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Solid waste management in

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Article in Resources Conservation and Recycling October 2003

DOI: 10.1016/S0921-3449(03)00031-4

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 Resources, Conservation and Recycling 39 (2003) 251 /263
www.elsevier.com/locate/resconrec

Solid waste management in municipalities in

Mexico: goals and perspectives
Otoniel Buenrostro a,*, Gerardo Bocco b,c
a
Instituto de Investigaciones sobre los Recursos Naturales, Universidad Michoacana de San Nicolas de
Hidalgo, Apartado Postal 12, Morelia, Michoacan 58400, Mexico
b
Departamento de Ecologa de los Recursos Naturales, Instituto de Ecologa, Universidad Nacional
Autonoma de Mexico, Campus Morelia, Apartado Postal 27-3 (Xangari), 58089 Morelia, Michoacan,
Mexico
c
Instituto Nacional de Ecologa (INE/SEMARNAT), Mexico

Abstract

Mexico is faced with serious environmental and administrative challenges with respect to
solid waste (SW) management. Just as in other developing countries, the public sanitation
system lacks because of inadequate planning, as well as unsustainable SW management. The
country is experiencing an urbanization process in which approximately 70% of the population
are concentrated in its ten largest cities; the rest are spread throughout 200 000 towns in
Mexicos 2 000 000 km2. This has caused a change in the populations consumption patterns,
which has resulted in a more heterogeneous composition of SW and an increase in its
generation rate. The current situation of the SW management systems in Mexico is analyzed,
and the environmental, technical, administrative, economic and social goals with which
Mexicos public sanitation systems face, are discussed. The principal goal facing these public
sanitation systems is the development of adequate disposal of SW, since the municipalities find
themselves unable to administer sanitary landfills according to Mexican legislation because
they lack financial means and the technical and human infrastructure. SW collection in
Mexico depends heavily on personnel with no technical training and the separation of the
waste is carried out by an ever-increasing number of scavengers. The importance of including
these groups in the decision-making process in order to assure the success of SW management
programs is presented, along with the need to create interdisciplinary work groups that could
collaborate in driving forward the agenda.
# 2003 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Consumption patterns; Solid waste management; Environmental implications; Mexico

* Corresponding author. Tel.:
/52-443-327-2351; fax:
/52-443-327-2350.

E-mail address: otonielb@zeus.ccu.umich.mx (O. Buenrostro).

0921-3449/03/$ - see front matter # 2003 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/S0921-3449(03)00031-4
252 O. Buenrostro, G. Bocco / Resources, Conservation and Recycling 39 (2003) 251 /263

1. Introduction: solid waste management in developing countries

In general, the organization and planning of the public waste collection service in
developing countries is very rudimentary. It is reflected in the unknown quantity and
type of solid wastes (SW) collected, the amount recovered and recycled, the
inadequate selection of final disposal sites, as well as inefficient reutilization and
recycling programs.
Research has shown, relative to SW management in these countries, the similarity
of the results that are reported about the composition of SW. The composition of
SW is similar; nevertheless, there exists geographical, climatic, economic, racial,
cultural, social and demographic differences. These variables have been reported as
determinants of the quantity and the composition of the SWs (Buenrostro et al.,
2001a; Ali Khan and Burney, 1989; Hockett et al., 1995; Heinen, 1995; McBean and
Fortin, 1993).
The similarities refer to the planning of public waste collection services and SW
management in these countries. It is of great concern that this similar pattern refers
to negative aspects such as the scarcity and insufficiency of planning, as well as
nonscientific, disorganized, and informal SW management. Also, there are
insufficient public and private funds and corrupt public sanitation management
systems (Buenrostro et al., 2001a; Gupta et al., 1998; Adedibu, 1985; Diallo and
Coulibaly, 1991). There also exist groups, many of whom live at the disposal sites,
who make their daily living by separating and selling the SW and who frequently
consume SW as part of their diet (Buenrostro et al., 2001a; Adedibu, 1985; Ojeda et
al., 2000).
In general, there is the need to modernize the SW management in developing
countries by means of the implementation of programs that reuse or recycle. There
is also the need to implement treatment systems to counteract environ-
mental problems, decreasing the consumption of natural resources and minimizing
the space required for the final disposal of SW. With this perspective in mind,
a large number of SW programs have been implemented, whose outcomes are
mostly:

1) the limited success of the programs;

2) environmental and social deterioration because of the struggle to control SW,
despite the advances in environmental engineering and technology.

This paper discusses the causes, and their implications, which determine these
patterns in underdeveloped countries. As a case study, it analyzes the current state of
SW production and the goals and perspectives with regard to the social, economical,
technical and environmental implications for Mexico.
 O. Buenrostro, G. Bocco / Resources, Conservation and Recycling 39 (2003) 251 /263 253

2. Regional consumption patterns and their influence on the production of SWs in

Mexico

The economic and population growth, which Mexico has experienced over the
past few years, has caused a growth in urbanization that has resulted in a
modification in regional consumption patterns. Amongst other implications, an
increase in the quantity and heterogeneity of SW can be observed, which is normally
produced by a growing urban population (Table 1). It has been determined, that the
composition, as well as the rate of generation of the SW that is produced in urban
areas, is similar to that which is generated in developed countries (Buenrostro et al.,
2001a,b).
With respect to the changes in SW composition in Mexico, it has been determined
that the shift in population, which is derived from the daily or seasonal migration of
the rural population toward urban centers or the United States, has had a greater
impact than mere economics with regard to the modification of regional consump-
tion patterns. The urban culture transforms lifestyles, social structures, and social
relationships as shown by the selection of goods and cultural practices (art, food,
vacation choices, hobbies, etc.) (Featherstone, 1991).
For example, in a study about SW production in sixteen municipalities in the
Cuitzeo Basin in Central Mexico (Buenrostro and Israde, 2002; Buenrostro, 2001a),
it has been shown that the composition is similar to that generated in more urban
areas. Around half of the wastes are comprised of different plastics, reflecting a
similarity in consumption habits between these and more highly developed urban
areas. This process is noted mainly in the population strata with low income and
schooling; which is the reason why the results suggest a larger degree of
transculturalization and change in consumption patterns in these population groups.

3. The requirement for accurate composition and the environmental statistics in

Mexico

Due to the fact that there are significantly large differences between official
government data and those reported by non-governmental sources, it is important
for Mexico to carry out in-depth studies for geographical regions with regard to
compositional analysis for SW. Generally speaking, official statistics report a higher
rate of SW generation than those reported by non-official sources, whose results, for
the most part, tend to agree with each other (Buenrostro et al., 2001a; Bernache et
al., 1998; Restrepo et al., 1991). These differences indicate an excessive generalization
in regional data, all of which have been extrapolated from larger areas of the
country. There is the need to substantiate different methods for classifying and
quantifying SW.
Currently, the official rate of municipal solid waste (MSW) generation is 0.917 kg/
day per inhabitant (Instituto Nacional de Estadstica Geografa e Informatica/
Secretara del Medio Ambiente Recursos naturales y Pesca, 1998); however, it is not
known if these numbers include the SW produced by industry. This is because the
 254
O. Buenrostro, G. Bocco / Resources, Conservation and Recycling 39 (2003) 251 /263
Table 1
Composition (%) of MSW in Mexico, 1992 /1998

Waste component 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998

Paper, cardboard 14 14 14.1 14.1 14.1 14.1 14.1

Cloth 2 1.5 1.5 1.4 1.5 1.5 1.5
Plastic 4 4.4 4.4 4.3 4.4 4.4 4.4
Glass 6 5.9 5.9 5.9 5.9 5.9 5.9
Metals 3 2.9 2.9 2.9 2.9 2.9 2.9
Food and yard wastes 52 52.4 52.4 52.4 52.4 52.4 52.4
Other (fine residues, rubber, diapers) 19 18.9 18.8 18.8 18.8 18.9 18.9
Total (in thousands of tonnes) 21 967.5 28 089.5 29 472.4 30 509.6 31 959.4 29 272.4 30 550.5

Source: Ministry of Social Development (1999).

 O. Buenrostro, G. Bocco / Resources, Conservation and Recycling 39 (2003) 251 /263 255

official concept of MSW does not include SW that is generated through industrial
activity even though the majority of industries are situated in urban localities and a
large portion of the SW that is generated by these sources is picked up in the
municipal SW.
In the study of SW generation, in the municipalities that are in the Cuitzeo Basin,
it was determined that fifteen of the municipalities, whose populations are rural,
have a SW generation rate of 0.4 kg/day per inhabitant and that in the municipality
of Morelia, which is predominantly an urban population, the rate is less than 0.7 kg/
day per inhabitant. Furthermore, in Morelia there can be found 72% of all of the
residential sources, 83% of the industrial sources, 82% of the business sources, 90%
of the special, institutional and service-based sources, and 74% of the construction
sources in the Cuitzeo Basin (Buenrostro, 2001a). In another study, conducted in
1998 in Morelia, the SW generation rate per capita was determined to be 0.63 kg/day
(Buenrostro et al., 2001c). This result was less than the 0.7 kg/day that was reported
in the 1980s (CONADE, 1992) and the 1.0 kg/day reported at the beginning of the
1990s (SEDESOL/INE, 1994). This information suggests an overestimation regard-
ing the SW production in the rural population municipalities considering the fact
that the calculated base for the generation rates were obtained from studies carried
out in urban municipalities (Table 2). This information was confirmed by the
adjustment made to the official data at the beginning of 1997 in which the MSW
generation rates were adjusted to 0.2 /0.35 kg/day based on the information obtained
from SW generation studies of small localities (Ministry of Social Development,
1999).

4. Environmental implications of SW management in Mexico

In Mexico, it is the responsibility of each municipality to provide free public

sanitation service via the collection and transportation of SW. Nevertheless, this
service is limited to those wastes that are catalogued as municipal SW, that is to say,
those that are listed in environmental legislation and are considered to be generated
through municipal activities and that are not considered dangerous due to their
chemical and physical nature (SECOFI, 1985). Unfortunately, there exists an
enormous conceptual confusion in Mexican legislation due to the indistinct
definition of what are MSW, urban solid wastes (USW), domiciliary SWs, and
domestic solid wastes (DSW). This has negative technical and legal repercussions.

Table 2
Production (thousand tonnes) and generation rates (kg/day per inhabitant) of MSW in Mexico

SW 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998

Total 21 967.5 28 089.5 29 472.4 30 509.6 31 959.4 29 272.4 30 550.5

Generation rates 0.261 0.328 0.338 0.334 0.344 0.310 0.318

Source: Ministry of Social Development (1999).

256 O. Buenrostro, G. Bocco / Resources, Conservation and Recycling 39 (2003) 251 /263

On one hand, it encourages confusion with respect to the planning and design of
waste generation analysis and inconsistency in the interpretation of the results since
the types of sources that have been analyzed have been confused. This has occurred,
because it is unclear if SW is considered municipal because of the source that
produces it or because the municipality takes on the responsibility of collecting SW.
At the same time, it favors irresponsibility on the part of the source that generates
the SW and allows for gaps in legislation with regard to the supervision of adequate
SW disposal. Both of these facts permit the dumping of SW in inadequate areas,
thereby causing a marked environmental impact.
Just as in other developing countries, Mexico is experiencing a rapid urbanization
process that has surpassed the governments capacity to install an adequate
environmental protection regime. In some rural settlements, an urban-fringed
environment has been created that has a wide range of social mix and a large
mixture of industrial activities that are characteristic to urban centers, such as artisan
workshops and small farming communities (cattle raising, pig farms, poultry farms,
as well as activities related to farming). The SW produced by these activities are
frequently mixed into the stream of USW, thereby making it impossible for the
municipalities to maintain an adequate inventory of the sources of SW, as well as
monitor the quantity and characteristics of these wastes (Buenrostro et al., 2001a;
Buenrostro, 2001b).
Currently, approximately 70% of the Mexican population resides in ten cities, of
which three of these have more than 6 million inhabitants. The nations capital and
its metropolitan area is the home to more than 18 million people (INEGI, 2001). At
the other end of the scale, the rest of Mexicos population is distributed throughout
some 200 000 towns in about 2400 municipalities; many having a population less
than 10 000 (INEGI, 2001). Frequently, much of the SW in urban zones, especially
dangerous waste materials, has been clandestinely deposited in sites located in small
municipalities. These small municipalities do not have the economic resources to
supervise the sites or carry out the proper disposal of SW.
For the most part, the majority of the rural towns lack the necessary SW collection
services; these are usually limited to the head municipality. In response to this
deficiency, the communities have built dumpsites that are, generally, located in
ravines and gullies, or in fields or which are surrounded by crops. Also common is
the practice of burying the SW in community-made pits or burning it in open-air
incinerators. This SW, upon being collected, is mixed with residential SW and placed
into the same dumpsite. This situation presents a serious public health risk, not only
for the general population who is exposed to pathogens while the collection vehicle
makes its rounds, but for the collection workers and people who separate the
materials at the dumpsites (Buenrostro, 2001a).

5. Technical and administrative implications for solid waste management in Mexico

In Mexico, the pollution caused by poorly managed SW has become pronounced

and, just as in most developing countries, it is the consequence of inadequate
 O. Buenrostro, G. Bocco / Resources, Conservation and Recycling 39 (2003) 251 /263
Table 3
MSW disposal, 1992 /1998 (thousand tonnes)

Waste disposal method 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998

Waste collected 15 377.278 19 662.678 20 630.704 21 357.003 22 371.328 22 539.763 25 854.888

Landfill 4641.810 4935.180 5058.559 5952.000 8573.000 10 269.990 15 877.140
Landfill with uncontrolled access 2710.130 2833.313 2915.438 2555.000 2606.000 1657.480 1007.490
Dumping ground 14 465.689 20 129.258 21 297.212 21 796.067 20 564.031 17 125.870 13 458.960
Recycled 149.910 191.788 201.230 206.553 216.369 219.080 206.914
Total amount of MSW 21 967.525 28 089.539 29 472.439 30 509.620 31 959.400 29 272.420 30 550.504

Source: Ministry of Social Development (1999, 1995).

257
258 O. Buenrostro, G. Bocco / Resources, Conservation and Recycling 39 (2003) 251 /263

management and disposal. With respect to the final disposal of SW, almost all
continues to be managed in open-air dumps, non-controlled landfills, and sanitary
landfills (see Table 3). Despite the fact that there has been an increase with regard
to the last two options the fact still remains that the majority of sanitary landfills
in Mexico do not comply with environmental legislation. There is little control over
the SW that is deposited in the landfills and the daily covering of wastes is
inadequate.
Another serious limitation that the Mexican municipalities face, is the lack of
administrative organization between departments. On the whole, the responsibility
for sanitation services in the small municipalities is left to the Deputy Mayor at City
Hall, who also has other responsibilities such as the upkeep of public parks, green
areas, public cemeteries, etc. This excessive responsibility has negative repercussions
on the quality of services and causes a conflict of interest in the application of the
available funds. This results in the lack of any integrated coordination with respect
to the adequate handling and final disposal.
Another consequence of poor administrative planning of public sanitation systems
is that the majority of these services are directed by personnel with a low educational
level and no SW management and/or technical training. This last point results from
the low salaries paid in this sector and consequently, the person in charge does not
have the proper qualifications. This in turn, results in a lack of coordination between
the departments (such as the Public Health Department and the Environmental
Protection Agency) involved with SW management. The lack of technical training is
reflected in the production of overly ambitious public bylaws, which lack
surveillance and control mechanisms. There is, therefore, a great gulf between
policy and practice.

6. Economic implications of solid waste management in Mexico

Municipalities direct around 6% of their annual budget toward public sanitation.

There was an increase of some 18% with regard to the amount of SW collected
during the period from 1992 to 1998 (Ministry of Social Development, 1999, 1995).
There exists a reduced SW collection service area, principally in the rural
municipalities, due to insufficient budgets as well as poorly performing organizations
that are in charge of the planning and operation of the collection services. Likewise,
the infrastructure concerning SW collection and transportation seems overwhelmed
by the increase in the demand for public sanitation services on the part of the general
population. This can be seen in the results obtained from a study carried out in the
municipalities located in the Cuitzeo Basin (Table 4).
The majority of Mexicos municipalities do not have SW records, so they cannot
clearly identify the origin and type of the SW produced in each area. Neither can
they predict the infrastructure and equipment required to provide an efficient service.
This results in decisions being made based on assumptions, suppositions and
inferences with respect to:
 O. Buenrostro, G. Bocco / Resources, Conservation and Recycling 39 (2003) 251 /263 259

Table 4
Collection service coverage (%) in 14 municipalities in the Cuitzeo Basin

Municipality Communities Inhabitants with Service Coverage of Service (%)

Acuitzio 39 5480 54
Alvaro Obregon 29 9328 47
Copandaro 13 7365 76
Cuitzeo 16 21 635 84
Charo 47 6155 34
Chucandiro 20 2023 25
Huandacareo 6 7032 58
Huiramba 17 2559 39
Indaparapeo 33 11 007 67
Lagunillas 7 2366 44
Morelos 30 2795 23
Querendaro 26 8992 63
Tarimbaro 46 5012 13
Zinapecuaro 75 26 378 54

Source: Buenrostro (2001a).

1) purchasing of suitable SW collection equipment (i.e. those that are not suited to
the type of SW being collected or produced);
2) incorrect design of the collection route; and,
3) miscalculation of the void space required for sanitary landfills.

Although municipal SW production may be considered small at the regional level,

it surpasses the municipalities (local level) capacity to resolve this problem
adequately. For this reason, local government is incapable of responding to these
demands, since the resources required to implement an adequate SW management
system are nearly always underestimated. In addition, private investment is minimal,
if not nonexistent, since there is a lack of state and municipal legislation that
provides legal protection for those in the private sector who wish to invest in and
create effective systems for the public.

7. Social implications of solid waste management in Mexico

The increase in the number of people who live at or in the landfills (dumpsites) is a
result of the economic deprivation of a wide range of social classes within the
country, as well as the inefficient ways with which public and private funds in public
sanitation systems are used. There is intensive use of manual labor for street cleaning
and SW collection in the majority of the 2400 municipalities, which make up the
country.
In Mexico, the increase in economic inequality has most strongly affected the
population status with the lowest academic level. Unemployment and the population
growth have caused a large increase in the number of low-income people who live in
or at the dumpsites (known as scavengers) and earn a living via the sale of the SW
260 O. Buenrostro, G. Bocco / Resources, Conservation and Recycling 39 (2003) 251 /263

products they separate out. However, the unhealthy conditions in which these people
work put these groups at great risk (Buenrostro et al., 2001a). The internal
organization of these groups is based on family relationships and friendships that
each person establishes, which are motivated by two common reasons: (1) safety and
(2) the necessity to survive.
On the one hand, the composition of these groups is extremely variable, which is
the reason why it is very difficult to establish permanent work programs and to
monitor their activities. They are increasingly at risk of being exploited and
manipulated by government leaders. However, the labor organizations (unions)
for the scavengers and garbage collectors are currently the ones who have increased
the SW collection and transportation problems that exist in Mexico. Although their
work is cataloged as disorganized and informal, the reality is that they possess
very complex forms of organization (Castillo, 1983; Lohani and Baldisimo, 1991;
Labys et al., 1998). They are able to recover and recycle a large quantity of materials;
so large are these quantities that they surpass those obtained in developed countries
(Buenrostro et al., 2001a). This fact demonstrates the necessity to include these
groups in the decision-making process with respect to the handling of SW.
The activity, of these groups, is of great environmental importance since they
succeed in recovering natural resources and reintegrating them into the industrial
and economic process (Lohani and Baldisimo, 1991; Labys et al., 1998). Never-
theless, the SW handling conditions under which these groups operate gives rise to
environmental and social contradictions that do not permit these groups to improve
their economic level. The fact is, these people are forced to sell the recovered
materials to others for very little profit and it is those who ultimately resell these
materials that benefit financially the most. The existing practices (legal and practical
frameworks) fail to regulate access to these resources and to effectively regulate the
distribution of benefits (Bridge et al., 2000). For this reason, it will be necessary to
legislate in order to improve the conditions in which these groups are forced to work
(Fukuyama, 1999).

8. Discussion

The growth in municipal SW in Mexico, makes it necessary for the adoption of

improved management practice in order to counteract the detrimental environ-
mental, social, and public health impacts that have occurred because of the current
SW management systems. In order to improve the management of SW, it will be
necessary to link together applied and social research with the object of defining,
designing and implementing a management plan that includes investigative and
decision-making guidelines, and that involves all of the non-governmental sectors, as
well as the three governmental levels (municipal, state, and federal).
Despite the existing technological developments for municipal SW management
internationally, the public sanitation systems in Mexico do not have sufficient
guidance in order to enable them to make informed decisions with respect to the
selection of management processes and technologies. Data about the composition,
 O. Buenrostro, G. Bocco / Resources, Conservation and Recycling 39 (2003) 251 /263 261

characteristics, quantity and sources of SW, along with the socioeconomic variables
that determine their production, are fundamental requirements for the designing and
planning for sustainable SW management. Nevertheless, many municipalities do not
have the time or the financial and technical resources to carry out these studies and
to make reasonable decisions about the best SW management regime.
How can a society tackle a problem that has environmental, social and economic
implications? It is obvious that no one discipline has all the methodological tools to
propose solutions that are environmentally sound and socio-economically viable.
For this reason, it is important that the focus for the future be on interdisciplinary
strategies that include socioeconomic, environmental, and technological aspects.
Future research must concentrate upon:

1) The analysis of the social and economical variables that control the quantity and
type of a given waste.
2) Composition studies at the local level.
3) Biotechnology requirements in order to incorporate organic and inorganic
wastes into ecosystems.
4) Exploration of the technical and economical viability of the treatment of organic
wastes.
5) Proposing mechanisms to link the rural sector to the growing economy to create
alternative incomes (Pascual et al., 1999).
6) Production and consumption systems in order to optimize the use of natural
resources.

Budgets must be so assigned that local government could contract trained

personnel in order to administer and carry out the management of SW in the entire
municipality. Legislation must include the correct construction of sanitary landfills
and site selection for treatment plants for municipal SW. To reach this position it
will be necessary to simplify the legal framework for a municipalitys autonomy. By
working together, municipalities could raise enough capital and expertise to
construct and operate landfills to the technical and environmental requirements
stipulated in the Mexican legislation.
Decisions concerning SW management, should be presented to the general
population in a simplified manner, by professionals. This will be a good starting
point for improved environmental education. Campaigns must focus on the
adolescent population since they appear to be environmentally unaware. It is in
this population, where there has been noted a large increase in consumption
patterns, in addition to a greater level of apathy and ignorance toward environ-
mental and social implications with regard to inadequate management of SW.
It is important to develop mechanisms to improve the co-operation between the
Ministry of Education and the Ministry of Environmental Protection, with the
object of developing and implementing environmental education programs. This is
important in order to make the general society more conscious about the
implications and causes of SW production and to put pressure on the different
levels of government to deliver coherent policies. The success or failure of the actions
262 O. Buenrostro, G. Bocco / Resources, Conservation and Recycling 39 (2003) 251 /263

to be taken depends on an informed society, which is conscious of environmental

problems.
Government should, through the application of legislation and economic stimuli,
promote programs that focus on limiting the production of SW and foster those
industrial processes that promote the reutilization and recycling of materials.

9. Conclusions

Over the past 40 years, Mexico has seen a change in the composition and arisings
of municipal SW. This has been due to the modification in consumption patterns,
which has been influenced by the urbanization process. There is a requirement for
more in depth SW composition studies, at both the local and regional levels, since
the existing statistics are of low quality and probably overestimate the arisings in the
rural sector.
The inequality in the distribution of incomes has resulted in an increase in the
number of people who work as SW scavengers in municipal dumps. The State must
develop mechanisms to include these groups of people in decision making with
respect to SW management.
The administrative fragmentation of the 2400 municipalities in Mexico creates
barriers to the adoption of sustainable SW management systems. In Mexico, the lack
of adequate technical expertise in the municipalities means that very few commu-
nities have SW collection services as part of their community development, urban
improvement, or public health programs.
There is a requirement for future, interdisciplinary research that involves social,
economic, environmental and agricultural agendas. The research must incorporate
landowners and scavengers as well as municipal authorities. This way, the rural
sector can be linked to the general economic progress being made. Sustainable
development may well provide alternative income for those in agriculture and
increase the options for SW management for small urban communities where the
establishment of sanitary landfills is economically unfeasible. The incorporation of
treated organic wastes into low yielding soils, is an example of how such schemes
could regenerate degraded soils and increase in fertility and agricultural productivity.

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