Portal Frame Vs Other Frame PDF

Untitled Document http://www.ab.deakin.edu.au/online/vgallery/2004/srt251/team22/Hom...
Frame Construction
Steel Frames Bracing Timber Frames
Comparrison of Portal Framing Systems Fly Bracing The Advantages and Disadvantages of a Timber Frame
Comparison of Truss vs. Portal Frames Roof Bracing
Portal frames Advantages Disadvantages Haunching
Roofpitch Stiffening Plates
Purlins and Girts
Entrances
Consideration for structures during construction
Connections Conclusion References
INTRODUCTION TO FRAMES
When designing the frame for both the warehouse and showroom it is important to consider
the strength of the frame against Dead Loads (the load of the structure) and Live Loads (loads
imposed on the building such as wind). These considerations must take into account the
fundamentals of cost and aesthetics (more so in the showroom).
STEEL FRAMES Top
The use of steel in a frame has some clear advantages and disadvantages as a material to
work with. One of steels greatest advantages is that steel has a 'quality control', meaning the
steel you receive is of a certain standard that has little variables, unlike a peace of wood
which has impurities such as knots and cracks in it which will weaken it. And unlike wood steel
has a low creep level.
Steels spanning capacity is also impressive, as is the speed that a steel construction can be
erected (according to BHP, about 20% faster than most other constructions), as members can
be prefabricated off site and then connected quickly on site, allowing construction to be
largely unhindered by weather.
Steel also has some disadvantages. Structurally, steel will fail when engulfed in a fire much
faster than if it was a solid wooden frame. The cost of a steel frame is also increased due to
factors such as the necessity of skilled labor to erect the structure, corrosion treatment of
metal and a high degree of effort needed to change errors.
Environmentally steel has a high-embodied energy and is mined and processed with a
detrimental effect to the environment, however steel is recyclable as structures are largely
bolted together enabling them to be simply unbolted and put back together in another
location.
Comparrison of Portal Framing Systems Top
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Comparison of Truss vs. Portal Frames Top
Portal frames Advantages Disadvantages Top
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Roof pitch Top
The roof pitch of a portal frame should be kept to a minimum to reduce the horizontal forces
acting on the columns of the structure. As the pitch of the roof is increased, so too do the
horizontal forces acting on the columns which are designed to only withstand vertical forces
due to the law of vectors (see figure 1).
.
Figure 1
Purlins and Girts Top
Purlins and girts come in Z and C sections and are used to attach a buildings cladding to its
frame. They make up about 24% of the total steel used in the construction. It is for this
reason that a minimal number of purlins and girts should be used in order to save money. For
most industrial buildings, purlins which are about 200mm deep appear to be an economically
sufficient option. In most cases they are held into place with M12 bolts.
To create a continuous span, Z sections can be overlapped and connected where as C section
need to be connected at a support. (see figures 2 and 3).
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Figure 2 : The connection between Z and C sections, and a rafter [taken from Zaragoza, pg.
29].
.
Figure 3.
Entrances Top
From researching portal framed buildings on site, large doorways of 6 meters or less and high
enough to enable truck entry were closed off with roller doors attached straight onto the
framework. There was no change in size for the columns which the roller doors where
attached to (see figure 4).
As for doorways for people these where simply doorframes attached straight onto the
cladding. When locating doors it is important to remember that there must be a maximum of
20m to the nearest exit within a building, due to restrictions set by the BCA.
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Figure 4 : Shows a roller door connected directly to a column of the portal frame.
Consideration for structures during construction Top
When erecting a frame it is important to consider the deflection rate of a building under its
own weight, or the buildings dead load. Therefore when erecting the structure the frame
should be positioned so that it opposes the deflection forces.
BRACING Top
Bracing is an essential part of each and every structure being erected in almost every country
in the world today. Its function is essentially to increase the structures strength in order to
prevent it from falling down whilst having a load such as wind, rain or snow applied, as well as
being able to support its dead load. Below is a list of bracing types which we found were in
use in the warehouses visited whilst undergoing various site visits.
FLY BRACING Top
Fly bracing is an essential element in every long-span portal frame warehouse design, as it
not only prevents the purlins from twisting and overturning, but it also lengthens the influence
of the rafter by increasing the roofs strength, which is especially useful for the builders
cladding the roof. The photographic details below were taken at a construction site in Torquay,
and highlight where fly bracing is used in warehouse design.
.
Examples of fly bracing.
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The forces opposed by fly bracing.
Fly bracing is also sometimes used on the columns and girts of a portal frame to also prevent
these elements from twisting, however fly bracing does add cost to the building and therefore
should only be used where needed.
.
Fly bracing being used on columns.
ROOF BRACING Top
Crossed roof bracing is another type of bracing which is essential to the erection of long-span
design. Its function is to prevent the rafters/beams of the structure from moving apart from
one-another due to a wind load by being placed under either tension or compression. The
following diagram illustrates how;
The following photographs illustrate how roof bracing is incorporated into the structure and
how it is attached to the rafters/beams.
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.
An example of roof bracing.
.
The connection between rafter and roof bracing.
HAUNCHING Top
For spans of over 20 metres, extra bracing is required to keep the steel substructure from
collapsing in on itself. This bracing is known as 'haunching' and is usually made of a
cut-to-shape universal 'I' beam which fits into the corner made by the stanchion and the
rafters. A haunch's depth is usually about the same as the depth of the rafter, and in terms of
length, is usually in the order of about 10-15% of the span of the rafter. A haunch can also
significantly lower the cost of the steel required, for example, a portal frame section may cost
around $950 using a 450UB67 rafter however using a 310UB67 the rafter may cost only as
much as $800 assuming that a haunch is being used.
.
An example of haunching at a Bunning's warehouse.
Another location where haunching can be found in long-span construction is at the apex of the
structure. Again, the haunch's depth is usually about the same as the depth of the rafter,
however in terms of length, the apex haunching is closer to between 30-40% of the span of
the rafter.
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.
Apex haunching at a warehouse in Torquay. This photo also shows the apex connection
between the two rafters.
STIFFENING PLATES Top
Stiffening plates are another type of bracing used to prevent 'Universal Beams' from bending
and twisting. The following photograph shows a stiffening plate in use;
CONNECTIONS
The way in which an element is connected to another element will ultimately affect how the
elements will perform, therefore much attention should always be paid to which connection
type is chosen for each situation. The connection type used is entirely dependent on the
structural system chosen, whether it be column-and-truss, three-pinned portal truss or the
portal frame system. Below is a list of the three different systems, and the advantages and
disadvantages each system has. Before any consideration can be given to the connections
being used, a construction system must first be chosen.
COLUMN-AND-TRUSS
The column and truss system was developed in the early days of warehouse design, when
labour was relatively cheap when compared the costs associated with it now. Due to the
labour intensive process of prefabrication and the costs associated with production of trusses,
this system has been near forgotten about and has made way for other, less labour-intensive
systems.
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A Column-and-Truss system [taken from Zaragoza, pg. 25].
Advantages
In the early days of warehouse design, labour was relatively cheap compared to now, so the
process of prefabrication was relatively inexpensive, meaning that this system was reasonably
economical and adoptable, however now, due to rising labour costs, prefabrication has
become a lot more expensive.
Less steel is used than both the portal frame system and the three-pinned portal truss
system.
Disadvantages
Costly prefabricated trusses are needed.
Can not span over large distances.
Difficult to erect
Verdict
This type of system was not plausible for our type of construction, due to the large span
needed and the excessive labour cost which comes with employing this type of system,
therefore, we did not choose to employ the column-and-truss system.
THREE-PINNED PORTAL TRUSS
For spans of between 45-70 metres, the three-pinned portal truss system is one worth
considering, however depending on the connection method used between truss elements, and
how much welding is used to connect these elements instead of the traditional rivets, will
affect how economical the system is.
.
A Three-Pinned Portal Truss system [taken from Zaragoza, pg. 30].
Advantages
For spans of between 45-70 metres, the three-pinned portal truss system provides a cheaper
more economical alternative to employing massively wide universal beams, which would need
to be used should the portal frame system be employed.
Disadvantages
For spans of less than 45 metres, the cost and amount of labour that needs to be used in the
creation of a three-pinned portal truss system far outweighs the material and labour costs
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associated with a portal frame system, therefore deeming it to be inefficient.
Verdict
Due to the sub-45 metre span of our warehouse design, the three-pinned portal truss system
was deemed to be uneconomical due to the excessive labour costs that this system requires,
especially for a span as small as ours.
PORTAL FRAME
The portal frame system is widely considered the most economical solution to a warehouse
design of span between 15-45 metres. Even though both the column-and-truss system and
the three-pinned portal truss system require less steel to build, due to the fact that both of
these systems are more labour intensive and are harder to erect means that overall, the
portal frame system is the most economical system to use over a 15-45 metre span.
.
A Portal Frame system [taken from Zaragoza, pg. 25].
Advantages
The labour costs associated with building this type of system are significantly less than both
the column-and-truss system and the three-pinned portal truss system.
The erection of the portal frame system is easier than both the column-and-truss system and
the three-pinned portal truss system.
In many instances, less bracing is needed than what would be required had either of the
other two systems been employed.
Disadvantages
More steel is needed to build this type of system
Verdict
For a 15-45 metre span, this type of system was deemed to be the most suitable, thus was
chosen by us as the most appropriate system for what we need.
Once chosen, the connection to be used can then be selected.
STANCHION - SLAB/FOOTING JOINT (of a portal frame)

PIN JOINTS
Use
Pin Joints are an increasingly rare type of connection between stanchion and slab/footing.
They are not commonly used nowadays due to their inability to transfer bending moments as
efficiently as rigid bases, as they must transfer the bending moment vertically through the
ground, not the footing. They are however efficient at eliminating rotational forces (however
rigid joints are also capable of doing this).
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A rigid joint seen on-site
Advantages
Are suitable for poor foundations (such as the Class M soil on which our site is built).
Are good at eliminating rotational forces.
Requires less concrete, therefore are more cost efficient over long spans.
Disadvantages
Are more costly over smaller spans due to increased steel usage.
Does not transfer bending moments through footings.
Increased bracing, compared to a rigid joint, may be necessary.
RIGID JOINTS
Use
Rigid Joints are the more commonly used connection type between stanchion and slab/footing,
due the fact that can carry bending moments and also axial loads. In doing so, they are able
to significantly reduce the amount of movement in the frame, especially around the joint
between stanchion and slab/footing by transferring the loads directly to the footings. This also
means that the frame can be lighter, leading to a reduced cost in framing materials. Concrete
costs however are increased, due to the larger amount of concrete needed to house the extra
bolts (4 are needed, compared to 2 or 3 for a pin joint).
.
Two examples of a Rigid Joint
Advantages
Lighter frame can be used, leading to a reduction in framing costs.
Are more cost efficient for smaller spanned areas.
Disadvantages
Increased concrete cost due to extra housing needed for extra bolts (the further the bolts
are from the stanchion, the stronger the joint will be).
Are less suitable for poor foundations.
Rigid base has little advantage over large spans, like that which we are dealing with.
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KNEE JOINT (of a portal frame)
Due to the large span of our warehouse design only two types of joints were plausible for this
situation, one being a welded joint and the other being a bolted joint. Haunching was
necessity for our warehouse design due to the fact that the span being covered is over 20m
(for spans under 20m, haunching may not be necessary).
WELDED JOINT
Examples of a welded joint [taken from Zaragoza, pg. 25].
Advantages
Require less detailing than bolted joints.
No considerations need to be made to tensioned bolts.
Disadvantages
Can only span a distance of approximately 20 metres.
Not as much tensioning/adjusting of the joint can be done on site as that can be done by a
bolted joint.
Verdict
As welded joints only have a spanning capacity of approximately 20 metres, we chose not to
employ them as the joint of choice for both the knee joint.
BOLTED JOINT
Examples of a bolted joint [taken from Zaragoza, pg. 25].
Advantages
Assuming haunching is used, can span a distance of up to 45 metres.
Joints can be tightened and adjusted on site far more easily than welded joints.
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Disadvantages
Attention must be paid to the detailing of the joints when tensioned bolts have been
employed. If short cuts are made by attempting to simplify the joints by increasing the
amount of work done by the fabricator, then clearance problems may arise on site. If a joint
has been poorly detailed and cannot be tightened/tensioned on site, then serious problems
may occur.
Verdict
Due to the fact that this sort of joint can be more easily adjusted and tightened on site, we
chose to employ bolted jointing at the knee joint.
APEX JOINT (of a portal frame)

Once again, only two types of joints were plausible for the apex joint of our structure. They
are the welded joint and the bolted joint.
Welded Joint | Bolted Joint
CONNECTION BETWEEN TILT SLAB AND RAFTER
Due to the fact that we have incorporated a firewall into our warehouse design by placing a tilt
slab at the connecting point between the warehouse and the showroom means that we had to
deal with the issue of a connection between some of the rafters and the tilt slab. This was
addressed by, after visiting a few sites, bolting a metal 'shelf' into the slab and ultimately
allowing the rafter to sit upon it, as shown in the photograph below;
.
A connection between rafter and tilt-slab
What this also meant was that there would be a purlin running parallel with the tilt slab, thus
this also needed connecting. This too was addressed by conducting site visits and observing
what the common practice is. The solution was as follows;
.
A connection between purlin and tilt-slab
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The Web Truss

The web truss is another method of spaning large distances and covering large unencumbered
spaces. In the construction of the warehouse researched for this project built by "Mecano
Sheds" in Queensland a web truss was employed for part of its space. In consultation with the
developer who built this warehouse it was found that this decision was made on an economic
basis. In the opinion of the developer a prefabricated truss system made up of pre-assembled
cold formed elements was far cheaper and lighter than a large universal beam. However the
fact that the truss system was only employed for the part of the warehouse that spans 20
metres suggests that it is not adequate for spans longer than that. For the section of the
warehouse spanning 30 metres a system employing composite hot rolled 'c' sections was
used. For these reasons we have decided to use the web truss system in the upper storey
show room.
Warehouse in Queensland
CAD model of the frame
Warehouse Reasearch Plan's Top
Design 1
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TIMBER FRAMES Top
Introduction
Timber frames are best suited to structures with clear spans of between 15-30 metres. As a
structural material, wood has several advantages and disadvantages, which are discussed in
the table below. The use of wood in structures falls into four main groups;
Solid lengths of wood which are used as structural members
'Box beams' are made up of plywood or LVL and are used to create structural members of
different sizes and forms (see figure 6) with a width ranging from L/8 to L/12 where 'L' is
equal to the length of the box beam. These types of members have a very high strength to
weight ratio and so therefore can span great distances. A box beam also has less volume in it
than a solid peace of wood, and so therefore costs less. Structures using 'box beams' are the
most economical at spanning large distances (see figures 7 and 8).
Glulam is made up of laminated sheets stuck together to create a thick member which is
much stronger than a solid peace of wood. The sheets of plywood must be stuck together
using Type A bonds as standardised by the Plywood Association of Australia (PAA). Glulam has
the same resistance to fire as a solid peace of wood.
Truss frames can be made up of either solid timber, 'box beams', and/or Glulam planks. The
truss structure, though more expensive, can complement a structure aesthetically and in
some cases such as with solid lengths of wood, will increase its spanning ability. (see figures 9
and 10).
.
Figure 6.(taken from http://oak.arch.utas.edu.au/research/portal.asp#introduction)
.
Figure 7 (taken from http://oak.arch.utas.edu.au/research/portal.asp#introduction)
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.
.
.
The Advantages and Disadvantages of a Timber Frame
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.
CONCLUSION Top
Warehouse construction
For the warehouse frame, we chose a 'one-way rigid frame'. This frame was chosen because it
was cost effective, in that you are saving money by having simple connections on the braced
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planes. This framing type was also chosen due to its large spanning ability, creating open floor
space which enables the warehouse floor to be rearranged in any way.
Though the use of a 'two-way rigid frame' would also give a large open spanning ability, the
cost of having rigid connections throughout the entire building would have been an
unnecessary expense. The use of a two-way braced frame was not used despite the fact that
money would have been saved on simple connections throughout the building. Heavier beams
and much more bracing would have been needed which would have raised the price of the
overall structure.
A 'wooden portal frame' was not chosen for four reasons;
Firstly, the fact wood has much more articulated movement and creep than steel.
Secondly, that wood structures are prone to rotting, warping, and splitting unless maintained
and treated, adding costs onto the life of the building that may exceed the initial cost margin
between steel and timber construction.
Thirdly, the fact that wood does not have as high a 'quality control' in regards to knots and
splits in the timber, compared to steel which is constantly consistent thoughout the member.
Lastly the fact that in a fire, a 'box beam' (the most cost effective form of construction) will
not last as long as steel as it is made up of thin members in a box formation.
The members sizes for the portal frames elements where ascertained by examining structures
under construction and already made structures, namely those at 'Fagg's Mitre 10 in South
Geelong and 'Bunnings Warehouse' in Corio. From taking measurements of these buildings
members and studying their plans (see below) we were able to establish a rough
understanding of the sizes needed to span a distance of 40 metres.
To save money, the dimensions of the building where reduced from 40m x 40m to 30m x
54m. This change in width enabled us to use smaller members span a smaller gap, thus
saving money on materials.
Using these measurements, and with the help of our tutor, we were able to chose smaller
members which would effectively span the 30 metre clearance.
The height of the warehouse was largely decided by the height of a fork lift. From this we
were able to decide that the building should be 5500mm high at its lowest point (the long
edges).
As for the purlins and girts, Z sections where chosen for the roof as they can be connected to
form a continues member saving money and adding strength. The girts are made of Z
sections because they too can be made into continues members.
.
Figure 12 (taken from P. J. O'Reilly and Associates).
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References Top
http://oak.arch.utas.edu.au/research/portal.asp#introduction
www.Ibstructures.co.uk/metspan.htm
www.rpi.edu
www.arch,usyd.edu.au
BE Milner H R, The design and construction of timber portal frames, Chisholm Institute of
technology, Melbourne, 1988
Mainstone Rowland J, Developments in Structural form, 1st edition with RIBA Publishing Ltd
1975, Penguin Books, 1983.
Construction and structures 2 reader
Zaragoza, Jos R, Economical Structural Steelwork - Fourth Edition, Australian Institute of
Steel Construction, Sydney, 1997
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Untitled Document http://www.ab.deakin.edu.au/online/vgallery/2004/srt251/team22/Hom...

Comparison of Truss vs. Portal Frames Roof Bracing

Portal frames Advantages Disadvantages Haunching

Roofpitch Stiffening Plates

Purlins and Girts

Consideration for structures during construction

Connections Conclusion References

STEEL FRAMES Top

Comparrison of Portal Framing Systems Top

Comparison of Truss vs. Portal Frames Top

Portal frames Advantages Disadvantages Top

Roof pitch Top

Purlins and Girts Top

Consideration for structures during construction Top

FLY BRACING Top

ROOF BRACING Top

STIFFENING PLATES Top

THREE-PINNED PORTAL TRUSS

associated with a portal frame system, therefore deeming it to be inefficient.

Once chosen, the connection to be used can then be selected.

STANCHION - SLAB/FOOTING JOINT (of a portal frame)

KNEE JOINT (of a portal frame)

Examples of a welded joint [taken from Zaragoza, pg. 25].

Examples of a bolted joint [taken from Zaragoza, pg. 25].

APEX JOINT (of a portal frame)

Welded Joint | Bolted Joint

CONNECTION BETWEEN TILT SLAB AND RAFTER

The Web Truss

CAD model of the frame

Warehouse Reasearch Plan's Top

TIMBER FRAMES Top

The Advantages and Disadvantages of a Timber Frame

Figure 13 (taken from P. J. O'Reilly and Associates).

Figure 14 (taken from P. J. O'Reilly and Associates).

Figure 14 (taken from P. J. O'Reilly and Associates).

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