2013/01/25

EBN 111/122
ELECTRICITY AND ELECTRONICS

Chapter 9
Sinusoidal Steady-State
Analysis

Sinusoids and Phasor

Chapter 9

9.1 Motivation
9.2 Sinusoids features
9.3 Phasors
9.4 Phasor relationships for circuit elements
9.5 Impedance and admittance
9.6 Kirchhoffs laws in the frequency domain
9.7 Impedance combinations

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9.1 Motivation
AC = Alternating Current (Alternates between +and )
Vast majority of Power Networks are AC networks because:
AC allows for easy stepping up and down of voltages
which allows for efficient transfer of energy over long
distances.

9.1 Motivation
How does one analyse an AC circuit?
R C
Method #1: i
Time domain Vs
L
KVL:
     0 = 10cos4t
1  

10 cos 4

   0
  
Eliminate by  :



  40 sin 4  0
   
2nd order differential equation with solutions:

  ! "#$ 4 ! %   % cos 4 %

   cos 4     cos 4 
4
 

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9.1 Motivation
How does one analyse an AC circuit?
Method #2: ZR = R ZC = 1/jC
&
Frequency or = R 0 = '%
90
Phasor domain
I
KVL:

 )  %   0 Vs ZL = jL
= 90
) *+ *+% *+  0
= 100


1

10 *  ,-  0
,-
10 100
*   ! !
1 1
 ,- ,- 0 -
90 90

!
  ! cos - ! 5

9.2 Sinusoids
A sinusoid is a signal that has the form of the sine or cosine
function.
A general expression for the sinusoid:

   / sin -
where
Vm = the amplitude of the sinusoid
= the angular frequency in radians/s
t = time in seconds
t =argument of the sinusoid in radians
= the phase in radians or degrees

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9.2 Sinusoids
V vs Time (not t)

T = period [s]
At t = T: -0  22 :

22
0
-
&
  frequency in [Hz]
5

-  22 [rad/s] 7

9.2 Sinusoids
Radians vs Degrees

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http://www.rkm.com.au/ANIMATIONS/animation-sine-wave.html

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9.2 Sinusoids
Radians vs Degrees

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http://www.rkm.com.au/ANIMATIONS/animation-sine-wave.html

9.2 Sinusoids
Radians Degrees

360  22 rad
180  2 rad

Conversion factors:
>
degrad: < = &?@  A rad

&?@
raddeg: A rad =  <
>

10

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9.2 Sinusoids
Phase Angle [rad or ]
v(t) = Vmsin(t+)
=0
t v(t) = 0 if t+ = 0
2 But = 0 t = 0
180 360 v(t) = 0 when t = 0
v(t) = 0 if t+ = 0
>0 t =
t But > 0 t = negative
2
v(t) = 0 when t < 0
0-x moves to left
v(t) = 0 if t+ = 0
<0 t =
t But < 0 t = positive
2
v(t) = 0 when t > 0
0-x moves to right
11

9.2 Sinusoids
Trigonometric identities: Special Cases

b=
sin - B 180 
sin -
= cos(t 90)
sin(t)

cos - B 180 
cos - t

/2 2

b = /2
sin - B 90  B cos -
= sin (t+90)
cos(t)

cos - B 90  sin -
/2 2
t

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9.2 Sinusoids
Graphical approach
A Phasor is a complex number that represents
the amplitude and phase of a COSINE function.
90

= sin(t + 90)

Asin()

0 = cos(t 90)
Acos()
-90
: Counter Clockwise
= positive phase shift

: Clockwise
= negative phase shift 13

9.2 Sinusoids
Graphical approach: Example
90

cos(t + 90)
cos(t 90 + 180)
sin(t + 180)
- sin(t)
cos(t 270)
cos(t 90 180)
sin(t 180)
- sin(t)
270
0
30

cos(t 30)
cos(t 90 + 60)
-90 sin(t + 60) 14

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PP 9.1
For f(t) = 5 sin (4t 60) , determine:
Amplitude; Phase; Angular frequency, Period and Frequency.

Amplitude

Phase

Angular frequency

Frequency

Period

15

PP 9.2
Determine the phase angle between i1 = -4sin(377t + 25) and
i2 = 5 cos(377t 40).
90
i1
Analytical: -4sin(377t)
i1 = -4sin(377t + 25) 25 = 4sin(377t + 180)
= 4sin(377t + 25 180) = 25 + 90 + 40
= 4sin(377t 155) = 155
= 4sin(377t + 90 245)
= 4cos(377t 245) 0
= 4cos(377t + 115) (245+360=115 < 180) 40

Hence:
= 1 2 i1 leads i2 by 155 !!!
= 115 (-40 ) i2
= 155 4sin(377t)
(Always give angle < 180)
-90 16

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9.2 Sinusoids
Graphical approach: Which one leads?
i1 Always look at angle < 180)
Remember: = positive
0
Vectors rotate counter clockwise,
i1 leads i2
so ask yourself: Which one passes 0 first?
i2

i2 i1
i2
0 0

i2 leads i1 i2 leads i1
i1
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Ch. 9 L#2
9.3 Phasors
A phasor is a complex number that represents the amplitude and
phase of a sinusoid (COSINE).
Complex Numbers:
z = x + jy
Complex Number Real part Imaginary part
Three different forms of writing:
a. Rectangular: E  F ,G  H cos , sin
b. Polar: E  H (r = magnitude of z)

c. Exponential: E  HI J

r= x2 + y2
where y
= tan 1 18
x

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9.3 Phasors
On the complex plane
3 Im
z = 3 + j2 z = x + jy
2
= rcos + j rsin
1 y = r sin() = r(cos + j sin)
0
Re = re j
-4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4
= r
-1

x =r cos()
-2 Eulers identity: e j = cos jsin
-3

A complex number consists out of:

A Real part (x) and Imaginary part (y):
z = x + jy
OR
A Magnitude (r) and a phase ():
z = r = re j 19

9.3 Phasors
On the complex plane
Imaginary axis

j = 190

Real axis
-1 1
= 1180 = 10

1  ,
-j = 1-90
1 1
  1
90 
,
, 190

1 ,  245

1
,  2
45 20

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9.3 Phasors
Arithmetic (1)
Assume: z = x + jy = r
z1 = x1 + jy1 = r11
z2 = x2 + jy2 = r22
Addition (+): MUST WORK IN RECTANGULAR FORMAT
z1 + z2 = x1 + jy1 + x2 + jy2
= (x1 + x2) + j(y1 + y2)

Subtraction (): MUST WORK IN RECTANGULAR FORMAT

z1 z2 = (x1 x2) + j(y1 y2)

Multiplication (): WORK IN POLAR FORMAT

z1 z2 = r11r22 = r1r2(1+2)

= H1I J& H2I J  H1 H2I J&M

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9.3 Phasors
Arithmetic (2)
Division(): WORK IN POLAR FORMAT
E& H& I J& H& J N H& 1 H&
  I &   1
2
E H I J H H 2 H

Root ( ): E  H2

& 1 1 1
Inverse :   

P E H H

Conjugate z*: E  F ,G  F
,G

 H
 I NJ
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9.3 Phasors
AC signal as a Phasor
Eulers identity: e j = cos j sin
I I J  cos
*R I J  sin

   / cos -  I / I J 'M

 I / I J I J'
 I SI J'
I J'  cos - , sin -
S  T  / I J  /
 / cos ,/ sin
 F ,G

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9.3 Phasors
AC signal as a Phasor
I SI J'
I J'  cos - , sin -:
A rotating phasor @ rad/s

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http://www.rkm.com.au/ANIMATIONS/animation-sine-wave.html

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9.3 Phasors
Transformations
Transform a sinusoid to and from the time
domain to the phasor domain:

v(t ) = Vm cos(t + ) V = Vm
(time domain) (phasor domain)
Amplitude and phase difference are two
principal concerns in the study of voltage and
current sinusoids.
Phasor will be defined from the cosine function
in all our proceeding study. If a voltage or
current expression is in the form of a sine, it will
be changed to a cosine by subtracting from the
phase. 25

9.3 Phasors
Sinusoid-phasor Transformation

V
vdt j
dv    / cos -
dt   
j V
 I / I JI J'
 

 I / I J I J'

 I  I J ,- I J'
/

S,- 26

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PP 9.3
Evaluate the following complex numbers:
a) 5 ,2
1 ,4
560 *

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PP 9.3
Evaluate the following
complex numbers:
b)

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PP 9.4
Express these sinusoids as phasors:
a)   7 cos 2 40 V

X

b)

4 sin 10 10 A

[ 

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PP 9.5
Find the sinusoids corresponding to these phasors:
a)X 
1030 V



b) [  , 5
,12 A

30

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Ch. 9 L#3
9.4 Phasors and Circuit Elements
Resistor: Inductor: Capacitor:

V & I in phase

V leads I I leads V
I lags V V lags I

CIVIL 31

9.4 Phasors and Circuit Elements

Voltage-Current Relationship

Summary of voltage-current relationship

Element Time domain Frequency domain

R
v = Ri V = RI

L v=L
di
V = jLI
dt
C i=C
dv V =
I
dt jC

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9.5 Impedance and Admittance

The impedance Z of a circuit is the ratio of the phasor

voltage V to the phasor current I, measured in ohms .
V
Z= = R + jX
I
where R = Re of Z = the resistance and X = Im of Z = the
reactance. Positive X is for L and negative X is for C.

The admittance Y is the reciprocal of impedance,

measured in siemens (S).
1 I
Y = =
Z V
33

9.5 Impedance and Admittance

Impedances and admittances of passive elements

Element Impedance Admittance
R 1
Z=R Y=
R
L 1
Z = jL Y=
jL
C 1
Z = Y = j C
j C

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9.5 Impedance and Admittance

Remember: = 2f
= 0; Z = 0

Z = jL ; Z
f = 0 DC ZL = 0 Short Circuit
f = high AC ZL = Open Circuit

= 0; Z

1 ; Z = 0
Z=
j C
f = 0 DC ZC = Open Circuit
f = high AC ZC = 0 Short Circuit
35

9.5 Impedance and Admittance

\   ,-   ,] ]  -
Impedance Resistance Reactance

1 1 1
\ 
,   ,]% ]% 

,- - -
\   ,]  +
] Im
X = Z sin

\    ]  <  tanN&

Z
jX Z
1
`   a ,b

\
R = Z cos

Admittance Conductance Susceptance R Re 36

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9.5 Impedance and Admittance

After we know how to convert RLC components

from time to phasor domain, we can transform
a time domain circuit into a phasor/frequency
domain circuit.
Hence, we can apply the KCL laws and other
theorems to directly set up phasor equations
involving our target variable(s) for solving.

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PP 9.8
If voltage v = 10 cos(100t + 30) V is applied to a 50 F capacitor,
calculate the current through the capacitor.
Step 1: Convert from time to phasor domain
v = 10 cos(100t + 30) V = 1030 V
Z = jXC = j(-1/C) = j/(100 5010-6)
= j200
= 200 90

Step 2: Apply usual Laws and Theorems

I = V / Z = 1030 / 200 90
= 50 (30 (90)) mA
= 50 120 mA

Step 3: Convert from phasor to time domain

i(t)= 50 cos(100t +120) mA
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PP 9.9
Determine v(t) and i(t).

Step 1: Convert from time to phasor domain

vs = 20 sin(10t + 30) = 20 cos(10t 60)
Vs = 2060 V
Z = R + jXL = R + jL

Step 2: Apply usual Laws and Theorems

I=V/Z=
=
VL = IZL =
=

Step 3: Convert from phasor to time domain

i(t)= 39
vL(t)=

AC Circuit analysis
Laws and Theorems

KVL: V + V1 + V2 = 0 KCL: I = I1 + I2
V = IZ1 + IZ2
c c
Z in series: ZT = Z1 + Z2 Z in //: Z// = c dMce
d e

ce
Voltage division: &   c
cd Current division: *&  * c
d Mce d Mce
40

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AC Circuit analysis
-Y

For a BALANCED load:

Z = 3ZY

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PP 9.10
Determine the input impedance of the circuit at = 10 rad/s
ZC1 = jXC1 = j(-1/C1)
= j/(10 0.510-3)
=
=

ZL = jXL jL = j(10 8) j200 j80

= 200 90 8090
=

ZC2 = jXC2 = j(-1/C2) j100

= 100 90

=
=

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PP 9.10 - continued
Determine the input impedance j200 j80
200 90 8090

j100
Z// = ZC2 // (ZL + 200) 100 90

= 100 90 // ( 200 + j80)

=

Zin = Z// + ZC1 + 80

=

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