RAINWATER ALARM

Rain alarm is an application which detects the rain water and

blows alarm. They are useful devices and play an important
role in various industries such as automobile, irrigation, and
wireless communication. Designing a rain alarm system is
quite simple and we have designed here a demo rain alarm
project.

Components
Rain sensor (Either you can purchase or build yourself)
NPN Transistor 548
PNP Transistor 558(instead of T188)
Resistors (220k and 10k ohm)
Capacitor (0.01uf)
Buzzer
Battery 9v
The main component of this rain alarm is rain sensor, I have
built it at home. Its very easy to create a rain sensor. The Gap
between the wires should be around 3-5mm. You can see that
whenever the rain drop would fall on rain sensor, it will short
the point A and B and a voltage would get applied on the base
of Transistor, and it will become ON.
TRANSISTOR
As one of the significant semiconductor devices, transistor
has found use in enormous electronic applications such as
embedded systems, digital circuits and control systems. In
both digital and analog domains transistors are extensively
used for different application usage like amplification, logic
operations, switching and so on. This article mainly
concentrates and gives a brief explanation of transistor
application as a switch.
The Bipolar Junction Transistor or simply BJT is a three layer,
three terminal and two junction semiconductor devices.
Almost in many of the applications these transistors are used
for two basic functions such as switching and amplification.
The name bipolar indicates that two types of charge carriers
are involved in the working of a BJT. These two charge
carriers are holes and electrons where holes are positive
charge
Carriers and electrons are negative charge carriers.

The transistor has three regions, namely base, emitter and

collector. The emitter is a heavily doped terminal and emits
electrons into the base. Base terminal is lightly doped and
passes the emitter-injected electrons on to the collector. The
collector terminal is intermediately doped and collects
electrons from base. This collector is large as compared with
other two regions so it dissipates more heat.
BJTs are of two types NPN and PNP, both functioning is same
but differ in terms of biasing and power supply polarity. In
PNP transistor, between two P- type materials N- type
material is sandwiched whereas in case of NPN transistor P-
type material sandwiched between two N- type materials.
These two transistors can be configured into different types
like common emitter, common collector and common base
configurations.
OPERATING MODE OF TRANSISTOR
Depends on the biasing conditions like forward or reverse,
transistors have three major modes of operation namely cut-
off, active and saturation regions.

Cut-off Mode
In this mode, both collector base junction and emitter base
junction are reverse biased. This in turn not allows the
current to flow from collector to emitter when the base-
emitter voltage is low. In this mode device is completely
switched off as the result the current flowing through the
device is zero.

Active Mode
In this mode transistor is generally used as a current
amplifier. In active mode, two junctions are differently biased
that means emitter-base junction is forward biased whereas
collector-base junction is reverse biased. In this mode,
current flows between emitter and collector and amount of
current flow is proportional to the base current

Saturation Mode
In this mode of operation, both the emitter base and
collector base junctions are forward biased. Current flows
freely from collector to emitter when the base-emitter
voltage is high. In this mode device is fully switched ON.

The below figure shows the output characteristics of a BJT

Transistor. In the below figure cut off region has the
operating conditions as zero collector output current, zero
base input current and maximum collector voltage. These
parameters cause a large depletion layer which further
doesnt allow current to flow through the transistor.
Therefore, the transistor is completely in OFF condition.
Similarly, in the saturation region, a transistor is biased in
such a way that maximum base current is applied that results
maximum collector current and minimum collector-emitter
voltage. This causes the depletion layer to become small and
to allow maximum current flow through the transistor.
Therefore, the transistor is fully in ON condition.
Hence, from the above discussion, we can say that transistors
can be made to work as ON/OFF solid state switch by
operating transistor in cut off and saturation regions. This
type of switching application is used for controlling motors,
lamp loads, solenoids, etc.
TRANSISTOR AS A SWITCH
A transistor is used for switching operation for opening or
closing of a circuit. This type solid state switching offers
significant reliability and lower cost as compared with
conventional relays. Both NPN and PNP transistors can be
used as switches. Some of the applications use a power
transistor as switching device, at that time it may necessary
to use another signal level transistor to drive the high-power
transistor.
NPN Transistor as a Switch
Based on the voltage applied at the base terminal of a
transistor switching operation is performed. When a
sufficient voltage (Vin > 0.7 V) is applied between the base
and emitter, collector to emitter voltage is approximately
equal to 0. Therefore, the transistor acts as a short circuit.
The collector current Vcc/Rc flows through the transistor.
Similarly, when no voltage or zero voltage is applied at the
input, transistor operates in cut off region and acts as an
open circuit. In this type of switching connection, load (here
LED lamp) is connected to the switching output with a
reference point. Thus, when the transistor is switched ON,
current will flow from source to ground through the load.

Example of NPN Transistor as a Switch

Consider the below example where base resistance Rb = 50 k
ohm, collector resistance Rc = 0.7k ohm, Vcc is 5V and the
beta value is 125. At the base input a signal varying between
0 and 5V is given so we are going to see the output at the
collector by varying the Vi at two states that is 0 and 5V as
shown in figure.
Ic = Vcc/Rc when VCE = 0
Ic = 5V/0.7k ohm
Ic = 7.1 mA
Base Current Ib = Ic /
Ib = 7.1 mA/125
Ib = 56.8 A
From the above calculations, the maximum or peak value of
the collector current in the circuit is is 56.8A. So, when the
base current is increased beyond the 56.8 micro ampere then
the transistor comes into the saturation mode.
Consider the case when zero volt is applied at the input. This
causes the base current zero and as the emitter is grounded,
emitter base junction is not forward biased. Therefore, the
transistor is in OFF condition and the collector output voltage
is equal to 5V.
When Vi = 0V, Ib = 0 and Ic =0,
Vc = Vcc (IcRc)
= 5V 0
= 5V
Consider that input voltage applied is 5 volts, then the base
current can be determined by applying Kirchhoffs voltage
law.
When Vi = 5V
Ib = (Vi Vbe) / Rb
For silicon transistor Vbe = 0.7 V
Thus, Ib = (5V 0.7V)/ 50K ohm
= 86 A which is greater than 56.8 A
Therefore, the base current is greater than 56.8 micro
ampere current, the transistor will be driven to saturation
that is fully ON when 5V is applied at the input. Thus, the
output at the collector becomes approximately zero.
Common Practical Examples of Transistor as a Switch
Transistor to Switch the LED
As discussed earlier that the transistor can be used as a
switch. The schematic below shows how a transistor is used
to switch the Light Emitting Diode (LED).
When the switch at the base terminal is open, no current
flows through the base so the transistor is in the cut off state.
Therefore, the circuit acts as open-circuit and the LED
becomes OFF.
When the switch is closed, base current starts flowing
through the transistor and then drives into saturation results
to LED become ON.
Resistors are placed to limit the currents through the base
and LED. It is also possible to vary the intensity of LED by
varying the resistance in the base current path.
WORKING OF CIRCUIT
Working:
Water is a conductor of electricity. When water is in contact
with the probe then there is a flow of current toward the
base of NPN transistor (BC548), which conducts. With the
conduction of NPN transistor, electron reaches to Q2, which
is a PNP transistor. PNP transistor (BC558) also conducts and
current flows through the speaker. In a speaker, there is
inductive coil which causes motion in one direction and after
that produces induce current, which is in opposite direction
to the flow of current this induced current in the form of
pulse, flows through a capacitor, resistance and makes 1st
transistor BC548 off for an inter-well and after-that it relaxes
to previous state. This process repeats again and again till
probe is in contact with water and an oscillation is created in
the circuit. Speaker diaphragm vibrates and gives a tone.
Frequency of the circuit depends on the value of Coil
impendence, Capacitor and Resistance Value.
RESISTOR
A resistor is a passive two-terminal electrical component that
implements electrical resistance as a circuit element. In
electronic circuits, resistors are used to reduce current flow,
adjust signal levels, to divide voltages, bias active elements,
and terminate transmission, among other uses. High-power
resistors that can dissipate many watts of electrical power as
heat may be used as part of motor controls, in power
distribution systems, or as test loads for generators. Fixed
resistors have resistances that only change slightly with
temperature, time or operating voltage. Variable resistors can
be used to adjust circuit elements (such as a volume control or
a lamp dimmer), or as sensing devices for heat, light, humidity,
force, or chemical activity.
Resistors are common elements of electrical
networks and electronic circuits and are ubiquitous in electronic
equipment. Practical resistors as discrete components can be
composed of various compounds and forms. Resistors are also
implemented within integrated.
The electrical function of a resistor is specified by its resistance:
common commercial resistors are manufactured over a range
of more than nine orders of magnitude. The nominal value of
the resistance falls within the manufacturing tolerance,
indicated on the component
OHMS LAW
The behaviour of an ideal resistor is dictated by the relationship
specified by Ohm's law:
Ohm's law states that the voltage (V) across a resistor is
proportional to the current (I), where the constant of
proportionality is the resistance (R). For example, if a
300 ohm resistor is attached across the terminals of a 12 volt
battery, then a current of 12 / 300 = 0.04 amperes flows
through that resistor.
Practical resistors also have
some inductance and capacitance which affect the relation
between voltage and current in alternating current circuits.
The ohm (symbol: ) is the SI unit of electrical resistance,
named after Georg Simon Ohm. An ohm is equivalent to
a volt per ampere. Since resistors are specified and
manufactured over a very large range of values, the derived
units of milliohm (1 m = 103 ), kilohm (1 k = 103 ), and
megaohms (1 M = 106 ) are also in common usage.
CAPACITOR
A capacitor is a passive two-terminal electrical component that
stores electrical energy in an electric field. Because of this
effect, a capacitor was historically first known as a condenser.
The effect of a capacitor is known as self-capacitance. While it
exists between any two electrical conductors of a circuit in
sufficiently proximity, a capacitor is designed to provide this
effect for a variety of practical applications. Accordingly, the
physical form and construction of practical capacitors vary
widely, but most contain at least two electrical conductors often
in the form of metallic plates or surfaces separated by
a dielectric medium. The conductors may be foils, thin films, or
sintered beads of metal or conductive electrolyte. The
nonconducting dielectric acts to increase the capacitor's charge
capacity. Materials commonly used as dielectrics
include glass, ceramic, plastic film, paper, mica, and oxide
layers. Capacitors are widely used as parts of electrical
circuits in many common electrical devices. Unlike a resistor,
an ideal capacitor does not dissipate energy.
When two conductors experience a potential difference, for
example, when a capacitor is attached across a battery, an field
develops across the dielectric, causing a net positive charge to
collect on one plate and net negative charge to collect on the
other plate. No current flows through the dielectric, instead, the
effect is a displacement of charges through the source circuit. If
the condition is maintained sufficiently long, this displacement
current through the battery seizes. However, if a time-varying
voltage is applied across the leads of the capacitor, the source
experiences an ongoing current due to the charging and
discharging cycles of the capacitor.
Capacitance is defined as the ratio of the electric charge Q on
each conductor to the potential difference V between them. The
unit of capacitance in the International System of Units (SI) is
the farad (F), which is equal to one coulomb per volt (1 C/V).
Capacitance values of typical capacitors for use in general
electronics range from about 1 pF (1012 F) to about 1 mF
(103 F).
The capacitance of a capacitor is proportional to the surface
area of the plates (conductors) and inversely related to the gap
between them. In practice, the dielectric between the plates
passes a small amount of leakage current and also has an
electric field strength limit, known as the breakdown voltage.
The conductors and leads introduce an undesired
inductance and resistance.
Capacitors are widely used in electronic circuits for
blocking direct current while allowing alternating current to
pass. In analog filter networks, they smooth the output of power
supplies. In resonant circuits they tune radios to
particular frequencies. In electric power transmission systems,
they stabilize voltage and power flow
BUZZER
A buzzer or beeper is an audio signalling device, which may
be mechanical, electromechanical, or piezoelectric. Typical
uses of buzzers and beepers include alarm devices, timers,
and confirmation of user input such as a mouse click or
keystroke
While technological advancements have caused buzzers to be
impractical and undesirable, there are still instances in which
buzzers and similar circuits may be used. Present day
applications include:

Novelty uses
Judging Panels
Educational purposes
Annunciator panels
Electronic metronomes
Game show lock-out device
Microwave ovens and other household appliances
Sporting events such as basketball games
Electrical alarms
Joy buzzer- a mechanical buzzer used for pranks