Académique Documents
Professionnel Documents
Culture Documents
of Metals
Nanda Shabrina
The content of this presentation is for academic
purpose and not the most correct one.
The authors are not responsible for the future
usage of this presentation.
Any mistake will be your own risk.
All copyrighted materials are acknowledged.
References
Callister, Wiliam D., Materials Science and Engineering: An Introductrion. Seventh
Edition., John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
University of Notre Dame. Chapter 4: Imperfection in Solids
ASTM E 112 96e3 Standard Test Methods for Determining Average Grain Size1
Concept of Stress
and Strains
Compression
Tensile
Shear Torsion
Tension Test
Shape of the specimen: The shape of the machine to be used for the different
materials are as follows:
(i) For metals and certain plastics: The specimen may be in the from of a
cylinder
(ii) For building materials: Such as concrete or stone the shape of the specimen
may be in the from of a cube.
Shape of stress stain diagram
(a) Ductile materials: For ductile material such as mild steel, the
load Vs compression diagram would be as follows
bonds
stretch
return
to
initial
F
Ao
original
area before Stress has
loading 2
units: N/m or
2
lb/in
4
Basic Design Need to know
Hooke's Law:
s=Ee
Poisson's ratio, n:
metals: n ~
0.33
ceramics:
~0.25
polymers:
~0.40
Units:
E: [GPa] or
[psi] n:
dimensionless
YOUNGS MODULI:
COMPARISON
0.2
Pa
1200
1000
800
600
400
E
( 200
G Based on data in
Table B2,
P 100
Callister 6e.
a 80 Composite data
60 based on reinforced
) epoxy with 60 vol%
40 of aligned
carbon
20
(CFRE),
10 aramid
1 (AFRE), or
glass
0 (GFRE)
fibers.
9
0.8
0.6
0.4
PLASTIC (PERMANENT)
DEFORMATION
(at lower temperatures, T < Tmelt/3)
when ep = 0.002
tensile stress, s
sy
engineering strain,
e
ep =
0.002
YIELD STRENGTH: COMPARISON
s
y(ceramics)
>>s
y(metals)
>>
s
y(polymers)
Room T values
TS
(ceram
)
~TS
(met)
~
TS
(comp)
>>
TS
(poly)
Room T values
Based on data in Table
B4,
Callister 6e.
a =
annealed hr
= hot rolled
ag = aged
cd = cold
drawn cw =
cold worked
qt = quenched &
tempered AFRE, GFRE,
& CFRE = aramid,
glass, & carbon fiber-
reinforced epoxy
composites, with 60
vol% fibers.
1
DUCTILITY, %EL
Plastic tensile strain at failure: %EL L f Lo x100
Lo
Adapted from Fig. 6.13,
Callister 6e.
A A
Another ductility
%AR o f x100
measure: Ao
Note: %AR and %EL are often comparable.
--Reason: crystal slip does not change material
volume. --%AR > %EL possible if internal voids
form in neck.
TOUGHNESS
Energy to break a unit volume of
material
Approximate by the area under the
stress-strain curve.
Engineerin smaller toughness (ceramics)
g tensile larger
stress, s toughness
(metals,
PMCs)
smaller
toughness-
unreinforced
polymers
Engineering tensile
strain, e
HARDENING
An increase in sy due to plastic deformation.
Adapted from
Fig. 12.29,
Callister 6e.
b circ.
rect.
location of max
tension
Flexural strength: Typ. values:
depent on:
=
or
Often N
is
betwee
n 1.2
and 4
SUMMARY
Stress and strain: These are size-
independent measures of load and
displacement, respectively.
Elastic behavior: This reversible behavior
often shows a linear relation between
stress and strain. To minimize
deformation, select a material with a
large elastic modulus (E or G).
Plastic behavior: This permanent
deformation behavior occurs when the
tensile (or compressive) uniaxial stress
reaches sy.
Toughness: The energy needed to
break a unit volume of material.
Ductility: The plastic strain at failure.
HARDNESS
Another mechanical property that
may be important to consider is
hardness, which is a measure of a
materials resistance to localized
plastic deformation
There are two method of the most
common Hardness Test Recently, Brinnel
Hardness Test and Rockwell Hardness
Test.
Hardness tests are performed more frequently than any other
mechanical test for several reasons: several reasons:
The test location must be completely free of all contamination (e.g. scale,
foreign bodies or oil
The indenter has unknown effects on the test results
BS EN ISO 6506-1:2005, (BS 240:Part 1:1962) Metallic materials. Brinell hardness test. Test method
Standard Test Method for Brinell Hardness of Metallic
ASTM E10-01
Materials
The designation "HBW" specifies the use of a tungsten carbide ball indenter.
The designation "HBS" specifies the use of a hardened steel ball indenter but is
now deleted from standards.
It should be noted that measurements of HBW and HBS on the same sample may differ
in value due to differences in the tribological characteristics of the indenter-specimen
interface.
Brinell Hardness Tests Limitations
Widely used and well accepted
Large ball gives good average reading with a
single test
Accurate
Easy to learn and use
Sample must be ten times thicker than the
indentation depth (sample usually should be at Destructive
least 3/8" thick). Non-portable
High initial cost ($5,000)
Test is most accurate if the indentation depth is Error due to operator reading Brinell
2.5 - 5.0 mm. Adjust load to achieve this. Microscope (10% max)
Good illumination of the test indent is important for ensuring correct evaluation of the test indent (e.g. with the
aid of a ring light).
The process is slow (by comparison with the Rockwell method). The test cycle takes somewhere between 30 and
60 seconds
Limitation in applying the method on thin specimens of very hard materials
High risk of deforming the material to be tested when testing in the macro range with high test loads
The surface quality of the specimen must be good, because the indent is measured optically
Relatively large test indents that are easier to measure the rather small Vickers indentations
Can be used for testing non-homogeneous materials (e.g. castings)
Knoop and Vickers Microindentation Hardness Tests 15
Applied loads are much smaller than for Rockwell and P
Brinell, ranging between 1 and 1000 g.The resulting
impression is observed under a microscope and
measured; this measurement is then converted into a
hardness number. Careful specimen surface preparation
(grinding and polishing) may be necessary to ensure a
well-defined indentation that may be accurately
measured.The Knoop and Vickers hardness numbers are
designated by HK and HV.
A
Knoop hardness test allowed the hardness
testing of brittle Vickers
Hardness =
materials such as
glass and ceramics. F/A = 3sy
Accurate
Useful for elongated and anisotropic constituents.
Requires load to be normal to surface plane parallel
surfaces.
Can be done on mounted specimens
Slow
Sensitive to surface condition
Subject to error in diagonal measurement
Vickers
Specimens need to be prepared
The process is rather slow. The test cycle takes somewhere between 30 and 60 seconds
The surface quality of the specimen must be good (ground and polished)
The Vickers method can be used with any and all materials and test specimens
Knoop
Specimen should be polished
The process is rather slow (compared with the Rockwell method). The test cycle takes somewhere between
30 and 60 seconds
The surface quality of the specimen must be good, because the indent is measured optically
It is particularly suitable for testing small, longish components and very thin layers as well as brittle
materials (glass and ceramics) for which no other method is appropriate.
Correlation Between Hardness and Tensile Strength