
the noise density.
It is the total noise power in the frequency band of the
signal divided by the bandwidth of the signal.
Noise density is measured as Watts/Hz and is the
noise power in one Hz of bandwidth.
397
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N=N0B
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Lecture notes Radio Engineering by Jorma Kekalainen
Transmitter
401
Flux density
The flux density is a measure of energy that is available
for gathering from a particular source.
It is sometimes called the Radio Power of a Source.
The flux density is defined by
402
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The amplifier puts out a certain amount of power and the antenna is
said to have a particular gain that further amplifies this power.
This combination is here called the transmitter.
Usually, lossy elements such as wires connect these two components
in the preferred direction of radiation of the antenna.
These losses are included in the quoted EIRP figure for the
transmitter.
403
404
Note: EIRP is the numerator of the flux density equation.
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Lecture notes Radio Engineering by Jorma Kekalainen
Note
There are two hidden assumption in EIRP.
First is that the transmitter is putting out the
maximum power that it can, and second, that
the EIRP figure is delivered at the antennas
boresight.
So if you happen to have your antenna pointed
not quite straight into the boresight of the
transmitting antenna then you will not get the
quoted EIRP.
405
Received power
EIRP and the flux density both tells us something
about a transmitter but nothing about what is
actually received.
To compute power received by a receiver at a
distance r from the source, we need to multiply
the flux density with the receiving antennas area.
The flux density is energy per unit area per unit
time.
The only useable part of this energy is what is
accepted by the receiving antenna.
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Effective area
So the power received is equal to the flux density
times the receiving area
407
Power equation
Now we can write the expression for computing the received
power as
408
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409
Noise
This topic causes a lot of confusion, particularly when dealing
with link budgets.
As we can see, our important parameters Eb/N0, C/N, C/N0 all
have this noise term on the denominator.
All objects not at absolute zero emit electromagnetic radiation.
The band of frequencies emitted are a function of the
temperature of the object.
E.g. a light bulb emits many different frequencies.
Most of its radiation is in the range of infra-red light and
ultraviolet frequencies which we can see and feel.
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Noise
The sun puts out visible noise in the light wave
frequencies among many others that we can
not see such as X-rays and infra-red.
The noise coming to us from the galaxies is
typically in microwave frequencies.
The statistics of this noise is well described by
quantum physics.
The black body radiation problem was first
solved by Max Planck in 1901.
411
Spectral radiance
According Planck's law
hf
G f , T hf
e kT
1
where G(f,T) is the spectral radiance or the energy per unit
time (or the power) radiated per unit area of emitting surface in
the normal direction per unit solid angle per unit frequency by
a black body at temperature T; h is the Planck constant; k is the
Boltzmann constant; f is the frequency of the electromagnetic
radiation; and T is the absolute temperature of the body.
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hf vs. kT
For radio and microwave frequencies, the factor hf is quite
small relative to the factor kT in the nominal range of room
temperatures, say 290 degrees in Kelvin.
Thus the exponential function in the expression can be
approximated by the first two terms.
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Note
415
Thermal noise
416
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417
Noise definition 1
The thermal noise power in a bandwidth B is
kTB.
We can define noise density simply as the
power of the noise signal divided by its
bandwidth
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Noise definition 2
We can define noise density
Noise power
Lets now set these two definitions for noise
density N0 equal
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Noise bandwidth
There is no confusion when talking about bit rates but
unfortunately there are many different ways of defining
bandwidth.
The most common definition of bandwidth is the distance
from one pass-band edge to another where the edge is
defined as the 3 dB below the maximum.
What is the noise bandwidth in the equation for noise?
In simple terms, it is the noise that is allowed to enter into
the system by the receive filter.
The idea of noise bandwidth is to cover all power passed-in
by the filter.
Generally, the noise bandwidth is approximately 1.12 times
the 3 dB bandwidth of the signal.
421
G/T
G/T is a very important parameter of receivers.
The T is the thermal noise temperature of the receiver and it
impacts the ability of the receiver to see a signal in the noise.
Just as we characterize a transmitter by its EIRP, we use G/T in
a similar way to specify receivers.
In dB, G/T is the difference in the gain of the receiving
antenna gain and its noise temperature
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Note
This handy G/T variable allows us to compare
receiving systems of all kinds.
A G/T of 15 dB is better than 10 dB.
This parameter is usually given for earth stations
as well as for satellite receivers, and does not
need to be calculated.
In doing link budgets, we will assume that it is
given.
Actually calculating the G/T or the Noise Figure
of a receiver is a topic in itself and worthy of the
own story.
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425
Rain
Signal attenuation due to rain is the second most
significant after free space loss.
It is particularly significant for higher SHF frequencies.
We have to deal with rain losses for both uplinks and
downlinks.
It also varies a great deal from location to location since
it is a function of the rain rate.
The attenuation can vary from 0.1 dB in California to
over 10 dB in Seattle.
Providing for this large attenuation in satellite links
results in over design of the system for areas which
have little rain.
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427
Rain models
There many popular rain models that help us
compute the rain loss.
E.g., these are
NASA Rain Attenuation Model
CCIR Rain Attenuation Model
The result from each can vary by 1-2 dB
depending on how the regions are defined and
estimate of rain rate is made.
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Antenna misalignment
The antenna gain plays an important role in the link
calculations and we have assumed that the receiving
antenna and the transmitting antenna are oriented perfectly
so that the maximum gain of the receiving antenna is
aligned with the uplink.
The gain varies a great deal off the bore sight and as shown
in the figure below, unless we have perfect alignment, we
are going to have losses associated with this.
There are two parts to this loss.
One is at the transmitter, if its antenna is not pointed to deliver
maximum gain and
the second is at the receiving antenna is not pointed to receive
the maximum gain.
Antenna pointing is an important operation and calibrations
are performed when the system is set up.
429
Antenna misalignment
To receive maximum EIRP, both receiving and
transmitting antenna have to be aligned
perfectly
430
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Gaseous absorption
431
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Eb/N0
434
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Lecture notes Radio Engineering by Jorma Kekalainen
435
436
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Coding gain
E.g. in bank transactions over the line to an another
bank, an error-free transmission is wanted.
Typically a data transmission at about 10-12 BER is
considered nearly error free or quasi error-free using
the official term.
To get a picture of 10-12 BER, this is equivalent to about
one error per hundred million pages of text transmitted.
A typical satellite link can provide, for a reasonable
power level, only about 10-3 BER.
This is equal to about ten errors per page.
This may be OK if this a voice signal or music but data
at this error rate is quite unacceptable.
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440
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441
BER curves
Lets take a look at the
following BER curves.
The right most curve is
for an uncoded QPSK
signal, the other two for
coded links. BER
First thing we see is that
the use of valid coding
moves the BER curve to
the left.
Otherwise there would be
no point to use error Eb/N0(dB)
correcting codes.
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BER curves
These curves say that
we can get the same
BER but for a lesser
Eb/N0.
Of course, our effective BER
data rate is reduced.
But we wont worry
about the reduced data
rate, if we can live with
it.
Eb/N0(dB)
443
Example
We see that for a desired
BER of 10-5, an
uncoded QPSK signal
requires an Eb/N0 of 9.6
dB. BER
444
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Coding gain
Coding gain is the difference between Eb/N0 needed for
an uncoded system and Eb/N0 needed for a coded
system.
We define the coding gain as
Coding Gain = Uncoded Eb/N0 - Coded Eb/N0
for any particular BER.
The coding gain is a function of the BER level chosen.
So before the coding gain calculation we need to know
what BER level is desired for the link.
E.g., a BER of 10-5 can be chosen for voice and 10-10
10-12 for data links.
445
Coding gain
The coded BER curves
shown beside are usually
produced by testing or
simulation.
In scientific literature there
can be found BER curves for
BER
various types of codes.
In most cases this loss in
useful bit rate is accepted for
reduction in transmit power.
This is true now for all types
of links including wireless Eb/N0 (dB)
phones as well.
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Link margin
Margin
447
Note
Other factors such as interference from
adjacent channels and adjacent links will affect
the link budgets.
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Microwaves
Applications
Microwaves are conventionally encountered in
three kinds of applications:
1. radar, used for detection and measurements;
2. radiocommunications, for point-to-point links,
most particularly for satellite and space
communications;
3. heating, drying, cooking of many different types
of materials.
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Applications
The majority of applications of microwaves are related
to radar and communication systems.
Microwave communication systems handle a large
fraction of the worlds international and other long-haul
telephone, data, and television transmissions.
Most of the current wireless telecommunications
systems, such as terrestrial radio links, satellite
communications , wireless local and personal or body
area networks (WLAN, WPAN, WBAN), cellular
systems, and global positioning satellite (GPS) systems,
operate in the UHF EHF range, and thus rely on
microwave technology.
451
Applications
Information applications are in the field of information
acquisition and transfer.
In radar, microwaves permit acquisition of certain
information, which is contained within the echo signal from a
target.
The location and characteristics of the latter are determined by
comparing the signal received after reflection to the emitted
signal.
In communications, microwaves provide the support to the
information which is to be transmitted from very small to very
large distances.
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Applications
453
Microwave field
The microwave field covers quite a wide range of
applications of very diverse nature.
Many different problems are found in the field.
On the fundamental level, basic theories quickly lead
to very complex mathematics.
In rather sharp contrast, many practical applications
are still based on the traditional cut and try
experimental approach or/and simulation.
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Theoretical models
The same variety is encountered in the use of models at different levels of
complexity.
The study of waveguides and cavities can be done by considering the
electrical and magnetic fields, described in terms of Maxwells
equations.
The same macroscopic model is also adequate to consider the interactions
between electromagnetic fields and an electron beam, as they occur in most
generating and amplifying vacuum tubes.
For other active components, such as the solid state sources, the use of
quantum physics is required.
The characterization and measurement of components is done in terms of
circuit theory, using the scattering matrix formalism and Kirchhoffs
laws.
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457
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Compromise definition
459
Skin effect
The origin of the microwave spectrum should be where
conventional components cease to display normal parameters.
But why would such a change occur?
One key reason is a phenomenon known as the skin effect.
At higher frequencies the energy of a wave tends to use only
the outside skin of a conductor for the transferring of energy
because larger and larger flux are set up around a conductor,
increasing its inductance.
By once the inductive reactance (XL) increases when the
frequency does, thereby offering a larger resistance to the
energy.
Thus the high frequency component searches for the path of
lowest resistance on the outer skin of the conductor.
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Skin effect
Because of this phenomenon the energy travels only on the outside
edge of the conductors; lumped components thus become very
unpredictable and impractical at microwave frequencies.
It has been observed that some capacitors actually look inductive at
high frequencies.
The capacitance set up in coils and wire-wound resistors when used
at microwave frequencies completely cancel out the intended
functions of each of these components.
Special materials, usually of a ceramic base, are used in the
production of capacitors and resistors for use at the higher
frequencies.
Coils are usually made of high impedance lines cut to a specific
length.
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US MICROWAVE BAND
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465
1 eV=1e*1V=1.6*10-19 As*1V=1.6*10-19J
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Remark
The term microwaves, used to define a range
of frequencies, denotes the smallness of the
wavelength encountered, as compared to those
utilized for conventional radio and television.
The use of the comparative prefix micro may
lead to confusions here too: one would expect
microwaves to denote wavelengths in the
micrometer range and not, as is actually the
case, in the millimeter to meter ranges.
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469
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Frequency allocation
Use of radio frequency bands is regulated by governments.
ITU works on standards for frequency allocation.
471
Dimensional comment
The wavelength of a microwave signal is of the same
order of magnitude as the devices used to produce it
and to transmit it.
It is not possible to assume that devices are merely
dimensionless points in space, as is done in circuit
theory approximations.
Also, the term voltage is not defined in a unique way,
since the electric field does not derive from a scalar
potential.
On the other hand, it is neither possible to assume that
devices become large with respect to wavelength, as is
the case for geometrical optics.
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Wave theory
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Microwaves
Properties of microwaves
Bandwidth
The very wide frequency bands available at microwaves are most
favorable for radio communications.
The rate of transmission of a channel being directly proportional to
its bandwidth, a simple calculation shows that over the 300 MHz to
300 GHz frequency range, 999 times more information can be
transmitted over a specified time period than in all the lower
frequency bands taken together.
As a result, the use of microwaves permits meeting the increasing
need for communications channels.
This particular property is directly related to the signal frequency.
Following the same line of reasoning, even much larger amounts of
information could, in principle, be transmitted over the infrared and
visible spectra, using lasers and optical fiber systems.
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Electromagnetic noise
The noise picked up by an antenna directed skyward, in the absence of
signal, goes through a relatively flat minimum over the 1 to 10 GHz
frequency range.
The received noise power is the product of the equivalent noise temperature
(in Kelvin) by Boltzmanns constant (kB =1.3804 10-23 J/K) and by the
receivers bandwidth.
Over the 1-10 GHz band, the noise temperature decreases below 10 Kelvin.
In practical terms, this means that it is within this frequency range that
signals of the lowest amplitude can be detected, and thus the most sensitive
receivers can be designed.
For instance, signals of extremely low levels received after transmission
across planetary space are often in the neighborhood of 3 GHz.
A further requirement for the receiver is not to produce too much noise,
which would degrade the input signal-to-noise ratio.
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Directivity of antennas
The width of the beam radiated by an antenna is directly
proportional to the ratio of the wavelength to the antennas
largest dimension.
When transmitting a signal from one point to another
(microwave link), or when determining the origin of a
reflection (radar), a narrow beamwidth is required.
It is then either necessary to have a large size antenna, which is
often not convenient for mechanical reasons, or to utilize a
signal of high frequency.
Microwaves are well suited for such applications.
481
Note
Even narrower beamwidths are obtained using
signals in the visible range (laser).
As the beam is then extremely narrow, it must
be directed quite accurately towards the
detector, and pointing problems may become
significant.
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Reflection on targets
The effective reflection area of an object depends in a
very sensitive manner on the ratio of the objects size
to the wavelength.
When the reflecting element is much smaller than the
wavelength, the reflection becomes vanishingly
small.
On the other hand, when the wavelength becomes
much smaller than the object, the effective reflection
area for a metallic element is approximately its cross
section transverse to the beam.
483
Remark
Centimeter waves thus detect objects of meter
size, but are not affected by raindrops.
The latter can, on the other hand, perturb the
detection at millimeter waves.
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Non-ionizing radiation
Note
At frequencies far above microwaves, a photon
can have enough energy to extract an electron
and produce ionization.
This happens in the visible spectrum,
ultraviolet (suntan), X and gamma rays.
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489
Note
The set of properties listed previously makes
microwaves a privileged field for a large
number of applications, such as satellite
communications and radar, but also heating
and measurement.
Some of these applications simply could not
exist without microwaves.
For others, microwaves provide the best
compromise among various requirements to be
satisfied simultaneously.
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Microwaves
Historical landmarks
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First waveguide
Communications experiments
The first practical experiments carried out with
the purpose of using microwaves for the
transmission of information are credited to
George Southworth, at the Bell Telephone
Laboratories, in the US during the 1920s and
1930s.
Wave propagation along copper water pipes
was investigated.
Since then, users of microwaves have often been
nicknamed plumbers.
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Development of radar
495
Development of radar
A short signal pulse is launched, the time
between its departure and the return of a
reflected signal is measured.
To ensure an adequate detection of targets,
signals of increasingly higher frequencies were
found to be needed.
The magnetron was developed for this
purpose, being the first tube having a high
power generating capability at microwaves.
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Development of radar
The design and the industrial fabrication of radar
systems started around 1940.
Radar played a significant role during World War II,
among others in the well known Battle of Britain.
Some of the research and development work was de-
classified at the end of the war.
Particularly worth mentioning is the 25-volume set
published by the Massachusetts Institute of Technology
(Radiation Laboratory Series), covering all aspects of radar
design, including the foundations of microwaves.
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499
Ferrite devices
The first non-reciprocal linear passive device
appeared in 1956, a gyrator.
The many isolators and circulators developed since
then are mostly devices for protection, decoupling,
and control.
They are nowadays found in most microwave
systems.
An important property of a gyrator is that it inverts the current-voltage characteristic of
an electrical component or network.
An isolator is a two-port device that transmits microwave or radio frequency power in
one direction only.
A circulator is a passive non-reciprocal three - or four-port device, in which a microwave
or radio frequency signal entering any port is transmitted to the next port in rotation only.
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Satellite communications
The first satellite, Sputnik I, was placed in orbit on
October 4 1957.
In 1962 Telstar was launched, the first
communications satellite placed in a low earth orbit.
Three years later, in 1965, the satellite Early Bird was
placed in a geostationary orbit (remaining over a
fixed location on the equator).
Since then, successive generations of satellites are
playing an important role in communications, mostly
for international links, but also within domestic
networks.
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503
Maxwells equations
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Maxwells equations
Maxwells equations govern the propagation of
electromagnetic waves in various media, including
free space,
waveguides,
optical fibers, and
optical crystals.
All
electric,
magnetic,
electromagnetic, and
optical phenomena
are governed by the same fundamental laws of
electromagnetism.
505
Gauss' Law (M I)
Gauss' Law says how the electric field behaves around electric charges.
Gauss' Law can be written in terms of the electric flux density (D) and the
electric charge density (v) as:
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Note: Divergence ()
Divergence at a point (x,y,z) is the measure of the vector flow out of a
surface surrounding that point.
Divergence is a specific measure of how fast the vector field is changing in
the x, y, and z directions.
If a vector function A is given by:
Then the divergence of A is the sum of how fast the vector function is
changing:
507
Example
Consider the vector function A
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Lecture notes Radio Engineering by Jorma Kekalainen
M I (Gauss Law)
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511
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Note: Curl ()
The curl is a measure of the rotation of a vector field.
Let us take a vector field, A(x,y,z), we can write A as:
513
514
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515
Elementary vector dS is ortogonal to the surface S and |dS| is the area element.
516
Elementary vector dL is parallel to the closed loop L and |dL| the length element.
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Maxwells equations
517
Note
The global form version can be derived from
the local form Maxwells equations using the
following theorems:
Divergence
theorem
Stokes
theorem
Note: These theorems are valid with an arbitrary vector field A. 518
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Lecture notes Radio Engineering by Jorma Kekalainen
Example
A dS
S
519
Solution
Derive the global form version (surface integrals) from the
local form Gauss laws (M I and M II) using the Divergence
theorem (Gauss theorem):
Thus
520
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Lecture notes Radio Engineering by Jorma Kekalainen
Solution
Divergence theorem (Gauss theorem):
Thus
521
Example
Derive the global form version (line integrals) from
the local form Faradays law and Amperes law (M III
and M IV) using the Stokes theorem:
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Solution
Stokes theorem:
523
Solution
Stokes theorem:
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Electromagnetic waves
Let's look at the M III and M IV equations that govern all of
electric and magnetic field propagation:
Electromagnetic waves
Ampere's law says that a time-varying electric field generates a magnetic
field that encircles the electric field.
In the same way, the electric field will be oscillating in time, the encircling
magnetic field will be oscillating in time as well.
So, a time-varying electric field generates a time-varying magnetic field
and vice versa.
This continuous coupling between these two fields produces the
propagation of electromagnetic waves.
All electromagnetic waves (radiation) radio waves, visible light, x-rays
, consist solely of propagating electromagnetic fields.
From these two basic Maxwells equations (M III, M IV) we can determine
how electromagnetic waves propagate through medium and
how they interact with materials.
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527
Maxwells equations
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Phasor
Nonsidusoidal signals change shape while propagating in
dispersive systems, either through amplitude distortion or
through phase distortion.
For simplifying the algebraic manipulations, sine waves are
often represented in complex notation by means of phasors
and phasor-vectors.
To illustrate this complex formalism, we consider simple
functions
where is the angular frequency (in units of radian per second), |X|
and X are the amplitudes, and is the phase.
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Phasor
If we define the complex amplitude of x(t) by
531
Phasor transformation
When this happens it is always understood that we mean the
real part of x(t), which is x(t).
In linear operations the replacement of the real form x(t) by the
complex form x(t) poses no problems, when it is understood
that the final result is the real part of the complex form result.
Actually, we can reduce algebraic manipulations with phasor
transformation:
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Example
533
Note
x(t) is called an instantaneous value and it is
time-function
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Phasor-vector
Non-linear operation
In operations that involve product of
sinusoidal time-functions or monochromatic
field vectors such as powers, energies, energy
densities, we must use the real form of
functions and vectors, because generally
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Example
Time-average
Occasionally in electromagnetics, we have to deal with waves
with extremely short periods (T=/c<10-12s).
Most detectors are unable to respond instantaneously at such a
rapid change, but they can find the time-averaged values.
It is often necessary to find the time average of the product of
two sinusoidal functions of the same frequency:
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Lecture notes Radio Engineering by Jorma Kekalainen
Example
to phasor form.
539
Solution
Let us replace u(x,t) with a corresponding
rotating phasor u(x,t) in both equations
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Solution
541
Solution
Lets substitute phasor partial derivates to the
original Telegraphers equations
542
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Note
543
544
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Why sinusoidals?
The selection of sinusoidal waves as the basis for
decomposition results from the fact that, in all
systems of linear equations the eigenfunctions are
sine waves, which move along within the system
without deformation, even though their amplitude and
phase do vary with position.
In every dispersive system, nonsinusoidal signals, on
the contrary, change shape while propagating, either
through amplitude distortion or through phase
distortion.
545
Note: Underlining means that a quantity is complex (phasor or phasor-vector). Bold face
italics denote vectors. The modulus of the phasor-vector X(r) is the effective value of the
corresponding physical field. 546
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where
547
Phasor-quantities
548
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Note
549
Maxwells equations
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551
552
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553
Boundary conditions
On the interface separating two different materials,
none of which is a perfect electric conductor, the
tangential components of the electric and of the
magnetic field are continuous, as expressed by
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Lecture notes Radio Engineering by Jorma Kekalainen
Boundary conditions
are met.
555
556
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558
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559
560
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561
562
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563
564
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565
566
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When
((Providing that J
vector is finite.))
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Normal components
If two very small elements of area S are considered, one on either side of
the boundary between any two materials, with a surface charge density p
existing on the boundary, the application of Gauss law (M I)
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571
Isotropy
Inside the great majority of materials utilized
in practical applications, phasor vectors D and
E are parallel to one another, or colinear.
The same occurs for B and H.
Such a material is then called isotropic.
The permittivity and the permeability are
both scalar quantities.
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Anisotropy
For a family of magnetic dielectrics called ferrites,
the phasor-vectors B and H of a microwave signal are
not parallel.
These are anisotropic materials, for which the
permeability becomes a tensor, represented by a 3
3 matrix.
11 12 13 H x
B H 21 22 23 H y
31 32 33 H z
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T-equivalent Z 21
Y21
575
Dx xx xy xz Ex Bx xx xy xz x
D
yy yz E y B
y yx yy yz y
y yx
Dz zx zy zz Ez Bz zx zy zz z
Reciprocal: ij ji , ij ji
j 0
0
Ferrite: 0 j is not symmetric!
0 0 1
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577
578
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579
580
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581
582
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583
Note
584
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Maxwells equations
Dynamics Quasistatics
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587
588
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Slow changes
The restriction to completely time-independent situations is too
limiting and often unnecessary.
What if things are changing slowly in time.
Allowing for slow time variations, one often uses the equations of
electroquasistatics and magnetoquasistatics.
Equations of Electroquasistatics Equations of Magnetoquasistatics
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Example
Lets take an amplifier chip (max. dimension=3 cm) operating
from 100 MHz to 10 GHz. Is quasistatics analysis valid ?
100 MHz operation
Time scale of the problem = 1/(100 MHz) = 10 ns
Length scale of the problem = 3 cm
Time taken by light to travel 3 cm = 0.1 ns
Since 10 ns >> 0.1 ns, quasistatics is a valid means of analysis
at 100 MHz
10 GHz operation
Time scale of the problem = 1/(10 GHz) = 0.1 ns
Length scale of the problem = 3 cm
Time taken by light to travel 3 cm = 0.1 ns
Quasistatics is not a valid means of analysis at 10 GHz 591
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Polarization of a field
The polarization of any vector field is defined by the
geometrical locus of the tip of the vector, as it varies during
one period T.
Equation
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Polarization of a field
is satisfied.
595
The asterisk * denotes the complex conjugate.
Polarization of a field
2. when the two vectors have the same length and
are perpendicular to each other, the ellipse
becomes a circle, and the field is circularly
polarized.
This occurs when
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Polarization of a field
An elliptical A linear
polarization polarization
A circular
polarization
597
Comment
Any field may be expressed by the sum of two
linearly polarized fields: this is actually done in
598
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Note: The x- and y-components of the E-field have the same amplitude but
599
are 90-degrees out of phase.
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The E-field vector does not change in magnitude but its direction twists
in space.
An observer sitting in the path of the wave will see the E-field vector rotate
in a circular trajectory at his location as the wave passes by.
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603
604
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605
606
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607
608
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Comment
609
Application of Maxwells
equations
Wave propagation
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Maxwells equations
Let us consider a region in space containing no sources so
there will be no charge and current terms in Maxwells
equations.
Arbitrary time variations of the fields will be permitted and the
medium is to be considered homogeneous, isotropic, linear,
and with zero conductivity.
So, we have equations in form
611
Separation of fields
To attempt a solution of a group of simultaneous equations, it is usually a
good plan to separate the various functions of position, such as D and B
here, to arrive at equations that give the distributions of each.
Thus, lets try to separate E and H to the own expressions.
First, taking the curl of M III, we see that
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Wave equation
Note: This form applies as well to the magnetic field, as may seen by a similar derivation started
613
by taking the curl of M IV.
Wave equation
From this simple special case many of the characteristics of
electromagnetic waves can be found.
Recalling that in rectangular coordinates the Laplacian of a
vector can be separated into the vector sum of the Laplacian of
the components, we have in Cartesian form
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615
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Application of Maxwells
Equations
Poyntings theorem and
energy relations in an
electromagnetic field
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619
620
Note: All points of the closed surface A are on the boundary surface of the volume V.
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A surface integral
A dS
S
621
Poyntings theorem
This form is valid for general media, but in the common case
of linear, isotropic, time-invariant materials, material
parameters are scalars independent of time.
Then
B H
D E
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Vs
Henry Vs
A
m m Am 623
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Poyntings vector
It is convenient to think of the Poyntings
vector
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Lecture notes Radio Engineering by Jorma Kekalainen
Poyntings vector
If E and H
are phasors (complex vectors), then
627
Example
Let it be
628
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Application of Maxwells
equations
Plane waves
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631
We see first from (3) and (6) that Ez and Hz must both be zero, except
possibly for constant (static) parts which are not of interest to us in the
wave solution.
That is, the electric and magnetic fields of this simple wave are both
transverse to the direction of propagation.
Note:
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633
634
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Wave impedance
635
Wave impedance
636
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Application of Maxwells
equations
A plane wave solution of
the wave equation in a
conducting medium
Conductivity
In the previous section we considered a uniform plane wave
propagating in free space.
Here we consider a uniform plane wave propagation in a
conductor.
The term conductor will be applied to those materials in which
collisions determine the movement of the charges when an
electric field is applied.
Let it be (>0) the constant conductivity of the homogenous
medium.
Thus the current density resulting from movement of the
charges in conducting medium is given by Ohms law:
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639
So
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641
Note: The divergence of the curl of any vector is zero.
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Propagation coefficient
The complex propagation coefficient can be written
Attenuating waveform
Here we assume
And
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Problem
645
Solution
646
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Solution
647
Solution
648
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Problem
Calculate the attenuation (dB/m) in the
(saltless) lake water (r=80, =10 mS/m)
and in the sea water (r=80, =5 S/m) for an
electro-magnetic wave with frequency
a) f=10 kHz
b) f=10 MHz
c) f=10 GHz
and assuming that a field strength varies
according the distance in the form
E exp(-z), where z is a distance
649
Solution
Attenuation
expressed in dB
650
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651
652
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653
654
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Problem
Show that the propagation velocity (v) of the electromagnetic
wave in lossy medium can be presented in the following forms
a) and b).
655
Solution
656
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Solution
657
Problem
658
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Solution
659
Solution
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Solution
661
Application of Maxwells
equations
Penetration of
electromagnetic fields
into a good conductor
331
Lecture notes Radio Engineering by Jorma Kekalainen
Plane conductor
663
Good conductor
Lets look at penetration of uniform field into good
conductor filling half-space 0<z<.
If we assume that at z=0 an electric field has value
Ex(z=0)=E0 and propagation direction is z, then we
can use previously derived plane wave equation and
its solution.
So
664
332
Lecture notes Radio Engineering by Jorma Kekalainen
Note: For all but the poorest conductors (such as earth) the displacement current term is
665
completely negligible compared with conduction current term for radio frequencies at least.
Approximation of propagation
coefficient
Lets return to the previous solution of the wave equation
where
Now
Proofing as homework!
666
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Lecture notes Radio Engineering by Jorma Kekalainen
where
Skin depth or depth of penetration
667
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Lecture notes Radio Engineering by Jorma Kekalainen
669
Note
Depth of penetration is smaller, the higher the
conductivity, the higher the permeability, and the higher
the frequency, since it is inversely proportional to the
square root of each of these.
The fields and current penetrate deeper than the depth
s; this s is merely the point at which they have
decreased to 1/e of their values at the surface.
The concept as stated here applies strictly to plane
conductors but it may be extended to conductors of
other shapes so long as the value of s calculated is
much smaller than any curvatures of the surfaces or
curvature of surface
s
thickness of conductor 670
335
Lecture notes Radio Engineering by Jorma Kekalainen
Comment
In spite of the infinite depth requirement, the analysis
of this case is practically important to many conductors
of finite extent, and with curved surfaces, because at
high frequencies significant fields are concentrated very
near the surface, so that radius of curvature and
conductor depth may be taken as infinite in this
comparison.
Moreover, any field variations along the length or width
dimension due to curvature, edge effects, or variations
along a wavelength are ordinarily so small compared
with the variations into the conductor that they may be
neglected.
671
Problem
The surface value of the field is E0. Determine
the magnitude of field penetrated s meters
deep into the good conductor.
672
336
Lecture notes Radio Engineering by Jorma Kekalainen
Problem
Let
The magnitude of the field is
0.368 E0
673
Problem
Show that the unit of s defined previously is
meter.
1
s
f
674
337
Lecture notes Radio Engineering by Jorma Kekalainen
Problem
Vs A
1 B m 2 Vs J m 2 A
s , ,
f H A Am E V Vm
m m
1
s m
1 Vs A
s Am Vm
675
Problem
676
338
Lecture notes Radio Engineering by Jorma Kekalainen
Solution
1
s , for a good conductor
f
1 1 1
s2
f v 1
1 v 2
v v
2f 2 f 2 2
s 1 1
0.23 s
2 4.4
677
Problem
Show that
when
678
339
Lecture notes Radio Engineering by Jorma Kekalainen
Solution
679
Application of Maxwells
equations
Field theoretic problems
340
Lecture notes Radio Engineering by Jorma Kekalainen
Problem 1
Write Maxwells equations
681
Solution
Write Maxwells equations in Cartesian (xyz)
coordinates.
682
341
Lecture notes Radio Engineering by Jorma Kekalainen
Solution
683
Solution
684
342
Lecture notes Radio Engineering by Jorma Kekalainen
Solution
685
Solution
686
343
Lecture notes Radio Engineering by Jorma Kekalainen
Problem 2
A dS
S
687
Solution
Derive the global form version (surface integrals) from the
local form Gauss laws (M I and M II) using the Divergence
theorem (Gauss theorem):
Thus
688
344
Lecture notes Radio Engineering by Jorma Kekalainen
Solution
Divergence theorem (Gauss theorem):
Thus
689
Problem 3
Derive the global form version (line integrals) from the local
form Faradays law and Amperes law (M III and M IV) using
the Stokes theorem:
690
345
Lecture notes Radio Engineering by Jorma Kekalainen
Solution
Stokes theorem:
691
Solution
Stokes theorem:
692
346
Lecture notes Radio Engineering by Jorma Kekalainen
Problem 4
693
Solution
Now Maxwells equations are
Operations:
M IV and D E
M III E B H
B H
t t
694
347
Lecture notes Radio Engineering by Jorma Kekalainen
Solution
695
Problem 5
696
348
Lecture notes Radio Engineering by Jorma Kekalainen
Solution 5
697
Solution 5
698
349
Lecture notes Radio Engineering by Jorma Kekalainen
Problem 6
699
Solution 6
Let us derivate the solution candidate Ex-
700
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Lecture notes Radio Engineering by Jorma Kekalainen
Problem 7
701
Solution 7
702
351
Lecture notes Radio Engineering by Jorma Kekalainen
Solution 7
703
Solution 7
704
352
Lecture notes Radio Engineering by Jorma Kekalainen
Solution 7
705
Solution 7
706
353
Lecture notes Radio Engineering by Jorma Kekalainen
Problem 8
707
Solution 8
708
354
Lecture notes Radio Engineering by Jorma Kekalainen
Solution 8
709
Solution 8
710
355
Lecture notes Radio Engineering by Jorma Kekalainen
Problem 9
711
Solution 9
Now
712
356
Lecture notes Radio Engineering by Jorma Kekalainen
Solution 9
713
Solution 9
714
357
Lecture notes Radio Engineering by Jorma Kekalainen
Solution 9
715
Problem 10
Write the local form Maxwells equation in the
following special cases:
1 for static fields
2 for sourceless fields
3 for sinusoidal fields in phasor form
716
358
Lecture notes Radio Engineering by Jorma Kekalainen
Solution 10
717
Solution 10
718
359
Lecture notes Radio Engineering by Jorma Kekalainen
Solution 10
719
Solution 10
720
360
Lecture notes Radio Engineering by Jorma Kekalainen
Solution 10
721
Note
722
361
Lecture notes Radio Engineering by Jorma Kekalainen
Problem 11
723
Solution 11
724
362
Lecture notes Radio Engineering by Jorma Kekalainen
Solution 11
725
Note
726
363
Lecture notes Radio Engineering by Jorma Kekalainen
Problem 12
727
Solution 12
728
364
Lecture notes Radio Engineering by Jorma Kekalainen
Problem 13
729
Solution 13
730
365
Lecture notes Radio Engineering by Jorma Kekalainen
Solution 13
731
Problem 14
732
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Solution 14
733
Solution 14
734
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Lecture notes Radio Engineering by Jorma Kekalainen
Solution 14
735
Solution 14
736
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Lecture notes Radio Engineering by Jorma Kekalainen
Solution 14
737
Notes
738
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Lecture notes Radio Engineering by Jorma Kekalainen
Problem 15
739
Solution 15
740
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Lecture notes Radio Engineering by Jorma Kekalainen
Solution 15
741
Problem 16
742
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Lecture notes Radio Engineering by Jorma Kekalainen
Solution 16
743
Problem 17
744
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Solution 17
745
Problem 18
746
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Lecture notes Radio Engineering by Jorma Kekalainen
Solution 18
747
Note
748
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Problem 19
749
Solution 19
750
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Lecture notes Radio Engineering by Jorma Kekalainen
Problem 20
751
Solution 20
752
376
Lecture notes Radio Engineering by Jorma Kekalainen
Waveguide of arbitrary
cross section, uniform
along the direction of
propagation.
754
377
Lecture notes Radio Engineering by Jorma Kekalainen
755
378
Lecture notes Radio Engineering by Jorma Kekalainen
757
758
379
Lecture notes Radio Engineering by Jorma Kekalainen
759
760
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Lecture notes Radio Engineering by Jorma Kekalainen
Separation
761
Rectangular coordinates
In the rectangular coordinate system, the transverse part of the
operator can be further separated, in terms of the coordinates x
and y:
762
381
Lecture notes Radio Engineering by Jorma Kekalainen
Consequence of separation
Within every system of cylindrical coordinates
(which correspond to uniform lines), Maxwells
equations are partially separable.
The general solution for the electromagnetic fields is
then the sum of several terms, each term being the
product of a function of the transverse coordinate rt
by a function of the longitudinal variable z.
The transverse and longitudinal dependencies of the
fields can then be studied independently of each
other.
763
382
Lecture notes Radio Engineering by Jorma Kekalainen
General solution
765
766
383
Lecture notes Radio Engineering by Jorma Kekalainen
767
Propagation velocities
The two propagation velocities, the phase and group
velocities, are respectively defined by the relations
768
384
Lecture notes Radio Engineering by Jorma Kekalainen
Guided waves
Theoretically the simplest case is to deal with waves
that propagated in infinite size media.
For many applications it is desirable to have
electromagnetic energy be guided in much the same
way as water flow is guided by having it flow in
pipes.
Transmission lines are the simplest structures that
guide electromagnetic waves.
Transmission line would be any two arbitrary shaped
metal conductors that are long and uniform in at least
one dimension.
769
770
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Lecture notes Radio Engineering by Jorma Kekalainen
771
772
386
Lecture notes Radio Engineering by Jorma Kekalainen
773
774
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Lecture notes Radio Engineering by Jorma Kekalainen
Definition: Waveguide
The propagation in a waveguide is generally
ensured by successive reflections on the guide
boundaries.
These are conducting walls in the case of metallic
waveguides.
Dielectric waveguides and optical fibers
utilize the total reflection on the interface
between two dielectric materials.
775
776
388
Lecture notes Radio Engineering by Jorma Kekalainen
Modes of propagation
The modes of propagation form an infinite set,
which is discrete for a closed structure
(surrounded by a metal boundary),
[to which must be added a continuous spectrum of
radiating modes when the structure is open (fields
extending to infinity)].
Each mode possesses specific propagation
properties:
attenuation and phase-shift per unit length,
propagation velocities,
cut-off frequency. 777
Multimode propagation
When propagation of a signal takes place at the same time over several
modes, the difference in the propagation velocities may produce
distortions of the signal.
To avoid this unwanted effect in radar and in communications, the shape
and the dimensions of the line are adjusted so that only one mode can
propagate at the signal frequency.
The possible existence of several propagating modes limits the available
frequency band in all transmission lines.
The length of the line or the bit rate of the signal are reduced to maintain
distortion within acceptable limits.
The presence (or absence) of a particular mode of propagation on a
transmission line depends on the excitation, i.e., on the boundary conditions
at both ends of the line (generator and load).
Note: In fiber optics, also multimode operation (thick fiber) is used in short
distance communication. 778
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Lecture notes Radio Engineering by Jorma Kekalainen
779
780
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Lecture notes Radio Engineering by Jorma Kekalainen
Note: When a waveguide or a transmission line (for instance a coaxial line) is partially
781
filled with dielectric, they are respectively called loaded waveguide or loaded line.
782
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Lecture notes Radio Engineering by Jorma Kekalainen
783
Comment
Early microwave systems relied on waveguide and coaxial lines for
transmission line media.
Waveguide has the advantage of high power-handling capability and low
loss but is bulky and expensive.
Coaxial line has very high bandwidth and is convenient for test
applications, but is a difficult medium to fabricate complex microwave
components.
Planar transmission lines provide an alternative, in the form of stripline,
microstrip, slotline, coplanar waveguide, and many other types of related
geometries.
Such transmission lines are compact, low in cost, and are capable of being
easily integrated with active devices such as diodes and transistors to form
microwave integrated circuits.
784
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Lecture notes Radio Engineering by Jorma Kekalainen
Characteristics of some
transmission media
785
Notes
Wire pair is distance limited. The shorter the pair length, the higher the
bit rate.
LOS microwave is limited by statute (legal limitations), meaning by the
ITU Radio Regulations and the national regulatory authority.
Satellite communication faces the same legal limitations. Geostationary
orbit (GEO) satellites have long delays, which could affect interactive data
systems. Only one GEO satellite relay allowed for a voice connectivity.
The limits of fiber optics are still being explored. All terrestrial buried and
aerial cable systems are vulnerable to severing by natural disaster or by
man.
Coaxial cable is limited by amplitude-frequency response characteristics.
In nearly every instance, fiber optic cable connectivity is preferred.
786
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Lecture notes Radio Engineering by Jorma Kekalainen
Twisted pair
787
Coaxial cable
788
394
Lecture notes Radio Engineering by Jorma Kekalainen
Optical fiber
789
395
Lecture notes Radio Engineering by Jorma Kekalainen
Fiber cables
791
792
396
Lecture notes Radio Engineering by Jorma Kekalainen
Fiber:
f = c/ f = |c
397
Lecture notes Radio Engineering by Jorma Kekalainen
Guiding structures
796
398
Lecture notes Radio Engineering by Jorma Kekalainen
Coaxial cable
+ -
The extended fields may cause
interference with nearby
objects. (This may be improved
by using twisted pair.)
Note: Having fields that extend to infinity is not the same thing as
having radiation, however. 798
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Lecture notes Radio Engineering by Jorma Kekalainen
w
r
h
r h w
Microstrip Stripline
w w w
r h r h
RF waveguide properties
Is a single hollow metal pipe.
Can propagate a signal only at high frequency: > c
The width must be at least one-half of a wavelength.
Has signal distortion, even in the lossless case.
Immune to interference.
Can handle large amounts of power.
Has low loss (compared with a transmission line).
Has either Ez or Hz component of the fields (TMz or
TEz).
800
400
Lecture notes Radio Engineering by Jorma Kekalainen
Fiber-optic guide
Properties
Uses a dielectric rod
Can be made very low loss
Has minimal signal distortion
Very immune to interference
Not suitable for high power
Has both Ez and Hz
components of the fields
801
1) Single-mode fiber
Carries a single mode, as with the mode on a
transmission line or waveguide.
Requires the fiber diameter to be small relative to a
wavelength.
2) Multi-mode fiber
Has a fiber diameter that is large relative to a
wavelength.
Its operation can be described using simple ray
theory and the principle of total internal
reflection (critical angle effect).
802
401
Lecture notes Radio Engineering by Jorma Kekalainen
Optical fiber
803
402
Lecture notes Radio Engineering by Jorma Kekalainen
Passive microwave
components
Directional couplers
Components
Each individual component has a specific
purpose.
Its function may be to couple, mix, filter, isolate,
divide, add, act on a systems phase, convert RF
to DC, attenuate, or any combination of the
above.
Basic questions for component:
How does it work?
What does a data sheet or catalog say about that
component?
806
403
Lecture notes Radio Engineering by Jorma Kekalainen
Directional coupler
One of the most widely used components in microwaves is the
directional coupler.
It may be employed by itself to monitor, sample, or attenuate; or it
may be used as part of another component, such as a mixer.
The basic definition of couple, from which the word coupler is
derived, is to bring two electrical circuits into such close proximity
as to permit mutual influence.
In other words, two circuits are side-by-side so that they have an
effect on one another.
The circuits could be two pieces of waveguide, two coaxial lines,
or two copper lines in a stripline coupler.
One of the circuits is the main line of the coupler; the other circuit is
the coupled line.
807
808
404
Lecture notes Radio Engineering by Jorma Kekalainen
Directional couplers
a coaxial coupler
a stripline coupler
a waveguide coupler
809
Directional coupler
Figure helps in our explanation of the term directional.
If energy is applied to port 1 in (a), most of the energy appears
at port 2, while a fraction appears at port 3.
The actual amount at port 3 depends on the coupling value;
standard couplers are of 6, 10, 20, and 30 dB.
405
Lecture notes Radio Engineering by Jorma Kekalainen
Dual-directional coupler
One method to expand the basic directional coupler is
through the construction of a dual-directional coupler.
Just as the name implies, this procedure involves two
couplers put back-to-back.
The one great advantage of this type of coupler is that it
allows you to monitor both forward and reflected power
at the same time.
It aids in the obtaining of data from a device which
indicates the input match and, thus, its VSWR.
811
Specifications
Below are sample specifications for a directional coupler as
they could appear on a data sheet or in a catalog.
812
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Lecture notes Radio Engineering by Jorma Kekalainen
Specifications
813
814
407
Lecture notes Radio Engineering by Jorma Kekalainen
Specifications
Coupled Line VSWR This specification
indicates what sort of match the coupled port
(port 3) offers to any external load.
A low VSWR would mean a good match and
would cause little or no problems to any
external circuit.
815
Specifications
Coupling The ratio of the power available
at the coupled port to the power at the input
port. (Port 3 to port 1).
It is the amount of attenuation of the input
power as a result of the coupling structure.
This term is expressed in dB and has standard
values of 6, 10, 20, and 30.
816
408
Lecture notes Radio Engineering by Jorma Kekalainen
Specifications
817
Specifications
Directivity This figure indicates how
accurately you are able to measure parameters in
your system.
It is the difference between the desired and
undesired couplings.
If a coupler has low directivity, the forward and
reverse powers in the coupler interfere with one
another and cause great inaccuracies to occur.
Ports 1 and 4 in are the undesired coupling; 1 and 3 are
the desired combination.
818
409
Lecture notes Radio Engineering by Jorma Kekalainen
Specifications
819
Specifications
Impedance Impedance is an RF
resistance reading which ensures that any
component with a similar impedance value
connected to the coupler will operate properly.
The most common impedance is 50 ohms,
which is considered to be a standard in most
systems.
820
410
Lecture notes Radio Engineering by Jorma Kekalainen
Specifications
Input VSWR This
specification is identical to
the coupled line VSWR in
that it is an indication of
what sort of match is offered
by the input port of the
coupler;
it is usually of low-value,
1.15:1 for example.
In Figure (A) it is the match
at port 1; in (B) it is either
port 1 or 2. 821
Specifications
Insertion Loss The insertion loss indicates the power lost
in the main line of the coupler primarily through dissipation.
In coaxial coupler it is simply a loss which occurs in a conductor as
energy is passed through it;
in a stripline coupler, the copper losses of the conductors; and
in a waveguide coupler, a loss within the guide with the only
contributing factor usually the length of the guide.
In Figures (A) and (B), the insertion loss is that from either
ports 1 and 2 or 2 and 1.
In lower value couplers (3 dB or 6 dB, for example) the
coupled energy due to the coupled port also is included in the
total through-line insertion loss, thereby increasing the overall
value.
822
411
Lecture notes Radio Engineering by Jorma Kekalainen
Specifications
823
Specifications
Power Rating This specification refers to
the amount of both CW and peak power that
the coupler is capable of handling.
Any power level greater than this value may
cause arcing or a deterioration of performance.
This term is one of the most important of
which to take care if you will be operating at a
high power level.
824
412
Lecture notes Radio Engineering by Jorma Kekalainen
Specifications
Reverse Power Rating This term applies only to a
3-port coupler; it is usually a lower value than that of
the forward power rating because the fourth port is
internally terminated and so, generally, can not handle
any amount of power.
This specification is also quoted as a CW and peak
power number; it is the power handling capability of
the coupler if power is applied in a reverse direction.
At port 2 instead of port 1 in Figure (A).
825
Specifications
Size the actual physical size of the coupler.
This term is of a secondary nature except when
you are required to put the coupler in a restricted
space.
Weight Weight is self-explanatory term
which only comes into play when an overall
weight restriction is placed on a system, such
as with airborne equipment.
826
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Lecture notes Radio Engineering by Jorma Kekalainen
827
828
414
Lecture notes Radio Engineering by Jorma Kekalainen
829
830
415
Lecture notes Radio Engineering by Jorma Kekalainen
831
832
416
Lecture notes Radio Engineering by Jorma Kekalainen
833
Summary
Directional coupler is a component which allows
two microwave circuits to be combined into one
integrated system in one direction, while being
completely isolated from each other in the
opposite direction.
Its property of being directional, its isolation, its
low input and coupled line VSWR, and its
adaptability to being 3- or 4-port or dual-
directional make the directional coupler one of
the most widely used components in microwaves.
834
417
Lecture notes Radio Engineering by Jorma Kekalainen
Passive microwave
components
Detectors
Detector
The key to a reliable, trouble-free system is
simplicity.
One component whose operation is based on
simplicity is the microwave detector.
This concept of a simple and reliable
component is the very reason why the detector
is used so extensively in microwave systems.
836
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Lecture notes Radio Engineering by Jorma Kekalainen
837
838
419
Lecture notes Radio Engineering by Jorma Kekalainen
Specifications
A typical set of specifications for a microwave detector
839
Specifications
Frequency Response Frequency response
is a term used to indicate the RF performance
of the detector.
It is sometimes given in decibels per octave or
in one figure for overall performance.
Basically it is a measure of the variation in
sensitivity of the detector, expressed in dB.
840
420
Lecture notes Radio Engineering by Jorma Kekalainen
Specifications
Maximum Input Power This term refers to
one of the most important considerations when
using a detector the highest level of RF power
that can be applied to its input.
It is always good practice to stay below this figure
by a reasonable margin.
The reason that there is a maximum level is that
there is a diode directly in line in the circuit;
wherever there is a semiconductor there is a
certain power level that could destroy the
detector.
841
Specifications
Polarity Polarity is either positive or
negative.
It is important to know the polarity of the
output of your detector since it will have to be
joined with some external circuit that requires
a certain polarity to operate properly.
842
421
Lecture notes Radio Engineering by Jorma Kekalainen
Specifications
A typical sensitivity curve for a microwave detector
843
Specifications
Sensitivity From the previous sensitivity curve
for a microwave detector it can be seen that one
factor affecting sensitivity is the RF power
applied to the input of the detector.
Therefore, the detector sensitivity is the dc volt-
age produced at the output for a specific power
input, usually expressed in millivolts per
microwatt CW.
Sensitivity is simply how much power you need
to produce a certain voltage.
844
422
Lecture notes Radio Engineering by Jorma Kekalainen
Detector applications
845
Monitoring
One of the most common applications is
monitoring an RF line.
Power is coupled off the main line;
the detector provides a DC voltage proportional
to this power.
The monitoring device gives an instant reading of
the main line power.
846
423
Lecture notes Radio Engineering by Jorma Kekalainen
847
848
424
Lecture notes Radio Engineering by Jorma Kekalainen
Passive microwave
components
Mixers
Mixer
850
425
Lecture notes Radio Engineering by Jorma Kekalainen
851
852
426
Lecture notes Radio Engineering by Jorma Kekalainen
Mixing process
The diode circuitry consists of the diode(s).
This part is where the actual mixing process occurs.
When the RF and LO signals are applied to the diode
circuitry, many combinations of the two are generated.
The signals which are most prominent are each of the
originals and their sum and difference.
In other words, if the RF signal is called f1, and the LO
signal called f2, the output would have f1, f2, f1 + f2, f1 -
f2, and every other combination of fundamentals and
harmonics, (2f1, 2f2, 2(f1 + f2), etc.)
853
Output filtering
These combinations of frequencies are the reason why the final
block the output filtering network is needed in a mixer.
Usually, the upper or lower sideband (that is, f1 + f2 or f1-f2 ) is the
desired output;
everything else must be eliminated to produce the desired and
necessary clean signal.
The filtering usually is accomplished by a low-pass network which
might be as simple as a shunt capacitor or as complex as a cascade
of low-pass filters; it could be a series of trap circuits which would
eliminate only specific unwanted signals.
For certain applications, the filtering could be performed by a band-
pass or high-pass filter.
The type of filtering and device used depends, of course, upon the
individual situation.
854
427
Lecture notes Radio Engineering by Jorma Kekalainen
855
856
428
Lecture notes Radio Engineering by Jorma Kekalainen
Balanced mixer
Here the input network is termed a balanced coupling
network, either a 90 or 180 hybrid.
Whichever type is used, the efficiency of the coupling
network is vastly greater than that of any single diode
mixer.
The increased efficiency of the hybrids means that virtually
all of the power reaches the diodes, and there is very little
loss due to mismatches.
So a conversion loss through the mixer is reasonably low.
Also, this type of coupling network usually operates over an
octave band, another great improvement.
857
Balanced mixer
A mixing apparatus or configuration which
contains four matched diodes called a quad.
A quad makes up a balanced configuration
with two matched sections in each side, having
the effect of lowering conversion loss and
noise.
858
429
Lecture notes Radio Engineering by Jorma Kekalainen
859
Specifications
A typical data sheet for a balanced mixer
860
430
Lecture notes Radio Engineering by Jorma Kekalainen
Specifications
861
Specifications
Isolation It may be any one of three
combinations of measurements referred to by this
term RF/LO, RF/IF, or LO/IF.
In each case, isolation is a measure of the
undesired frequency at an auxiliary port.
An example would be as follows the RF/LO
isolation figure, in dB, is the amount of RF power
measured at the LO port compared to that at the
RF port.
The other two isolation figures are found the same
way.
862
431
Lecture notes Radio Engineering by Jorma Kekalainen
Specifications
863
Specifications
Noise Figure Every network, whether a mixer or other
component, has a certain amount of internal noise
associated with its operation.
A comparison of this level of noise to that of the desired
signal in the network is called the signal-to-noise ratio.
There are input and output signal-to-noise ratios for each
network under consideration.
The noise figure measures the reduction of a signal-to-noise
ratio by the network under consideration (for example, the
balanced mixer).
It is a term expressed in dB which compares the input and
output signal-to-noise ratios.
864
432
Lecture notes Radio Engineering by Jorma Kekalainen
Noise Figure
865
Specifications
VSWR VSWR is an important term which
indicates the match, or return loss, of each port
under actual operating conditions.
If measurements are made under abnormal
circumstances, the figures obtained are useless.
Only when the diodes in the mixer are being
driven properly are true readings obtained.
866
433
Lecture notes Radio Engineering by Jorma Kekalainen
Mixer applications
The mixer finds many applications in microwave systems.
In a receiver front end the mixer is used to convert the high
frequency input signal to a lower frequency in order to obtain the
transmitted information.
It is much easier to operate on this lower frequency than on the input
signal as it appears at the antenna.
The same concept is used in microwave network analyzers.
The input GHz signals are converted down even to the kHz range for
easy operation and greater accuracy.
In applications of this type, it is very important to have low noise
mixers with a high degree of isolation and minimum conversion loss.
867
Mixer applications
Other utilizations are as an up-converter in a
transmitter (to increase the frequency for
transmission), as a balanced modulator (which
incorporates a 180 hybrid and reversed diodes
in a balanced mixer) and in many instances
where signal processing must be
accomplished.
868
434
Lecture notes Radio Engineering by Jorma Kekalainen
Image-rejection mixer
The image-rejection mixer gives the desired sideband (f1 + f2 or f1 - f2) with
a minimum of output filtering.
In a basic mixer the local oscillator may be above or below the RF signal in
frequency.
Here, let us suppose an LO below the RF.
When the mixer is operating there is an lF signal equal to the difference
between the two frequencies.
This operation is a proper one.
However, there is also a signal separated from the RF by the same IF
amount but it is above the RF signal and is called the image frequency
generated by the mixer.
Obviously there are occasions where this signal would create problems.
Thus, rejecting is needed.
The image- rejection mixer provides the solution.
869
Image-rejection mixer
Figure shows a block diagram of an image-
rejection mixer.
870
435
Lecture notes Radio Engineering by Jorma Kekalainen
Image-rejection mixer
The input coupling network consists of a combination of a 90
hybrid for the RF, a 0 power divider for the LO, and the input
coupling networks of the two very important balanced mixers.
The diode circuitry is that contained in the mixers; it is
identical to that previously discussed two diodes in each
mixer.
The output filtering consists of the 90 IF hybrid, a quadrature
hybrid designed to operate at the IF frequency.
One output port (No. 1) produces the upper image frequency;
the other (No. 2), creates the lower.
871
872
436
Lecture notes Radio Engineering by Jorma Kekalainen
Passive microwave
components
Quadrature hybrid
Quadrature hybrid
Definition 1: A quadrature hybrid is a 4-port, 3
dB coupler capable of dividing an input signal
into two mutually isolated quadrature phased
outputs while maintaining isolation of the
fourth port from the input.
Definition 2: A quadrature hybrid is a
directional coupler whose two outputs are
equal in amplitude and separated from one
another by a constant 90 phase.
874
437
Lecture notes Radio Engineering by Jorma Kekalainen
875
876
438
Lecture notes Radio Engineering by Jorma Kekalainen
Specifications
Amplitude Balance This figure is a
comparison of the power levels of the two
output ports on the hybrid ideally there
should be no difference in amplitude between
the two outputs, but in the real world there
naturally is some variation.
It is necessary for this figure to be as low as
possible so that both circuits driven have the
same level applied to them.
877
Specifications
Insertion Loss Figure illustrates the insertion loss of
a quadrature hybrid basically the difference between
the maximum height of the coupled curve (1-2) and the
straight-through curve (1-3).
This internal loss of the device causes its output
response to deviate from an ideal 3 dB figure across the
desired band.
878
439
Lecture notes Radio Engineering by Jorma Kekalainen
Specifications
Isolation This term tells you how good a
conjugate pair is formed by the terminals.
The isolation between terminals is very
important to consider if the hybrid is going to
be used to drive two active devices, such as
transistors or diodes.
If the figure is not high enough, any imbalance
in one device affects both of them and may
eventually cause one or both to be destroyed.
A network has a conjugate pair if an input applied to one of the branches has no effect on the
879
other; that is, two branches form a conjugate pair if they are isolated from one another.
Specifications
Phase Balance The quadrature hybrid is
designed to have a 90 separation between the
output terminals.
But, because of variations within the hybrid,
the phase of the output varies with frequency.
The phase balance figure on a data sheet is a
measure of how well the two output terminals
track over the band of operation.
880
440
Lecture notes Radio Engineering by Jorma Kekalainen
Applications of quadrature
hybrids
Since they provide isolation between the RF
and LO while applying equal signals to each of
the diodes, quadrature hybrids are an integral
part of a balanced mixer.
881
Applications of quadrature
hybrids
They are ideal for a matched detector, also
because of the equal level applied to the
detector diodes.
882
441
Lecture notes Radio Engineering by Jorma Kekalainen
RF and DC combination
883
Applications of quadrature
hybrids
A common application is combining of amplifiers.
The ability of the hybrid to provide isolated signals of
equal amplitude to a device is of great value.
The quadrature effect (90 separation) allows the split
of signals at the input and their recombination at the
output.
Combining amplifiers
884
442
Lecture notes Radio Engineering by Jorma Kekalainen
443
Lecture notes Radio Engineering by Jorma Kekalainen
Multiport networks
A general circuit can be represented by a multi-port network, where the
ports are defined as access terminals at which we can define voltages and
currents.
Note: Equal and opposite currents are
assumed on the two wires of a port.
Examples:
One-port network I1 I1
V1 V1
Two-port network
I2
I1 I2 I1
V1 V2 V1
V2
887
887
888
444
Lecture notes Radio Engineering by Jorma Kekalainen
890
445
Lecture notes Radio Engineering by Jorma Kekalainen
Source Load
end end
891
Examples
The signal flow graph representations of a
one-port network and a voltage source
892
446
Lecture notes Radio Engineering by Jorma Kekalainen
893
894
447
Lecture notes Radio Engineering by Jorma Kekalainen
Parameter models
895
I/O-signals
Using the convention that a is a signal into a
port and b is a signal out, the figure below
helps to explain s parameters.
Test device
896
448
Lecture notes Radio Engineering by Jorma Kekalainen
I/O-signals
897
898
449
Lecture notes Radio Engineering by Jorma Kekalainen
I/O-relations
899
R-T coefficients
From the previous equations
b1 = s11a1 + s12a2
b2 = s21a1 + s22a2
when a2=0 s11=b1/a1 and s21=b2/a1
900
450
Lecture notes Radio Engineering by Jorma Kekalainen
Measuring transmission
coefficients
Similarly, the setup for measuring s12 and s22 is:
902
451
Lecture notes Radio Engineering by Jorma Kekalainen
An experimental setup:
903
904
452
Lecture notes Radio Engineering by Jorma Kekalainen
905
Comment
S-parameters are vector quantities they
give magnitude and phase information.
Most measurements of microwave components
have been measured historically only in terms
of magnitude.
Obviously because it was too difficult to
obtain both phase and magnitude information.
906
453
Lecture notes Radio Engineering by Jorma Kekalainen
Parameters
To represent multi-port networks we use:
Measurable at high
- S (scattering) parameters
frequency
907
Summary
2-port and corresponding S-formalism
908
454
Lecture notes Radio Engineering by Jorma Kekalainen
Summary
N-port and corresponding S-matrix
909
Summary
At high frequencies, Z, Y, h & ABCD parameters are
difficult (if not impossible) to measure.
V and I are not uniquely defined.
Even if defined, V and I are very difficult
to measure.
Required open and short-circuit conditions are
often difficult to achieve.
Scattering (S) parameters are often the best
representation for multi-port networks at high
frequencies.
Instead of open and short-circuit conditions only matched
terminal is needed.
910
455
Lecture notes Radio Engineering by Jorma Kekalainen
Summary
b1 0 S11a1 0 S12a2 0
b2 0 S21a1 0 S22a2 0
Scattering parameters
b1 0 Output is
S11 matched input reflection coefficient
a1 0 a 0
2 with output matched
b1 0 Input is reverse transmission coefficient
S12 matched
a2 0 a 0 with input matched
1
Summary
912
456
Lecture notes Radio Engineering by Jorma Kekalainen
Introduction to transmission
line theory
Wave-guiding structures
A wave-guiding structure is one that carries a signal (or
power) from one point to another.
457
Lecture notes Radio Engineering by Jorma Kekalainen
Transmission line
Has two conductors running parallel
Can propagate a signal at any frequency (in theory)
Becomes lossy at high frequency
Can handle low or moderate amounts of power
Does not have signal distortion, unless there is loss
More or less immune to interference
Does not have Ez or Hz components of the fields (TEMz)
915
458
Lecture notes Radio Engineering by Jorma Kekalainen
Coaxial cable
The two wires of the transmission line are twisted to reduce interference and radiation from
discontinuities. 917
w
r
h
r h w
Microstrip Stripline
w w w
r h r h
459
Lecture notes Radio Engineering by Jorma Kekalainen
Lumped-element model of a
transmission line
Transmission line = the length of the line > /10 (or /30,
definition issue)
A very short piece (dz << ) of a transmission line can be
modeled with a lumped-element equivalent circuit.
920
460
Lecture notes Radio Engineering by Jorma Kekalainen
Transmission line
Two conductors
C = capacitance/length [F/m]
L = inductance/length [H/m]
R = resistance/length [/m] z
G = conductance/length [ S/m]
921
i(z,t) Rz Lz i(z+z,t)
+ +
v(z,t) Gz Cz v(z+z,t)
- -
z
922
461
Lecture notes Radio Engineering by Jorma Kekalainen
+ +
v(z,t) Gz Cz v(z+z,t)
- -
z
i ( z , t )
v( z, t ) v( z z , t ) i ( z, t ) Rz Lz
t
v( z z, t )
i ( z, t ) i ( z z , t ) v( z z, t ) G z C z
t
923
v( z z, t ) v( z, t ) i ( z , t )
Ri ( z, t ) L
z t
i ( z z , t ) i ( z , t ) v( z z , t )
Gv( z z , t ) C
z t
Now let z 0:
v i
Ri L
z t Telegraphers
Equations
i v
Gv C
z t 924
462
Lecture notes Radio Engineering by Jorma Kekalainen
v
2
i i
R L
z 2
z z t Switch the
order of the
i i derivatives.
R L
z t z
v
R Gv C
t
v v
2
L G C
t t 2
925
Wave equation
v
2
v v v 2
R Gv C L G C
z 2
t t t 2
Thus, we have:
v
2
v v
2
RG v ( RC LG ) LC 0
z 2
t t
2
463
Lecture notes Radio Engineering by Jorma Kekalainen
Time-harmonic version
Time-harmonic waves:
v 2
v v
2
RG v ( RC LG ) LC 0
z 2
t t
2
dV
2
RG V ( RC LG ) jV LC ( )V 0 2
dz 2
927
RG V j ( RC LG )V LC V 2
dz 2
RG j ( RC LG ) LC ( R j L)(G j C )
2
Z R j L = series impedance/length
Y G jC = parallel admittance/length
dV2
464
Lecture notes Radio Engineering by Jorma Kekalainen
Solution
ZY dV 2
( )V
2
Let Then 2
dz 2
Solution: V ( z ) Ae Be z z
( R j L)(G jC )
1/2
Convention:
z z e j / 2
principal square root
j attenuatio n constant
0, 0 phase constant 929
V ( z ) V0 e z V0 e z e j z
v ( z, t ) Re V0 e z e j z e jt
Re V 0
e j e z e j z e
jt
The wave repeats when:
V0 e z cos t z 2
g
t 0
g
Thus:
V e
2
z
930
465
Lecture notes Radio Engineering by Jorma Kekalainen
Attenuating wave
2 2
The local maximum values when:
g
t 0
g
V 0
e z
931
Phase velocity
Track the velocity of a fixed point on the wave (a point of constant
phase), e.g., the crest.
vp (phase velocity)
v ( z, t ) V0 e z cos(t z )
932
466
Lecture notes Radio Engineering by Jorma Kekalainen
Phase velocity
Set: t z constant
dz
Take d/dt: 0
dt
dz
dt
In expanded form:
Hence
v v
Im ( R j L)(G jC )
p 1/ 2
p
933
Characteristic impedance Z0
I+ (z)
+
V+(z)
- z
V ( z)
Z0
I (z)
V ( z ) V0 e z V0
so Z0
I ( z ) I 0 e z I0
467
Lecture notes Radio Engineering by Jorma Kekalainen
Characteristic impedance Z0
Use Telegraphers Equation:
v i
Ri L
z t
dV
so RI j LI Note:
dz V ( z ) V0 e z
ZI I ( z ) I 0 e z
Thus V0 e z ZI 0 e z
935
Characteristic impedance Z0
1/2
V Z Z
From this we have: Z 0 0
2
ZY
I0 Y
Using
Z R j L
Y G jC
1/2
We have R j L
Z0
G j C
936
468
Lecture notes Radio Engineering by Jorma Kekalainen
wave in +z
Note: direction wave in -z
direction
v z , t Re V z e jt
V0 e z cos t z
V0 e z cos t z
937
Reverse wave
I - (z)
+
V -(z)
- z
V ( z) V (z)
Z0 so Z0
I ( z) I (z)
Note: The reference directions for voltage and current are the same as for the
forward wave. 938
469
Lecture notes Radio Engineering by Jorma Kekalainen
V ( z ) V0 e z V0 e z
1
I ( z) V0 e z V0 e z
Z0
Note: The reference directions for voltage and current are the same for forward
and backward waves. 939
Recap
940
470
Lecture notes Radio Engineering by Jorma Kekalainen
Recap
V z V0 e z V0 e z Guided wavelength g
I z
V z V z 2
e
m
0 0
e g
Z0 Z0
1
j R j L G jC 2
Phase velocity vp
1
R j L
2
Z0 vp [m/s]
G jC
941
j ( R j L)(G j C )
1/ 2
j LC
so 0
vp
LC
1/ 2
R j L L 1
Z0 Z0 vp
G jC C LC
Note: Now Z0 and vp are independent of frequency. 942
471
Lecture notes Radio Engineering by Jorma Kekalainen
Thus v p cd
The phase velocity does not depend on the frequency, and it is
always the speed of light in this kind of material. 943
Where do we assign z = 0?
z
The usual choice is at the load.
Note: The length l measures distance from the load l=-z 944
472
Lecture notes Radio Engineering by Jorma Kekalainen
Can we use z = - l as
a reference plane?
V0 V 0 V e V V 0 e
V0 V 0 V e
Hence
V z V e V e
z z
945
Compare:
V z V 0 e z V 0 e z
V z V e V e
z ( ) z ( )
473
Lecture notes Radio Engineering by Jorma Kekalainen
What is V(-l )?
Terminating impedance (load)
V z V0 e z V0 e z
What is V(-l )?
Similarly,
474
Lecture notes Radio Engineering by Jorma Kekalainen
Z0 ,
Z L Z0
L
Z L Z0
Recall:
Thus, Z L Z0 2
1 e
Z L Z0
Z Z 0
Z Z 2
1 L 0
e
L Z Z 0
950
475
Lecture notes Radio Engineering by Jorma Kekalainen
Thus, we have
Z Z0 tanh
Z Z0 L
Z0 Z L tanh
951
476
Lecture notes Radio Engineering by Jorma Kekalainen
Z0 ,
953
Matched load
Z0 ,
477
Lecture notes Radio Engineering by Jorma Kekalainen
Z0 ,
Note: 2
g Always imaginary!
/ g
Example
Find the voltage at any point on the line.
Z0
956
478
Lecture notes Radio Engineering by Jorma Kekalainen
Example
Note:
At l = d :
Zin j d 1
V0 VTH e j 2 d
Zin ZTH 1 Le
Thus
Zin j d 1 Le j 2
V VTH e j 2 d
Z m ZTH 1 Le 957
Example
1 L e j 2 d
Zin Z d Z0 j 2 d
1 Le
958
479
Lecture notes Radio Engineering by Jorma Kekalainen
Example
After algebraic manipulation we have
where
Z0 j d 1 L e j 2
V VTH e j 2d
Z0 ZTH 1 S Le
959
Example
Z0
Z 0 j d 1 L e j 2
V VTH e j 2 d
Z0 ZTH 1 S Le
Note: Voltage wave that would exist if there were no reflections from the load (a
960
matched load or a semi-infinite transmission line ).
480
Lecture notes Radio Engineering by Jorma Kekalainen
Z0 ,
At a distance l from the load:
Note: V V0 e 1 Le 2
V0
I e 1 L e2
Z0
j
*
If Z0 real (low-loss transmission line) L e2 *L e2
Le2 L e2
*
pure imaginary
961
Z0 ,
Low-loss line
481
Lecture notes Radio Engineering by Jorma Kekalainen
g 2 g Matching:
in 0 Z in Z 0
4 g 4 2
Z 02T
Z0
ZL
This requires ZL to be real.
Thus
Hence
2
Z
Z in Z 0T Z 0 Z L
0T 1/2
ZL
963
Z0 ,
1+ L
V (z)
1 V0
Vmax V0 1 L
1- L
Vmin V0 1 L z
z / 2
z0
Vmax 1 L
Voltage Standing Wave Ratio VSWR VSWR
Vmin 1 L 964
482
Lecture notes Radio Engineering by Jorma Kekalainen
Coaxial cable b r ,
Parameters per unit length (C, L, G, R)
For a TEMz mode, the shape of the fields is independent of frequency, and hence
parameter calculation can be performed using electro- and magnetostatics.
2 0 r 2
C [F/m] G [S/m]
b b b
ln L 0 r ln [H/m] ln
a 2 a a
965
2 0 r
C [F/m]
b
ln
a LC 0 0 r r
0 r b
L ln [H/m]
2 a
966
483
Lecture notes Radio Engineering by Jorma Kekalainen
r 1 b
Z 0 0 ln [ ]
r 2 a
0
0 376.7303 []
0
967
2
C [F/m] 0 r
b
ln
a
G C
2
G [S/m]
b
ln
a
968
484
Lecture notes Radio Engineering by Jorma Kekalainen
G C
More generally:
G
tan The loss tangent would arise
C from conductivity effects.
Note
General expression for loss tangent:
e j Effective permittivity that accounts for conductivity
' j ' ' j
e ' j e ' '
485
Lecture notes Radio Engineering by Jorma Kekalainen
2 2
b a b
0 ra a 0 rb b
Is the skin depth, the distance over which the signal amplitude decreases to 1/e of
its surface value. 971
(2) LC 0 0 r r
G 1 1
(3) tan (4) R Rsa Rsb
C 2 a 2 b
Equations (1) and (2) can be used to find L and C if we know the material
properties and the characteristic impedance of the lossless line.
Equation (3) can be used to find G if we know the material loss tangent.
486
Lecture notes Radio Engineering by Jorma Kekalainen
L Z 0lossless
C / Z 0lossless
G C tan
RR
973
incident
Bend
reflected
The simple transmission line model does not account for the bend.
ZTH
+- Z0 ZL
974
487
Lecture notes Radio Engineering by Jorma Kekalainen
ZTH
+- Z0 ZL
975
r a
z b
976
488
Lecture notes Radio Engineering by Jorma Kekalainen
+ -
The extended fields may cause
interference with nearby objects.
(This may be improved by using
twisted pair.)
977
Note: Having fields that extend to infinity is not the same thing as having radiation.
backward
forward
489
Lecture notes Radio Engineering by Jorma Kekalainen
Incident wave
pipe
Reflected wave
Note: Radiation
effects increase Incident wave
as the frequency
increases.
h bend
CAT 5 cable
(twisted pair)
980
490
Lecture notes Radio Engineering by Jorma Kekalainen
Introduction to transmission
line theory
Recap and supplement
Transmission lines
982
491
Lecture notes Radio Engineering by Jorma Kekalainen
983
984
492
Lecture notes Radio Engineering by Jorma Kekalainen
Load reflections
985
986
493
Lecture notes Radio Engineering by Jorma Kekalainen
987
Equivalent circuit
988
494
Lecture notes Radio Engineering by Jorma Kekalainen
Note: Impedance seen at the source end is inductive. The transmission line appears
989
like an inductor.
990
495
Lecture notes Radio Engineering by Jorma Kekalainen
Note: Impedance seen at the source end is capacitive. The transmission line appears
991
like a capacitor.
992
496
Lecture notes Radio Engineering by Jorma Kekalainen
Matched load
993
497
Lecture notes Radio Engineering by Jorma Kekalainen
Equivalent circuit
996
498
Lecture notes Radio Engineering by Jorma Kekalainen
Example
Reduce the transmission line circuit
Example
1 To find Zth short the voltage source and find the impedance
looking in from the load terminals
2 To find Vth remove the load and find the voltage at the load
terminals
998
499
Lecture notes Radio Engineering by Jorma Kekalainen
Now
Boundary Conditions:
(1) At z=0 the voltage on both the transmission lines must be the same.
(2) At z=0 the current on both the transmission lines must be the same.
999
1 Cast the circuit in the following equivalent form and find V-1
2 Voltage V+2 is the same as the voltage across the impedance Zo2
in the equivalent circuit
1000
500
Lecture notes Radio Engineering by Jorma Kekalainen
1001
1002
501
Lecture notes Radio Engineering by Jorma Kekalainen
1003
Example
Question: How does one solve a problem like this?
1004
502
Lecture notes Radio Engineering by Jorma Kekalainen
1006
503
Lecture notes Radio Engineering by Jorma Kekalainen
Smith chart
Smith chart
The Smith chart is a graphical aid that is very useful when
solving transmission line problems.
The key to its understanding is to realize that it is essentially a
polar plot of the voltage reflection coefficient ().
Let the reflection coefficient be expressed in polar form as
e j
504
Lecture notes Radio Engineering by Jorma Kekalainen
1009
Normalized impedance
The real utility of the Smith chart, however, lies in the fact that
it can be used to convert from reflection coefficients to
normalized impedances (or admittances), and vice versa using
the impedance (or admittance) circles printed on the chart.
When dealing with impedances on a Smith chart, normalized
quantities are generally used, which will be denoted by
lowercase letters (z).
The normalization constant is usually the characteristic
impedance of the line (Z0).
Thus, z= Z/Z0 represents the normalized version of the
impedance Z.
1010
505
Lecture notes Radio Engineering by Jorma Kekalainen
Similarly,
Impedance
calculation:
506
Lecture notes Radio Engineering by Jorma Kekalainen
For
Re Z L 0
L 1
Proof:
R Z 0 X L2
2
2
L L
RL Z0 X L2
2
1013
Complex plane
Im Decreasing l (toward load)
R j I
j 2
Le l
L
j L 2
L e L Increasing l (toward
L generator)
Re
L 2
Lossless line
1014
507
Lecture notes Radio Engineering by Jorma Kekalainen
1 R j I
Rn jX n
1 j
R I
Next, multiply both sides by the RHS denominator term and equate real and
imaginary parts. Then solve the resulting equations for R and I in terms of Rn
and Xn. This gives two equations. 1015
1016
508
Lecture notes Radio Engineering by Jorma Kekalainen
1 Xn
Xn 0
R
X n 1
0 X n 1
X n 1
1017
Xn = 1
Rn = 1
Xn = -1
1018
509
Lecture notes Radio Engineering by Jorma Kekalainen
Xn = 1 plane
Rn = 1
Xn = -1
1019
Normalized reactance
Thus
1020
510
Lecture notes Radio Engineering by Jorma Kekalainen
1021
1022
511
Lecture notes Radio Engineering by Jorma Kekalainen
1023
Smith chart
1024
512
Lecture notes Radio Engineering by Jorma Kekalainen
1025
513
Lecture notes Radio Engineering by Jorma Kekalainen
Example
In the Smith chart, the sequence of operations is
carried out graphically: every section of line produces
a rotation around the center of the chart, the rotation
angle being related to the length of the section,
divided by the wavelength.
To insert a series impedance, one simply adds its
value (normalized to the line impedance) to the one at
the line's input, obtained on the Smith chart.
When adding a reactance, one moves on a circle R =
constant; when adding a resistance, on a circle X =
constant.
1027
Example
Considering the circuit below the
procedure followed is:
1. The load terminating the line (at
right) has an impedance ZL = (2.15 -
j3)Zc.
The corresponding point A in the Smith chart
chart is located at the coordinates 2.15
- j3.
2. The line section, long of 0.087,
produces a rotation from A to B by an
angle 0.087 x 720 = 62.5 around the
chart's center, moving towards the
generator (decreasing values of z),
i.e., clockwise.
The impedance at point B read on the
chart is (0.3 - j1)Zc.
One wavelength, , corresponds to
two full turns, i.e., a 720 angle.
514
Lecture notes Radio Engineering by Jorma Kekalainen
Example
3. One then adds an impedance of j0.8
Zc, bringing to the point C at (0.3 -
j0.2)Zc.
The move from B to C follows a circle Smith chart
R = constant.
4. The section of line between C and D
produces a second rotation around the
chart's center, by an angle 0.174 x 720
= 125.3.
The input impedance of this section of
line at point D is (0.65 + j1)Zc.
5. To this last value is added the
impedance of the series capacitor -j
0.6Zc, yielding point E at (0.65 +
j0.4)Zc.
The displacement is done along a circle
R = constant (as between B and C).
Zc is the characteristic impedance of the line. 1029
1029
Example
6. The addition of a series resistance
between F and G leads to a move
along a circle X = constant, between
coordinates R = 1.6 Zc and R = 3 Zc.
7. Finally, the line section between G
and H produces a last rotation around
the center of the chart, by an angle 0.1
x 720 = 72 , yielding the input
impedance to the whole assembly as
(0.9 j1.15)Zc
515
Lecture notes Radio Engineering by Jorma Kekalainen
Example
1031
1032
516
Lecture notes Radio Engineering by Jorma Kekalainen
Example
1033
Example
1034
517
Lecture notes Radio Engineering by Jorma Kekalainen
Example
1035
Example
ZL = (0.9 j1.13) Zc
1036
518
Lecture notes Radio Engineering by Jorma Kekalainen
It is the same relationship as the one for the impedance, in which is simply
replaced by .
In the Smith chart, the value of the normalized admittance Yn/Yc is obtained by
taking the image of the point Zn/Zc across the center of the chart.
This actually provides a simple graphical method to determine the inverse of a
complex number.
1037
1038
519
Lecture notes Radio Engineering by Jorma Kekalainen
Example
The procedure followed is exactly the same as the one outlined previously for
series-connected elements in the Smith chart for impedances.
The very same sequence A-H is followed, this time for admittances in the Smith
chart.
The input admittance obtained is YH = (0.9 j1.13) Yc.
YH = (0.9 j1.13) Yc
1039
ZL = (2.5 j0.5)Zc
1040
520
Lecture notes Radio Engineering by Jorma Kekalainen
Example
1. The load impedance is here ZL = (2.5 j0.5)Zc so that the starting point A is
located at the coordinates 2.5 - j0.5 in the Smith chart for impedances.
2. A series capacitance is then added.
Remaining on the impedance chart, one moves along an R = constant circle, by a
distance corresponding to the reactance j2Zc; i.e., from - j0.5 to - j2.5 , reaching
point B.
ZL = (2.5 j0.)Zc
1041
1041
Example
3. The next component to be connected is a shunt susceptance.
This means that the input admittance must be determined.
This is obtained by jumping over the center of the chart, from point B to its image
B' , this time in the admittance chart.
4. The addition of a shunt susceptance -j0.6Yc is obtained by moving along a circle
of constant conductance G = constant, reaching point C' (still in the admittance
chart).
ZL = (2.5 j0.)Zc
1042
1042
521
Lecture notes Radio Engineering by Jorma Kekalainen
Example
5. The next component is connected in series, so that one has to return to the
impedance chart.
This is done by going to point C, symmetrically located across the center of the
chart.
6. The second series reactance -j2Zc is then added, in the same way as the first one
(moving along a circle R = constant).
ZL = (2.5 j0.)Zc
1043
1043
Example
The point D reached is, for the particular set of values selected, the center of the
chart.
The T-circuit, containing only lossless reactive components, has actually matched
the load ZL to the transmission line of characteristic impedance Zc (reflectionless
match).
ZL = (2.5 j0.)Zc
1044
522
Lecture notes Radio Engineering by Jorma Kekalainen
ZL = (2.5 j0.5)Zc
1045
ZD = (1.0 + 0.0j)
ZL = (2.5 j0.5)Zc
1046
523
Lecture notes Radio Engineering by Jorma Kekalainen
Impedance matching
Impedance matching
Impedance matching is an important practical problem in
microwave engineering.
In practice, impedance matching is a part of the larger design
process for a microwave component or system.
The basic idea of impedance matching is illustrated in figure,
1048
524
Lecture notes Radio Engineering by Jorma Kekalainen
Matching network
The matching network is ideally lossless, to avoid
unnecessary loss of power, and is usually designed so
that the impedance seen looking into the matching
network is Z0.
Then reflections are eliminated on the transmission
line to the left of the matching network, although
there will be multiple reflections between the
matching network and the load.
1049
1050
525
Lecture notes Radio Engineering by Jorma Kekalainen
1051
1052
526
Lecture notes Radio Engineering by Jorma Kekalainen
1 Find L
1053
1054
527
Lecture notes Radio Engineering by Jorma Kekalainen
1056
528
Lecture notes Radio Engineering by Jorma Kekalainen
1058
529
Lecture notes Radio Engineering by Jorma Kekalainen
L-matching possibilities
1060
530
Lecture notes Radio Engineering by Jorma Kekalainen
1062
531
Lecture notes Radio Engineering by Jorma Kekalainen
Single-stub tuning
A matching technique that uses a single open-circuited or
short-circuited length of transmission line (a stub),
connected either in parallel or in series with the transmission
feed line at a certain distance from the load, as shown in figure
below.
1063
1064
532
Lecture notes Radio Engineering by Jorma Kekalainen
Matching conditions
For the shunt-stub case, the basic idea is to select d so
that the admittance Y, seen looking into the line at
distance d from the load is of the form Y0 + jB.
Then the stub susceptance is chosen as -jB, resulting
in a matched condition.
For the series stub case, the distance d is selected so
that the impedance Z, seen looking into the line at a
distance d from the load is of the form Z0 + jX.
Then the stub reactance is chosen as -jX, resulting in
a matched condition.
1065
1066
533
Lecture notes Radio Engineering by Jorma Kekalainen
Stub tuners
Stub tuners are short stubs of transmission lines that are used to cancel
out unwanted reactances in RF circuits.
1067
k=2/
1068
534
Lecture notes Radio Engineering by Jorma Kekalainen
1069
1070
535
Lecture notes Radio Engineering by Jorma Kekalainen
1071
1072
536
Lecture notes Radio Engineering by Jorma Kekalainen
k=2/ 1073
1074
537
Lecture notes Radio Engineering by Jorma Kekalainen
Double-stub tuning
The single-stub tuners are able to match any load impedance
(as long as it has a nonzero real part) to a transmission line, but
suffer from the disadvantage of requiring a variable length of
line between the load and the stub.
This may not be a problem for a fixed matching circuit, but
would probably pose some difficulty if an adjustable tuner
was desired.
In this case, the double-stub tuner, which uses two tuning
stubs in fixed positions, can be used.
Such tuners are often fabricated in coaxial line, with adjustable
stubs connected in parallel to the main coaxial line.
The double-stub tuner cannot match all load impedances.
1075
Double-stub tuner
The double-stub tuner circuit the load may be an arbitrary distance from the
first stub.
The stubs shown in figure are shunt stubs which are usually easier to
implement in practice than are series stubs: the latter could be used just as
well, in principle.
In either case, the stubs can be open-circuited or short-circuited.
1076
538
Lecture notes Radio Engineering by Jorma Kekalainen
Quarterwave transformer
The quarter-wave transformer is a simple circuit for
matching a real load impedance to a transmission
line.
An additional feature of the quarter-wave transformer
is that it can be extended to multi-section designs for
broader bandwidth.
If only a narrowband impedance match is required, a
single-section transformer may suffice.
1077
Quarterwave transformer
One drawback of the quarter-wave transformer is that
it can only match a real load impedance.
However, a complex load impedance can always be
transformed to a real impedance by using an
appropriate length of transmission line between the
load and the transformer, or by using an appropriate
series or shunt reactive stub.
These techniques will usually alter the frequency
dependence of the equivalent load, which often has
the effect of reducing the bandwidth of the match.
1078
539
Lecture notes Radio Engineering by Jorma Kekalainen
0/4-transformer
The single-section quarter wave matching transformer circuit
is shown in figure .
Z1 Z 0 Z L
Example
Matching with a quarter-wave transformer:
An 8 load is matched to a 50 line through a
20 transformer.
1080
540
Lecture notes Radio Engineering by Jorma Kekalainen
Quarter-wave transformer
k=2/
1081
1082
541
Lecture notes Radio Engineering by Jorma Kekalainen
Waveguide theory
Reflection and
transmission of EM waves
at interfaces
Waves at an interface
Let us study a plane wave given by:
542
Lecture notes Radio Engineering by Jorma Kekalainen
Note: In the above equations, Er and Et are the unknowns that we need to find
in terms of the incident field amplitude Ei. 1085
Boundary conditions:
(1) At z = 0 the E-field parallel to the interface must be continuous
This gives:
1086
543
Lecture notes Radio Engineering by Jorma Kekalainen
1087
1) Impedances
2) Wavevectors
3) Refractive indices
1088
544
Lecture notes Radio Engineering by Jorma Kekalainen
1089
Standing waves
1090
545
Lecture notes Radio Engineering by Jorma Kekalainen
Reflection and
transmission coefficients
for non-perfect metal or
good conductor are
complex numbers. 1092
546
Lecture notes Radio Engineering by Jorma Kekalainen
The wave penetrates a few skin depths into the non-perfect metal.
1093
E max Ei 1 E min Ei 1
547
Lecture notes Radio Engineering by Jorma Kekalainen
VSWR
E max
1 1
E min 1
Small reflection (|| = 0.25) VSWR=1.66
1095
1096
548
Lecture notes Radio Engineering by Jorma Kekalainen
1097
Three-layer structure
How do we calculate the reflection coefficient for the structure?
Note: We can use the same method solving the equivalent transmission line
problem!
1098
549
Lecture notes Radio Engineering by Jorma Kekalainen
Three-layer structure
1099
Three-layer structure
1100
550
Lecture notes Radio Engineering by Jorma Kekalainen
1101
1102
551
Lecture notes Radio Engineering by Jorma Kekalainen
1103
1104
552
Lecture notes Radio Engineering by Jorma Kekalainen
1105
1106
553
Lecture notes Radio Engineering by Jorma Kekalainen
Waveguide theory
554
Lecture notes Radio Engineering by Jorma Kekalainen
1109
1110
555
Lecture notes Radio Engineering by Jorma Kekalainen
TE (guided) modes
1111
TE modes
1112
556
Lecture notes Radio Engineering by Jorma Kekalainen
1113
1114
557
Lecture notes Radio Engineering by Jorma Kekalainen
1115
TE guided modes
A parallel plate waveguide:
1116
558
Lecture notes Radio Engineering by Jorma Kekalainen
TM guided modes
1117
TM guided modes
1118
559
Lecture notes Radio Engineering by Jorma Kekalainen
1119
1120
560
Lecture notes Radio Engineering by Jorma Kekalainen
1121
Note: The TM 0 mode is just the TEM mode that we were dealing with
1122
transmission lines.
561
Lecture notes Radio Engineering by Jorma Kekalainen
Waveguide theory
Rectangular metal
waveguides
1124
562
Lecture notes Radio Engineering by Jorma Kekalainen
1125
TE guided modes
1126
563
Lecture notes Radio Engineering by Jorma Kekalainen
TE guided modes
1127
TE guided modes
1128
564
Lecture notes Radio Engineering by Jorma Kekalainen
TEmn modes
Note: The TE00 mode does not exist (i.e. it corresponds to field being
trivially zero everywhere) 1129
565
Lecture notes Radio Engineering by Jorma Kekalainen
1131
TM guided modes
1132
566
Lecture notes Radio Engineering by Jorma Kekalainen
TM guided modes
1133
TM guided modes
1134
567
Lecture notes Radio Engineering by Jorma Kekalainen
TM guided modes
Note: The TM00 , TMm0 TM0n modes do not exist (i.e. they correspond to
field being trivially zero everywhere). 1135
568
Lecture notes Radio Engineering by Jorma Kekalainen
1137
1138
569
Lecture notes Radio Engineering by Jorma Kekalainen
Waveguide theory
Dielectric waveguides
Dielectric waveguide
TE-wave undergoing total internal reflection:
1140
570
Lecture notes Radio Engineering by Jorma Kekalainen
1141
1142
571
Lecture notes Radio Engineering by Jorma Kekalainen
1143
1144
572
Lecture notes Radio Engineering by Jorma Kekalainen
Cut-off frequency
1146
573
Lecture notes Radio Engineering by Jorma Kekalainen
Introduction
The majority of applications of microwaves are related
to radar and communication systems.
Microwave communication systems handle a large
fraction of the worlds international and other long-haul
telephone, data, and television transmissions.
Most of the current wireless telecommunications
systems, such as terrestrial radio links, satellite
communications , wireless local area computer
networks (WLAN), cellular systems, and global
positioning satellite (GPS) systems, operate in the UHF
EHF range, and thus rely on microwave technology.
1148
574
Lecture notes Radio Engineering by Jorma Kekalainen
International organizations
1149
Frequency allocation
1150
575
Lecture notes Radio Engineering by Jorma Kekalainen
Maxwells equations
The initial understanding of radio wave propagation goes back to the
work of James Clerk Maxwell, who in 1864 formulated the theory
of electromagnetic propagation which predicted the existence of
radio waves.
Electromagnetic waves propagate through environments where they
are reflected, scattered, and diffracted by walls, terrain, buildings,
and other objects.
The ultimate details of this propagation can be obtained by solving
Maxwells equations with boundary conditions that express the
physical characteristics of these obstructing objects.
This requires the calculation of the Radar Cross Section (RCS) of
large and complex structures.
Since these calculations are difficult, and many times the necessary
parameters are not available, approximations have been developed
to characterize signal propagation without resorting to Maxwells
equations.
1151
576
Lecture notes Radio Engineering by Jorma Kekalainen
Propagation models
The most common approximations use ray-tracing techniques.
These techniques approximate the propagation of electromagnetic waves
by representing the wavefronts as rays: the model determines the reflection
and refraction effects on the wavefront but ignores the more complex
scattering phenomenon predicted by Maxwells coupled differential
equations.
The simplest ray-tracing model is the two-ray model, which quite
accurately describes signal propagation when there is one direct path
between the transmitter and receiver and one reflected path.
The reflected path typically bounces off the ground, and the two-ray model
is a good approximation for propagation along highways, rural roads, and
over water.
More complex General Ray Tracing (GRT) models are needed to describe
additional reflected, scattered, or diffracted components
Many propagation environments are not accurately enough described by
ray tracing models.
In these cases it is common to develop analytical models based on
empirical measurements.
These are called empirical models.
1153
Statistical models
Often because of complexity and variability of the radio channel it
doesn't pay to develop a deterministic channel model.
For these cases statistical models are used.
The attenuation caused by signal path obstructions such as buildings
or other objects is typically characterized statistically.
Statistical models are also used to characterize the constructive and
destructive interference for a large number of multipath components.
Statistical models are most accurate in environments with fairly
regular geometries and uniform dielectric properties.
Indoor environments tend to be less regular than outdoor
environments, since the geometric and dielectric characteristics
change dramatically depending on whether the indoor environment
is an open factory, office, flat or metal machine factory.
For these environments computer-aided modeling tools are available
to predict signal propagation characteristics.
1154
577
Lecture notes Radio Engineering by Jorma Kekalainen
Microwave propagation
In free-space, electromagnetic waves propagate in straight
lines without absorption or other adverse effects.
Free-space, however, is an idealization that is only
approximated when microwave energy propagates through
the atmosphere or in the presence of the earth.
In practice the performance of a communication, radar, or
radiometry system may be seriously affected by propagation
effects such as reflection, refraction, attenuation,
diffraction, or scattering.
It is important to realize that more or less free-space
propagation effects cannot be quantified in any exact or
rigorous sense, but can only be described in terms of their
statistics.
1155
shadowing
reflection at large obstacles
refraction depending on the density of a medium
scattering at small obstacles
diffraction at edges
578
Lecture notes Radio Engineering by Jorma Kekalainen
1157
Low frequency
1158
579
Lecture notes Radio Engineering by Jorma Kekalainen
1159
1160
580
Lecture notes Radio Engineering by Jorma Kekalainen
VLF
1161
LF
Low Frequency (LF), f =30-300 kHz, = 10-1
km.
Waves do not penetrate ionosphere guided
wave between the earth and the ionosphere.
Surface wave propagates beyond the horizon.
Antenna height <<.
Broadcasting service, radio communications to
boats, radio navigation (Decca, Loran).
Interference between the ionosphere wave and
the ground wave fading.
1162
581
Lecture notes Radio Engineering by Jorma Kekalainen
1163
1164
582
Lecture notes Radio Engineering by Jorma Kekalainen
as a good conductor if
as a good insulator if
1165
Example
Dry (bad) ground: r 4, 0.001 S/m
good insulator if f >> 4.5 MHz (VHF and higher
frequencies)
good conductor if f << 4.5 MHz (LF and lower
frequencies)
Sea water: r 80, 5 S/m
good insulator if f >> 1.1 GHz (EHF and higher
frequencies)
good conductor if f << 1.1 GHz (HF and lower
frequencies)
583
Lecture notes Radio Engineering by Jorma Kekalainen
y(s=)=(1/e)y(0)0.37y(0)
1167
MF
Medium Frequency (MF), f = 0.3-3 MHz, = 1-
0.1 km.
Ionosphere waves attenuate in daytime (D-layer
absorption).
Ionospheric refraction at night from E- and F-
layers (the range of ionospheric wave at night
1000 km)
Surface wave propagates beyond the horizon but
attenuates (range 100km).
Antenna heights < .
1168
584
Lecture notes Radio Engineering by Jorma Kekalainen
HF
1169
1170
585
Lecture notes Radio Engineering by Jorma Kekalainen
VHF
Very High Frequency (VHF), f = 30-300 MHz = 10-1
m.
Usually no refraction of waves from the ionosphere.
Direct wave is the main propagation mechanism but
scattering from troposphere and ionosphere, and
troposphere ducting (waveguide type propagation) is
possible.
Hills attenuates waves, reflections from surfaces,
multipath propagation.
Helix and yagi antennas usable.
100 km range for FM broadcasting service.
Radio beacons, mobile communication in sea, air and land
applications.
1171
1172
586
Lecture notes Radio Engineering by Jorma Kekalainen
1173
f =30-300GHz =10-1mm.
Direct wave limited by strong attenuation to
gases, rain and mist.
Atmosphere gases absorb waves (windows).
Small parabolic reflectors, lenses.
Short line-of sight communication links,
remote sensing from satellite
Scientific and experimental use.
1174
587
Lecture notes Radio Engineering by Jorma Kekalainen
Atmospheric attenuation
1175
Propagation mechanisms
Free space and reflected wave
1176
588
Lecture notes Radio Engineering by Jorma Kekalainen
Troposphere scattering
Communication over horizon.
Using UHF and higher frequencies.
Military applications.
1177
1178
589
Lecture notes Radio Engineering by Jorma Kekalainen
1179
1180
590
Lecture notes Radio Engineering by Jorma Kekalainen
1181
1182
591
Lecture notes Radio Engineering by Jorma Kekalainen
1183
Environment factor
The effect of real conditions for the propagated
field can be modeled by environment factor,
F, which is the ratio of free-space and true
fields, E1 and E1true, respectively:
E1true =FE1
Hence, free-space Friis formula can be
generalized to real conditions with the
environment factor
1184
592
Lecture notes Radio Engineering by Jorma Kekalainen
Design inequality
Friis formula leads to a design inequality for a radio link
1185
1186
593
Lecture notes Radio Engineering by Jorma Kekalainen
Ray theory
In the far field the Poynting vector has only a radial
component then propagation can be modeled as flux
tubes in which power is conserved
Thin flux tubes are rays that are
straight lines in a homogeneous medium
curved lines in a nonhomogeneous medium
Note: The Poynting vector S=ExH represents the energy flux (in W/m2) of an electromagnetic
1187
field.
Ray theory
The fundamental
assumption of the ray
theory is that obstacles
shadow only those rays
that are impinging on it
without affecting the
others.
The validity of the ray
theory is the better the
greater is the frequency.
1188
594
Lecture notes Radio Engineering by Jorma Kekalainen
Atmospheric propagation
While the electromagnetic properties of air are
very close to those of a vacuum (r=1, r =1), they
are not rigorously identical.
When considering a long trajectory (path) within
the atmosphere, the variations due to the pressure
p, the temperature T, and the moisture level
have to be considered.
Electromagnetic rays do not travel in a straight
line within the atmosphere, but follow slightly
curved trajectories.
1189
Inhomogeneous atmosphere
The troposphere is very slightly inhomogeneous
caused by the gravitation which makes the gas
mixture called air thinner as height increases.
Free electrons in the ionospheric layers change the
effective permittivity as the function of height.
Inhomogeneous media bend radio waves or radio
rays.
1190
595
Lecture notes Radio Engineering by Jorma Kekalainen
Atmosphere
1191
Standard atmosphere
The relative permittivity of air at microwaves is given by an
experimental expression:
596
Lecture notes Radio Engineering by Jorma Kekalainen
Atmospheric effects
The relative permittivity of the atmosphere is
close to unity.
It generally decreases (approaches unity as
altitude increases, since pressure and humidity
decrease with height faster than does temperature.
This change in permittivity with altitude causes
radio waves to bend toward the earth.
Such refraction of radio waves can sometimes be
useful, since it may extend the range of radar and
communication systems beyond the limit imposed
by the presence of the earths horizon.
Note: In a radar system, refraction effects can lead to errors when determining the elevation of
1193
a target close to the horizon.
1194
597
Lecture notes Radio Engineering by Jorma Kekalainen
Refractivity
At low altitudes up to h = 1 km the linearized model is valid
for the refractivity
Note: The refractivity function is spherical, but a planar model can be used as an approximation
1195
for low altitudes.
Standard atmosphere
1196
598
Lecture notes Radio Engineering by Jorma Kekalainen
dn
dh
d
Note: The equation for a bending radio ray can be derived assuming that the refraction index
1197
changes stepwise over layer boundaries.
599
Lecture notes Radio Engineering by Jorma Kekalainen
Bending direction
1199
constant, if n1 and /2
600
Lecture notes Radio Engineering by Jorma Kekalainen
Alternative trajectories
1201
where the real Earth radius a = 6370 km.
1202
601
Lecture notes Radio Engineering by Jorma Kekalainen
Affine transformation
The analysis of radio wave propagation is difficult
since both the wave and the surface are bending.
Using an affine transformation one of the paths
can be made straight.
After an affine transformation, only one curved line is
left.
This transformation must be done so that the
distance between the lines do not change.
So, the height of radio ray from the Earths
surface is the same as before the transformation.
1203
Affine transformation
Assume the path height h(d)<< d << a or R
Cosine law:
1204
602
Lecture notes Radio Engineering by Jorma Kekalainen
Effective radius
The height of the radio path h(d),
1205
Effective radius
Now we can straighten the radio path by setting Re=
In standard tropospheric conditions R 4a corresponding the
effective radius of the Earth ae = Ka = (4/3)a = 8500km
This transformation replaces the refractive index of the
troposphere and its derivate to ne and dne/dh=0
How does the refractive index change in the affine
transformation?
1206
603
Lecture notes Radio Engineering by Jorma Kekalainen
Example
If an antenna is at a height h, above the earth, simple
geometry gives the line-of- sight distance to the horizon
as
d 2ah
where a is the radius of the earth.
From the previous study we see that the effect of
refraction on range can be accounted for by using an
effective earth radius ae=Ka where k> 1.
A value commonly used is K = 4/3, but this is only an
average value.
Actually, bending depends on weather conditions.
1207
d a h2 a 2 a 2 2 ah h 2 a 2
2ah h 2 2ah , when h a
604
Lecture notes Radio Engineering by Jorma Kekalainen
1209
Note
Prerequisites to exploit effective Earth radius
dn/dh = constant ( n(h)=constant*h+Cint)
propagation almost parallel to the surface (radio
wave path is circular)
For microwave links, the elevation angle is very small.
Operation area is small enough (radius < 100 km
from transmitter)
1210
605
Lecture notes Radio Engineering by Jorma Kekalainen
Profile chart
Antenna heights and terrain heights representations are defined
with respect to the ground surface (sea level)
the design of radio mast height is difficult
1211
Profile chart
Knife edge diffraction causes attenuation (shadowing
effect)! Increase antenna height (h2) to avoid
shadowing.
1212
606
Lecture notes Radio Engineering by Jorma Kekalainen
1213
Note
Radio ray propagation in the troposphere is
relatively easy to analyze because its path is
practically circular besides in very exceptional
temperature conditions and in the case of too
steep elevation angle.
The spherical inhomogeneity of troposphere can be
approximated by a planar linear model for the
refractive index.
In the ionosphere the ray path must be analyzed
with more rigorous method using nonlinear
spherical permittivity model.
1214
607
Lecture notes Radio Engineering by Jorma Kekalainen
Real atmosphere
The standard atmospheric profile is only a
statistical value, representing an average taken over a
large sample of experimental data.
In fact, the term K depends upon the latitude, varying
between 1.2 and 1.5.
When the atmosphere fluctuates, n may even locally
increase with altitude: waves are then trapped within a
channel (anomalous refraction, mirages).
Shadow regions are located next to such channels,
where it is apparently impossible to emit or to receive.
Such anomalies often take place over sea shore.
1215
Standard atmosphere
1216
608
Lecture notes Radio Engineering by Jorma Kekalainen
1217
Tropospheric channel
Temperature inversion causes channels, or ducts, of cool air to
form between layers of warm air, which can cause radio waves
to travel far beyond the normal line-of-sight distances.
1218
609
Lecture notes Radio Engineering by Jorma Kekalainen
Radiowave propagation in
tropospheric channel
In suitable weather conditions (temperature,
pressure,...) in the troposphere the curvature radius of
a radio wave is smaller than that of the Earth.
Physically this means that a radio wave can propagate
long distances within the tropospheric channel.
In order to analyze the guided propagation in the
troposphere it is convenient to straighten the surface of
the ground which alters the profile of the refractive
index.
The effective radius of the Earth, ae, and that of the
radio wave, Re, are connected with their values in
reality:
1219
Modified refractivity
Because the radius of curvature of the radio wave can be
approximated using the derivative of the refractive index it
follows that
1220
610
Lecture notes Radio Engineering by Jorma Kekalainen
Super refraction
dN/dn <-157 km-1 leads to super refraction
and the emergence of a tropospheric channel.
1221
Alternative trajectories
1222
611
Lecture notes Radio Engineering by Jorma Kekalainen
1223
Tropospheric ducting
The propagation in a tropospheric duct is similar to propagation in a
dielectric waveguide.
a small attenuation
a cut-off frequency ( a minimum propagating frequency)
depending on ducts height and variation of the refractive index
inside the duct.
The wavelength corresponding to the cut-off frequency is
approximately
1224
612
Lecture notes Radio Engineering by Jorma Kekalainen
Example
1225
1226
613
Lecture notes Radio Engineering by Jorma Kekalainen
1227
Atmospheric absorption
1228
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Lecture notes Radio Engineering by Jorma Kekalainen
Remark
In some instances the system frequency may be chosen at a
point of maximum atmospheric attenuation.
Remote sensing of the atmosphere (temperature, water
vapor, rain rate) is often done with radiometers operating
near 20 or 55 GHz, to maximize the sensing of atmospheric
conditions.
Another interesting example is spacecraft-to-spacecraft
communication at 60 GHz.
This millimeter wave frequency has the advantages of a
large bandwidth and small antennas with high gains and,
since the atmosphere is very lossy at this frequency the
possibilities of interference, jamming, and eavesdropping
from earth are greatly reduced.
1229
Effects of weather
At frequencies above 10 GHz, the atmosphere produces
absorption and diffraction of the signal, caused by oxygen,
water vapor, rain, clouds and snow.
These phenomena are quite complex and measured data
present a wide spread of values.
The practical results are an additional attenuation of the
signal, a rotation of its polarization plane, as well as noise.
As communications bands become increasingly saturated, it
becomes imperative to also operate more and more at
frequencies above 10 GHz.
Statistical studies of meteorology are made to predict the
reliability of a transmission.
1230
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Lecture notes Radio Engineering by Jorma Kekalainen
Plasma
A plasma is a gas consisting of ionized particles.
The ionosphere consists of spherical layers of atmosphere
with particles which have been ionized by solar radiation,
and thus forms a plasma region.
Plasmas are also produced by lightning, meteor showers,
and nuclear explosions.
A very dense plasma is formed around the spacecraft as it
reenters the atmosphere, due to the high temperatures
produced by friction.
A plasma is characterized by the number of ions per unit
volume; depending on this density and the frequency, a
wave might be reflected, absorbed, or transmitted by the
plasma medium.
1231
Plasma effects
If the effect of the Earths magnetic field is neglected and a
fixed frequency propagation is studied, the simple plasmas
electrical properties can be modeled by an effective
permittivity which can be defined for a uniform plasma region
as
1232
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Lecture notes Radio Engineering by Jorma Kekalainen
Plasma effects
By studying the solution of Maxwells equations for
plane wave propagation in a plasma medium it can be
shown that wave propagation through a plasma is
only possible for > p.
Lower frequency waves will be totally reflected.
If a magnetic field is present, the plasma becomes
anisotropic, and the analysis is more complicated.
Note: The presence of a plasma prevents the propagation of signals at frequencies lower than
cut-off fp. A similar effect occurs with a spacecraft entering the atmosphere. The high velocity of
the spacecraft causes a very dense plasma to form around the vehicle. The electron density is
high enough so that the plasma frequency is very high, thus inhibiting all outside
communication with the spacecraft until its velocity has decreased.
Besides this blackout effect, the plasma layer may also cause a large impedance mismatch
between the antenna and its feed line. 1233
Ionosphere
The high layers of the atmosphere are constantly
bombarded by ionizing solar radiation, so that spherical
layers of ionized particles (plasma) surround the earth:
they are called the ionosphere .
While the ionosphere is by no means a simple plasma,
as it fluctuates and is placed within the earths magnetic
field.
The ionosphere is made up of layers D, E, F1 and F2.
The upper layer F2 varies considerably, in density and
height, depending further on seasons and solar cycles.
1234
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Lecture notes Radio Engineering by Jorma Kekalainen
Ionosphere
The cutoff frequency is located, in the average, around 8
MHz.
The presence of this sparse plasma prevents the propagation
of signals trough this plasma layer at frequencies lower than
fp.
Thus, signals at frequencies less than 8 MHz (e.g. short-
wave radio) can reflect off the ionosphere to travel distances
well beyond the horizon.
Higher frequency signals, however, will pass through the
ionosphere.
Microwave signals, at much higher frequencies, cross the
ionosphere without reflection and almost without
dispersion.
1235
1236
618
Lecture notes Radio Engineering by Jorma Kekalainen
1237
Example
Calculate plasma frequency fp,max using the
maximum electron density Nmax1012 m-3 .
1238
619
Lecture notes Radio Engineering by Jorma Kekalainen
Ionosphere
The electron density of the ionosphere depends on the altitude,
time of the day and the sunspot number.
1239
1240
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Lecture notes Radio Engineering by Jorma Kekalainen
Because n < 1 the radio wave bends always away from the ionosphere.
If <p refractive index is imaginary and the wave attenuates.
1241
1242
621
Lecture notes Radio Engineering by Jorma Kekalainen
1243
Secant law
1244
622
Lecture notes Radio Engineering by Jorma Kekalainen
1245
Radio paths
1246
623
Lecture notes Radio Engineering by Jorma Kekalainen
1247
Ionogram
An ionosonde is an instrument to obtain a view of the
state of the ionosphere.
It transmits vertically upwards (elevation angle /2) a
frequency-sweeped RF-pulse (1-25 MHz) to the
ionosphere and records the reflected signal as a
function of travel time and produces a plot called an
ionogram.
Higher frequencies penetrate deeper into ionosphere
than lower frequencies.
The two-way travel time as a function of frequency
provides information about the height of the reflection
and consequently about the electron density.
1248
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Lecture notes Radio Engineering by Jorma Kekalainen
1249
Note that p(H) is the plasma frequency at the true bending height
but H is the virtual reflection height.
H is not known but the halfway ionogram yields H.
The connection between H and p(H) can be solved from the above
equation
625
Lecture notes Radio Engineering by Jorma Kekalainen
Note: Anisotropy generates more solutions (o- and x-waves reflect at different heights). 1251
1252
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Lecture notes Radio Engineering by Jorma Kekalainen
Refraction
below the LUF.
1253
LUF
The transmission path that results from the rate of refraction is not
the only factor that determines the LUF.
As a frequency is lowered, absorption of the radio wave increases.
A wave whose frequency is too low is absorbed to such an extent
that it is too weak for reception.
Likewise, atmospheric noise is greater at lower frequencies: thus, a
low-frequency radio wave may have an unacceptable signal-to-
noise ratio.
So, for a given angle of incidence, the LUF for successful
communications between two locations depends on the refraction
properties of the ionosphere, absorption considerations, and the
amount of atmospheric noise present.
1254
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Lecture notes Radio Engineering by Jorma Kekalainen
Note
Optimum working frequency is the most practical
operating frequency and the one that can be relied
on to have the fewest problems.
E.g.
Precipitation attenuation can be caused by rain, fog,
snow, and hail, and can affect overall communications
considerably.
Temperature inversion causes channels, or ducts, of
cool air to form between layers of warm air, which can
cause radio waves to travel far beyond the normal line-
of-sight distances.
1255
1256
628
Lecture notes Radio Engineering by Jorma Kekalainen
1257
Huygens source
Instead of determining the radiation directly from an antenna,
equivalent source (Huygens source) can be applied.
Huygens source can be defined at any surface S surrounding the
original antenna
Huygens source consists electric and magnetic surface currents
which depend on the (true) fields at the surface
1258
629
Lecture notes Radio Engineering by Jorma Kekalainen
1259
Huygens principle
Diffraction is based on Huygens principle of wave
propagation: Points on a wave front can be considered
sources for additional wavelets.
Huygens principle states
all the points (obstructions) on a wave-front become point
sources for production of secondary wavelets which combine
(vector sum) to form a new wave-front (in the direction of
propagation), and this new wave-front is called diffracted
wave-front
1260
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Lecture notes Radio Engineering by Jorma Kekalainen
Fresnel zone
According to Huygens principle the electric field at the
receiver can be written as
2 2 2
j r p j s p j r p s p
e e e
E p dS p dS p
r p s p r p s p
The value of the integral is collected mainly over the area near
the line-of-sight (LOS) path.
This area is called Fresnel zone.
1261
((b<<d1, d2))
1262
631
Lecture notes Radio Engineering by Jorma Kekalainen
1263
Fresnel ellipsoid
Paths from transmitter to receiver which have the
exactly same electric lengths describe the Fresnel
ellipsoid
The thickness of Fresnel ellipsoid:
632
Lecture notes Radio Engineering by Jorma Kekalainen
1265
Note
Another symbol for the radius of the 1st Fresnel zone: rF
The two antennas are located at the focal points of the ellipsoid
The link span is D=a+b.
The short half-axis is
1266
633
Lecture notes Radio Engineering by Jorma Kekalainen
An obstacle
1267
1268
634
Lecture notes Radio Engineering by Jorma Kekalainen
G(dB)=20log(F) 1269
G(dB)=20log(F)
1270
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Lecture notes Radio Engineering by Jorma Kekalainen
where
Propagation losses
Obstacle loss also called diffraction loss or diffraction attenuation.
One method of calculation is based on knife edge approximation.
Having an obstacle free 60% of the Fresnel zone gives 0 dB loss
16dB 20dB
0 dB 0 dB 6dB
1272
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Lecture notes Radio Engineering by Jorma Kekalainen
1273
dB
h
H 2
rF 1274
637
Lecture notes Radio Engineering by Jorma Kekalainen
Example
1275
Example
The link span (D) is 40 km. Calculate the maximum value
(rFmax) of the 1st Fresnel zone when a) f=250 MHz and b) f=4
MHz. ab
rF , ab D
ab
D
Obviously, rF rF max , when a b
2
a2 a D D
rF max
2a 2 2 2 2
D c f 1.2 40103
a) rF max 110 m
2 2
D 0.075 40103
b)rF max 27 m
2 2
Note: Radio masts are needed. 1276
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Lecture notes Radio Engineering by Jorma Kekalainen
1277
Note: This method can only use to calculate attenuations caused by distinguishable obstacles.1278
639
Lecture notes Radio Engineering by Jorma Kekalainen
1279
Note: If attenuation coefficients Fi are expressed as dB form then FdB=F1dB+ F2dB +.
Ground effects
The most obvious effect of the presence of the ground on microwave
propagation is reflection from the earth surface (land or sea).
A radar target or receiver antenna may be illuminated by both a
direct wave from the transmitter and an indirect wave, a wave
reflected from the ground.
The reflected wave is generally smaller in amplitude than the direct
wave, because of the larger distance it travels, the fact that it usually
radiates from the sidelobe region of the transmit antenna, and
because the ground is not a perfect reflector.
Nevertheless, the received signal at the target or receiver will be the
vector sum of the two wave components.
The two waves cover different distances: they have then different
phases when reaching the receiver.
Depending on the relative phases of the two waves, the sum may be
greater or less than the direct wave alone.
1280
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Lecture notes Radio Engineering by Jorma Kekalainen
1281
Rough surface
1282
641
Lecture notes Radio Engineering by Jorma Kekalainen
1283
1284
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Lecture notes Radio Engineering by Jorma Kekalainen
In communication systems such fading can sometimes be reduced by making use of the fact that
the fading of two communication channels having different frequencies, polarizations, physical
locations , or in different times is essentially independent. If so, a communication link can
reduce fading by combining the outputs of two (or more) such channels; this is called a diversity
system. 1285
Diversity
Rayleigh fading and log-normal shadowing induce a very large
power penalty on the performance of modulation over
wireless channels.
One of the most powerful techniques to mitigate the effects of
fading is to use diversity-combining of independently fading
signal paths.
Diversity-combining uses the fact that independent signal
paths have a low probability of getting deep fades
simultaneously.
The idea behind diversity is to send the same data over
independent fading paths.
These independent paths are combined in some way such that
the fading of the resultant signal is reduced.
1286
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Lecture notes Radio Engineering by Jorma Kekalainen
Need of diversity
In a typical cellular radio environment, the communication
between the cell site and mobile is not by a direct radio path
but via many paths.
The direct path between the transmitter and the receiver is
obstructed by buildings and other objects.
Hence the signal that arrives at the receiver is either by
reflection from the flat sides of buildings or by diffraction
around man made or natural obstructions.
When various incoming radiowaves arrive at the receiver
antenna, they combine constructively or destructively, which
leads to a rapid variation in signal strength.
The signal fluctuations are known as multipath fading.
1287
1288
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Lecture notes Radio Engineering by Jorma Kekalainen
1289
Ground diffraction
In the same way as it does in optics, a sharp edge, for
instance a mountain ridge in radio waves, produces
diffraction field behind the ridge.
Signals transmitted in this manner are strongly
attenuated, but may nevertheless be used, as they are
steady and independent from the atmospheric
conditions.
A transmission using diffraction over a ridge requires a
large emitted power.
Sometimes, an obstacle such as a mountain can be
taken advantage of when setting up a long range link.
1290
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Lecture notes Radio Engineering by Jorma Kekalainen
1291
Diffraction zone
1292
Note: As soon as the radio horizon line is crossed, the signal decreases quite rapidly.
646
Lecture notes Radio Engineering by Jorma Kekalainen
Example
1294
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Lecture notes Radio Engineering by Jorma Kekalainen
Scattering propagation
Radio wave scattering is a common phenomenon in the
atmosphere.
It is caused by irregularities
hydrometeors, i.e., particles consisting of liquid or solid
water suspended in or falling through the atmosphere: rain,
snow, ice, hail, fog etc.
turbulences and thermals
meteor traces
Scattering attenuates radio signal and thus, hinders
communications.
Scattering offers possibilities to high-frequency
communication links beyond the horizon.
1295
1296
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Lecture notes Radio Engineering by Jorma Kekalainen
1297
1298
649
Lecture notes Radio Engineering by Jorma Kekalainen
Environment factor
1299
1300
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Lecture notes Radio Engineering by Jorma Kekalainen
1301
Trans-horizon propagation
As soon as the radio horizon
line is crossed, the signal
decreases quite rapidly.
However, when the receiver
keeps moving further away
from the transmitter, the
decrease becomes slower
after a certain distance, not
as would be expected from
diffraction theory .
The field is then small, but
remains usable with large
gain antennas and a
powerful transmitter.
1302
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Lecture notes Radio Engineering by Jorma Kekalainen
Troposcatter
This propagation can be explained by the
diffusion of the wave in a part of the troposphere,
in direct line of sight of both transmitter and
receiver.
This diffusion appears to be produced by
atmospheric turbulence, which gives rise to
fluctuating local inhomogeneities.
The received field is the result of many small
contributions, produced by diffusion over a very
wide region of the atmosphere.
1303
Tropospheric scatter
1304
652
Lecture notes Radio Engineering by Jorma Kekalainen
Tropospheric scatter
1305
Microwave links
Two questions must be answered when installing a line
of sight microwave link:
1. Choose a path undisturbed by obstacles, taking into
account the atmospheric diffraction and the ground
effect.
The topographic profile is drawn on a height-position chart.
On the same diagram, the first Fresnel zone is drawn, and
the locations and heights of the antennas can then be
determined.
2. The Friis equation is used to select the most suitable
components for the distance considered.
1306
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Lecture notes Radio Engineering by Jorma Kekalainen
Microwave links
A microwave link has telephone and television
channels.
It is easier to install than a cable system, particularly,
over rough terrain: antennas can be brought into
position on mountain tops by helicopter, the repeater
stations are powered by batteries, which may even be
charged with solar cells.
When installing a microwave link, care must be taken
to avoid interference between consecutive sections.
This is done by assigning different carrier frequencies
for adjacent sections.
1307
Example
Utilization of a height-position chart to set up a microwave
link above an imaginary Earth of radius KR with K= 4/3.
1308
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Lecture notes Radio Engineering by Jorma Kekalainen
Communications satellites
The utilization of stationary satellites for communications
was first advocated in 1945 by A.C. Clarke.
The first satellite, Sputnik I, was placed in orbit on October
4 1957.
In 1962 the first communications satellite, Telstar was
launched; it was a fly-past satellite, on a low-earth orbit.
The first stationary satellite, Early Bird, dates to 1965 and
was followed by several generations of Intelsat satellites.
At a height of 35800 kilometers, a satellite orbits the earth
in 24 hours: it remains steady over a fixed point on the
equator.
This is what is called the stationary orbit.
1309
Communication satellites
1310
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Lecture notes Radio Engineering by Jorma Kekalainen
Communication satellites
P
24 h
6h
1.5 h
1312
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Lecture notes Radio Engineering by Jorma Kekalainen
1313
1314
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Lecture notes Radio Engineering by Jorma Kekalainen
1315
1316
658
Lecture notes Radio Engineering by Jorma Kekalainen
1317
Moving cells
covered by
satellites
1318
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Lecture notes Radio Engineering by Jorma Kekalainen
Globalstar
1319
Space communications
At much further distances, communications with space
expeditions and probes are always carried by microwaves.
The distance from earth to the moon being 384000
kilometers, the signal transmission to the moon suffers a
1.28 second delay.
Images from Jupiter and its moons were transmitted by the
space probes Voyager 1 and 2.
The average distance from Jupiter to the sun is 778 millions
of kilometers, or 43 light-minutes.
The radius of our solar system is approximately 0.001 light-
year.
Some space probes are just leaving the solar system.
The signal received from such a probe is exceedingly small.
1320
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Lecture notes Radio Engineering by Jorma Kekalainen
Introduction
Microwave communication
A microwave communication system utilizes the radio
frequencies >1 GHz
These radio frequencies are called microwaves
Typically, spanning in microwave communication is from
2 to 60 GHz.
According to IEEE, electromagnetic waves between 30
and 300 GHz are called millimeter waves or Extremely
High Frequencies (EHF) as their wavelengths are from 10
to 1 mm.
Frequencies between 300 and 3000 GHz are called Hyper
High Frequencies (HHF) or submillimeter waves
1322
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Lecture notes Radio Engineering by Jorma Kekalainen
Microwave communication
1323
1324
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Lecture notes Radio Engineering by Jorma Kekalainen
1325
Competitors
1326
663
Lecture notes Radio Engineering by Jorma Kekalainen
1327
Radio horizon
1328
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Lecture notes Radio Engineering by Jorma Kekalainen
1329
Refraction
1330
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Lecture notes Radio Engineering by Jorma Kekalainen
Line-of-sight considerations
Microwave radio communication requires a clear line-of-sight (LOS)
condition
Radio LOS takes into account the concept of Fresnel ellipsoids and their
clearance criteria
Fresnel zones are specified employing ordinal numbers that correspond to
the number of half wavelength multiples that represent the difference in
radio wave propagation path from the direct path
Ideally, the first Fresnel zone must be clear of all obstructions.
a+b+
1331
Example
The link length is 40 a+b+
1332
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Lecture notes Radio Engineering by Jorma Kekalainen
R=17.32(x(d-x)/fd)1/2
where d = distance between antennas (in km)
R= first Fresnel zone radius in meters
f= frequency in GHz
R y
x d=x+y
1333
Line-of-sight considerations
Typically the first Fresnel zone is used to determine
obstruction loss
The direct path between the transmitter and the receiver
needs a clearance above ground of at least 60% of the
radius of the first Fresnel zone to achieve nearly free space
propagation conditions
Clearance is described to ensure sufficient antenna heights
so that, in the worst case of refraction (for which Earth-
radius factor k is minimum) the receiver antenna is not
placed in the diffraction region
1334
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Lecture notes Radio Engineering by Jorma Kekalainen
Line-of-sight considerations
1335
1336
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Lecture notes Radio Engineering by Jorma Kekalainen
Hop calculations
669
Lecture notes Radio Engineering by Jorma Kekalainen
1339
1340
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Lecture notes Radio Engineering by Jorma Kekalainen
Propagation losses
Free-space loss - when the transmitter and receiver have a
clear, unobstructed line-of-sight
Lfsl=92.45+20log(f)+20log(d) [dB]
1341
Diffraction
1342
671
Lecture notes Radio Engineering by Jorma Kekalainen
Propagation losses
Obstacle loss also called diffraction loss or diffraction attenuation.
One method of calculation is based on knife edge approximation.
Having an obstacle free 60% of the Fresnel zone gives 0 dB loss
16dB 20dB
0 dB 0 dB 6dB
1343
Propagation losses
Gas absorption
Primarily due to the water vapor and oxygen in
the atmosphere.
The absorption peaks are located around 23 GHz
for water molecules and 50 to 70 GHz for oxygen
molecules.
The specific attenuation (dB/km) is strongly
dependent on frequency, temperature and the
absolute or relative humidity of the atmosphere.
1344
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Lecture notes Radio Engineering by Jorma Kekalainen
Total specific
gas attenuation 23GHz
1.0 (dB/km)
T=40oC
RH=80%
0.4 T=30o
RH=50%
Frequency (GHz)
0 25 50
1345
Gas absorption
1346
673
Lecture notes Radio Engineering by Jorma Kekalainen
Propagation losses
Attenuation due to precipitation
Rain attenuation increases exponentially with rain intensity
The percentage of time for which a given rain intensity is attained or
exceeded is available for 15 different rain zones covering the entire
earths surface
The specific attenuation of rain is dependent on many parameters such
as the form and size of distribution of the raindrops, polarization, rain
intensity and frequency
Horizontal polarization gives more rain attenuation than vertical
polarization
Rain attenuation increases with frequency and becomes a major
contributor in the frequency bands above 10 GHz
The contribution due to rain attenuation is not included in the link
budget and is used only in the calculation of rain fading
1347
Atmospheric attenuation
1348
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Lecture notes Radio Engineering by Jorma Kekalainen
Rain attenuation
Two types of attenuating mechanisms:
absorption and scattering caused by the rain drops.
1349
Rain attenuation
1350
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Lecture notes Radio Engineering by Jorma Kekalainen
Ground reflection
Reflection on the Earths surface may give rise to multipath
propagation
The direct ray at the receiver may interfered with by the ground-
reflected ray and the reflection loss can be significant
Since the refraction properties of the atmosphere are constantly
changing the reflection loss varies.
The loss due to reflection on the ground is dependent on the reflection
coefficient of the ground
The reflection coefficient is dependent on the frequency, grazing angle
(angle between the ray beam and the horizontal plane), polarization and
ground properties
1351
Ground reflection
The grazing angle of radio-relay paths is very small
usually less than 1
It is recommended to avoid ground reflection by shielding
the path against the indirect ray
The contribution resulting from reflection loss is not
automatically included in the link budget.
When reflection cannot be avoided, the fade margin may be
adjusted by including this contribution as additional loss
in the link budget
1352
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Lecture notes Radio Engineering by Jorma Kekalainen
Multipath
1353
Path analysis
(Link budget)
677
Lecture notes Radio Engineering by Jorma Kekalainen
Introduction
The path analysis (or link budget) is carried out to
dimension the link.
This means here to establish operating parameters
such as transmitter power output, parabolic antenna
aperture (diameter), and receiver noise figure, among
others.
The type of modulation and modulation rate (number
of transitions per second) are also important
parameters.
Next table shows basic parameters in two columns.
The first we call normal and would be the most
economic; the second column is titled special,
giving improved performance parameters, but at an
increased price.
1355
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Lecture notes Radio Engineering by Jorma Kekalainen
1357
1358
679
Lecture notes Radio Engineering by Jorma Kekalainen
1359
Example
1360
680
Lecture notes Radio Engineering by Jorma Kekalainen
Obstacle loss
1361
1362
681
Lecture notes Radio Engineering by Jorma Kekalainen
1363
1364
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Lecture notes Radio Engineering by Jorma Kekalainen
1365
Link budget
The link budget is a calculation involving the gain and
loss factors associated with the antennas, transmitters,
transmission lines and propagation environment, to
determine the maximum distance at which a
transmitter and receiver can successfully operate
Receiver sensitivity threshold is the signal level at
which the radio runs for a given bit-error rate at a
specified bit rate
System gain depends on the design of the radio
1366
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Lecture notes Radio Engineering by Jorma Kekalainen
Link budget
The gains from the antenna at each end are added to the system
gain
larger antennas provide a higher gain
The free space loss of the radio signal is subtracted.
the longer the link the higher the loss
These calculations give the fade margin
In most cases since the same duplex radio setup is applied to
both stations the calculation of the received signal level is
independent of direction
1367
Approach
First, we calculate the free-space loss between the transmit
antenna and receive antenna.
This is a function of distance and frequency (i.e., the
microwave transmitter operational frequency).
We then calculate the EIRP (effective isotropically radiated
power) at the transmit antenna.
The EIRP is the sum of the transmitter power output, minus
transmission line losses plus the antenna gain, all in decibel
units.
When we add the EIRP to the free-space loss (in dB), the
result is the isotropic receive level (IRL).
When we add the receive antenna gain to the IRL and subtract
the receive transmission line losses, we get the receive signal
level (RSL).
This relationship of path gains and losses is shown in the
following figure.
1368
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Lecture notes Radio Engineering by Jorma Kekalainen
1369
Path loss
If the isotropic radiator (an antenna that radiates uniformly in
all directions) is fed by a transmitted power Pt, it radiates
power density Pt/4d2 (W/m2) at a distance d, and if a radiator
has a gain Gt, the power flow is enhanced by the factor Gt.
So power density at a distance d is S0= GtPt/4d2 .
Finally, the power intercepted by an antenna of effective cross
section A (related to the gain by Gr = 4A/2) is
Pr=AS0=PtGtGr( /4d)2.
The term 1/(/4d)2 is known as the free-space loss and
represents the steady decrease of power flow (in W/m2) as the
wave propagates.
From this we can derive the commonly used formula of free-
space path loss, which reduces to
685
Lecture notes Radio Engineering by Jorma Kekalainen
Example
Consider the problem from a different aspect.
It requires 22 dB to launch a wave to just 1 wavelength () distant from
an antenna.
Thus for an antenna emitting +10 dBW, we could expect the signal one
wavelength away to be 22 dB down, or -12 dBW.
Whenever we double the distance, we incur an additional 6 dB of loss.
Hence at 2 from the + 10-dBW radiator, we would find -18 dBW; at
4, -24 dBW; 8, -30 dBW; and so on.
Now suppose that we have an emitter where FGHz = 1 GHz. What is the path
loss at 1 km?
1371
Calculation of EIRP
Effective isotropically
radiated power is calculated
by adding decibel units:
the transmitter power output (in
dBm or dBW),
the transmission line losses in
dB (a negative value because it
is a loss), and
the antenna gain in dBi.
dBi = decibels referenced to
an isotropic (antenna).
EIRP = Trans. output (dBW) - Trans. line loss (dB) + Ant. gain (dB) 1372
686
Lecture notes Radio Engineering by Jorma Kekalainen
Example
EIRP = Trans. output (dBW) - Trans. line loss (dB) + Ant. gain (dB)
1373
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Lecture notes Radio Engineering by Jorma Kekalainen
1375
Example
1376
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Lecture notes Radio Engineering by Jorma Kekalainen
Link budget
Receive Signal Level (RSL)
1377
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Lecture notes Radio Engineering by Jorma Kekalainen
690
Lecture notes Radio Engineering by Jorma Kekalainen
Example
Suppose the noise figure of a device is 3 dB.
What is the noise temperature?
1381
1382
691
Lecture notes Radio Engineering by Jorma Kekalainen
Example
A microwave receiver has a noise figure of 8 dB and its
bandwidth is 10 MHz. What is the thermal noise level
(sometimes called the thermal noise threshold)?
1383
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Lecture notes Radio Engineering by Jorma Kekalainen
Example
1385
Eb/N0
Simplifying, we obtain
Note.
1386
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Lecture notes Radio Engineering by Jorma Kekalainen
1388
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Lecture notes Radio Engineering by Jorma Kekalainen
1389
QPSK modulator really only consists of two BPSK modulators where one
is out of phase with the other by 90.
1390
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Lecture notes Radio Engineering by Jorma Kekalainen
8-PSK
1391
QAM
We can construct a hybrid waveform covering both amplitude
modulation as well as phase modulation.
This family of waveforms is called quadrature amplitude
modulation (QAM).
For example, 16-QAM has 16 different state possibilities: eight are
derived for 8-ary PSK and two are derived from the two amplitude
levels.
Here for each state transition, 4 bits are transmitted at once.
The bit packing in this case is 4 bits/Hz.
Some digital LOS microwave systems use 256-QAM and 512-
QAM, theoretically achieving 8 bits/Hz and 9 bits/Hz of bit
packing.
1392
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Lecture notes Radio Engineering by Jorma Kekalainen
Example
1393
Solution
a. We have two signal elements with peak amplitudes 1 and 3. The phase of both
signal elements are the same, which we assume to be 0 degrees.
b. We have two signal elements with the same peak amplitude of 2. However, there
must be 180 degrees difference between the two phases. We assume one phase to be
0 and the other 180 degrees.
c. We have four signal elements with the same peak amplitude of 3. However, there
must be 90 degrees difference between each phase. We assume the first phase to be
at 45, the second at 135, the third at 225, and the fourth at 315 degrees. Note that
this is one out of many configurations. The phases can be at 0, 90, 180, and 270. As
long as the differences are 90 degrees, the solution is satisfactory.
d. We have four phases, which we select to be the same as the previous case. For
each phase, however, we have two amplitudes, 1 and 3 as shown in the figure. Note
that this is one out of many configurations. The phases can be at 0, 90, 180, and
270. As long as the differences are 90 degrees, the solution is satisfactory.
1394
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Lecture notes Radio Engineering by Jorma Kekalainen
Solution
1395
Theoretical/Practical bandwidth
The difference between theoretical bit packing and
the practical deals with filter design.
For QAM-type waveforms, depending on design,
practical bit packing may vary from 1.25 to 1.5 the
baud-rate-bandwidth.
The extra bandwidth required provides a filter with
spectral space to roll-off.
In other words, a filters skirts are not perfectly
vertical.
1396
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Lecture notes Radio Engineering by Jorma Kekalainen
Example
Suppose we are using a 48-Mbps bit stream to input to our
transmitter which was using 16-QAM modulation.
Its baud rate, which measures transitions per second, would be
48/4 megabauds.
If we allowed 1 baud/Hz, then 12 MHz bandwidth would be
required.
If we used a roll-off factor of 1.5, then the practical bandwidth
required would be 18 MHz.
Carry this two steps further to 64-QAM.
Here the theoretical bit packing is 6 bits/Hz and for the 48-
Mbps bit stream, a practical 12-MHz bandwidth would be
required.
baud (unit symbol "Bd") is synonymous to symbols per second. It is the unit of
symbol rate, also known as baud rate or modulation rate; the number of
distinct symbol changes (signaling events) made to the transmission medium per
second in a digitally modulated signal or a line code 1397
699
Lecture notes Radio Engineering by Jorma Kekalainen
Example
A digital link operates in the 7-GHz
band with a link 37 km long.
The bit rate is 1.544 Mbps and the
modulation is 64-QAM.
The specified BER for the link is 10-7
and the modulation implementation
loss is 2 dB.
The receiver noise figure is 8 dB.
The antennas have 35-dB gain at each
end, and transmission line losses are
1.8 dB at each end.
What link margin can be expected
assuming the transmitter has a 1-watt
output?
Solution
First turn to next figure and derive the
required Eb/N0.
This is about 19.5 dB; add to this the
modulation implementation loss of 2
dB and the result is that the required
value for Eb/N0 is 21.5 dB.
1399
Example (cont.)
The next step is to calculate a candidate RSL
(Receive Signal Level) value.
We know that Eb must be 21.5 dB above N0.
We can calculate N0 because we have the receiver
noise figure (8 dB)
1400
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Lecture notes Radio Engineering by Jorma Kekalainen
Example (cont.)
So
Example (cont.)
1402
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Lecture notes Radio Engineering by Jorma Kekalainen
Example (cont.)
Calculate the free-space loss (path loss):
1403
Example (cont.)
1404
702
Lecture notes Radio Engineering by Jorma Kekalainen
Antenna gain
1405
703
Lecture notes Radio Engineering by Jorma Kekalainen
c
f
FGHz 109
2
G 10 log 4 D / 2 0.55
2
3 108
0.55 100
2
G 20 log D 20 log FGHz 10 log
9
G 20 log D 20 log FGHz 17.8
1407
Example
D1m
1408
704
Lecture notes Radio Engineering by Jorma Kekalainen
Antenna types
Parabolic dish antennas, with waveguide
(horn) feeds, are probably the most economic
antennas for radio links operating from 3 GHz
upward.
Below 3 GHz, coaxial feeds are used, and
often the antennas are Yagis.
Coaxial cable transmission lines deliver the
RF energy from/to transmitter/receiver to the
antenna in this range.
Above 3 GHz, coaxial cable becomes too
lossy and waveguide is more practical.
Other types of antennas may also be used,
such as the horn, and spiral.
Besides cost and gain, other features are
front-to-back ratio, side lobes, and efficiency.
1409
Power budget
LFSL 92.4 20 log FGHz 20 log Dkm
Prx Ptx 2Gant 2 L feed LFSL
Margin Prx Pthreshold
705
Lecture notes Radio Engineering by Jorma Kekalainen
Link budget
The fade margin is calculated with respect to the
receiver threshold level for a given bit-error rate
(BER).
The link is available if received signal is above
receiver threshold level, otherwise the link goes down
Link feasibility formula
RSL Rx = receiver (sensitivity) threshold
Receiver 1 Receiver 2
Antenna Gain
Propagation
Output Branching
Losses
Received
Power (Rx)
Fade Margin
Receiver threshold Value
1412
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Lecture notes Radio Engineering by Jorma Kekalainen
Fading
On very short radio paths below about 10 GHz, the signal level
on the distant end receiving antenna, assuming full LOS
conditions, can be predicted (calculated) accurately (about
1dB inaccuracy).
If the transmitter continues to give the same output, the receive
signal level will remain constant.
As the path is extended, the measured RSL will vary around a
median.
The signal level may remain at that median for minutes or
hours, and then suddenly drop and then return to the median
again.
In other periods and/or on other links, this level variation can
be continuous for periods of time.
Drops in level can be as much as 30 dB or more.
This phenomenon is called fading.
The system and link design must take fading into account
when sizing or dimensioning the system/link.
1413
Fades
As the RSL drops in level, so does the Eb/N0.
As the Eb/N0 decreases, there is a deterioration in
error performance; the BER degrades.
Fades vary in depth, duration, and frequency (i.e.,
number of fade events per unit of time).
We cannot eliminate the fades, but we can mitigate
their effects.
The primary tool we have is to overbuild each link
by increasing the margin.
1414
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Lecture notes Radio Engineering by Jorma Kekalainen
Availability
Link margin is the number of dB we have as a surplus in the link design.
We could design an LOS microwave link so we just achieve the RSL at the
distant receiver to satisfy the Eb/N0 (and BER) requirements using free-
space loss as the only factor in link attenuation (besides transmission line
loss).
Unfortunately we will only meet our specified requirements about 50% of
the time.
So we must add margin to compensate for the fading.
We have to determine what percentage of the time the link meets BER
performance requirements.
We call this time availability.
If a link meets its performance requirements 99% of the time, then it does
not meet performance requirements 1 % of the time.
We call this latter factor unavailability.
1415
Scales of fading
Signal Power (dBm)
1416
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Lecture notes Radio Engineering by Jorma Kekalainen
1417
Probability calculations
1418
709
Lecture notes Radio Engineering by Jorma Kekalainen
Probability calculations
1419
Example
1420
710
Lecture notes Radio Engineering by Jorma Kekalainen
Example
Calculate the following table a) with given time availability and b) with
given fade margin
1421
Time availability
1422
711
Lecture notes Radio Engineering by Jorma Kekalainen
1423
1424
712
Lecture notes Radio Engineering by Jorma Kekalainen
Multipath
The most common cause of
fading is multipath conditions.
As the term implies, signal energy
follows multiple paths from the
transmit antenna to the receive
antenna.
Two additional paths, besides the
main ray beam, are shown next
figure.
Most of the time the delayed
signal energy (from the
reflected/refracted paths) will be
out of phase with the principal
ray beam which causes fading.
1425
Multipath
1426
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Lecture notes Radio Engineering by Jorma Kekalainen
Multipath propagation:
Reflection (odd Fresnel zone numbers) and
Scattering
Multipath Propagation:
Reflection (even Fresnel zone numbers) and
Scattering
714
Lecture notes Radio Engineering by Jorma Kekalainen
Dispersion
1429
Overbuilding
Probably the most economic way to overbuild a link is to increase the
antenna aperture.
Every time we increase the aperture doubling the diameter of the parabolic
dish, we increase the gain by 6 dB
715
Lecture notes Radio Engineering by Jorma Kekalainen
Overbuilding
Other measures we can take to overbuild a link are:
Insert a low-noise amplifier (LNA) in front of the receiver - mixer.
Improvement: 6 - 12 dB.
Use an HPA (high-power amplifier).
Usually a traveling-wave tube (TWT) amplifier; 10 watts output.
Improvement: 10 dB.
Implement FEC (forward error correction).
Improvement: 15 dB.
Implement some form of diversity.
Space diversity is preferable in many countries.
Can be a fairly expensive measure.
Improvement: 5 - 20 dB or more.
1431
Fading conditions
It should be appreciated that fading varies with path length,
frequency, climate, and terrain.
The rougher the terrain, the more reflections are broken up.
Flat terrain, and especially paths over water, tends to increase
the incidence of fading.
For example, in dry, windy, mountainous areas the multipath
fading phenomenon may be nonexistent.
In hot, humid coastal regions very strong fading may be
expected.
1432
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Lecture notes Radio Engineering by Jorma Kekalainen
Fading types
Fading is defined as the variation of the strength
of a received radio carrier signal due to
atmospheric changes and/or ground and water
reflections in the propagation path.
Four fading types are considered while planning
links.
They are all dependent on path length and are
estimated as the probability of exceeding a given
(calculated) fade margin
1433
Fading margin
1434
1434
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Lecture notes Radio Engineering by Jorma Kekalainen
Fading margin
Safety margin.
Should be large enough
to guarantee that quality
and availability
objectives are met
during fading
conditions.
Typical value 40 dB
1435
Fading
1436
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Lecture notes Radio Engineering by Jorma Kekalainen
Fading types
Multipath fading
Flat fading
Frequency-selective fading
Rain fading
Refraction-diffraction fading
1437
Multipath fading
Multipath fading is the dominant fading mechanism for
frequencies lower than 10 GHz.
A reflected wave causes a multipath, i.e. when a reflected
wave reaches the receiver as the direct wave that travels
in a straight line from the transmitter
If the two waves reach the receiver out of phase they
weaken the overall signal.
As a thumb rule, multipath fading, for radio links having
bandwidths less than 40MHz and path lengths less than
30km is described as flat instead of frequency selective
1438
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Lecture notes Radio Engineering by Jorma Kekalainen
Frequency-selective fading
There are amplitude and delay distortions across the
channel bandwidth
It affects high capacity radio links
1439
Multipath fading
1440
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Lecture notes Radio Engineering by Jorma Kekalainen
Rain fading
Rain attenuates the signal caused by the scattering and
absorption of electromagnetic waves by rain drops
It is significant for long paths (>10km)
It starts increasing at about 10 GHz and for frequencies above
15 GHz, rain fading is the dominant fading mechanism
Rain outage increases dramatically with frequency and then
with path length
Microwave path lengths must be reduced in areas where rain
outages are severe
The available rainfall data is usually in the form of a statistical
description of the amount of rain that falls at a given
measurement point over a period of time
1441
1442
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Lecture notes Radio Engineering by Jorma Kekalainen
Fading margin
1443
1444
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Lecture notes Radio Engineering by Jorma Kekalainen
1445
1446
723
Lecture notes Radio Engineering by Jorma Kekalainen
Far-end interference
1447
Near-end interference
1448
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Lecture notes Radio Engineering by Jorma Kekalainen
1449
Output power
1450
725
Lecture notes Radio Engineering by Jorma Kekalainen
Output power
1451
Antennas
1452
726
Lecture notes Radio Engineering by Jorma Kekalainen
Threshold degradation
1453
Threshold degradation
1454
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Lecture notes Radio Engineering by Jorma Kekalainen
Link budget
1455
1455
1456
728
Lecture notes Radio Engineering by Jorma Kekalainen
1457
1458
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Lecture notes Radio Engineering by Jorma Kekalainen
Diversity operation
Diversity reception means the simultaneous reception of the
same radio signal over two or more paths.
Each path is handled by a separate receiver chain and then
combined in the radio equipment so that effects of fading are
mitigated.
The separate diversity paths can be based on space, frequency,
and/or time diversity.
The simplest form of diversity is space diversity.
The two diversity paths in space diversity are derived at the
receiver end from two separate receivers with a combined
output.
Each receiver is connected to its own antenna, separated
vertically on the same tower.
The separation distance should be at least 70 wavelengths and
preferably 100 wavelengths.
Probably, fading will not occur on both paths simultaneously.
1460
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Lecture notes Radio Engineering by Jorma Kekalainen
Combining
Combined signal
fed to receiver Signal 2
Signal 1
C o m b in e d s ig n a l
S ig n al 1
S ig n al 2
Signal Strength
T im e
1461
Concept of diversity
Fade
Transmission
media 1
Information Receiver
Transmission
Tmedia 2
Peak
1462
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Lecture notes Radio Engineering by Jorma Kekalainen
Diversity
Primarily used to reduce the effects of multipath
fading.
1463
Diversity
1464
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Lecture notes Radio Engineering by Jorma Kekalainen
A space-diversity configuration
1465
Antenna separation
1466
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Lecture notes Radio Engineering by Jorma Kekalainen
1467
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Lecture notes Radio Engineering by Jorma Kekalainen
Frequency diversity
Frequency diversity is more complex and more costly than
space diversity.
It has advantages as well as disadvantages.
Frequency diversity requires two transmitters at the near end
of the link.
The transmitters are modulated simultaneously by the same
signal but transmit on different frequencies.
Frequency separation must be at least 2%, but 5% is
preferable.
The two diversity paths are derived in the frequency domain.
When a fade occurs on one frequency, it will probably not
occur on the other frequency.
1469
A frequency-diversity configuration
1470
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Lecture notes Radio Engineering by Jorma Kekalainen
Frequency diversity
The more one frequency is separated from the other, the less chance
fades will occur simultaneously on each path.
Frequency diversity is expensive, but there is increased assurance of
path reliability.
It provides full and simple equipment redundancy and has the
great operational advantage of two complete end-to-end electrical
paths.
In this case, failure of one transmitter or one receiver will not
interrupt service, and a transmitter and/or a receiver can be taken out
of service for maintenance.
The primary disadvantage of frequency diversity is that it doubles
the amount of frequency spectrum required in this day when
spectrum is at a premium.
In many cases it is prohibited by national licensing authorities.
For example, the U.S. Federal Communications Commission (FCC)
does not permit frequency diversity for industrial users.
1471
Hot-standby
The full equipment redundancy aspect is very attractive to the
system designer.
Another approach to achieve diversity improvement in propagation
plus reliability improvement by fully redundant equipment is to
resort to the hot-standby technique.
On the receive end of the path, a space-diversity configuration is
used.
On the transmit end a second transmitter is installed as in in the
previous figure, but the second transmitter is on hot standby.
This means that the second transmitter is on but its signal is not
radiated by the antenna.
On a one-for-one basis the second transmitter is on the same
frequency as the first transmitter.
On failure of transmitter 1, transmitter 2 is switched on
automatically.
1472
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Lecture notes Radio Engineering by Jorma Kekalainen
Diversity improvement
Propagation reliability improvement can be exemplified as
follows.
If a 50 km path required a 51 dB fade margin to achieve a
99.999% reliability on 7 GHz without diversity, with space
diversity on the same path, only a 33-dB fade margin would be
required for the same propagation reliability, namely,
99.999%.
In the non-diversity condition, assuming Rayleigh fading, a
30-dB fade margin would display 99.9% path reliability.
But under the same circumstances with frequency diversity,
with only a 1% frequency separation, propagation reliability
on the same path would be improved to 99.995%.
1474
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Lecture notes Radio Engineering by Jorma Kekalainen
1475
Repeaters
1476
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Lecture notes Radio Engineering by Jorma Kekalainen
Path/Site survey
This can turn out to be the most important step in the
design of an LOS microwave link (or hop).
Much of the survey is to verify findings and
conclusions of the path profile.
Of course each site must be visited to determine the
location of the tower and the radio equipment shelter.
Site/path survey personnel must personally inspect
the sites in question, walking/driving the path or
flying in a helicopter, or a combination of these.
The positions must be accurately enough (<1m)
cross-checked in three dimensions
1477
Frequency planning
The objective of frequency planning is to
assign frequencies to a network using as few
frequencies as possible and in a manner such
that the quality and availability of the radio
link path is minimally affected by
interference.
1478
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Lecture notes Radio Engineering by Jorma Kekalainen
1479
1480
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Lecture notes Radio Engineering by Jorma Kekalainen
Channel plan
1481
Frequency selection
Scenario 1: (Perfect)
Frequency band and sub-band decided.
Early ordering of equipment possible.
Scenario 2: (Critical)
Frequency band unknown.
Major changes of assumed bands may alter the
network design.
Application to frequency authority must be made.
1482
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Lecture notes Radio Engineering by Jorma Kekalainen
Frequency planning
Determining factors for the influence of interference:
The carrier to interference ratio (C/I) at the input of the
interfered receiver
The receiver selectivity i.e. receiver bandwidth and the
frequency separation between carrier and interfering signal
The spectrum width of the interfering signal
The influence of interference can be reduced by
increasing C/I and/or the frequency separation.
1483
Frequency planning/Interference
reducing methods
Frequency (channel) separation
Transmitter attenuation (at interfering transmitter)
Cross-polar antenna discrimination (V/H)
Co-polar antenna discrimination (directivity)
Larger antennas (smaller beam width and higher
antenna gain)
High performance antennas (side- and back lobe
attenuation)
Reduced spectrum width
1484
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Lecture notes Radio Engineering by Jorma Kekalainen
Frequency planning
The following aspects are the basic considerations
involved in the assignment of radio frequencies
Determining a frequency band that is suitable for the
specific link (path length, site location, terrain topography
and atmospheric effects)
Prevention of mutual interference such as interference
among radio frequency channels in the actual path,
interference to and from other radio paths, interference to
and from satellite communication systems
Correct selection of a frequency band allows the required
transmission capacity while efficiently utilizing the
available radio frequency spectrum
1485
1486
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Lecture notes Radio Engineering by Jorma Kekalainen
1487
Path/Site survey
Line of sight must be precisely studied
reiteration for each obstacle in the LOS microwave
path
at least 0.6 of the first Fresnel zone must be added
on top of obstacles including 20 m for trees and a
few meters more for growth if in a vegetation area
(to avoid foliage loss penalties)
often it is advisable to add a few meters of safety
factor on top of the first Fresnel zone clearance to
avoid any diffraction loss penalties.
1488
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Lecture notes Radio Engineering by Jorma Kekalainen
System tests
Basic recommendations
Use higher frequency bands for shorter hops and
lower frequency bands for longer hops
Avoid lower frequency bands in urban areas
In areas with heavy precipitation, if possible, use
frequency bands below 10 GHz.
Use protected (stand-by) systems (1+1) for all
important and/or high-capacity links
Leave enough spare capacity for future expansion of
the system
1490
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Lecture notes Radio Engineering by Jorma Kekalainen
1492
746