GROUP 6: CERAMICS
High elastic modulus and hardness
Ceramics defined as compounds between metallic and nonmetallic elements
for which the interatomic bonding are either totally iconic or predominantly
ionic but having some covalent character.
ceramic comes from the Greek word keramikos which means burnt stuff,
indicating that desirable properties of these materials achieved through a high-
temperature heat treatment process called firing.
Physical properties:
Ability to withstand high temperatures
Provide a wide variety of electrical and magnetic properties
Resist wear
Ceramics are:
Hard
Brittle
High-melting point materials with low electrical and thermal
conductivity
Low thermal expansion
Good chemical and thermal stability
Good creep resistance
High elastic modulus
High compressive strengths
Structural ceramics provide enhanced mechanical properties that make them
attractive for many load-bearing applications.
Glass and glass products account for about half of the ceramic
materials
Advanced ceramic materials (including the structural ceramics,
electrical and magnetic ceramics, and fiber-optic material) compose
another 20%
Whiteware and porcelain enameled products (such as household
appliances) account for about 10% each
Refractories and structural clay products make up most of the
difference
NATURE AND STRUCTURE OF CERAMICS
Ceramic materials are compounds of METALLIC and NONMETALLIC elements
and exist in a wide variety of compositions and forms.
Most have crystalline structure, but unlike metals, the bonding electrons are
generally captive in strong ionic bond (occurs between a metal and nonmetal
and involves the attraction of opposite charges when electrons are transferred
from the metal to the nonmetal) or covalent bonds (occurs between two
nonmetals and involves sharing of atoms).
These types of bonds result in:
High melting points
Low thermal expansion
Good chemical resistance
Absence of free electrons makes the ceramic materials poor electrical
conductors and results in many being transparent
Strength of the primary bonds makes most ceramics to have:
High melting temperatures
High rigidity
High compressive strength
Noncrystalline structure is also possible in solid ceramics. This amorphous
condition is referred to as the glassy state, and the materials are known as
glasses.
Crystalline ceramics do not soften, but they can creep at elevated temperature
by means of grain boundary sliding. Therefore, when ceramic materials are
produced for elevated-temperature service, large grain size is generally desired.
CERAMICS ARE BRITTLE BUT CAN BE TOUGH
Both crystalline and noncrystalline ceramics tend to be brittle. The
glass materials have a three-dimensional network of strong primary
bonds that impart brittleness.
Many ceramic products are still based on clay.
Stabilization involves compounding or alloying to eliminate crystal structure
changes and the dimensional expansions or contractions that accompany them
Nonuniform heating or cooling can now occur without the stresses that induce
fracture.
Transformation toughening stops the progress of a crack by crystal structure
changes that occur when volume expansion is permitted
Fine grain size, high purity, and high density can be promoted by enhanced
processing, and these all act to improve toughness.
GLASS
Glass produced when some molten ceramics are cooled at a rate that exceeds
a critical value, and solidifies into a hard, rigid, noncrystalline solid.
Soft and moldable when hot, making shaping rather straightforward.
When cool and solid, glass is strong in compression but brittle and
weak in tension.
Exhibits excellent resistance to weathering and attack by most
chemicals.
Commercial glasses are based on silica, lime, and sodium carbonate.
Elevated temperatures can be used to decrease the viscosity of glass, allowing
the atoms to move as groups and the material to be shaped and formed. When
the temperature is dropped, the material again becomes hard and rigid.
Four forming methods used to fabricate glass products:
1. Pressing
2. Blowing
3. Drawing
4. Fiber forming
GLASS CERAMICS
Glass ceramics are first shaped as a glass and then heat treated to promote
partial devitrification or crystallization of the material, resulting in a structure
that contains large amounts of crystalline material within an amorphous base.
Since the thermal expansion coefficient is near zero, the material has
good resistance to thermal shock.
Example: white Pyroceram
CEMENT
Cement a binder
A substance used in construction that sets and hardens and can bind
other materials together.
Concrete a combination of cement and an aggregate to form a strong building
material.
Cements used in construction are usually inorganic, often lime-based.
Non-hydraulic cement will not set in wet conditions or underwater;
rather, it sets as it dries and reacts with carbon dioxide in the air. It is
resistant to attack by chemicals after setting.
CERMETS
Cermets are combinations of CERamics and METal united into a single product
by the procedures of powder metallurgy.
Powder metallurgy usually involves pressing mixed powders at
pressures ranging from 70 to 280 MPa (10 to 40 ksi) followed by
sintering in a controlled-atmosphere furnace at about 1650C (3000F)
Cermets also combine the high hardness and refractory characteristics of
ceramics with the toughness and thermal shock resistance of metals.
Cemented tungsten carbide has been used in dies and cutting tools.
REFRACTORY MATERIALS
Refractory materials are ceramics that have been designed to provide
acceptable mechanical or chemical properties at high operating temperatures.
They may take the form of bricks and shaped products, bulk materials,
and insulating ceramic fibers.
Three distinct classes:
1. Acidic (silica, alumina)
2. Basic (magnesium oxide)
3. Neutral (chromite) are often used to separate the acidic and
basic materials since they tend to attack one another
ABRASIVES
Because of their high hardness, ceramic materials, such as silicon carbide and
aluminum oxide are often used for abrasive applications, such as grinding.
Materials such as manufactured diamond and cubic boron nitride have such
phenomenal properties that they are often termed superabrasives.
CERAMICS FOR ELECTRICAL AND MAGNETIC APPLICATIONS
Silicon carbide are used as resistors and heating elements for electric furnaces.
Others have semiconducting properties and are used for thermistors and
rectifiers.
CERAMIC COATINGS
Uses:
Decorate
Seal
Protect substrate materials
Porcelain enamel can be applied to carbon steel in the perforated tubs of
washing machines, where the material must withstand the scratching of zippers,
buttons, and snaps, along with the full spectrum of laundry products. Chemical
reaction vessels are often glass lined.
CERAMICS FOR MECHANICAL APPLICATIONS
Advanced, structural or engineering ceramics an emerging technology with a
broad base of current and potential applications
1. Biocompatible ceramics have been used as substitutes for joints and
bones and as dental implants
2. Alumina ceramics the most common for industrial applications
Are relatively inexpensive and offer high hardness and
abrasion resistance, low density, and high electrical resistivity.
Alumina is strong in compression.
Processed in a powder form due to its high melting point
3. Silicon carbide and silicon nitride offer excellent strength and wear
resistance with moderate toughness. They work well in high-stress,
high-temperature applications
4. Sialon a silicon-aluminum-oxygen-nitrogen structural ceramic
Is really a solid solution of alumina and silicon nitride, and it
bridges the gap between them.
 5. Zirconia inert to most metals and retains strength to temperatures
well over 2200C (4000F)
Partially stabilized zirconia combines the zirconia
characteristics of resistance to thermal shock, wear, and
corrosion; low thermal conductivity and low friction coefficient
with the enhanced strength and toughness
Transformation-toughened zirconia has even greater
toughness as a result of dispersed second phases throughout
the ceramic matrix
ADVANCED CERAMICS AS CUTTING TOOLS
High hardness, retention of hardness at elevated temperature, and low
reactivity make ceramic materials attractive for cutting applications
Silicon carbide common abrasive in common grinding wheels
Cobalt-bonded tungsten carbide popular alternative to high-speed
tool steels for many tool and die applications
Hard machining where ceramic tools have also been used in the
direct machining of materials that once required grinding
7. Hot Pressing this forming method involves applying pressure at high
temperatures in order to reduce porosity (voids) and produce dense
sintered bodies.
8. Fining this forming method involves applying pressure at high
temperatures in order to reduce porosity (voids) and produce dense
sintered bodies.
9. Grinding/Boding is designed to fabricate products with high levels of
dimensional accuracy and mirror-finished surfaces. It is generally
performed using a diamond wheel.
10. Inspection products are delivered after rigorous inspection. This
inspection ensures that all products are tested to perform at the
highest level and allows customers to use them with confidence.

PROCESSES IN MANUFACTURING CERAMICS

1. Milling/Mixing raw powder and solvating media (such as water) are
fed into a mill with ceramic balls. This ball mill is then rotated or shaken
to create a uniform mixture (called a slurry), with evenly distributed
particles of various sizes.
2. Spraying/Mixing a slurry adjusted through raw material milling and
mixing is sprayed and dried in a hot-air spray dryer to form a
granulated powder of spherical bodies. Enhancing the spherical
composition of the raw material helps facilitate the next process: filling
the forming dies.
3. Forming involves pressing dried and granulated raw materials into a
shape close to that of the finished product
4. Dry pressing involves filling a die with dried and granulated raw
materials, and pressing them to a shape close to that of the finished
product.
5. Extrusion is a forming method in which dried and granulated raw
materials are mixed with water, binder, a plasticizing agent, and a
dispersing agent. The resulting clay-like plastic body is then extruded
into the desired shape under pressure. This method is ideal for long
products with continuous and unchanging cross-sections.
6. Injection/Casting is a forming method in which dried and granulated
raw materials are mixed with additives to provide a degree of fluidity.
The raw material is then pressure-filled into a forming die that gives it a
shape close to that of the finished product.