Analytical Prediction of the Brake Caliper Seal-

Groove Performance

Okon D. Anwana, Hao Cai

Delphi Corporation

Excerpts taken with Permission from SAE 2002-01-0927 and SAE 2002-01-2588 2002 SAE
International

Abstract:
It is well known that the design of the seal groove assembly in the brake caliper greatly influences
the braking performance. The rubber seal performs the dual function of sealing the piston bore
and retracting the caliper piston after a brake apply. However, the seal function is affected by the
configuration of the seal groove, as well as the friction at the piston/seal and groove/seal
interfaces. The material properties of the rubber seal are also important design parameters. Issues
such as fluid displacement, piston retraction, piston sliding force, and brake drag are some of the
critical brake performance/parameters that must be considered in every brake caliper design.
Presently, the brake caliper seal-groove design is still based on empirical rules established mainly
from past experience and its performance is achieved through prototype testing. Indeed, an
analytical model that offers some predictive estimate of the seal groove contributions to the
braking performance is needed. This will enhance the optimization of the seal groove design and
reduce the need for product prototyping. In this paper, we attempt to identify the critical design
parameters in the seal/seal groove assembly and quantify their impact on the brake performance.
In addition, numerical models are presented for evaluating the effects of the seal groove, housing,
and lining on caliper performance. These models provide reliable and timely design predictions
for a brake caliper design with considerable savings in product development time and costs.

1. Introduction

Figure 1 shows a typical disc brake system comprising of a caliper and a rotor. The caliper
usually consists of housing, piston, shoe and lining assemblies. Within the piston bore in the
housing is the seal groove where a seal fits to seal the brake fluid. During brake apply, fluid
pressure activates the piston towards the rotor, which forces the linings to rub against the rotor and
generate braking torque. The caliper housing is deflected during brake apply and springs back into
its undeformed shape after brake release.

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Fluid displacement during brake apply and drag torque after brake release are two important
performance characteristics of a caliper design. Displacement is the extra brake fluid volume
needed to achieve a certain braking pressure. Higher displacement means longer travel of the
brake pedal. Drag is the residual torque on the rotor after the brake is released. It hurts fuel
efficiency, lining life and may induce pulsation. The caliper housing stiffness, lining
compressibility and seal/groove design all play important roles on drag performance and fluid
displacement.

The seal groove is designed to perform dual functions of sealing the piston bore during brake
apply and retracting the caliper piston at brake release. Piston retraction is the distance a piston
retracts into the bore of the caliper housing after a certain brake apply. Both drag and displacement
performances of a caliper depend on piston retraction. The greater the retraction, the less the drag
and the more the displacement, or vice versa. Piston retraction is greatly affected by the profiles of
the rubber seal and groove [1, 2]. The need to increase piston retraction to alleviate drag often
conflicts with the requirements to reduce piston travel (i.e. reduce displacement) during brake
apply. This is one of the major challenges in the seal-groove design. Acceptable caliper
performance can be achieved by judicious selection of these component designs. Presently, brake
engineers rely on prototype testing and empirical rules for seal groove design [4, 9]. These
empirical rules are usually limited to a few design parameters and cannot be reliably applied to
predict the seal behavior in a quantitative sense. Our focus in this paper will be to develop some
analytical design tools for estimating the influence of the caliper components on the braking
performance.
In the literature, there is little or no published information regarding the analytical prediction of
the seal groove behavior and its interaction with the caliper housing and lining. A number of
studies on the rubber material properties for seal applications [2, 7, 8], as well as the experimental
estimates of friction effects in the caliper bore and piston [11] have been reported. A statistical
evaluation of seal groove design parameters [12] based on the Taguchi approach has assessed the
effect of design tolerances on the seal groove assembly. Additionally, the capabilities of
commercial analysis software codes for rubber analysis was reviewed that also included estimates
of to the load-displacement relationship for a given seal groove design [5]. A recent analytical
study [3] conducted by the authors provided the qualitative link between the response of the
rubber seal within the prescribed groove boundaries and the expected retraction performance of
the seal groove design. Subsequently, the analysis model used in [3] was extended to include the
effects of the caliper housing and linings [6]. This resulted in an analytical tool for relating seal-
groove design parameters to brake performance with due consideration of the effects of the caliper
housing and shoe lining.

In this paper, we essentially summarize the results of the study published in References 3 and 6
with some modifications. We begin with a brief description of the seal groove, and the analysis
considerations for quantifying the critical design parameters in the seal/seal-groove assembly.
Following this, analytical models are presented that include the effect of caliper housing and lining
in the brake performance estimates. Analytical predictions from these models are provided and
compared with test data. The strengths and limitations of the analysis models are also discussed.
We note that temperature and brake service conditions also affect the rubber seal behavior, and
consequently the braking performance. But for simplicity, the temperature and environmental
parameters are not considered in the analysis.

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2. Seal Groove Analysis

2.1 Background

A seal groove assembly has three main components - rubber seal, piston and caliper groove.
Figure 2 shows the cross-section of the typical seal groove assembly components in the
undeformed state, in which x denotes the radial direction and y denotes the axial direction. By
design, the seal outer diameter is larger than the groove outer diameter. Hence the rubber seal is
squeezed between the groove and the caliper piston when assembled. Rubber squeeze in the seal
groove assembly and its deformation during brake apply are critical parameters for evaluating seal
performance and pis ton retraction.
To study the effect of seal groove geometry on brake performance, we select a seal of known
material and configuration. A nomogram of the seal material properties had been established from
testing for a range of temperatures (-400 F to 2300 F), frequency and load rates [2]. Coulomb
friction was assumed at the seal interfaces with the piston and the groove. The temperature was
set at room temperature (under ambient conditions). By fixing the seal material, seal geometry,
the lubricant, piston material and geometry, we implicitly standardize the material, friction,
contact and environmental design parameters. Under such considerations, one can make judicious
changes in seal groove geometry (i.e. in the geometry parameters) and monitor their effects on the
braking performance under room temperature conditions. The modeling approach used for finite
element analysis (FEA) of the seal groove assembly is described in the next section.

2.2 Static FEA Modeling

The analysis model presented here is axisymmetric with the cross section of the seal groove
components in the undeformed state as shown in Figure 2a. The piston and groove surfaces in
contact with the rubber seal are considered as rigid surfaces since they are much stiffer than the
seal material. The rubber seal material is modeled with 8-node biquadratic, hybrid elements
(CAX8H) with linear pressure. The second order Ogden model is used to describe the material
hyperelastic behavior, while the material viscoelastic response is approximated by the Prony
series. Convergence studies conducted outside the scope of this paper showed a global mesh size
of 0.3mm was adequate

To capture the pressure loading during a brake application, the fluid space in the caliper piston is
modeled as fluid cavity with the hydrostatic pressure as the only degree of freedom. The braking
load is applied in the form of pressure. But where analysis convergence is not feasible with
pressure loading, the brake apply is implemented as a concentrated force on the piston. Coulo mb
friction laws are applied between seal/groove and seal/piston interfaces. The static analysis is
performed in two steps using the Abaqus/ Standard commercial finite element software. First, the
rubber seal is installed in the groove-piston assembly (Figure 2b). The installation is initiated by
moving the groove and piston into their assembly positions such that the rubber seal is enclosed
within their prescribed boundaries. Kinematic contact between rubber seal and the groove or
piston is enforced. Then the braking action is simulated by moving the piston in the brake apply
direction a certain distance equal to the piston travel (Figure 2c).

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2.3 Rubber Seal Forces

In the assembled position (see Figure 2b), the seal rubber is subjected to normal force Fn, a
tangential force Ft, and moment M. The magnitude of the normal force (Fn) at the piston/seal
interface is a measure of rubber squeeze in the seal assembly. The effect of radial squeeze on
rubber deformation is shown in Fig. 3a and 3b. In this plot, the rubber squeeze is defined as
the radial factor (in percentage) that quantifies the undeformed and deformed dimensions of the
seal in relation to the geometry of the other components in the seal groove assembly. The higher
the magnitude of the squeeze force, the higher the value of the squeeze factor. Piston sliding
occurs when the tangential force (Ft ) is exceeded during brake application. Depending on the
effects of friction and groove configuration, slippage between rubber seal and the piston can occur
during the apply-and-release processes.

The variations in the seal squeeze and sliding forces with brake apply is depicted in Figure 4 for a
production seal groove design. At zero sliding force, the reference point on the piston is at point
A1 for the seal groove assembly with high squeeze and at point A2 for the lower squeeze
assembly. By comparing the piston and rubber seal positions before, during, and after brake
application, we can estimate the piston travel and retraction, which is a key contributor to brake
drag and fluid displacement. Thus, the energy quantities associated with the brake apply and
release are easily determined. It is worth noting that, after brake release, the piston retracts but not
necessarily to its assembled position.

2.4 Piston Retraction

To evaluate a seal/groove design based on its analysis results, it is necessary to understand why
the piston is not fully retracted after brake release. Consider groove/seal/piston assembly as a
system. During brake apply, outside energy is transferred into this system to displace the piston.
Rubber seal deforms as a result of the energy imparted to it from the piston displacement. Part of
the imparted energy is reserved in the seal due to its deformation. The remaining part of the energy
is dissipated through friction and viscous material flow. So when the brake is released, the energy
reserved in the rubber seal is not enough to retract the piston all the way back to its original
position. Hence, there is a residual displacement of piston. When the piston is not retracted
sufficiently, it will still contact the brake pad, which is pushed against the rotor and consequently,
induces drag. Based on this understanding, we hypothesize that the energy loss during brake apply
is an indicator of how much the piston would retract after brake release. The greater the energy
loss, the less the piston will retract, resulting in increased brake drag and less displacement. By
calculating energy loss during brake apply from FEA results, one can evaluate the performance of
different seal groove profiles before making any prototypes.

2.5 Energy Loss Hypothesis Verification

To validate the energy loss hypothesis, the performance of a brake caliper was analyzed with three
different groove configurations which, for proprietary reasons, are designated as groove A, B and
C. The brake caliper system was designed for small truck applications.

Fig 5 shows the analytical predictions to this brake caliper design. Analysis results show that the
energy loss is the highest for groove A and lowest for groove C among the three grooves (Fig. 5a).

4 2003 ABAQUS Users Conference

Groove B is very close to C. This suggests that, for the given caliper design, changing the groove
configuration from A to B then to C should decrease the residual drag torque of the caliper
correspondingly. Test data support the analytical predictions (Fig. 5b). To further confirm the
model, the analysis was repeated for various caliper designs with varying piston sizes and groove
profiles. Again, the analysis predictions for these cases were in good agreement with test data.
The static model is quite effective in developing the groove profiles. It offers a tool for predicting
the performance of a new groove design relative to the designs we already know. With this
modeling approach, one can tailor a seal groove design for a specific caliper rather than resort to
trial and error techniques. Note that every caliper has its unique system stiffness, which usually
requires a unique configuration of the seal groove to meet performance requirements. Using
analysis approach, various combinations of seal groove profile can be quickly evaluated for a
particular caliper application. This technique has already been applied in Delphi for developing
caliper designs with various system stiffness and performance requirements.

3. Caliper Performance Modeling

It is worth noting that the caliper housing and lining function as springs in the mechanical system
of the caliper. During brake apply, the caliper housing is forced to open and the shoe lining is
compressed by the hydraulic pressure acting on the system. Once the hydraulic pressure is
released, they also tend to release the elastic energy stored in them as they recover from the
deformations. For the caliper housing, this recovery occurs almost instantaneously in the form of
spring back motion. This effect is not accounted for in the previous results in section 2.3. For
improved analytical predictions, the effects of the caliper housing and shoe lining must be
included in an analytical model and the model must be a dynamic one, since the housing spring-
back action is dynamic.

Inclusion of the caliper housing and shoe lining in the analysis model is important for other
reasons. The caliper housing and lining stiffness have the greatest impact on caliper drag. Making
the housing and lining as stiff as possible is always the first choice. However, a more compliant
caliper housing design or softer lining material is sometimes selected for reasons such as
minimizing lining taper wear or brake noise. Typically, the greater the compliance of the caliper
housing or shoe lining, the higher the brake drag. Hence, in a caliper system with compliant
housing or lining, the seal/groove design is usually modified to compensate for the increased drag.
To capture the comprehensive effect from changes to the housing, lining and seal/groove designs,
we need an analysis model that includes all these factors.
Additionally, design changes to the seal/groove that reduce drag often lead to increased fluid
displacement. Reducing the stiffness of the caliper housing or lining material also tend to increase
fluid displacement since the bulk of the displacement comes from the housing deflection and
lining compression. It is essential that the caliper system still meets both the displacement and
drag requirements after any design changes. Only by including the housing and lining in the model
can we properly estimate caliper displacement.

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3.1 Dynamic model description

Two springs representing the caliper housing and shoe lining respectively are implemented in the
above static model, as shown in Figure 6. One spring with the stiffness of the caliper housing is
attached to the analytical rigid surface representing the seal groove. The other spring with the
stiffness of a set of shoe and lining assemblies is connected to the piston. There is a gap between
the lining and a fixed end simulating the initial gap between linings and rotor. The housing spring
is linear while the lining spring is non-linear. The lining spring stiffness increases non-linearly
with the increase in compression, but its tension stiffness is zero because lining can never be under
tension during calipers whole working sequence.

Usually, the analysis with the dynamic model is performed in three steps. In the first step, the
rubber seal is installed in the seal groove as in the static model, such that there are no loads in the
model springs (Figure 6a). Second, equal but opposite loads are applied on the piston and groove
to simulate braking (Figure 6b). Groove travel here represents the housing deflection. This step is
performed by static analysis. During the third step, the applied loads are released and dynamic
analysis is adopted to evaluate the response of the groove and piston to the spring back motion of
the caliper housing and lining. Appropriate material damping is employed in this step. Note that
after dynamic release, the lining usually wont return to its starting position, which leaves the gap
between lining and rotor smaller than what it was before load apply (Figure 6c). The apply-and-
release load sequences described in the second and third steps can be repeated at different load
levels to simulate the braking action at different pressures.
The piston and housing (groove) travels during loading are defined by their relative positions
before and after the braking load sequence. Using the total travel of the piston and housing during
brake apply determined by analysis and the piston area, one can easily obtain the fluid
displacement curve of the caliper as a function of hydraulic pressure. We can also take the gap
between lining and rotor after brake release as an index to drag torque. The wider the gap, namely
the farther away the lining is from the rotor, the lower the drag. If a coordinate system located at
the face of the rotor is used as reference such that the initial lining position is -1mm (Fig. 7a), we
can easily monitor the variations in the gap between lining and rotor after brake release using the
lining displacement . It is our considered opinion that the functional relationship between the
said gap and applied pressure can be correlated with the drag.

3.2 Dynamic Model Verification

To benchmark the predictive capabilities of the dynamic model, we analyze a caliper system with
different seal groove configurations, shoe lining materials and caliper housing.

3.2.1 Effect of seal groove on caliper performance

The dynamic model was used to analyze the same caliper system described in Section 3.1. Fig 8
shows the analytical predictions for fluid displacement based on the dynamic model. These
predictions are presented on the plot by square markers connected with thin lines. The
comparative test data are also shown in the plot as thicker solid lines. Clearly, the test data verify
the accuracy of the analytical predictions. The analytical results for groove C is omitted in the
plots due to lack of test data.

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Figure 9 compares the residual drag torque obtained from test with the analytical predictions of the
gap between the lining and rotor after brake release for the same caliper system. The analysis
predictions shown in Figure 9b indicate that the gap between the rotor and lining decreases as
pressure increases, which is consistent with drag behavior with applied pressure derived from tests
(Figure 9a). The results also confirm that groove configuration A produces higher drag in the
caliper system than groove B. Furthermore, a direct correlation is established between brake drag
and the gap between the lining and the rotor after brake release. In retrospect, drag torque is
friction force acting on a radius and this friction force depends, among other things, on the degree
of contact (or lack of gap) between the lining and rotor. Hence the gap between the lining and
rotor after brake apply can be used as a consistent predictor for drag during caliper design.

3.2.2 Effect of Shoe Lining on Caliper Performance

The same caliper system considered in Section 3.2.1 was reanalyzed with two different lining
materials using the dynamic model. Figure 10 shows the compressibility of the two lining
materials evaluated. Both are made of non-asbestos organic materials. Lining II is stiffer than
lining I. According to analytical results with the dynamic model, lining II should have a lower
drag performance than lining I (Figure 11b). This conclusion is verified by test data in (Figure
11a).

Figure 12 is the fluid displacement curve determined from the analysis of the caliper system with
different lining materials. No corresponding test data is available. Even though lining II deforms
less than lining I under the same brake load (Figure 10), there is no significant difference between
the fluid displacements calculated for these two linings. However, a closer look reveals that lining
II leaves a wider gap between the lining and rotor after brake release than lining I (see Figure.
11b). So lining II yields slightly higher displacement at lower pressure because more fluid is
needed to cover the wider initial gap. Lining I yields higher displacement at higher pressures
which is consistent with its higher deformation at these loads. The ability of the analysis model to
relate a design change in lining material to brake performance is very useful for caliper product
development.

3.2.3 Effect of Housing Stiffness on Caliper Performance

A caliper system, with two different housing stiffnesses, was analyzed to assess the relative impact
of caliper housing on brake performance. The stiff housing (labeled Stiff HSG), with 15%
improvement in stiffness, is a revised version of the soft housing (Soft HSG) on the same caliper
system (Figure 13). Analysis results of displacement and drag for the caliper with soft and stiff
housings are shown in Figure 14. According to these results, both the displacement and drag
values decrease with increase in the housing stiffness. Although there are no corresponding test
data, these conclusions are consistent with engineering experience.
In a related study, the dynamic model has been used to evaluate other caliper systems in which the
seal-groove diameters and/or rubber seal configurations were varied. Although the results of this
study cannot be provided at the present time, it is worth noting that all the analytical predictions
agree with engineering experience.

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As a subset of the dynamic model, the static model is ideal when profiling the seal groove is the
only design objective. The simplicity and computational costs associated with this model renders
it very efficient for design iterations.

4. Conclusions

In this paper, the authors have demonstrated the application of analysis in the caliper seal groove
design. In this effort, the mechanics of rubber deformation within the prescribed boundaries of the
seal groove are established. Predictions on piston travel and the forces acting on the rubber seal
during brake apply are also made.
Numerical models are presented for evaluating the performance of the brake caliper system. The
static model emphasizes groove profile contribution to caliper drag performance. It should be
applied to groove profile development. The dynamic model includes all factors that affect both
drag and displacement, such as housing stiffness, lining stiffness, groove geometry, seal material
and dimensions. The comprehensive effect of all these factors on caliper drag and displacement is
reflected in the models analysis results. The analysis models were applied to various caliper
design applications with very positive results.
By taking advantage of the spring-like behavior of the caliper housing and lining as well as the
hyperelastic behavior of the seal in the seal groove, the analysis models incorporate all the salient
design parameters of a caliper system, and offer complimentary predictions regarding the caliper
performance. As design tools, these models grant the design engineers more freedom and control
in the design of the caliber system. The ability to predict piston retraction analytically (and
implicitly estimate drag and other performance parameters) provides several competitive
advantages, including the ability to optimize the performance of the caliper groove seal early in
the design when only the design variables are known, i.e. before prototypes are made.
Furthermore, with the understanding of retraction mechanism in the seal-groove, it is possible to
modify other components of the brake caliper system that would otherwise be impossible to
redesign late in the product design cycle. In essence, these models eliminate the current industry
reliance on engineering intuition, and serve as effective tools for developing and optimizing
caliper system components. Both design cycle time and prototype cost will be saved.

5. References

1. Anwana, O. D. Analytical Design of the Seal Groove Assembly Case Study in the
Performance Prediction, Delphi Automotive Internal Report (2001).
2. Anwana, O. D., Characterization of Rubber Material for Disk Brake Piston Seal, Delphi
Automotive Systems Internal Report EWR--584-022 (2000).
3. Anwana, O. D., Cai, H., Chang, H. T., Analysis of Brake Caliper Seal-Groove Design, SAE
Congress, Detroit, MI, Paper No. SAE-2002-01-0927, (2002).
4. Baptists, T. Brake Drag Torque Measurements, Delco Moraine - GM Report No. PG053026
(1988).

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5. Chang, H., On a Numerical Study for Rubber Seals, SAE Transactions v.97, Paper No. SAE-
880255 (1988).
6. Cai, H., Anwana, O. D., Seal/Groove Performance Models, SAE 2002 Annual Brake
Colloquium, Phoenix, AR, Paper No. SAE-2002-01-2588, (2002).
7. Dinzgurg, B., Measurement of Rubber Elasticity and Correlation to Seal Life, SAE Congress,
Detroit, MI, Paper No. SAE-970547 (1997).
8. Dinzgurg, B., The Selection of Elastomer Compounds Through Correlation of Rubber
Properties to Seal Life, SAE Congress, Detroit, MI, Paper No. SAE-2001-01-0686 (2001).
9. Hrbek, D., Piston Seal Characteristics on a Disc Brake Caliper with a Self Adjusting Park
Brake Mechanicsm, CPC, GM Report No. PG057117 (1991).
10. Lim, J., Brake Caliper Analysis of Piston Friction, CPE, GM Report No. PG051348 (1987).
11. Meada, N. and Matsuno, M., Analysis of Rubber Boot Seal Using Finite Element Method,
SAE Congress, Detroit, MI, Paper No. SA E-940289 (1994).
12. Moore, D., The Friction and Lubrication of Elastomers, Pergamon Press, 1973.
13. Shnaider, A., Authentic Involvement Design, Dept. of Mechanical Engineering, Monash
University, MI, Final Report to PBR Automotive Ltd. (1996).

6. Contact

For further information, please contact Okon Anwana, Engineering Technical Center, M/C E-520,
1435 Cincinnati Street, Dayton, OH 45408. Telephone: 937-455-5864, Fax: 937-455-6798, email
okon.d.anwana@delphi.com.

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 Brake
Fluid

Caliper
Housing

Piston

Seal
Groove

Linings

Rotor

Figure 1. Components of a disc brake system

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 Rubber Seal Seal Groove
Contour

x-Axis

Brake Apply y-Axis

Direction (A)
Piston

Fn
M
Ft Apply
(B) (C)

Figure 2. Seal/Groove analysis modeling

At Assembly At Assembly

At 10.342 N/mm2 (1500 psi) Apply At 10.342 N/mm2 (1500 psi) Apply

Figure 3(a). Rubber deformation Figure 3(b). Rubber deformation

in a production seal groove with in a production seal groove with
18.95% squeeze 9.85% squeeze

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 Figure 4(a). N o r m a l o r S q u e e z e F o r c e v s . P i s t o n T r a v e l
During 10.342 N/mm^2 Apply Pressure
8000
7000

Normal Force (N)

6000
5000
4000 9.85% Squeeze
3000 18.95% Squeeze
A1
2000
A2
1000
0
-0.4 -0.2 0 0.2 0.4
Piston Travel (mm)

Figure 4(b). S l i d i n g o r S h e a r F o r c e v s . P i s t o n T r a v e l D u r i n g
10.342 N/mm^2 Apply Pressure
5000
4500
4000
Shear Force (N)

3500
3000
9.8% Squeeze
2500
18.95% Squeeze
2000
1500
1000
A1 500
0
-0.4 -0.2 A2 0 0.2 0.4
Piston Travel (mm)

(A) Energy Loss from Analysis

(B) Test
200 18
Energy Loss (N mm)

15
150
Drag (ft-lb)

12
Groove A
100 9 Groove B
6 Groove C
50
3

0 0
0.4 0.6 0.8 1 0 500 1000 1500 2000

Piston Travel (mm) Pressure (psi)

Figure 5. Drag torque by analysis and test

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 Housing

Lining Gap

A. INSTALL
Housing

Force
Gap
Lining
Force B. APPLY
Housing

Lining Gap

C. AFTER RELEASE
Figure 6. Dynamic analysis model

Lining
Rotor

Gap = -1 mm

a. Install Gap
Y

X
Lining
Rotor

b. After Release
Figure 7. Lining position during analysis procedure

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 Fluid Displacement
0.20

Displacement (cu-in)
0.15

0.10 Groove A, Test

Groove B, Test
0.05 Groove A, Analysis
Groove B, Analysis
0.00
0 500 1000 1500
Pressure (psi)

Figure 8. Fluid displacement of calipers with different grooves

(A) Test (B) Analysis

18 0

15 -0.1

-0.2
Drag (ft-lb)

12
Gap (mm)

9 Groove A
-0.3 Groove A
Groove B
6 -0.4 Groove B

3 -0.5

0 -0.6
0 500 1000 1500 2000 0 500 1000 1500 2000
Pressure (psi) Pressure (psi)

Figure 9. Drag torque of caliper with different grooves

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 Lining Compressibility
Shoe&Lining Assembly with Insulator

0.008

Lining Deformation (in)

0.007
0.006
0.005
Lining I
0.004
Lining II
0.003
0.002
0.001
0
0 2000 4000 6000 8000 10000

Load (lb)

Figure 10. Compressibility of lining I and II

(A) Test (B) Analysis

18 0

15 -0.1
Gap (mm)

12
Drag (ft-lb)

-0.2
9 Lining I Lining I
-0.3
Lining II Lining II
6 -0.4
3
-0.5
0
-0.6
0 500 1000 1500 2000
0 500 1000 1500 2000
Pressure (psi)
Pressure (psi)

Figure 11. Drag torque of calipers with different lining materials

Fluid Displacement by Analysis

0.18
0.16
Displacement (cu-in)

0.14
0.12
0.10
Lining I
0.08
Lining II
0.06
0.04
0.02
0.00
0 500 1000 1500 2000

Pressure (psi)

Figure 12. Fluid displacement estimates for caliper with different linings

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 Housing Stiffness
0.030

Housing Deflection (in)

0.025

0.020

0.015 Soft HSG

Stiff HSG
0.010

0.005

0.000
0 500 1000 1500 2000
Pressure (psi)

Figure 13. Stiffness comparison between soft and stiff Housings

Fluid Displacement Gap between Lining and Rotor

0.18 0.0
0.16
Displacement (cu-in)

-0.1
0.14
0.12 -0.2
Gap (mm)

0.10
Soft HSG
-0.3 Soft HSG
0.08
Stiff HSG Stiff HSG
0.06 -0.4
0.04
0.02 -0.5
0.00
-0.6
0 500 1000 1500
0 500 1000 1500
Pressure (psi)
Pressure (psi)

Figure 14. Displacement and gap from analysis with different housings

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