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Geometry had played an integral part in the development of warfare: from troop
formation, map-making, fortress building to weaponry. This project will aim to
illuminate how useful geometry was in the art of war. It will start from the earlier
war periods of 1500s to 1800s to modern times, 20th century and beyond. The
main topics we will be covering are fortresses, weaponry and troop formation.
We have learnt much from creating this project and it is our hope that you will
find new and interesting discoveries as you turn through the pages of our work,
just as we have!
In the late 15 and 16th centuries, Mathematicians found an outlet for Geometry
through development in gunnery. When the cannon was in its early conception
period and when a heavy gun in a single metal casting was produced,
mathematician harness this phenomenon into the development of weaponry that
was longer and capable of more accurate fire. In the 16th century, the cannon
came to be used in large numbers and was critical for military victory. At the
same time, instruments were developed in order to harness the capabilities of the
new weaponry. Instruments were made to measure both the inclination of the
barrel and distance to the target. Hence, geometers which related these two
variables were created. Other instruments were also used to harness the
capabilities of the new weaponry. One might be surprised to find out that the
telescope one of the most symbolic instruments of science was originally
introduced as an instrument of war.
Interesting Stuffs in Store
Table of Contents
-----Introduction----
The of Weaponry
Formation
--Conclusion--
The Geometry of Fortification
Fortification in Olden Times
The History of the art and science of fortification stretches for a period of four
centuries, from approximately 1490 to 1890. It has thus seen a lot of changes
through the Renaissance period to the modern twentieth century. The
Renaissance period was the golden
age of fortification. During these 400
years, fortification achieved the stature
of art and science. Fortifications most
striking achievement was the
construction of many impressive
fortresses found all over the world. In
the twentieth century, technology has
overtaken the art of military
Forts: From the center of everything
fortification; while fortification may be
considered irrelevant today, it does not negate the intelligence and sheer effort
that went into its construction.
During the 15th century, a revolution in the development of arms, in the form of
the canon made it necessary for fortifications and fortresses to be made stronger
and harder to be breached. The original medieval castle walls were high and
constructed to prevent the scaling of the curtain---the castle wall, by means of
ladders. However with the new developments in artillery, the high walls were
easy targets and simply shattered under the accuracy and strength of the
cannon. This necessitated a change in the design of fortifications. Eventually, the
Italian engineers rejected outright the circular walls of medieval times and came
up with the angle bastion---a four-sided projection at the corner of the curtain.
These functioned as flanking points where the defensive could open fire at
attacking forces attempting to breach the curtain. At the same time, the departure
from the circular walls of medieval times also eliminated the problem of dead
ground that could not be covered by flanking fire and which had formerly
provided opportunity for the scaling of castle walls. The picture below shows the
cross-sectional structure of a typical fortress in olden times. Note the square
shape of the buildings.
By the end of the 16th Century, the system of fortification was quite well
developed. Its practitioners were prominent architects, engineers and a few
soldiers. At this time, new elements were added to the bastion design. Outworks,
defenses located near the castle walls but behind the
enclosing ditch were developed. A ravelin, a free-
standing triangular outwork equidistant between the
bastions, was situated almost as an island in the moat
in front of the curtain. The ravelin was designed to
protect the curtain as a whole, and to produce crossfire
over the ground in front of the neighboring bastions. If
A Star Fort
an attacker captured the ravelin, he would find himself
isolated in the middle of the ditch, and in the midst of vicious flanking fire. With a
defensive fortification structured in this way, towns within fortress walls were
rebuilt so that their streets radiated out from the town center to each bastion, and
extended along the walls. This facilitated transportation of cannon and
ammunitions from one defensive point to another during period of siege. The final
shape of the new defensive structures resembled a star, and for this reason they
were known as star forts.
4. Gunners Calipers
This English instrument clasps a shot between its two
brass arcs rather than taking
dimensions with points at the end of
curved or straight legs. The arcs are
hinged to pass freely over each other
so that, when clasped around a ball,
the inside edge of each arc intersects a graduated
scale on the other.
5. Surveying and Gunnery Instrument
This instrument is very close to the design of Zubiers geometrical
gunnery instrument. It differs principally in having shorter side legs, so
that it cannot be used as a pair of large dividers or calipers. The joint
linking the side and central legs is also different: whereas
Zubier shows all three limbs mounted together on the
same axis and in this instrument, the two side legs are
held in place by blued-steel spring blades. The central
leg carries a double scale of polygons and a scale of
degrees. As in Zubiers depiction, there is a compass at its end, but in this
case, it is provided with a string-gnomon dial for about 48o latitude.
7. Gunners sight
An unusual long gunners sight graduated to 9.5 inches enables a gun
to be set to a high elevation. The instruments portability was greatly
enhanced by separating into two parts; the upper part is held in place by a
spring catch. The sight is attached at the side of a sliding cursor. The shot
projection on the underside of the stand enables alignment with the
centerline of the guns barrel.
8. Gunnery Instrument
This instrument combines three distinct devices, which are the gunners
quadrant, a sight and a gauging rod. The quadrant,
when seen stripped with other components such as
the stand and sight, is of disarming simplicity. Its
plumb bob and line are set against an arc graduated
in points rather than degrees, and its long leg would
have been inserted into a guns muzzle in use. Two
small sights attached to the side of this long leg
enable the quadrant to be used for more general
observations. The leg also carries the standard gauge
scales for determining the weight of iron, lead and stone shot.
The quadrant is turned upside down and made to serve as no more than a
frame, to which the stand and sight attachments are screwed to transform
the instrument into a sight that can be placed on the breech of a gun. The
quadrant and sight share no common structural features but their
combination creates an impressive and elaborate spectacle.
9. Surveyors Quadrant
This quadrant designed by Lusverg is a model of discreet restraint in
comparison. Nevertheless, its prospects for active
military service were probably no higher. The
upper face of this instrument is marked out for a
surveyor, with folding sights and a quadrant.
However, in the otherwise blank space alongside
the ball and socket joint on the underside, there is
a circular scale of points marked Pro Eleuatione Bombardae. A plumb
bob and line are attached through a hole pierced directly through the plate
of the instrument to measure the elevation of an artillery piece.
10. Gunners Level and Gauge
The long leg of this instrument enables it to be placed in the barrel of a
gun to read elevations against a scale of degrees from 45-0-45. The rigid
16. Circumferentor
Circumferentors were certainly more commonly
used than something so complicated as the
altazimuth theodolite. This instrument could be
used to plant barrels of powder, direct under
Castles, Forts or such like, according to Hopton.
The instrument too has been generally associated with mining, since the
magnetic needle could be used for orientation underground where no
other sights were possible.
Artillery
During the ancient time the artilleries fired to the direct target by pointing the
canon to the target. At the beginning of the 20th century it became indirect fire
system (Howitzers).Optical instruments attached to the system and the aiming
range extended far from the visibility. This kind of systems developed and used
during the World WarI period and
British Howitzer in 1914
its capabilities have been
enhanced over the years. The
range is changed by using
different amount of gun powders
in propelling charge (cartridge).
Many versions of artilleries were
developed during the World Wars
and they were used for special purposes. Artillery became a mobile fire power.
Early day communication helped this to be effective.
The above figure illustrates how the artilleries were maneuvered during the WWII
When the target was not in the same level the angle of sight (elevation angle) is
measured and the range, along the line connecting target and the firing position,
is obtained using trigonometry. Angle to fire and the velocity of firing (muzzle
speed) can be calculated for the obtained range. According to the muzzle speed
the cartridge is selected. (Table that had the details about values is used by the
soldiers).In some cases speed of the wind also considered.
Machineguns
Machine gun was invented in 1884. It can fire large number of shots in a few
fraction of time. Usually a machine gun is positioned in a tripod and fired. The
1914 machine guns were able to fire 400 to 600 small caliber rounds per minute
and was the main killer and accounted many deaths and casualties. Three types
pf machine guns were used in World War II.
Light machine guns are usually used as offensive weapons against personnel.
They are mobile and can be carried by a squad during an attack. The come
equipped with bipods and were generally magazine fed and are air cooled.
Heavy machine guns were support weapons that had great range and
penetration but were difficult to move and unwieldy. Heavy machine guns are
primarily used for anti-aircraft.
Early modern warships were developed during the world wars. They used
machine guns and different types of cannons (Artilleries). Present days these
ships fires computer guided missiles called cruise missiles.
Optical Instruments
Binoculars and cameras used for reconnaissance purpose. Aerial photos of
enemy areas took by the cameras fitted on the
airplanes. Geometrical optics used in the
development of these equipments. Infrared
technology has enabled the modern (present)
binoculars to view in night time.
The above is actually a camera can shoot many photos in quick successions.
Japanese used this to practice for the targeting in machine guns.
World War 1
World War II
The main features of the modern warfare are aircrafts, submarines, aircraft
carriers, tanks, artilleries, machine guns and communication. Starting from the
world war period, the war technology has gone through an unimaginable
development process. During the past two decades the war has gained a new
dimension because of the rapid advancement in technology. War has become
electronically controlled. Nowadays cruise missiles are guided till they find the
target. The new technology has enhanced the traditional art of war. Thus, the
modern warfare is talked more in technology terms rather than in geometrical
terms.
The Mathematics of Troop Formation
Ordering of Soldiers
Formations which take wedge or arrowhead shapes tend to be much better for
attacking than defending. It works just like an actual wedge - a pointed object is
much better for penetrating a surface than a blunt object, because it tends to
spread that surface apart. Thus, the men in a wedge formation will tend to push
the enemy apart and break them up, and the enemy loses the advantage of their
defensive formations.
Certain formations are more mobile than others. Soldiers can turn and re-position
faster without breaking apart. This is important. Any division could be as mobile
as any other if all the soldiers break formation and just run from one spot to the
next. Of course, this means they are very vulnerable while they are traveling, so
instead, a division will try to hold formation as it moves. Because of this, it may
not be as agile as it otherwise could be.
It also came within the bounds of William Oughtred's account of the manifold
calculating uses of his 'circles of proportion'. The instrument consisted of a series
of concentric logarithmic scales operated with rotating indices, and was in effect
a form of slide rule.
Ought red provided some numerical examples on the calculation of troop
formations amongst material that dealt with arithmetic, geometrical problems of
plane and solid measurement, gauging, astronomy and trigonometry. He
pretended to no great military expertise but included his treatment principally as
an exercise in the use of his instrument.
The Roman army was divided equally into 4 quarters. Each quarter was called a
legion, and was usually made up of 4200 men divided into companies known as
cohorts. A cohort usually consists of 600 men. In desperate situations, the size
of the legion could swell to 5000 men. Each legion was designed to be a team
that had its own commanders. Tightly organized and well trained, the Roman
legion had a simplicity that concealed its innovation and true power.
The Phalanx had to meet its enemy with enough momentum to move forward,
but it also had to maintain order within the ranks so as not to leave gaps between
columns. A gap in the chain of infantrymen could be fatal if exploited. As a result,
the best troops were placed at the front and back of the Phalanx. The phalanx
continued its tactical supremacy for many centuries. Later, it was rendered
obsolete by the professional and perfectionist soldiers in the Roman legions.
Light Cavalry - A version of cavalry which included Skythians and others who
carried a bow and arrows instead of or as well as the spears. They did not wear
armour at all so did not try to come to close combat like heavy cavalry. They
would shoot with javelins or bows and run away from the enemy. When an
enemy was sufficiently weakened by the shooting, then the light cavalry MIGHT
attempt to finish off their victims. Moved very fast as they did not need to keep a
tight formation like heavy cavalry nor carried the same amount of equipment.
Heavy Infantry - Armoured foot soldiers whose main purpose was to fight hand
to hand combat using a close combat weapon such as a spear or sword. Hoplites
were heavy infantry and their long spear gave them reach and weight of thrust vs
their opponents. Heavy infantry almost always carried a shield for further
protection. Immortals had a shorter spear, less protective armour (not so much
metal), bow and arrow and a wicker shield designed to catch arrows shot at them
to shoot back. Heavy infantry was usually the nations best soldier. In Greece, this
meant the well-off classes and higher who could afford their own equipment. In
Persia, it meant the kings bodyguard and his best troops.
Generally, they moved quite slowly although Hoplites were slowest of all heavy
infantry (except at Marathon!). Generally, they were also well trained although
hoplites were by far better trained than Immortals.
Light Infantry - Infantry who did not wear armour but made up for this by slightly
faster movement. They often fought in tight formations just like the heavy infantry
but not always. Sometimes could move over rougher ground than the heavy
infantry due to looser formation. In the Persian army, they usually fought with
javelins and bows. They were usually the foreign contingents from all over the
empire. If they had a shield, it was the wicker type or just light and small. In a
Greek army, this might mean mercenaries who fought like hoplites but could not
afford their own armour. They were for fighting hand to hand. They were trained
at least to stay in basic formations.
Skirmishers - Also known as Psiloi in the Greek army. Psiloi were usually javelin
throwers or bow men who shot and ran. Did not fight in any precise formation
and were not equipped to fight hand to hand. They acted like the light cavalry -
weaken an enemy by shooting. They were capable of running and operating
over difficult ground such as marshes etc. Persians had plenty of these as well
as the Greeks. In the Persian army, this might have been a very large number as
it required almost no serious training. Generally untrained or not very much!
Indian history has always been a very hot topic of discussion. One of the most
popular and the oldest such history is the story of Mahabharata tells the story of
two sets of Paternal first cousins--the five sons of the deceased king Pandu
[pronounced PAAN-doo]
(The five Pandavas [said as PAAN-da-va-s]) and the one hundred sons of blind
King Dhritarashtra [Dhri-ta-RAASH-tra] (the 100 hundred Dhartarashtras [Dhaar-
ta-RAASH-tras])--who became bitter rivals, and opposed each other in war for
possession of the ancestral Bharata [BHAR-a-ta] kingdom with its capital in the
"City of the Elephant,"
Mahabharatha there were only two people in the pandavas who could actually do
this. Arjuna an expert in bows and arrows and his son abimanyu were those. A
very schematic picture of this is shown below.
The old notion of fighting in large square battle formations, which remained
relatively unchanged since ancient Greek times, was shown to be outdated and
inefficient by Gustavus Adolphus's brilliant strategy during the war. The large
squares, also known as tercios, were used because a lot of troops can be
concentrated in one large area.
This was not a very efficient way of using available manpower. One of the
biggest drawbacks of the tercios was that it relied on the troops at the front to do
most of the actual fighting while those in the middle and back were left out. In
addition, because of its large size it was difficult to maneuver. Adolphus
organized his troops in linear formation of 6 soldiers wide. This allowed all the
soldiers to be involved in actual fighting and made the formations much easier to
maneuver.
A formation in which elements are placed one behind the other. This formation
helps to conceal the number of units in a convoy. The enemy can look at the
tracks left by a squad to estimate how many units it is up against. Take 12 trucks
for example, the trucks may travel in columns of 4 or 6. Thus, there will only be 2
or 3 columns. As a result, the enemy may have a hard time tracking the number
of units. It leaves the entire convoy vulnerable to aircraft or mortar fire. For
example, an assault on the convoy can concentrate their attack down the center
of the column and inflict damage to every unit.
A formation in which elements are placed to each side of a central unit, extending
outward and behind refers to the central unit itself. The wedge formation is good
for approaching a battle and offers defense to the convoy, aiding in the
prevention of being flanked to either side. It is best used by infantry or armored
units when traveling between mountains or within wooded areas, where the
threat of being ambushed or flanked is higher. It lacks in the firepower
concentration on specific targets and this formation cannot conceal the number
of units in the convoy.
Websites:
http://www.mhs.ox.ac.uk/geometry
www.mahabhrata.com.
http://www.htansw.asn.au/teach/ancienthistorydocs/anc_trooptypes.doc
http://www.members.cts.com/funtv/j/jjartist/Armydesc.html
http://www.pvv.ntnu.no/~madsb/home/war/romanarmy/romanarmy00.php3
http://members.tripod.com/~nigelef/index.htm
http://www.spartacus.schoolnet.co.uk/
http://www.jodavidsmeyer.com/combat/military/weapons-machine-
guns.html
http://www.firstworldwar.com/
www.cmp.ucr.edu/cameras/ Machine_Gun_Camera.html
http://www.mhs.ox.ac.uk/geometry/essay.htm
Book References:
A R T I L L E R Y
By the time of the Civil War, technology has advanced the big guns very little
since the Napoleon times. Although there were a wide variety of designs, all but
a few operated on the same principle of the first artillery pieces centuries before.
A hollow tube was open at one end and closed at the
other. A bag of black powder was rammed into the
muzzle, the open end, and shoved to the back of the
tube. The projectile was pushed in after it. The piece was
simply detonated either by the old-fashioned method of
applying a flame or lit fuse to a touchhole at the
breech, or, more often, a copper priming fuse
was inserted into the vent, and its spark set off
by jerking a friction primer. The solid shot,
literally a round ball of iron, and of little effect
except when it hit an opposing artillery piece.
Other loads were designed to be more effective as anti-personnel weapons. The
shell, either round or occasionally, cylindroconoidal, was hollow inside and
contained a powder charge. The spherical case shot was more effective. Again,
a hollow round ball containing up to 78 lead musket balls and an exploding
charge made up the shell. When it went off in the midst of a line of soldiers, this
could be deadly, though many of the balls flew straight up into the air and others
straight down into the ground, doing nothing, while of the rest, only those at the
forward and sides of the moving ball had any chance of killing or injuring.
Grapeshot, large iron balls two inches in diameter and arranged in stands of a
dozen or more, was not much used in the Civil War, but a cousin called canister
was the most damaging of all artillery loads. Gunners would ram down a tin can
filled with 27 cast iron balls used
against attacking infantry when within
300 yards or less. On being fired, it
turned the cannon into a huge
shotgun. The artillery of both sides in
the war was dominated by a basic
fieldpiece design little changed from
the time of Napoleon. Mush larger smoothbores, monsters with bores up to 20
inches and more in diameter, and capable of firing projectiles weighing more than
half a ton, were built for seacoast defense in the North and to protect large
stationary fortifications.
Smoothbore was capable of hurling a ball nearly five miles out to sea! However,
the mortars were more often used instead of the smoothbores. These mortars
had specific purposes and they were designed to sit low to the ground, and to fire
a heavy exploding ball high up into the air in an
arching trajectory that could take it over and behind
earthworks or masonry fortifications, to explode in
their rear. Very few were actually being used with field
armies for they were of no use in conventional battles.
The 3-inch ordnance rifle came to be the favored
piece. Its 3-inch bore, with deep rifling groves, imparted a spin to its elongated
shells that gave them greatly increased range and accuracy. Maximum efficiency
was achieved from the powder charge. The presence of a wrought iron band
around the breech help reinforced the ten-pounder cast iron tube for large loads.
Armstrong designed a powerful hollow
screw for the breech of his gun. It
allowed a solid breechblock to be
removed, the projectile and charge
shoved in, and the breechblock
replaced. Unfortunately, the breechloaders proved to be temperamental and only
a few were ever used.
INTERNAL MACHINES
Many new kinds of exploding shells designed by artillerists were aimed to set
ablaze fortifications. Others tried joining two solid shot with a length of chain,
expecting that upon firing the balls would stretch the chain, starting spinning, and
thus mowing their way trough infantry. At least one double-barreled fieldpiece
was tried, expected to fire each tube simultaneously and send solid shot by
chain, though the foe. All such efforts failed, one observer noting that when the
double-barreled cannon was test fired, it plowed up a field, knocked over a
couple of saplings, and the balls broke apart.
Not long, the Confederates experimented with
a rapid-fire, large-bore cannon called the
Williams Machine Gun, which theoretically
could fire more than sixty 1.57 caliber balls per
minute. A gunner operated the crank that
opened the breechblock, and cocked a hammer, while another man inserted the
paper-wrapped cartridge and capped a nipple. Closing the crank closed the block
and tripped the hammer. Few were actually being used, and they proved to be
temperamental. Much more efficient was the Agar machine Gun, which looked
for the entire world like a crank operated coffee
mill. It could shoot 120.58 bullets per minute.
The most practical design came along too late
for wide use in the war, and it is just as well for
the men who would have had to face it. The
Gatling Gun was first patented in 1862. It had 6 barrels mounted to make a
hollow cylinder. Turning a
crank rotated the barrels, and as each one came in line, the crank fed a cartridge
from a hopper into the breech of the barrel and fired it. The government failed to
adopt it back then. Not until 1865, and a new model, were all the imperfections
worked out, at which time the Gatling became a truly devastating killing machine.
Fortunately, the war was over then.
Confederate engineers also experimented with land mines, called torpedoes.
The use of such weapons was controversial, but then in a war in which
technology was just as much a combatant as the armies themselves, almost
anything could be deemed legitimate. Even exploding bullets were attempted,