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SearchtheStates Followingisthefulltextofanopenletteronwhythewaronterrorismis
SpecialReports necessaryandjust,signedby60leadingintellectuals,mostofwhomare
AmericaatWar highpoweredacademicswhostudyethics,religionandpublicpolicyat
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NationIndex WHATWE'REFIGHTINGFOR
World
ALETTERFROMAMERICA
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ATTIMESitbecomesnecessaryforanationtodefenditselfthrough
Washtech
forceofarms.Becausewarisagravematter,involvingthesacrificeand
Sports
takingofprecioushumanlife,consciencedemandsthatthosewho
Style
wouldwagethewarstateclearlythemoralreasoningbehindtheir
Education
Travel
actions,inordertomakeplaintooneanother,andtotheworld
Health
community,theprinciplestheyaredefending.
Home&Garden
Opinion
Weaffirmfivefundamentaltruthsthatpertaintoallpeoplewithout
Weather distinction:
WeeklySections
NewsDigest 1.Allhumanbeingsarebornfreeandequalindignityandrights.
Classifieds
PrintEdition 2.Thebasicsubjectofsocietyisthehumanperson,andthelegitimate
Archives roleofgovernmentistoprotectandhelptofostertheconditionsfor
SiteIndex humanflourishing.

3.Humanbeingsnaturallydesiretoseekthetruthaboutlife'spurpose
andultimateends.

4.Freedomofconscienceandreligiousfreedomareinviolablerightsof
thehumanperson.

5.KillinginthenameofGodiscontrarytofaithinGodandisthe
greatestbetrayaloftheuniversalityofreligiousfaith.

Wefighttodefendourselvesandtodefendtheseuniversalprinciples.

WhatareAmericanValues?

SINCESEPTEMBER11,millionsofAmericanshaveaskedthemselves
andoneanother,why?Whyarewethetargetsofthesehatefulattacks?
Whydothosewhowouldkillus,wanttokillus?

Werecognizethatattimesournationhasactedwitharroganceand
ignorancetowardothersocieties.Attimesournationhaspursued
misguidedandunjustpolicies.Toooftenweasanationhavefailedto
liveuptoourideals.Wecannoturgeothersocietiestoabidebymoral
principleswithoutsimultaneouslyadmittingourownsociety'sfailureat
timestoabidebythosesameprinciples.Weareunitedinourconviction
andareconfidentthatallpeopleofgoodwillintheworldwillagree
thatnoappealtothemeritsordemeritsofspecificforeignpoliciescan
everjustify,orevenpurporttomakesenseof,themassslaughterof
innocentpersons.

Moreover,inademocracysuchasours,inwhichgovernmentderivesits
powerfromtheconsentofthegoverned,policystemsatleastpartly
fromculture,fromthevaluesandprioritiesofthesocietyasawhole.
Thoughwedonotclaimtopossessfullknowledgeofthemotivationsof
ourattackersandtheirsympathizers,whatwedoknowsuggeststhat

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theirgrievancesextendfarbeyondanyonepolicy,orsetofpolicies.
Afterall,thekillersofSeptember11issuednoparticulardemandsin
thissense,atleast,thekillingwasdoneforitsownsake.Theleaderof
AlQaedadescribedthe"blessedstrikes"ofSeptember11asblows
againstAmerica,"theheadofworldinfidelity."Clearly,then,our
attackersdespisenotjustourgovernment,butouroverallsociety,our
entirewayofliving.Fundamentally,theirgrievanceconcernsnotonly
whatourleadersdo,butalsowhoweare.

SOWHOAREWE?Whatdowevalue?Formanypeople,including
manyAmericansandanumberofsignatoriestothisletter,somevalues
sometimesseeninAmericaareunattractiveandharmful.Consumerism
asawayoflife.Thenotionoffreedomasnorules.Thenotionofthe
individualasselfmadeandutterlysovereign,owinglittletoothersorto
society.Theweakeningofmarriageandfamilylife.Plusanenormous
entertainmentandcommunicationsapparatusthatrelentlesslyglorifies
suchideasandbeamsthem,whethertheyarewelcomeornot,into
nearlyeverycorneroftheglobe.

OnemajortaskfacingusasAmericans,importantpriortoSeptember
11,isfacinghonestlytheseunattractiveaspectsofoursocietyanddoing
allwecantochangethemforthebetter.Wepledgeourselvestothis
effort.

Atthesametime,otherAmericanvalueswhatweviewasour
foundingideals,andthosethatmostdefineourwayoflifearequite
differentfromthese,andtheyaremuchmoreattractive,notonlyto
Americans,buttopeopleeverywhereintheworld.Letusbriefly
mentionfourofthem.

Thefirstistheconvictionthatallpersonspossessinnatehumandignity
asabirthright,andthatconsequentlyeachpersonmustalwaysbetreated
asanendratherthanusedasameans.ThefoundersoftheUnitedStates,
drawinguponthenaturallawtraditionaswellasuponthefundamental
religiousclaimthatallpersonsarecreatedintheimageofGod,affirmed
as"selfevident"theideathatallpersonspossessequaldignity.The
clearestpoliticalexpressionofabeliefintranscendenthumandignityis
democracy.IntheUnitedStatesinrecentgenerations,amongthe
clearestculturalexpressionsofthisideahasbeentheaffirmationofthe
equaldignityofmenandwomen,andofallpersonsregardlessofraceor
color.

Second,andfollowingcloselyfromthefirst,istheconvictionthat
universalmoraltruths(whatournation'sfounderscalled"lawsofNature
andofNature'sGod")existandareaccessibletoallpeople.Someofthe
mosteloquentexpressionsofourrelianceuponthesetruthsarefoundin
ourDeclarationofIndependence,GeorgeWashington'sFarewell
Address,AbrahamLincoln'sGettysburgAddressandSecondInaugural
Address,andDr.MartinLutherKing,Jr.'sLetterfromtheBirmingham
Jail.

Thethirdistheconvictionthat,becauseourindividualandcollective
accesstotruthisimperfect,mostdisagreementsaboutvaluescallfor
civility,opennesstootherviews,andreasonableargumentinpursuitof
truth.

Thefourthisfreedomofconscienceandfreedomofreligion.These
intrinsicallyconnectedfreedomsarewidelyrecognized,inourown
countryandelsewhere,asareflectionofbasichumandignityandasa
preconditionforotherindividualfreedoms.

Tous,whatismoststrikingaboutthesevaluesisthattheyapplytoall
personswithoutdistinction,andcannotbeusedtoexcludeanyonefrom
recognitionandrespectbasedontheparticularitiesofrace,language,
memory,orreligion.That'swhyanyone,inprinciple,canbecomean
American.Andinfact,anyonedoes.Peoplefromeverywhereinthe
worldcometoourcountrywithwhatastatueinNewYork'sharborcalls
ayearningtobreathefree,andsoonenough,theyareAmericans.
Historically,noothernationhasforgeditscoreidentityitsconstitution
andotherfoundingdocuments,aswellasitsbasicselfunderstanding
sodirectlyandexplicitlyonthebasisofuniversalhumanvalues.Tous,
nootherfactaboutthiscountryismoreimportant.

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Somepeopleassertthatthesevaluesarenotuniversalatall,butinstead
deriveparticularlyfromwestern,largelyChristiancivilization.They
arguethattoconceiveofthesevaluesasuniversalistodenythe
distinctivenessofothercultures.Wedisagree.Werecognizeourown
civilization'sachievements,butwebelievethatallpeoplearecreated
equal.Webelieveintheuniversalpossibilityanddesirabilityofhuman
freedom.Webelievethatcertainbasicmoraltruthsarerecognizable
everywhereintheworld.Weagreewiththeinternationalgroupof
distinguishedphilosopherswhointhelate1940shelpedtoshapethe
UnitedNationsUniversalDeclarationofHumanRights,andwho
concludedthatafewfundamentalmoralideasaresowidespreadthat
they"maybeviewedasimplicitinman'snatureasamemberof
society."Inhope,andontheevidence,weagreewithDr.MartinLuther
King,Jr.,thatthearcofthemoraluniverseislong,butitbendstoward
justice,notjustforthefew,orthelucky,butforallpeople.

Lookingatourownsociety,weacknowledgeagainthealltoofrequent
gapsbetweenouridealsandourconduct.ButasAmericansinatimeof
warandglobalcrisis,wearealsosuggestingthatthebestofwhatwetoo
casuallycall"Americanvalues"donotbelongonlytoAmerica,butare
infactthesharedinheritanceofhumankind,andthereforeapossible
basisofhopeforaworldcommunitybasedonpeaceandjustice.

WhataboutGod?

SINCESEPTEMBER11,millionsofAmericanshaveaskedthemselves
andoneanother,whataboutGod?Crisesofthismagnitudeforceusto
thinkanewaboutfirstprinciples.Whenwecontemplatethehorrorof
whathasoccurred,andthedangerofwhatislikelytocome,manyofus
ask:Isreligiousfaithpartofthesolutionorpartoftheproblem?

Thesignatoriestothislettercomefromdiversereligiousandmoral
traditions,includingseculartraditions.Weareunitedinourbeliefthat
invokingGod'sauthoritytokillormaimhumanbeingsisimmoralandis
contrarytofaithinGod.ManyofusbelievethatweareunderGod's
judgment.NoneofusbelievethatGodeverinstructssomeofustokill
orconquerothersofus.Indeed,suchanattitude,whetheritiscalled
"holywar"or"crusade,"notonlyviolatesbasicprinciplesofjustice,but
isinfactanegationofreligiousfaith,sinceitturnsGodintoanidolto
beusedforman'sownpurposes.Ourownnationwasonceengagedina
greatcivilwar,inwhicheachsidepresumedGod'saidagainsttheother.
InhisSecondInauguralAddressin1865,thetenthpresidentofthe
UnitedStates,AbrahamLincoln,putitsimply:"TheAlmightyhashis
ownpurposes."

ThosewhoattackedusonSeptember11openlyproclaimthattheyare
engagedinholywar.Manywhosupportorsympathizewiththe
attackersalsoinvokeGod'snameandseemtoembracetherationaleof
holywar.Buttorecognizethedisasterofthiswayofthinking,weas
Americansneedonlytorememberourown,andwestern,history.
ChristianreligiouswarsandChristiansectarianviolencetoreapart
Europeforthebetterpartofacentury.IntheUnitedStates,weareno
strangerstothosewhowouldmurderatleastinpartinthenameoftheir
religiousfaith.Whenitcomestothisparticularevil,nocivilizationis
spotlessandnoreligioustraditionisspotless.

Thehumanpersonhasabasicdrivetoquestioninordertoknow.
Evaluating,choosing,andhavingreasonsforwhatwevalueandlove
arecharacteristicallyhumanactivities.Partofthisintrinsicdesireto
knowconcernswhywearebornandwhatwillhappenwhenwedie,
whichleadsustoseekthetruthaboutultimateends,including,formany
people,thequestionofGod.Someofthesignatoriestothisletterbelieve
thathumanbeingsarebynature"religious"inthesensethateveryone,
includingthosewhodonotbelieveinGodanddonotparticipatein
organizedreligion,makeschoicesaboutwhatisimportantandreflects
onultimatevalues.Allofthesignatoriestothisletterrecognizethat,
acrosstheworld,religiousfaithandreligiousinstitutionsareimportant
basesofcivilsociety,oftenproducingresultsforsocietythatare
beneficialandhealing,attimesproducingresultsthataredivisiveand
violent.

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Sohowcangovernmentsandsocietalleadersbestrespondtothese
fundamentalhumanandsocialrealities?Oneresponseistooutlawor
repressreligion.Anotherpossibleresponseistoembraceanideological
secularism:astrongsocietalskepticismorhostilityregardingreligion,
basedonthepremisethatreligionitself,andespeciallyanypublic
expressionofreligiousconviction,isinherentlyproblematic.Athird
possibleresponseistoembracetheocracy:thebeliefthatonereligion,
presumablytheonetruereligion,shouldbeeffectivelymandatoryforall
membersofsocietyandthereforeshouldreceivecompleteorsignificant
statesponsorshipandsupport.

Wedisagreewitheachoftheseresponses.Legalrepressionradically
violatescivilandreligiousfreedomandisincompatiblewithdemocratic
civilsociety.Althoughideologicalsecularismmayhaveincreasedinour
societyinrecentgenerations,wedisagreewithitbecauseitwoulddeny
thepubliclegitimacyofanimportantpartofcivilsocietyaswellasseek
tosuppressordenytheexistenceofwhatisatleastarguablyan
importantdimensionofpersonhooditself.Althoughtheocracyhasbeen
presentinwestern(thoughnotU.S.)history,wedisagreewithitforboth
socialandtheologicalreasons.Socially,governmentalestablishmentofa
particularreligioncanconflictwiththeprincipleofreligiousfreedom,a
fundamentalhumanright.Inaddition,governmentcontrolofreligion
cancauseorexacerbatereligiousconflictsand,perhapsevenmore
importantly,canthreatenthevitalityandauthenticityofreligious
institutions.Theologically,evenforthosewhoarefirmlyconvincedof
thetruthoftheirfaith,thecoercionofothersinmattersofreligious
conscienceisultimatelyaviolationofreligionitself,sinceitrobsthose
otherpersonsoftherighttorespondfreelyandindignitytotheCreator's
invitation.

Atitsbest,theUnitedStatesseekstobeasocietyinwhichfaithand
freedomcangotogether,eachelevatingtheother.Wehaveasecular
stateourgovernmentofficialsarenotsimultaneouslyreligiousofficials
butwearebyfarthewesternworld'smostreligioussociety.Wearea
nationthatdeeplyrespectsreligiousfreedomanddiversity,includingthe
rightsofnonbelievers,butonewhosecitizensreciteaPledgeof
Allegianceto"onenation,underGod,"andonethatproclaimsinmany
ofitscourtroomsandinscribesoneachofitscoinsthemotto,"InGod
WeTrust."Politically,ourseparationofchurchandstateseekstokeep
politicswithinitspropersphere,inpartbylimitingthestate'spowerto
controlreligion,andinpartbycausinggovernmentitselftodraw
legitimacyfrom,andoperateunder,alargermoralcanopythatisnotof
itsownmaking.Spiritually,ourseparationofchurchandstatepermits
religiontobereligion,bydetachingitfromthecoercivepowerof
government.Inshort,weseektoseparatechurchandstateforthe
protectionandpropervitalityofboth.

ForAmericansofreligiousfaith,thechallengeofembracingreligious
truthandreligiousfreedomhasoftenbeendifficult.Thematter,
moreover,isneversettled.Oursisasocialandconstitutional
arrangementthatalmostbydefinitionrequiresconstantdeliberation,
debate,adjustment,andcompromise.Itisalsohelpedby,andhelpsto
produce,acertaincharacterortemperament,suchthatreligious
believerswhostronglyembracethetruthoftheirfaithalso,notasa
compromisewiththattruthbutasanaspectofit,respectthosewhotake
adifferentpath.

Whatwillhelptoreducereligiouslybasedmistrust,hatred,andviolence
inthe21stcentury?Therearemanyimportantanswerstothisquestion,
ofcourse,buthere,wehope,isone:Deepeningandrenewingour
appreciationofreligionbyrecognizingreligiousfreedomasa
fundamentalrightofallpeopleineverynation.

AJustWar?

WERECOGNIZEthatallwaristerrible,representativefinallyof
humanpoliticalfailure.Wealsoknowthatthelineseparatinggoodand
evildoesnotrunbetweenonesocietyandanother,muchlessbetween
onereligionandanotherultimately,thatlinerunsthroughthemiddleof
everyhumanheart.Finally,thoseofusJews,Christians,Muslims,and
otherswhoarepeopleoffaithrecognizeourresponsibility,statedin

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ourholyscriptures,tolovemercyandtodoallinourpowertoprevent
warandliveinpeace.

Yetreasonandcarefulmoralreflectionalsoteachusthattherearetimes
whenthefirstandmostimportantreplytoevilistostopit.Thereare
timeswhenwagingwarisnotonlymorallypermitted,butmorally
necessary,asaresponsetocalamitousactsofviolence,hatred,and
injustice.Thisisoneofthosetimes.

Theideaofa"justwar"isbroadlybased,withrootsinmanyofthe
world'sdiversereligiousandsecularmoraltraditions.Jewish,Christian,
andMuslimteachings,forexample,allcontainseriousreflectionsonthe
definitionofajustwar.Tobesure,somepeople,ofteninthenameof
realism,insistthatwarisessentiallyarealmofselfinterestand
necessity,makingmostattemptsatmoralanalysisirrelevant.We
disagree.Moralinarticulacyinthefaceofwarisitselfamoralstance
onethatrejectsthepossibilityofreason,acceptsnormlessnessin
internationalaffairs,andcapitulatestocynicism.Toseektoapply
objectivemoralreasoningtowaristodefendthepossibilityofcivil
societyandaworldcommunitybasedonjustice.

Theprinciplesofjustwarteachusthatwarsofaggressionand
aggrandizementareneveracceptable.Warsmaynotlegitimatelybe
foughtfornationalglory,toavengepastwrongs,forterritorialgain,or
foranyothernondefensivepurpose.

Theprimarymoraljustificationforwaristoprotecttheinnocentfrom
certainharm.Augustine,whoseearly5thcenturybook,TheCityof
God,isaseminalcontributiontojustwarthinking,argues(echoing
Socrates)thatitisbetterfortheChristianasanindividualtosufferharm
ratherthantocommitit.Butisthemorallyresponsiblepersonalso
required,orevenpermitted,tomakeforotherinnocentpersonsa
commitmenttononselfdefense?ForAugustine,andforthebroader
justwartradition,theanswerisno.Ifonehascompellingevidencethat
innocentpeoplewhoareinnopositiontoprotectthemselveswillbe
grievouslyharmedunlesscoerciveforceisusedtostopanaggressor,
thenthemoralprincipleofloveofneighborcallsustotheuseofforce.

Warsmaynotlegitimatelybefoughtagainstdangersthataresmall,
questionable,orofuncertainconsequence,oragainstdangersthatmight
plausiblybemitigatedsolelythroughnegotiation,appealstoreason,
persuasionfromthirdparties,orothernonviolentmeans.Butifthe
dangertoinnocentlifeisrealandcertain,andespeciallyiftheaggressor
ismotivatedbyimplacablehostilityiftheendheseeksisnotyour
willingnesstonegotiateorcomply,butratheryourdestructionthena
resorttoproportionateforceismorallyjustified.

Ajustwarcanonlybefoughtbyalegitimateauthoritywith
responsibilityforpublicorder.Violencethatisfreelance,opportunistic,
orindividualisticisnevermorallyacceptable.

Ajustwarcanonlybewagedagainstpersonswhoarecombatants.Just
warauthoritiesfromacrosshistoryandaroundtheworldwhetherthey
beMuslim,Jewish,Christian,fromotherfaithtraditions,orsecular
consistentlyteachusthatnoncombatantsareimmunefromdeliberate
attack.Thus,killingciviliansforrevenge,orevenasameansof
deterringaggressionfrompeoplewhosympathizewiththem,ismorally
wrong.Althoughinsomecircumstances,andwithinstrictlimits,itcan
bemorallyjustifiabletoundertakemilitaryactionsthatmayresultinthe
unintendedbutforeseeabledeathorinjuryofsomenoncombatants,itis
notmorallyacceptabletomakethekillingofnoncombatantsthe
operationalobjectiveofamilitaryaction.

Theseandotherjustwarprinciplesteachusthat,wheneverhuman
beingscontemplateorwagewar,itisbothpossibleandnecessaryto
affirmthesanctityofhumanlifeandembracetheprincipleofequal
humandignity.Theseprinciplesstrivetopreserveandreflect,evenin
thetragicactivityofwar,thefundamentalmoraltruththat"others"
thosewhoarestrangerstous,thosewhodifferfromusinraceor
language,thosewhosereligionswemaybelievetobeuntruehavethe
samerighttolifethatwedo,andthesamehumandignityandhuman
rightsthatwedo.

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ONSEPTEMBER11,2001,agroupofindividualsdeliberatelyattacked
theUnitedStates,usinghighjackedairplanesasweaponswithwhichto
killinlessthantwohoursover3,000ofourcitizensinNewYorkCity,
southwesternPennsylvania,andWashington,D.C.Overwhelmingly,
thosewhodiedonSeptember11werecivilians,notcombatants,and
werenotknownatall,exceptasAmericans,bythosewhokilledthem.
ThosewhodiedonthemorningofSeptember11werekilledunlawfully,
wantonly,andwithpremeditatedmaliceakindofkillingthat,inthe
nameofprecision,canonlybedescribedasmurder.Thosemurdered
includedpeoplefromallraces,manyethnicities,mostmajorreligions.
Theyincludeddishwashersandcorporateexecutives.

Theindividualswhocommittedtheseactsofwardidnotactalone,or
withoutsupport,orforunknownreasons.Theyweremembersofan
internationalIslamicistnetwork,activeinasmanyas40countries,now
knowntotheworldasAlQaeda.Thisgroup,inturn,constitutesbutone
armofalargerradicalIslamicistmovement,growingfordecadesandin
someinstancestoleratedandevensupportedbygovernments,that
openlyprofessesitsdesireandincreasinglydemonstratesitsabilityto
usemurdertoadvanceitsobjectives.

Weusetheterms"Islam"and"Islamic"torefertooneoftheworld's
greatreligions,withabout1.2billionadherents,includingseveral
millionU.S.citizens,someofwhomweremurderedonSeptember11.It
oughttogowithoutsayingbutwesayithereonce,clearlythatthe
greatmajorityoftheworld'sMuslims,guidedinlargemeasurebythe
teachingsoftheQur'an,aredecent,faithful,andpeaceful.Weusethe
terms"Islamicism"and"radicalIslamicist"torefertotheviolent,
extremist,andradicallyintolerantreligiouspoliticalmovementthatnow
threatenstheworld,includingtheMuslimworld.

Thisradical,violentmovementopposesnotonlycertainU.S.and
westernpoliciessomesignatoriestothisletteralsoopposesomeof
thosepoliciesbutalsoafoundationalprincipleofthemodernworld,
religioustolerance,aswellasthosefundamentalhumanrights,in
particularfreedomofconscienceandreligion,thatareenshrinedinthe
UnitedNationsUniversalDeclarationofHumanRights,andthatmust
bethebasisofanycivilizationorientedtohumanflourishing,justice,
andpeace.

ThisextremistmovementclaimstospeakforIslam,butbetrays
fundamentalIslamicprinciples.Islamsetsitsfaceagainstmoral
atrocities.Forexample,reflectingtheteachingoftheQur'anandthe
exampleoftheProphet,Muslimscholarsthroughthecenturieshave
taughtthatstruggleinthepathofGod(i.e.,jihad)forbidsthedeliberate
killingofnoncombatants,andrequiresthatmilitaryactionbeundertaken
onlyatthebehestoflegitimatepublicauthorities.Theyremindus
forcefullythatIslam,nolessthanChristianity,Judaismandother
religions,isthreatenedandpotentiallydegradedbytheseprofanerswho
invokeGod'snametokillindiscriminately.

Werecognizethatmovementsclaimingthemantleofreligionalsohave
complexpolitical,social,anddemographicdimensions,towhichdue
attentionmustbepaid.Atthesametime,philosophymatters,andthe
animatingphilosophyofthisradicalIslamicistmovement,inits
contemptforhumanlife,andbyviewingtheworldasalifeanddeath
strugglebetweenbelieversandunbelievers(whethernonradical
Muslims,Jews,Christians,Hindus,orothers),clearlydeniestheequal
dignityofallpersonsand,indoingso,betraysreligionandrejectsthe
veryfoundationofcivilizedlifeandthepossibilityofpeaceamong
nations.

Mostseriouslyofall,themassmurdersofSeptember11demonstrated,
arguablyforthefirsttime,thatthismovementnowpossessesnotonly
theopenlystateddesire,butalsothecapacityandexpertiseincluding
possibleaccessto,andwillingnesstouse,chemical,biologicaland
nuclearweaponstowreakmassive,horrificdevastationonitsintended
targets.

Thosewhoslaughteredmorethan3,000personsonSeptember11and
who,bytheirownadmission,wantnothingmorethantodoitagain,
constituteaclearandpresentdangertoallpeopleofgoodwill

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everywhereintheworld,notjusttheUnitedStates.Suchactsareapure
exampleofnakedaggressionagainstinnocenthumanlife,aworld
threateningevilthatclearlyrequirestheuseofforcetoremoveit.

Organizedkillerswithglobalreachnowthreatenallofus.Inthename
ofuniversalhumanmorality,andfullyconsciousoftherestrictionsand
requirementsofajustwar,wesupportourgovernment's,andour
society's,decisiontouseforceofarmsagainstthem.

Conclusion

WEPLEDGETODOallwecantoguardagainsttheharmful
temptationsespeciallythoseofarroganceandjingoismtowhich
nationsatwarsooftenseemtoyield.Atthesametime,withonevoice
wesaysolemnlythatitiscrucialforournationanditsalliestowinthis
war.Wefighttodefendourselves,butwealsobelievethatwefightto
defendthoseuniversalprinciplesofhumanrightsandhumandignity
thatarethebesthopeforhumankind.

Oneday,thiswarwillend.Whenitdoesandinsomerespectseven
beforeitendsthegreattaskofconciliationawaitsus.Wehopethatthis
war,bystoppinganunmitigatedglobalevil,canincreasethepossibility
ofaworldcommunitybasedonjustice.Butweknowthatonlythe
peacemakersamongusineverysocietycanensurethatthiswarwillnot
havebeeninvain.

WewishespeciallytoreachouttoourbrothersandsistersinMuslim
societies.Wesaytoyouforthrightly:Wearenotenemies,butfriends.
Wemustnotbeenemies.Wehavesomuchincommon.Thereisso
muchthatwemustdotogether.Yourhumandignity,nolessthanours
yourrightsandopportunitiesforagoodlife,nolessthanoursarewhat
webelievewe'refightingfor.Weknowthat,forsomeofyou,mistrustof
usishigh,andweknowthatweAmericansarepartlyresponsiblefor
thatmistrust.Butwemustnotbeenemies.Inhope,wewishtojoinwith
youandallpeopleofgoodwilltobuildajustandlastingpeace.

Signatories

EnolaAird
Director,TheMotherhoodProjectCouncilonCivilSociety

JohnAtlas
President,NationalHousingInstituteExecutiveDirector,Passaic
CountyLegalAidSociety

JayBelsky
ProfessorandDirector,InstitutefortheStudyofChildren,Familiesand
SocialIssues,BirkbeckUniversityofLondon

DavidBlankenhorn
President,InstituteforAmericanValues

DavidBosworth
UniversityofWashington

R.MauriceBoyd
Minister,TheCityChurch,NewYork

GerardV.Bradley
ProfessorofLaw,UniversityofNotreDame

MargaretF.Brinig
EdwardA.HowryDistinguishedProfessor,UniversityofIowaCollege
ofLaw

AllanCarlson
President,TheHowardCenterforFamily,Religion,andSociety

KhalidDurn
Editor,TransIslamMagazine

PaulEkman
ProfessorofPsychology,UniversityofCalifornia,SanFrancisco

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JeanBethkeElshtain
LauraSpelmanRockefellerProfessorofSocialandPoliticalEthics,
UniversityofChicagoDivinitySchool

AmitaiEtzioni
UniversityProfessor,TheGeorgeWashingtonUniversity

HillelFradkin
President,EthicsandPublicPolicyCenter

SamuelG.Freedman
ProfessorattheColumbiaUniversityGraduateSchoolofJournalism

FrancisFukuyama
BernardSchwartzProfessorofInternationalPoliticalEconomy,Johns
HopkinsUniversity

WilliamA.Galston
ProfessorattheSchoolofPublicAffairs,UniversityofMaryland
Director,InstituteforPhilosophyandPublicPolicy

ClaireGaudiani
Seniorresearchscholar,YaleLawSchoolandformerpresident,
ConnecticutCollege

RobertP.George
McCormickProfessorofJurisprudenceandProfessorofPolitics,
PrincetonUniversity

NeilGilbert
ProfessorattheSchoolofSocialWelfare,UniversityofCalifornia,
Berkeley

MaryAnnGlendon
LearnedHandProfessorofLaw,HarvardUniversityLawSchool

NorvalD.Glenn
AshbelSmithProfessorofSociologyandStilesProfessorofAmerican
Studies,UniversityofTexasatAustin

OsGuinness
SeniorFellow,TrinityForum

DavidGutmann
ProfessorEmeritusofPsychiatryandEducation,Northwestern
University

KevinJ."Seamus"Hasson
President,BecketFundforReligiousLiberty

SylviaAnnHewlett
Chair,NationalParentingAssociation

JamesDavisonHunter
WilliamR.Kenan,Jr.,ProfessorofSociologyandReligiousStudiesand
ExecutiveDirector,CenteronReligionandDemocracy,Universityof
Virginia

SamuelHuntington
AlbertJ.Weatherhead,III,UniversityProfessor,HarvardUniversity

ByronJohnson
DirectorandDistinguishedSeniorFellow,CenterforResearchon
ReligionandUrbanCivilSociety,UniversityofPennsylvania

JamesTurnerJohnson
Professor,DepartmentofReligion,RutgersUniversity

JohnKelsay
RichardL.RubensteinProfessorofReligion,FloridaStateUniversity

DianeKnippers
President,InstituteonReligionandDemocracy

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ThomasC.Kohler
ProfessorofLaw,BostonCollegeLawSchool

GlennC.Loury
ProfessorofEconomicsandDirector,InstituteonRaceandSocial
Division,BostonUniversity

HarveyC.Mansfield
WilliamR.Kenan,Jr.,ProfessorofGovernment,HarvardUniversity

WillMarshall
President,ProgressivePolicyInstitute

RichardJ.Mouw
President,FullerTheologicalSeminary

DanielPatrickMoynihan
UniversityProfessor,MaxwellSchoolofCitizenshipandPublicAffairs,
SyracuseUniversity

JohnE.Murray,Jr.
ChancellorandProfessorofLaw,DuquesneUniversity

MichaelNovak
GeorgeFrederickJewettChairinReligionandPublicPolicy,American
EnterpriseInstitute

Rev.ValJ.Peter
ExecutiveDirector,BoysandGirlsTown

DavidPopenoe
ProfessorofSociologyandCoDirectoroftheNationalMarriage
Project,RutgersUniversity

RobertD.Putnam
PeterandIsabelMalkinProfessorofPublicPolicyattheKennedy
SchoolofGovernment,HarvardUniversity

GloriaG.Rodriguez
FounderandPresident,AVANCE,Inc.

RobertRoyal
President,Faith&ReasonInstitute

NinaShea
Director,Freedom'sHouse'sCenterforReligiousFreedom

FredSiegel
ProfessorofHistory,TheCooperUnion

ThedaSkocpol
VictorS.ThomasProfessorofGovernmentandSociology,Harvard
University

KatherineShawSpaht
JulesandFrancesLandryProfessorofLaw,LouisianaStateUniversity
LawCenter

MaxL.Stackhouse
ProfessorofChristianEthicsandDirector,ProjectonPublicTheology,
PrincetonTheologicalSeminary

WilliamTell,Jr.
TheWilliamandKarenTellFoundation

MarisA.Vinovskis
BentleyProfessorofHistoryandProfessorofPublicPolicy,University
ofMichigan

PaulC.Vitz
ProfessorofPsychology,NewYorkUniversity

MichaelWalzer
ProfessorattheSchoolofSocialScience,InstituteforAdvancedStudy
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6/19/2017 washingtonpost.com
GeorgeWeigel
SeniorFellow,EthicsandPublicPolicyCenter

CharlesWilson
Director,CenterfortheStudyofSouthernCulture,Universityof
Mississippi

JamesQ.Wilson
CollinsProfessorofManagementandPublicPolicyEmeritus,UCLA

JohnWitte,Jr.
JonasRobitscherProfessorofLawandEthicsandDirector,Lawand
ReligionProgram,EmoryUniversityLawSchool

ChristopherWolfe
ProfessorofPoliticalScience,MarquetteUniversity

DanielYankelovich
President,PublicAgenda

Endnotes

Preamble

humanbeingsarebornfree:FromtheUnitedNationsUniversal
DeclarationofHumanRights,Article1.

basicsubjectofsociety:ACalltoCivilSociety(NewYork:Institutefor
AmericanValues,1998),16Aristotle,PoliticsVII,12.

Humanbeingsnaturallydesiretoseekthetruth:Aristotle,Metaphysics,
11JohnPaulII,FidesetRatio,25(VaticanCity,1998).

Religiousfreedom:UnitedNationsUniversalDeclarationofHuman
Rights,Articles1819.

KillinginthenameofGod:BosphorusDeclaration(Istanbul,Turkey,
February9,1994)BerneDeclaration(Wolfsberg/Zurich,Switzerland,
November26,1992)andJohnPaulII,PapalMessageforWorldDayof
Peace,Articles67(VaticanCity,January1,2002).

WhatareAmericanValues?

"theheadofworldinfidelity":"Excerpt:BinLadenTape,"Washington
Post,December27,2001.

brieflymentionfourofthem:SeeACalltoCivilSociety(NewYork:
InstituteforAmericanValues,1998).

widelyrecognized...asapreconditionforotherindividualfreedoms:See
JohnWitteJr.andM.ChristianGreen,"TheAmericanConstitutional
ExperimentinReligiousHumanRights:ThePerennialSearchfor
Principles,"inJohanD.vanderVyverandJohnWitte,Jr.(eds.),
ReligiousHumanRightsinGlobalPerspective,vol.2(TheHague:
MartinusNijhoffPublishers,1996).SeealsoHaroldJ.Berman,Lawand
Revolution:TheFormationoftheWesternLegalTradition(Cambridge,
MA:HarvardUniversityPress,1983)andMichaelJ.Perry,TheIdeaof
HumanRights:FourInquiries(NewYork:OxfordUniversityPress,
1998).

denythedistinctivenessofothercultures:Somepeoplemakethispoint
asawayofcondemningthose"other"culturesthatarepresumablytoo
inferior,ortooenthralledbyfalsebeliefs,toappreciatewhatweinthis
letterarecallinguniversalhumanvaluesothersmakethispointasa
wayofendorsing(usuallyoneof)thoseculturesthatarepresumably
indifferenttothesevalues.Wedisagreewithbothversionsofthispoint.

implicitinman'snatureasamemberofsociety:RichardMcKeon,"The
PhilosophicBasesandMaterialCircumstancesoftheRightsofMan,"in
HumanRights:CommentsandInterpretations(London:Wingate,1949),
45.

archofthemoraluniverseislong,butitbendstowardjustice:Martin
LutherKing,Jr.,"WhereDoWeGoFromHere?",inJamesM.
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Washington(ed.),TheEssentialWritingsandSpeechesofMartinLuther
King,Jr.(NewYork:HarperCollins,1986),245.

WhataboutGod?

anidoltobeusedforman'sownpurposes:JohnPaulII,PapalMessage
forWorldDayofPeace,Article6(VaticanCity,January1,2002).

noreligioustraditionisspotless:IntraChristianexamplesofholywaror
crusadeemergedwithparticularforceinEuropeduringthe17thcentury.
Accordingtosomescholars,theprinciplecharacteristicsofholywarare:
thatthecauseforwhichthewarisfoughthasaclearconnectionto
religion(i.e.,thatthecauseis"holy")thatthewarisfoughtunderthe
bannerandwiththepresumptionofdivineauthorityandassistance(the
Latintermusedby11thcenturyChristiancrusaderswas"DeusVolt,"or
"Godwillsit")thatthewarriorsunderstandthemselvestobegodly,or
"warriorsaints"thatthewarisprosecutedzealouslyandunsparingly,
sincetheenemyispresumedtobeungodlyandthereforefundamentally
"other,"lackingthehumandignityandrightsofthegodlyandfinally,
thatwarriorswhodieinbattlearefavoredbyGodasmartyrs.
Eventually,inChristianity,thedevelopmentofjustwardoctrine,withits
emphasisonmoraluniversalism,largelycalledfortheeliminationof
religionasajustcauseforwar.Asearlyasthe16thcentury,some
naturallawtheoristssuchasFranciscusdeVictoriaandFrancisco
Suarezwereexplicitlycondemningtheuseofwartospreadreligion.
"Differenceinreligion,"Victoriawrote,"isnotacauseofjustwar."See
JamesTurnerJohnson,Ideology,Reason,andtheLimitationofWar:
ReligiousandSecularConcepts12001740(Princeton:Princeton
UniversityPress,1975),112123,154.SeealsoRolandH.Bainton,
ChristianAttitudesTowardWarandPeace:AHistoricalSurveyand
CriticalReevaluation(Nashville:Abingdon,1960),148.

characteristicallyhumanactivities:ACalltoCivilSociety(NewYork:
InstituteforAmericanValues,1998):16.Thisthemeisdevelopedin
Aristotle,Metaphysics,11BernardJ.Lonergan,Insight:AStudyof
HumanUnderstanding(NewYork:Longmans,1958)andothers.

embraceanideologicalsecularism:Wewishheretodistinguish
"secular"from"secularism."Secular,derivedfromtheLatinterm
meaning"world"andsuggesting"intheworld,"refersmerelyto
functionsthatareseparatefromthechurch.Secularism,bycontrast,isa
philosophy,an"ism,"awayofseeingtheworldbasedonrejectionof
religionorhostilitytoreligion.

animportantdimensionofpersonhooditself:Forthisreason,advocates
ofsecularismmayunderestimatethedegreetowhichhumansocieties,
evenintheory,cansimplydispensewith"religion."Moreover,they
almostcertainlymiscalculate,evenacceptingmanyoftheirown
premises,thesocialconsequencesofsuppressingtraditionalreligion.
Forifweunderstandreligiontobevaluesofultimateconcern,the20th
centurysawtwoworldthreateningexamplesNazisminGermany,and
communismintheSovietUnionoftheemergenceofsecularreligions,
orwhatmightbecalledreplacementreligions,eachviolentlyintenton
eliminatingitssociety'straditionalreligiousfaiths(ineffect,its
competitorfaiths),andeach,wheninpower,ruthlesslyindifferentto
humandignityandbasichumanrights.

separatechurchandstatefortheprotectionandpropervitalityofboth:
AstheleadersandscholarswhoproducedTheWilliamsburgCharterput
itin1988,"thegovernmentactsasasafeguard,butnotthesource,of
freedomforfaiths,whereasthechurchesandsynagoguesactasasource,
butnotthesafeguard,offaithsforfreedom...Theresultisneithera
nakedpublicsquarewhereallreligionisexcluded,norasacredpublic
squarewithanyreligionestablishedorsemiestablished.Theresult,
rather,isacivilpublicsquareinwhichcitizensofallreligiousfaiths,or
none,engageoneanotherinthecontinuingdemocraticdiscourse."See
JamesDavisonHunterandOsGuinness(eds.),ArticlesofFaith,Articles
ofPeace:TheReligiousLibertyClausesandtheAmericanPublic
Philosophy(Washington,D.C.:TheBrookingsInstitution,1990),140.

moralcanopythatisnotofitsownmaking:ACalltoCivilSociety
(NewYork:InstituteforAmericanValues,1998):13.

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AJustWar?

middleofeveryhumanheart:seeAlexanderSolzhenitzyn,TheGulag
Archipelago,vol.I(NewYork:HarperandRow,1974),168.

diversereligiousandsecularmoraltraditions:SeeJeanBethkeElshtain
(ed.),JustWarTheory(Oxford:Blackwell,1992)Elshtain,Stanley
Hauerwas,andJamesTurnerJohnson,PewForumonReligionand
PublicLifeConferenceon"JustWarTraditionandtheNewWaron
Terrorism"(http://pewforum.org/events/1005/)JamesTurnerJohnson,
Ideology,Reason,andtheLimitationofWar:ReligiousandSecular
Concepts12001740(Princeton:PrincetonUniversityPress,1975)
Johnson,JustWarTraditionandtheRestraintofWar:AMoraland
HistoricalInquiry(Princeton:PrincetonUniversityPress,1981)
Johnson,TheQuestforPeace:ThreeMoralTraditionsinWestern
CulturalHistory(Princeton:PrincetonUniversityPress,1987)Johnson,
MoralityandContemporaryWarfare(NewHaven:YaleUniversity
Press,1999)JohnsonandJohnKelsay(eds.),Cross,Crescent,and
Sword:TheJustificationandLimitationofWarinWesternandIslamic
Tradition(NewYork:GreenwoodPress,1990)MajidKhadduri,War
andPeaceintheLawofIslam(Baltimore:JohnsHopkinsUniversity
Press,1955)JohnKelsayandJamesTurnerJohnson(eds.),JustWar
andJihad:HistoricalandTheoreticalPerspectivesonWarandPeacein
WesternandIslamicTradition(NewYork:GreenwoodPress,1991)
TerryNardin(ed.),TheEthicsofWarandPeace:ReligiousandSecular
Perspectives(Princeton:PrincetonUniversityPress,1996)WilliamV.
O'Brien,TheConductofWarandLimitedWar(NewYork:Praeger,
1981)RudolfPeters,JihadinClassicalandModernIslam(Princeton:
MarkusWiener,1996)PaulRamsey,SpeakUpforJustWarorPacifism
(UniversityPark,PA:PennsylvaniaStateUniversityPress,1988)
MichaelWalzer,JustandUnjustWars(NewYork:BasicBooks,1977)
andRichardWasserstrom(ed.),WarandMorality(Belmont,CA:
Wadsworth,1970).

attemptsatmoralanalysisirrelevant:TheLatinaxiomis:Interarma
silentleges(Intimesofwarthelawissilent).Classicalexemplarsofthis
perspectiveincludeThucydides,NiccoloMachiavelliandThomas
Hobbesforamorerecenttreatment,seeKennethWaltz,Man,theState
andWar(Princeton:PrincetonUniversityPress,1978).Forasensitive
butcriticalsurveyofthecontributionofthisschoolofthoughtto
internationaltheory,seeJackDonnelly,RealismandInternational
Relations(Cambridge:CambridgeUniversityPress,2000).

Wedisagree:Intellectualandmoralapproachestowarasahuman
phenomenoncangenerallybedividedintofourschoolsofthought.The
firstcanbecalledrealism:thebeliefthatwarisbasicallyamatterof
power,selfinterest,necessity,andsurvival,therebyrenderingabstract
moralanalysislargelybesidethepoint.Thesecondcanbecalledholy
war:thebeliefthatGodcanauthorizethecoercionandkillingof
nonbelievers,orthataparticularsecularideologyofultimateconcern
canauthorizethecoercionandkillingofnonbelievers.Thethirdcanbe
calledpacifism:thebeliefthatallwarisintrinsicallyimmoral.Andthe
fourthistypicallycalledjustwar:thebeliefthatuniversalmoral
reasoning,orwhatsomewouldcallnaturalmorallaw,canandshouldbe
appliedtotheactivityofwar.Thesignatoriestothisletterlargely
disagreewiththefirstschoolofthought.Weunequivocallyrejectthe
secondschoolofthought,regardlessoftheformittakes,orwhetherit
springsfromandpurportstosupportourownsociety("ourside")orthe
sideofthosewhowishusill.Someofthesignatorieshavemuchrespect
forthethirdschoolofthought(particularlyitsinsistencethatnon
violencedoesnotmeanretreatorpassivityordecliningtostandfor
justicequitetheopposite),evenaswerespectfully,andwithsome
degreeoffearandtrembling,differfromit.Asagroupweseeklargely
toembraceandbuilduponthefourthschoolofthought.

(echoingSocrates):Socrates'judgmentthatitisbettertosufferevil
ratherthantodoitisconveyedtousbyPlatointheApology(32cto
32e)andconstitutesakeymomentinmoralphilosophy.

mightplausiblybemitigatedsolelythrough...nonviolentmeans:Some
peoplesuggestthatthe"lastresort"requirementofjustwartheoryin
essence,therequirementtoexploreallotherreasonableandplausible

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alternativestotheuseofforceisnotsatisfieduntiltheresorttoarms
hasbeenapprovedbyarecognizedinternationalbody,suchasthe
UnitedNations.Thispropositionisproblematic.First,itisnovel
historically,approvalbyaninternationalbodyhasnotbeenviewedby
justwartheoristsasajustcauserequirement.Second,itisquite
debatablewhetheraninternationalbodysuchastheU.N.isinaposition
tobethebestfinaljudgeofwhen,andunderwhatconditions,a
particularresorttoarmsisjustifiedorwhethertheattemptbythatbody
tomakeandenforcesuchjudgmentswouldinevitablycompromiseits
primarymissionofhumanitarianwork.Accordingtooneobserver,a
formerU.N.AssistantSecretaryGeneral,transformingtheU.N.into"a
paleimitationofastate"inorderto"managetheuseofforce"
internationally"maywellbeasuicidalembrace."SeeGiandomenico
Picco,"TheU.N.andtheUseofForce,"ForeignAffairs73(1994):15.
SeealsoThomasG.Weis,DavidP.Forsythe,andRogerA.Coate,
UnitedNationsandChangingWorldPolitics(Boulder,CO:Westview
Press,2001),104106andJohnGerardRuggie,TheUnitedNationsand
theCollectiveUseofForce:Whither?OrWhether?(NewYork:United
NationsAssociationoftheUSA,1996).

Violencethatisfreelance...isnevermorallyacceptable:Injustwar
theory,themaingoalofthelegitimateauthorityrequirementisto
preventtheanarchyofprivatewarfareandwarlordsananarchythat
existstodayinsomepartsoftheworld,andofwhichtheattackersof
September11arerepresentativeembodiments.Thelegitimateauthority
requirementdoesnot,ontheotherhand,forseveralreasons,apply
clearlyordirectlytowarsofnationalindependenceorsuccession.First,
theselattertypesofconflictoccurwithinastate,notinternationally.
Moreover,inmanysuchconflicts,thequestionofpubliclegitimacyis
exactlywhatisbeingcontested.Forexample,inthewarfor
independencethatresultedinthefoundingoftheUnitedStates,justwar
analystsfrequentlypointoutthattherebellingcoloniesthemselves
constitutedalegitimatepublicauthority,andfurtherthatthecolonies
hadreasonablyconcludedthattheBritishgovernmenthad,inthewords
ofourDeclarationofIndependence,become"destructiveoftheseends"
oflegitimategovernment,andthereforeitselfhadceasedtofunctionasa
competentpublicauthority.Indeed,evenincasesinwhichthosewaging
wardonotinanyplainsenseconstituteacurrentlyfunctioningpublic
authorityforexample,the"WarsawGhettoUprising"ofPolishJewsin
1943againsttheNazioccupationthelegitimateauthorityrequirement
ofjustwartheorydoesnotmorallyinvalidatetheresorttoarmsbythose
resistingoppressionbyseekingtooverthrowillegitimateauthority.

otherjustwarprinciples:Forexample,justwarprinciplesofteninsist
thatlegitimatewarfaremustbemotivatedbytheintentionofenhancing
thelikelihoodofpeaceandreducingthelikelihoodofviolenceand
destructionthatitmustbeproportionate,suchthatthesocialgoodsthat
wouldresultfromvictoryinwardiscernablyoutweightheevilsthatwill
attendthewarthatitmustcontaintheprobabilityofsuccess,suchthat
livesarenottakenandsacrificedinfutilecausesandthatitmustpass
thetestofcomparativejustice,suchthatthehumangoodsbeing
defendedareimportantenough,andgravelyenoughindanger,to
outweighwhatmanyjustwartheoristsviewasthestandingmoral
presumptionagainstwar.Thisletterfocuseslargelyonprinciplesof
justiceindeclaringwar(intheterminologyemployedbymanyChristian
justwarthinkers,jusadbellum)andinwagingwar(jusinbello).Other
principlesfocusonjusticeinsettlingthewarandrestoringconditionsof
peace(juspostbellum).SeeJeanBethkeElshtain(ed.),JustWarTheory
(Oxford:Blackwell,1992)U.S.ConferenceofCatholicBishops,The
ChallengeofPeace:God'sPromiseandOurResponse(Washington,
D.C.:UnitedStatesCatholicConference,1983)andothersourcescited
above.

over3,000ofourcitizens:AsofJanuary4,2002,officialestimateswere
that3,119personshadbeenkilledbytheSeptember11attackers,
including2,895inNewYork,184inWashington,and40in
Pennsylvania.Althoughthisletterrefersto"ourcitizens,"included
amongthosemurderedonSeptember11weremanycitizensofother
countrieswhowerelivingintheU.S.atthetimeoftheattack."Dead
andMissing,"NewYorkTimes,January8,2002.

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usemurdertoadvanceitsobjectives:Inadditiontothemurdersof
September11,membersofradicalIslamicistorganizationsare
apparentlyresponsiblefor:theApril18,1983bombingoftheU.S.
EmbassyinBeirut,killing63personsandinjuring120theOctober23,
1983bombingsofU.S.MarineandFrenchparatroopbarracksinBeirut,
killing300personstheDecember21,1988bombingofU.S.PanAm
Flight103,killing259personstheFebruary26,1993bombingofthe
WorldTradeCenterinNewYorkCity,killingsixpersonsandinjuring
1000theJune25,1996bombingoutsidetheKhobarTowersU.S.
militarybarracksinDhahran,SaudiArabia,killing19U.S.soldiersand
wounding515theAugust7,1998bombingofU.S.embassiesin
Nairobi,Kenya,andDaresSalaam,Tanzania,killing224personsand
injuringmorethan5,000andtheOctober12,2000bombingoftheUSS
ColeinAden,Yemen,killing17U.S.sailorsandwounding39.Thislist
isincomplete.(SeeSignificantTerroristIncidents,19612001
(Washington,D.C.:U.S.DepartmentofState,BureauofPublicAffairs,
October31,2001).Inaddition,membersoforganizationscomprising
thismovementarealsoresponsiblefornumerousfailedattemptsatmass
murder,bothintheU.S.andinothercountries,includingtheattemptto
bombtheUnitedNationsandtheLincolnandHollandTunnelsinNew
Yorkin1993andtheattempttobombtheLosAngelesInternational
AirportonNewYear'sEve2000.

struggleinthepathofGod(i.e.,jihad)forbids:Therelationshipbetween
thejihadandjustwartraditionsiscomplex.Premodernjihadandjust
warperspectivesoverlappedinimportantways.Bothcouldlegitimate
warsaimedatadvancingreligion,andbothsoughtclearlytodisassociate
suchwarsfromwarsinvolvingindiscriminateordisproportionate
tactics.Inthemodernera,jihadhaslargelyretaineditsconfessional
componentthatis,itsaimofprotectingandpropagatingIslamasa
religion.Theconfessionaldimensionofjihadthinkinginturnseemsto
becloselylinkedtotheviewofthestatewidelyheldbyMuslim
authoritiesaviewthatenvisionslittleornoseparationofreligionfrom
thestate.Bycontrast,modernChristianthinkingonjustwarhastended
todownplayitsconfessionalelements(fewChristiantheologianstoday
emphasizethevalueof"crusade"),replacingthemwithmorereligiously
neutralargumentsabouthumanrightsandsharedmoralnorms,orwhat
someChristianandotherthinkersterm"naturalmorallaw."Some
Muslimscholarstodayseek,inthecaseofjihad,morefullytorecover
thesenseofthetermas"exertion"or"strivingforgood"intheserviceof
God,therebysimilarlydownplayingitsconfessionalelementsand
emphasizing,forourincreasinglypluralandinterdependentworld,the
term'smoreuniversaldimensionsandapplications.Forexample,see
SohailM.Hashmi,"InterpretingtheIslamicEthicsofWarandPeace,"
inTerryNardin(ed.),TheEthicsofWarandPeace:Religiousand
SecularPerspectives(Princeton,NJ:PrincetonUniversityPress,1996),
146166andHilmiZawati,IsJihadaJustWar?War,Peace,andHuman
RightsunderIslamicandPublicInternationalLaw(Lewiston,NY:
EdwinMellen,2001).

Muslimscholars...remindusforcefully:Forexample,Muslimscholars
affiliatedwiththeMuslimWorldLeague,meetinginMecca,recently
reaffirmedthatjihadstrictlyprohibits"thekillingofnoncombatants"
andattacksagainst"installations,sitesandbuildingsnotrelatedtothe
fighting."See"Muslimscholarsdefine'terrorism'asopposedto
legitimatejihad,"MiddleEastNewsOnline[www.middleeastwire.com],
postedJanuary14,2002.SeealsoBassamTibi,"WarandPeacein
Islam,"inTerryNardin(ed.),TheEthicsofWarandPeace:Religious
andSecularPerspectives(Princeton,NJ:PrincetonUniversityPress,
1996),128145.

devastationonitsintendedtargets:ThehistorianEricHobsbawm,inhis
studyofthe20thcentury,publishedin1995,warnsusinparticular,as
weconfrontthenewmillennium,oftheemergingcrisisof"nonstate
terrorism,"madepossiblebythegrowing"privatizationofthemeansof
destruction,"suchthatorganizedgroups,operatingatleasttosome
degreeindependentlyofpublicauthorities,areincreasinglywillingand
abletoperpetrate"violenceandwreckageanywhereontheglobe."Eric
Hobsbawm,AgeofExtremes:TheShortTwentiethCentury19141991
(London:Abacus,1995),560.

Conclusion

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butfriends.Wemustnotbeenemies:FromAbrahamLincoln,First
InauguralAddress,March1861.

(c)February2002,InstituteforAmericanValuesWebsite:
www.americanvalues.org

2002TheWashingtonPostCompany

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