UNIT-3 System Planning and Initial Investigation

The most critical phase of managing system is planning. To launch a system investigation, we need a master plan
detailing the steps to be taken, the people to be questioned, and the expected outcome. The initial investigation
has the objective of determining whether the users request has potential merit.
Initial Investigation

This is the first phase of SDLC and is known as identification of need.

This is a users request to change, improve or enhance an existing system.
The objective is to determine whether the request is valid or feasible
The user request identifies the need for change and authorizes the initial investigation.
It Includes following
Dimension of planning:
High interest rates make it more important that business realizes a good return on investment.
Inflation puts pressure on profit when it occurs.
Resource shortage impedes expansion.
Increased productivity paves the way for expansion.
The growing trend towards guaranteed employment suggests that costs are becoming fixed and the
commitment to business expansion may not be easily changed.

Users request form to be filled by user.

1. User assigned title of work requested.
2. Nature of work requested (Problem Definition)
3. Date requested for submission.
4. Date job should be completed.
5. Job objectives purposes of job requested.
6. Expected benefits to be derived from proposed change.
7. IO Description quantity (number of copies or pages) and frequency (daily, weekly, etc) of inputs
and output of proposed change.
8. Requesters signature, title development and phone number.
9. Signature, title, department and phone number of person appearing the requested.
Strategies for determining information requirements:
There are three general approaches for getting information regarding the users requirements. They are

Asking
Getting information from the existing information system
Prototyping.
ASKING

This strategy obtains information from users by simply asking them about the requirements. It assumes a
stable system where users are well informed and can overcome biases in defining their problem. There are
three key asking methods.

1. Questions: Questions may be open-ended or closed. An open-ended question allows the respondent
to formulate a response. It is used when feelings or opinions are important. A closed question requests one
answer from a specific set of responses. It is used when factual responses are known.

2. Brainstorming: Brainstorming is a technique used for generating new ideas and obtaining general
information requirements. This method is appropriate for getting non conventional solutions to problems. A
guided approach to brainstorming asks each participant to define ideal solutions and then select the best
one. It works well for users who have sound system knowledge but have the difficulty of accepting new
ideas.

3. Group compromise: This method asks participants for their expectations regarding specific variables.
Each participant fills out a questionnaire. The results are summarized and given to participants along with a
follow-up questionnaire. Participants are invited to change their responses. The results are again
summarized and given back to the participants. This debate by questionnaire continues until participants
responses have converged enough. This method is advantageous than brainstorming because the
participants are not subjected to psychological pressure.
GETTING INFORMATION FROM EXISTING INFORMATION SYSTEM

There are two methods in extracting information from an already existing system

1. Data Analysis approach

Determining information from an existing application is called the data analysis approach.
It simply asks the user what information is currently received and what other information is
required.
It depends on the user for getting accurate information.
The analyst examines all reports, discusses each piece of information with the user, and determines
unfulfilled information needs by interviewing the user.
The analyst is primarily involved in improving the existing flow of data to the user.
The data analysis method is ideal for making structured decisions, although it requires that users
articulate their information requirements.
A major drawback is a lack of established rules for obtaining and validating information needs that
are not linked to organizational objectives.
2. Decision Analysis
This method breaks down a problem into parts, which allows the user to focus separately on the
critical issues.
It also determines policy and organizational objectives relevant to complete each major decision.
The analyst and the user then refine the decision process and the information requirements for a
final statement of information requirements.
In this method information needs are clearly linked to decision and organizational objectives.
It is useful for unstructured decisions and information tailored to the users decision-making style.
The major drawback is that information requirements may change when the user is promoted or
replaced
PROTOTYPING
The third strategy for determining user information requirements is used when the user cannot establish
information needs accurately before the information system is built. The reason could be the lack of an
existing model on which to decide requirements or a difficulty in visualizing candidate system. In this case
the user need to consider real life systems from which adjustments can be made. This iterative approach first
set up the initial requirements and builds a system to meet these requirements. As users gain experience,
they request additional requirements or modifications and the process continues. Prototyping is suitable for
environments where it is difficult to formulate a concrete model for defining information requirements.
Prototyping strategy is appropriate for determining high uncertainty information requirement.

Initial Investigation process

1. Problem Definition and project Initiation:
Determining users information requirement.
2. Background Analysis
3. Fact Finding
4. Fact Analysis
5. Determination of feasibility.
1. Problem Definition and project Initiation:
The 1st step in an initial investigation is to define the problem that led to the user request.
The problem must be stated clearly, understood, and agreed upon by the user and the analyst.
It must state the objective the user trying to achieve and the result the user wants to see.
 Emphasis should be on the logical requirement (what must be the result) of the problem rather than
the physical requirements.
For example, in the user request form, a job objective is improved customer service (logical objective).
How the objective should be achieved is physical requirement.
Components of Problem Definition:
Describe System:

What is the function of the system?

Output/Input descriptions -- constraints: Dimensions, weight.
Environment -- weather, temperature, moisture.
Skills, ability.
People -- what particular types?
Systems -- higher and lower level system goals, interfaces
Flows -- how do pieces fit together, what activities are there and how are they related?
Components -- what are the parts and what is their purpose?
Goals:
What are critical factors, characteristics of an ideal system?
What is the goal of your design?
How do you measure performance of the system?
What is wrong with the current system? In relation to your goals?
Economics -- costs, value, prices, cash flow
2. Background Analysis
Once the project initiated, the analyst begins to learn about the setting of the existing
system and the physical processes for the revised system.
Ex. If an analyst analyses the bank system then he should understand the structure of bank , who
runs it, who reports to whom, document and cash flows.
In background analysis analyst should prepare chart of each and one function in Bank or
system to be analyzed.
3. Fact Finding
After obtaining this background knowledge, the analyst begins to collect data on the existing
system's output, input, and cost.To study any system the analyst needs to do collect facts and all relevant
information. the facts when expressed in quantitative form are termed as data. The success of any project is
depended upon the accuracy of available data. Accurate information can be collected with help of certain
methods/ techniques. These specific methods for finding information of the system are termed as fact
finding techniques. Interview, Questionnaire, Record View and Observations are the different fact finding
techniques used by the analyst. The analyst may use more than one technique/tools for investigation.
Fact Finding Techniques or tools:
Interview
This method is used to collect the information from groups or individuals. Analyst selects the people who are
related with the system for the interview. In this method the analyst sits face to face with the people and records
their responses. The interviewer must plan in advance the type of questions he/ she is going to ask and should be
ready to answer any type of question. He should also choose a suitable place and time which will be comfortable for
the respondent.
Questionnaire
It is the technique used to extract information from number of people. This method can be adopted and
used only by an skillful analyst. The Questionnaire consists of series of questions framed together in logical manner.
The questions are simple, clear and to the point. This method is very useful for attaining information from people
who are concerned with the usage of the system and who are living in different countries. The questionnaire can be
mailed or send to people by post. This is the cheapest source of fact finding.
 Record View and written Document Review
The information related to the system is published in the sources like newspapers, magazines, journals,
documents etc. This record review helps the analyst to get valuable information about the system and the
organization.
Document review can help you understand how the current system is supposed to work.
Remember that system documentation sometimes is out of date. Forms can change or be discontinued,
and documented procedures often are modified or eliminated.
You should obtain copies of actual forms and operating documents currently in used.
You also should review blank copies of forms, as well as samples of actual completed forms. You usually
can obtain document samples during interviews with the people who perform that procedure.

On Site Observation
Unlike the other fact finding techniques, in this method the analyst himself visits the organization and
observes and understand the flow of documents, working of the existing system, the users of the system etc. For this
method to be adopted it takes an analyst to perform this job as he knows which points should be noticed and
highlighted. In analyst may observe the unwanted things as well and simply cause delay in the development of the
new system.
After analyzing facts of system analyst prepare the details of I/O recourses, DFDs , Decision Tables
and structured charts.

4. Efficiency Analysis:
Efficiency is degree to which a system or component perform is designated function with minimum
consumption of recourses. Producing results in minimum efforts.
Efficiency concerns how to generate as much output with minimum input. Efficiency is non-functional
requirement which considerable while system analysis and design. It closely related to system performance and
productivity. It is primary measures used in determination of performance and include both economic and
productive perspective. Efficiency measures during review, discussions and information utilization.

5. Service Analysis:
Service semantics cannot be described independently of how these self-contained business and technical
components are externally used Integration of the internal and external behavior creates big challenges for the
object oriented modeling as well as business process modeling approaches.
Services can be understood as organizational and technical system components, which can be used
by various actors to achieve their goals. A service from the information system analysis point of view is a function. It
is defined by at least two flows into opposite directions between a service requester and service provider: Service
Response = f (Service Request). Service providers are actors that typically receive service requests, over which they
have no direct control, and transform them into responses that are sent to service requesters. This idea is illustrated
in figure 2-

Structured Analysis Tools

Structured analysis is a set of techniques & graphical tool that allow the analyst to develop a new kind of
system specifications that are easily understandable to the user. Traditional approach focuses on cost/
benefit and feasibility analyses, project management, hardware and software selection, and personnel
considerations. In contrast, structured analysis considers new goals and structured tools for analysis. The
new goals specify the following:
 1) Use graphics wherever possible to help communicate better with the user.
2) Differentiate between logical and physical systems.
3) Build a logical system model to familiarize the user with system characteristics and
interrelationships before implementation.The structured tools listed as-
data flow diagram
data dictionary
structure English
decision trees
decision tables.
The objective is to build a new document, called system specifications. Structured analysis has the following
attributes:
1. It is graphics. The DFD, for example, presents a picture of what is being specified and is a conceptual
easy-to-understand presentation of the application.
2. The process is portioned so that we have a clear picture of the progression from general to specific
in the system flow.
3. It is logical rather than physical. The elements of system do not depend on vendor or hardware.
They specify in a precise, concise, and highly readable manner the workings of the system and how
it hangs together.
4. It calls for a rigorous study of the area, a commitment that is often taken in the traditional approach
to systems analysis.
5. Certain tasks that are normally carried out late in the system development life cycle are moved to
the analysis phase. For example, user procedures are documents during analysis rather than later in
implementation.
An analyst has been asked to investigate the new system and build a logical model of the candidate
system without abruptly jumping to conclusion about what will be automated and what will remain manual.
The widely used tools for structured analysis are as follows:-
Data flow diagrams, it is widely used for process modeling.
Structure English, decision tables, and decision trees, they are used for logic modeling.
Entity and relationship diagram, it is used for data modeling.
1. Data Flow Diagram (DFD)
It is a graphical tool that allows analysts (and users) to depict the flow of data in an information
system. The DFD was first developed by Larry Constantine as a way of expressing system requirements in a
graphical manner; this led to a modular design. DFD graphically representing the functions, or processes,
which capture, manipulate, store and distribute data between a system and its environment and between
components within a system. The final deliverables and outcomes for DFD are:
Context data flow diagram, which defines the boundary of the system.
DFDs of current physical system determine how to convert the current system into its replacement.
DFDs of current logical system.
DFDs of new logical system.
In a DFD, there are only four symbols that represent the same things: data flows, data stores,
processes, and source/sinks (or external entities).
1. An arrow indentifies data flow as data in motion, moving from one place in a system to another.
2. An open rectangle defines data store; data as rest, which may take the form of many different
physical representations.
3. A circle or a bubble defines a process is the work or actions performed on data so that they are
transformed, stored, or distributed.
4. A square defines a Source/sink is the origin or destination of data, sometimes referred to as
external entities.
 It is common practice for a database designer to begin the process by drawing a context-level DFD,
which shows the interaction between the system and outside entities. This context-level DFD is then
exploded to show more detail of the system that is being modeled. It is the starting point in the system
design that decomposes requirements to the lowest level of detail. It identifies major transformations that
eventually become programs in system design. It consists of a series of bubbles joined by lines. Bubbles
represent transformations and the lines represent the data flows in the system.
Types of DFD
Data Flow Diagrams are either Logical or Physical.
Logical DFD - This type of DFD concentrates on the system process, and flow of data in the
system.For example in a Banking software system, how data is moved between different entities.
Physical DFD - This type of DFD shows how the data flow is actually implemented in the system. It is
more specific and close to the implementation.
Levels of DFD
Level 0 - Highest abstraction level DFD is known as Level 0 DFD, which depicts the entire information system
as one diagram concealing all the underlying details. Level 0 DFDs are also known as context level DFDs.

Level 1 - The Level 0 DFD is broken down into more specific, Level 1 DFD. Level 1 DFD depicts basic modules
in the system and flow of data among various modules. Level 1 DFD also mentions basic processes and
sources of information.

Level 2 - At this level, DFD shows how data flows inside the modules mentioned in Level 1.
Higher level DFDs can be transformed into more specific lower level DFDs with deeper level of
understanding unless the desired level of specification is achieved.
Advantages
Represents data flows.
May be used at high or low level of analysis. For instance, if the DRE is low during analysis and
design, it means you should spend time improving the way you conduct formal technical reviews.
 Provides good system documentation.
Process bubbles can be hierarchically decomposed into sub-DFDs; the inputs and outputs must
match at all levels of decomposition, so the design has validation.
Disadvantages
Weak in its display of input and output details.
Absence of control aspects. DFD model does not specify the order in which the different processes
are executed.
Highly subjective.
Pros
DFDs give further understanding on the underlying system and sub-systems.
It basically gives the over-all summary of the system.
It serves as one of the blueprints of the project, thus making it an important file.
It serves as guide to other members of the team since developing a system is not part of the work of
an analyst.
Since DFD is a graphical representation of data flow, it would be easy for the team to trace errors
when handling the system.
Cons
When a client desires to have a complicated system, the first problem would be making a
complicated data flow diagram also to ensure the proper flow of data in the system.
Some data flow diagrams that are designed may not be followed thoroughly because in actual
designing of the system, it could be interpreted as a complex system.
DFDs that may not be designed clearly can confuse the other team in understanding the flow of the
system.

2. E-R Diagram:
The most common format used for data modeling is entity-relationship (E-R) diagramming. E-R data
model is a detailed, logical representation of the data for organization or for a business area. There are three
main constructs in E-R diagram: data entities, relationships, and their associated attributes. An entity is a
person, place, object event, or concept in the user environment about which the organization wishes to
maintain data. Each entity type has a set of attributes associated with it. An attribute is a property or
characteristic of an entity that is of interest to the organization. Relationships are the glue that holds
together the various components of an E-R model. A relationship is an association between the instances of
one or more entity types that is of interest to the organization. A graphical representation of the data layout
of a system at a high level of abstraction defines data elements and their inter-relationships in the system.
Entity Relationship Diagram Notation
 Pros
The ERD is a highly accepted standard in the data analysis world, and data analysts and developers
are very familiar with how to read it.
Its a clear description of how the data entities relate and the minimum and maximum cardinalities
they exhibit.
Cons
Business people may not be familiar with the standard and may not be able to validate it without
understanding the symbols.
Getting cardinality wrong may throw off the solution design.
Heres how to create your ERD:
Elicit from your stakeholders the information they need to capture within the scope of your
project.
Group together the sub entities and the attributes that make up the entity.
Draw (either in Microsoft Visio or freehand) the rectangles for the entities; put the appropriate
entity name on each, and put the attributes inside.
Determine how you connect the entities (the relationships) and draw those in.
Validate your diagram with your stakeholders.

3. Data Dictionary
A data dictionary is a structured repository of data about data. It is a set of accurate definitions of all
DFD data elements and data structures. A data dictionary has many advantages. The most obvious is
documentation; it is a valuable reference in any organization. Another advantage is improving analyst/user
communication by establishing consistent definition of various elements, terms and procedures. During
implementation, it serves as a common base against which programmers who is working on the system
compare their data descriptions. A data dictionary is created to define the contents of each data flow, each
data store, each process to avoid ambiguity or confusion about what particular data is collected and stored.
Data elements (or attributes) are the simplest entry in the data dictionary.
It is suggested that you include
The name of the item.
Description or purpose.
Data type, (alphabetical, numeric, decimal).
Data length (number of characters including spaces, or decimal points).
Mandatory characters.
Display (0 or 2 decimal places).
Examples and often statements about where each data element appears within the data modeling
diagrams (e.g. which processes, data stores, data flows).
Data Dictionary Notation
= is composed of
+ and
() element is optional
{} iteration
[] select one of a list of elements
| seperates choices of elements
** comments
@ identifier for a store (unique id)
Data Dictionary - Examples
Element Name = Card Number
Definition = *Uniquely identifies a card*
Alias = None
Format = LD+LD+LD+LD+SP+ LD+LD+LD+LD+SP+ LD+LD+LD+LD+SP+ LD+LD+LD+LD
SP = *Space*
LD = {0-9} *Legal Digits*
Range = 5191 0000 0000 0000 to 5191 9999 9999 9999
Advantages of Data Dictionary
It is a valuable reference in any organization because it provides documentation.
It improves the communication between system analyst and user by establishing consistent
definitions of various items terms and procedures.
It is a good tool for manage operators and other members of the development team to
understand requirements and design.
It helps the analyst to simplify the structure for meeting the data requirements of the system.
It is just like a store of all data elements information that can link all phases of software
development life cycle.
It is used to remove the redundancy in data definition.
It is an important step building a database. Most data base management system has a data
dictionary as a standard feature.
During implementation, it serves as a base against which developers compare their data
description.
Disadvantage of Data Dictionary
It does not provide functional details.
It is not acceptable to many nontechnical users.
4. Structured English:
It is modified form of the English language used to specify the logic of information system processes.
Although there is no single standard, structured English typically relies on action verbs and noun phrases and
contains no adjectives or adverbs. When the process logic involves formulas or iteration or when structured
decisions are not complex, an appropriate technique for analyzing the decision process is the use of
Structure English. As the name implies, Structure English based on flowing elements:
1. Operation statements written as English phrases executed from the top down.
2. Conditional blocks indicated by keywords such as IF, THEN & ELSE.
3. Repetition blocks indicated by keywords such as DO, WHILE & UNTIL.
Example: Structure English
Compute-Discount
Add up the number of copies per book title
IF order is from bookstore
and-IF order is for 6 copies or more per book title
THEN: discount is 25%
Else (order is for fewer than 6 copies per book title)
SO: no discount is not allowed
ELSE (order is from libraries or individual customers)
so-IF: order is for 50 copies or more per book title
discount is 15%
ELSE IF order is for 20 to 49 copies per book tilte
discount is 10%
ELSE IF order is for 6 to 19 copies per book title
discount is 5%
ELSE (order is for less than 6 copies per book title)
SO: no discount is allowed

Advantages:
1. Structured English is designed to be easy enough for a user who knows nothing about computer
programming to be able to understand the steps involved in performing the various processes, yet the
structure of the descriptions make it easy to eventually convert to a programming language.
2. Using Structured English also means not having to worry about initializing variables, opening and
closing files, or finding related records in separate files. These more technical details are left to later in the
design stage.
3. Structured English and Logic Modeling are used in conjunction with Data Flow Diagrams and other
models (E-R) to provide us with an unambiguous and thorough explanation of the system specifications.
4. Structured English is intended to be used as a communication technique for analysts and users.
Analysts and programmers have their own communication technique, which is really an extension of the
Structured English concepts except that it resembles a programming language more than spoken English.
Disadvantages:
1. It is suitable to use with To-Down analysis model.
2. Each logical state should be write using English words.
5. Decision Table:
It is a matrix representation of the logic of a decision, which specifies the possible conditions for
decision and the resulting actions. A decision table is a table of contingencies for defining a problem and the
actions to be taken. It is single representation of the relationships between conditions and actions. Usually,
there are there parts in a decision table: the condition stubs, the action stubs, and the rules. The sub part
divided into an upper quadrant called the condition stub and a lower quadrant called the action stub. They
entry part is also divided into an upper quadrant, called the condition entry and lower quadrant called the
action entry. The four elements and their definitions are summarized in the following Figure.
 Advantages and Disadvantages of Decision Tables:
A decision table has a number of advantages which are stated below:
(i) A decision table provides a framework for a complete and accurate statement of processing or
decision logic. It forces a discipline on the programmer to think through all possible conditions.
(ii) A decision table may be easier to construct than a flowchart.
(iii) A decision table is compact and easily understood making it very effective for communication
between analysts or programmers and non-technical users. Better documentation is provided by it.
(iv)Direct conversion of decision table into computer program is possible using available software
packages.
(v) It is possible to check that all test combinations have been considered.
(vi) Alternatives are shown side by side to facilitate analysis of combinations.
(vii) The tables show cause and effect relationships.
(viii) They use standardized format.
(ix) Typists can copy tables with virtually no question or problems.
(x) Complex tables can easily be split into simpler tables.
(xi) Table users are not required to possess computer knowledge.

Disadvantages of using decision tables are as follows:

(i)Total sequence - The total sequence is not clearly shown, i.e., no overall picture is given by
decision tables as presented by flowcharts.
(ii) Logic - Where the logic of a system is simple, flowcharts nearly always serve the purpose better
than a decision table.

6. Decision Trees:
Decision Trees have two main components: decision points and actions. Nodes represent decision
points, while actions are represented by oval. A decision tree is a graphical technique that depicts a decision
or choice situation as a connected series of nodes and branches. It is excellent tool: it easy to construct, easy
to read, and easy to update. It shows only the skeleton aspects of the policy; however it does not lend itself
to calculations or show logic as a set of instruction for action.

Advantages:
Easy to understand.
Easy to generate rules
 Disadvantages:
May suffer from overfitting.
Classifies by rectangular partitioning.
Does not easily handle nonnumeric data.
Can be quite large pruning is necessary.