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In search of a strategy for coastal

zone management in the third
world: Notes from ecuador
a
Kris Merschrod
a
Representative of Private Agencies, Collaborating
Together (PACT), San Jose, Costa Rica

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To cite this article: Kris Merschrod (1989): In search of a strategy for coastal zone
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In Search of a Strategy for Coastal Zone

Management in the Third World: Notes
From Ecuador

KRIS MERSCHROD
Representative of Private Agencies
Collaborating Together (PACT)
San Jose, Costa Rica
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Abstract The strategy developed for the University of Rhode Island Coastal Re-
source Management Project in Ecuador is described. This strategy relies on
"working groups'' and differs from traditional coastal zone management planning
strategies prevalent in "First World" countries because of its flexibility and infor-
malityfactors that facilitate maximum participation of interested agencies and con-
stituencies while avoiding institutional rigidity.

Keywords Coastal zone management, planning

GRMP: First World Context

i

Coastal resource management efforts and programs in the United States, Canada, and
Europe (the so-called First World) generally are a response to crises of an ecological
nature, new development initiatives that threaten a style of life, natural calamities, and,
in some cases, federal legislation and funding encouraging states to implement programs.
Under "crisis" circumstances, it is often the case that a small segment of the popula-
tion mobilizes interested citizens to move public officials into actionwhat may be
called a "popular movement." In the case of federally sponsored programs, professional
planning segments of state governments initiate action. In either situation, to maintain
momentum and establish CZM programs, certain adjunct activities are neededpublic
education, training for officials and employees, legal counsel, a thorough profile of the
coastal area, and fundraising.
Public education is needed to expand the constituency and keep people up-to-date on
activities in the coastal area. A large part of the public education program is to increase
public awareness of the effort that the program is making and the benefits to the public
from program activities.
Training is required to assure that program personnel and related officials can accu-
rately assess the impacts of project proposals and ongoing activities in the coastal zone.
In many cases, technical personnel need additional training in, for example, a holistic,
systematic, or ecological perspective to engineering or cost/benefit analysis.
Legal counsel is needed to review the existing statutes, suggest alternatives, and pre-
pare legislation. In addition, good legal counsel may provide advice on alternatives and
facilitate access to the "structure" through contacts.
A thorough profile of the coastal zone is a sine qua non for a management program.
Generally the initial coastal management efforts lack information, but, due to the crisis

63
 64 Kris Met sehr od

nature of the initial effort, work must begin with the information at hand. Ideally, a
complete inventory of the issues, constituencies, natural resources, development plans,
and history of development should be at hand to limit conflict, avoid errors, and the like.
But when this desired inventory is not available, one must begin with the issue and work
toward a sustainable management program based on broader issues.
Fundraising is necessary to provide for salaries, offices, transportation, printing, and
advertising. At the initial stages, these may come from voluntary efforts, but, eventually,
substantial fundraising or funding commitment is necessary.

CRMP: Third World Context

Given the general model of CZM strategy in the context of the First World, it is relevant
to ask "Can it be applied to the Third World?" or, more specifically, "What can be done
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in Ecuador?"
Meltzoff and LiPuma (1986) have suggested a three-step "comparative method to
implement CZM from the perspective of the local society":

1. Identify environmental problems in relationship to their socioeconomic causes and

implications.
2. Discover possible solutions given the prevailing structures of the social and polit-
ical economy.
3. Compare similar problems with First World problems and their solutions to adapt
to the local context.

This advice has been standard for the implementation of socioeconomic programs since
the early 1960s, but it does not offer a strategy for actual implementation. The remainder
of this article outlines the strategy that the author, as the in-country project manager,
implemented during the first year of the University of Rhode Island Coastal Resource
Management Project in Ecuador. The assessment of the prevailing political economy is
included as background, and the facilitated local solutions are described.
The strategy employed can be described as an informal working group concept. The
project was seen as "legitimate" because of the positions and titles of those who found it
in their interest, economically and sociopolitically, to become involved. It was funded by
the Agency for International Development (USAID), USAID/Ecuador (USAID/E), and
the Government of Ecuador (GOE). The project offered interested parties neutral territory
where problems and possible solutions could be discussed.
There is a bilateral history of proposal and response between the Office of Science
and Technology AID/Washington (S&T) via USAID/E and the GOE. This initiative
began after the El Nino crisis of 1982/83, but it should not be considered a response to
that crisis on the part of the GOE or USAID. The initiative from S&T had a much
broader conceptual base with longer time horizons than a response to crisis. Through the
URI program, S&T planned to have CZM programs in Ecuador, Sri Lanka, and Thai-
land. Nevertheless, the crisis probably did sensitize both the GOE and USAID/E to
coastal issues, given the socioeconomic crisis that the 1982/83 El Nino season repre-
sented for Ecuador and the considerable effort on the part of USAID/E to support rehabil-
itation. If the GOE or USAID/E had not responded to the S&T initiative, then the CRMP
would have been established elsewhere in Latin America without reference to El Nino.
 Third World Coastal Zone Management 65

Planning vs. Response to Crisis

Although one S&T goal is to explore strategies by which CZM can be developed in the
Third World, another goal of the CRMP/E is to develop ongoing CZM within the GOE.
The CRMP/E is not attached to the National Planning Board (CONADE), but instead, to
the Environmental Affairs Office of the Ministry of Energy and Mines (DIGEMA). It is
nevertheless oriented to planning. The board of directors and related technical committee
are composed of representatives of ministries and agencies that have policy and imple-
mentation responsibilities for coastal resources. Its design, as described in the joint
project agreement and the cooperative agreement between URI and S&T, calls for as-
sessment and planning as preliminary and final objectives, respectively.
Thus the CRMP is cast in a planning mode, not a "response-to-crisis" or "issue-
driven" mode. Can this mode of operation be successful as a start for CZM in a political
context with short-time horizons? It is necessary to review planning in Ecuador to assess
the likelihood of success.
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GOE and USAID/E Perspectives

i
The current political perspective of GOE is laissez-fairefree market and individual
initiative. Previous GOE administrations have been more pro-central planning. As ex-
presidential candidate Hurtado (1980) has pointed out, such planning has not been effec-
tive in Ecuador. A realistic assessment of previous state plans for land use, sector alloca-
tion, agricultural zones, and reserves would conclude that most have not been fully im-
plemented. Only specific subsector plans have moved ahead, but plans for integrated
agency and regional resource development have not been implemented.
A substantial part of USAID/E effort has been in institution building in the public
sector, but this has seldom led to the expected changes. The present US AID strategy for
programs is market oriented.

The Concept of the "Commons" in CZM

In the First World, CZM has been based on zoning for resource use or use potential. This
approach has not been practiced in Ecuador, although pre-Columbian Andean agricultural
societies used ecological niches for specific agricultural practices. The prehistoric land
use management is termed "ecological verticality" by Sanchez (1982). The Andean
practice has been in decline with increasing population density, its accompanying spatial
distribution, and the destruction of local societal structure. At present, with the exception
of the Galapagos Marine Park and Reserve, the concept of the "commons" appears only
in some small agricultural communities and in collectivities based on family and ex-
tended family networks.
On the Ecuadorean mainland, it is difficult to make a case for the use of the
'/commons" concept for CZM strategy. The development of this concept is a long-range
public educational chore, which the Nature Foundation and the navy have begun.

Governing Structure in Ecuador

The First World ideal of government is that those who are elected or appointed to the
highest positions should govern for the common good of the society. To do otherwise is
 66 Kris Mer sehrod

deemed a "conflict of interest." It is considered inappropriate to use government posi-

tion for personal gain. The underlying premise is that government should try to balance
the needs and interests of sectors and constituencies for the mutual benefit of all. In
Ecuador, at the present time, economic expediency is the definition of "mutual benefit."
The idea of an ecological or "commons" definition has been introduced by organizations
such as the Nature Foundation only during this decade.
Another ideal is that a legal codeconstitutional and implementing lawsestab-
lishes a governing structure so that conflict between offices of the government may be
minimized. On one level, the division is by geographic area (state vs. federal), and on
another level, the jurisdiction is by ministry or department. There is always an impact on
jurisdiction as the organization of society, politics, economy, and technology evolves or
is disrupted.
Interesting works have been written on this subject, which attempt to demystify the
U.S. ideal, for example, C.W. Mill's The Power Elite (1959). Nevertheless, "demo-
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cratic" governments are perceived to be within this ideal. In the Third World, however,
the cultural and governance traditions are different. Understanding this difference is cru-
cial when attempting to design a Third World CZM strategy.

The Compradrazgo System

One important underlying social concept of the Third World is the strong "extended
family" system. Cementing this extended family is a rich cultural tradition in Latin
America called the "compadrazgo" system. It is more than a blood relationship, and it is
much more complex than the "godfather" relation, which implies an obligation to as-
sume religious and financial responsibility for a child's upbringing in the case of the
parents' demise. To become a compadre is a recognition of social and economic ties, in
addition to the religious responsibility. It is a reinforcement of an existing relationship of
friendship and exchange. {Compadre, here, includes both men and women, since co-
madres are important members of this system.) The exchange factor is important, be-
cause it includes material exchange as well as what may be termed "political currency,"
that is, access to power or the exercise of power for the benefit of the compadres. Within
Latin American cultural tradition, there is competition between the groups so formed.
These groups form economic and political blocks with the goals of protecting themselves
from other groups and dominating their respective areas of interest.
The compadrazgo system, as a type of collectivity, should not be confused with a
general constituency because of its behavior vis-a-vis the exercise of power. It is quite
different from the First World "ideal-type" constituency. The political interest of the
compadre system is determined by socioeconomic interest. Groups strive for political
power and compete for ministerial control to further their collective well-being. Political
power and the accompanying benefits are shared first among the compadre group, sec-
ondly among other groups. The "conflict of interest" perspective of the First World ideal
is not a consideration. Thus one finds compadrazgo groupings using the power of the
inner circle of government to gain strength on the outside and using the power from the
outside to gain strength on the inside. Under these circumstances, the legal system is used
to reduce the influence of competing groups, and loopholes and connections are used to
further group interests. If a resource (permit, position, information, financial opportu-
nity) is available, a good compadre's responsibility is to think of a compadre who can use
it. Then the obligation is to find a way to deliver. The last thought to occur to a compadre
 Third World Coastal Zone Management 67

would be "but that is not permitted by the law," or "someone else is in line ahead of
you," or "that is not in the public interest."

CRMP Issues in Ecuador

The "shrimp industry crisis" was the first issue called to the attention of the URI CRMP
staff by official GOE communication. From 1984 through 1986, the crisis was a complex
of problems headed by a shortage of larvae for stocking ponds. The constituency in-
volved in this crisis is the mariculture industry. During 1986 and 1987, closed seasons
were established by the GOE to try to increase the availability of natural shrimp larvae.
Although the scientific validity of this approach was unproven, it was a response to the
constituency demand to "do something." The URI CRMP approach to this problem was
to support larval and population dynamics studies at the Institute Nacional ded Pesca
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(INP), and to develop a CRMP program to reduce shrimp larvae mortality from capture
to pond.
A related issue is the destruction of mangroves for the placement of mariculture
ponds. The constituency includes the ecologically aware members of the public and some
members of the shrimp mariculture and shrimp trawler industries who believe that the
mangroves are important shrimp nursery areas. This issue is under the jurisdiction of the
forestry division of the Ministry of Agriculture and Livestock. From a legal perspective,
there is considerable overlap of the respective jurisdictions of the ministries of com-
merce, agriculture, and defense. Because of the perceived impact of mangrove clearing,
an ambitious national mangrove management plan will be drawn up by a select com-
mittee. A working group of legal advisers has been meeting at the undersecretarial level
to examine the issue from a CZM perspective.
There are potentially major gains to be made through these planning efforts. For
example, an interesting possibility exists for investigation of the use of mangroves in
shrimp ponds. Shrimp producers with mangroves in their ponds in Manabi and Esmer-
aldas are willing to work on these studies. This effort has been presented to the USAID/E
forestry project and the result of this type of research could increase productivity on
farms while reducing the capital investment required. Positive results of this type would
underscore the utility of mangroves and lead to their conservation in a way that planning
cannot.
A third issue, the exploration for oil and gas in the Gulf of Guayaquil and elsewhere,
is a long-standing one. This issue arises from time to time and has been the basis for the
oil spill contingency planning. The environmentally aware members of the public are the
constituency with specific government agency (CEPE and Marina Mercante) awareness,
too. This planning has been an important part of the permanent commission of the South
Pacific activity, but the essence of this plan is the assignment of legal authority and, in
the case of a spill, the process to identify the responsible party for damages. Implementa-
tion in the form of cleanup teams and equipment has yet to be accomplished.
; Along the coast are problems that arise from the growth of human settlements in
dynamic areas of the coastal zone. This has led to erosion problems along the dunes and
flooding problems behind the dunes because the public and builders do not understand
the seasonality of the sites (seasonal lagoons and flood plains) or the processes of the
coast. The constituencies are scattered and very locally defined.
An important issue along the central coast is the shortage of water from human con-
sumption and for agricultural purposes. The Santa Elena Peninsula, and nearly all of
 68 Kris Merschrod

Manabi, are arid most of the year with a short and uncertain rainy season. For this
reason, they are agriculturally marginal, but with irrigation they can be very productive,
as seen in the old irrigation areas along the Portoviejo River in Manabi, as well as along
the tributaries of the Guayas River during the dry season. The constituency here is both
the urban and agricultural sectors, and this is a very important issue in coastal politics.
Public works projects and international loans for these projects are extensive.
Other issues, not generally recognized in Ecuador, are: (1) water quality from the
point of view of mariculture, (2) land tenure of communal lands vis a vis encroachment
by agricultural and maricultural interests, (3) urban sprawl and accompanying pollution
into rivers and estuaries, and (4) the intensification of agriculture and the resulting im-
pacts on other species.
These issues are well known in First World CZM, where some programs have under-
taken substantial tasks with inspiring results, e.g., the cleanup of the Androscoggin River
in Maine. Although it appears sensible to build upon the knowledge and accomplish-
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ments of the First World, Third World strategy must avoid working solely from the
conceptual level. It should begin with a specific problem as defined by a particular con-
stituency and related to the cost of the problem to that constituency. Although some of
these will be "mini-crises," the basic elements necessary for action are therean issue
and related constituency.

Coastal Resources and Overlapping Areas of Governance

In terms of difficulties with overlapping governmental jurisdictions, the CZM in Ecuador
is similar to CZM in the United States, where, in the state CZM programs, state versus
municipal lines of authority (as well as departmental jurisdictions) had to be resolved.
In Ecuador it appears that the emphasis of ministerial jurisdiction changes as the
interests of the leaders change, and this takes on special importance in light of the com-
padrazgo system. The ecologically significant location of the mariculture industrywet-
land and adjacent areashas jurisdictional consequences because the Ministry of In-
dustry and Commerce, the Ministry of Agriculture, and the Ministry of Defense all exer-
cised responsibility and authority in this area. This is seen during the permitting process
for shrimp ponds (cf. Perez et al., 1986). If one has "connections" in a ministry (with a
compadre, for example), then declaring the land to be a certain type establishes the
jurisdiction of that ministry to process the permit. This is also a prime legal area for CZM
and is one of the objectives of the URI CRMP/E.
The two examples discussed belowone legislative and the other decreeare re-
lated to current coastal issues, overlapping jurisdictions and planning. It is important to
keep in mind that legislation (a law passed by a governing body) occupies a higher rank
than a presidential decree in Ecuadorean jurisprudence.

Commission on Environmental Quality

A Commission on Environmental Quality (CEQ) was established in the early 1970s. The
political basis for its formation is unclear, but it held one or two meetings in 1974. Its
purpose was to promote integrated resource management and to watch over environ-
mental quality, precisely the role that the CRMP is to play. In the case of the CRMP/E, a
decree established this role for the present counterpart, the Environmental Affairs Office
of the Ministry of Energy and Mines. At the time of the establishment of the CEQ, there
 Third World Coastal Zone Management 69

was not a movement or constituency that could obtain funds to sustain and develop the
organization. Nevertheless, during the first Ecuadorean Environmental Congress (1987),
a j representative of an agency that was part of the CEQ pointed out that the CEQ had
jurisdiction in this area and that the Environmental Affairs Office of the Ministry of
Energy and Mines (the URI counterpart) could not assume authority.

The Bioaquatic Foundation (B-F)

This foundation was created by decree during August 1986, using a model similar to the
Science and Technology Foundation, which was created to assume the financial and
administrative responsibility of INIAP (National Agricultural Research Institute).1 The
foundation was planned with the idea that international and local funds (private and gov-
ernment) could be found to support research and extension for the bioaquatic industry.
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: In one aspect, the structure of the Bisaquatre Foundation is not unlike that of the
GRMP, i.e., the board of directors consists of key members of government agencies
related to the resources. It differs, however, because the board of the foundation has a
strong and diverse representation from the private sector. At the same time, this broad
industry representation may be a weakness. Although the board's scope of interest in-
cludes the shrimp mariculture industry and its problems, it may represent too many con-
stituencies (offshore shrimp vs. shrimp mariculture) for it to form a cohesive group.
What seems to be lacking is a "cause" or unifying task to begin operations or to "galva-
nize" all constituencies. As of March 1987, sufficient financial support had not been
found to begin operations, but the Chamber of Shrimp Producers offered to provide
office space and the use of their computer, telex, and phone.
The B-F was supported by the previous undersecretary of fisheries, but the present
undersecretary has not been as active in promoting it. Part of the reason for this change
may be based on climatic changes and the resulting biological impacts and related tech-
nological changes. The shrimp larvae shortage was a crisis from 1983/84 to 1986/87, but
the shortage disappeared with the buildup in shrimp hatcheries and the moderately strong
El Nino of 1986/87. Since the B-F was conceived and formed prior to this date (and the
change in ministers coincided with this date), the loss of ministerial interest may be
related to climatic changes.
Extended family interests may also be an important variable in this change of focus.
The extended family of the previous undersecretary had extensive interests in the shrimp
mariculture industry. Although the present undersecretary's extended family has some
shrimp mariculture interests, the offshore fisheries interests are much stronger and of
much longer history. For this reason, when the new undersecretary expressed interest in
postharvest losses of fish and improving the domestic marketing of fish, it reflected not
only a national dietary need, but also a producer need.

Regional Planning on the Coast

There are regional planning efforts on the coast of Ecuador that have specific develop-
jment goals. One is the Manabi Rehabilitation Program (MRP); another is the Guayas
'Development Commission (CEDEGE). These two programs have spanned at least two
] national administrations and cover substantial geographic areas for natural resource de-
velopment. They are not comprehensive enough to be called integrated coastal resource
 70 Kris Merschrod

management. Their focus is the development of river resources. MRP also has urban
development and infrastructure activities.
Both efforts have focused on irrigation systems as the major infrastructure works. In
Manabi the arid Portoviejo River Valley had an old irrigation system. The new irrigation
facilities works included a dam (also for drinking water) and irrigation on both sides of
the river. This system was particularly hard hit during the 1982/83 Nino before it began
operation. By 1986 it was almost entirely rebuilt. The constituency in Manabi has been
very hard driving, and because of its high indices of poverty and strong, vocal politics, it
has been able to maintain a flow of resources, helped by the crisis of 1982/83.
The case of the CEDEGE is more interesting because it represents almost 50 years of
dreams and plans for potable and irrigation water on the arid Santa Elena Peninsula.
Under the present administration, coastal interests dominate. A review of CEDEGE
land-use zoning and land tenure shows that land previously zoned for irrigated agriculture
has been used for shrimp mariculture. The zoning plan was changed to reflect this reality
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and less attractive agricultural land was used to fill the area needs. The land tenure
reveals that much of the agricultural zone is owned by shrimp maricultural interests. In a
capital-short situation, it is easy to conclude that these interests will continue in shrimp
rather than in investment in irrigated agriculture. The relative rates of return on invest-
ment also indicate that additional capital would go into shrimp mariculture rather than
irrigated agriculture. Thus here is a pre-existing development plan that has been outdated
by technology, yet the CEDEGE has become a constituency in itself, having some agri-
cultural and political value, and it has not adjusted to the current situation. In addition,
aside from the freshwater needs of Guayaquil, the downstream ecological impacts have
not been addressed. At the time of design, the ecological impact was studied in the
containment areathe mariculture industry was just beginning and the ecological link
was not seen. Now the impact of fertilizer and pesticide runoff could affect 60 percent of
Ecuador's mariculture production.
From these examples, two concepts emerge that are important for planning in
Ecuador: (1) planning is driven by specific interest groups, and (2) a comprehensive
ecological view is needed for planning.
The points mentioned so far in this discussion raise the question, "What can be the
beginning for CZM in Ecuador?" If a straightforward governmental decision cannot as-
sure the establishment of a program, much less its maintenance, what can be done? Here
the emphasis is on program and not structure, because structures can be created by law
and decree, but little is to be accomplished in Ecuador if there is no constituency backing
for maintenance. The government does respond to immediate concerns of constituencies
with "pull" even in the face of limited public resources.

CZM Possibilities in Ecuador

The circumstances outlined above influence the strategy employed during the first year of
the URI CRMP. The general strategy was to identify the key issues (mangroves and
mariculture), their constituencies, the government agencies with responsibility and au-
thority, and other private interests and their groupings, and then use the "good offices"
of the project and the counterpart agency. The program provides: (1) neutral auspices
under which meetings could be held and ideas exchanged and tested, (2) identification of
"allies," and (3) resources (technical and financial) to begin work on the issues. The role
of the CRMP was that of a catalyzing agent with some follow through.
 Third World Coastal Zone Management 71

By undertaking tasks in the form of informal working groups, the interested parties
were brought together to do the following: (1) "test" state agencies to see how inter-
agency networks could be established, (2) see how overlapping jurisdictions could be
worked out, (3) determine how resources could be combined, (4) identify the positions of
new policymakers, and (5) examine how constituencies could be satisfied or combined.
From experience with the issues, the interested CZM-related agencies are identified
and the abilities assessed and built up. From this base a more formal structure may
evolve, but the immediate goal is to maintain informal working groups to bring the inter-
ested parties together. If this strategy works, it may be that a "free" or autonomous
group that can obtain funds for specific issues would be all the structure that is needed or
can be developed for CZM under current political circumstances in Ecuador. The legal/
institutional analysis done during the first year of the URICRMP shows, clearly, that one
agency cannot control the others nor can it obtain the jurisdiction. Freedom from routine
responsibilities would enable program facilitators to concentrate on the current issues and
attract resources from private and public sources.
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If a CZM program assumes a policy and management role, then, as the issues in-
crease, the program must expand and the bureaucratic burden may overcome the flexi-
bility needed to address key issues. On the other hand, if a CZM program tackles specific
issues, brings together the interested parties, works on the issues at the implementing
level, and leaves the interested parties in charge of the issue, then the CZM program
could maintain its flexibility.
With this approach, cues are taken from the crisis mode by taking on the small tasks
and needs of constituencies rather than trying to deal with societywide crises. Neverthe-
less, the crisis mode must be combined with a planning mode by bringing the issues and
related constituencies before established agencies responsible for research and action.
The difficulty with this approach is that responding to varied needs and tasks may not
provide the conceptual foundation that is needed to create a structured program. If this is
the case, then a major objective of projects such as URI CRMP, CZM will not be
achieved, i.e., the creation of structure and program. In the meanwhile, however, issues
related coastal resources will be managed, and this is the overall goal of CZM.

CZM Program Needs

!A CZM program needs a set of issues and related constituencies to coordinate with the
institutional goals of the program. While working on the institutional goal of creating a
meaningful structure, the issues and constituencies must be brought together to provide
support for the structure.
The ecologically aware public in Ecuador is an important constituency, but it is a
small segment of the population and cannot be called a movement. Some of its members
have political power in the present government. And in the navy, there is a policy-level
igroup that is very aware of the coastal resources and the conditions of the coastal commu-
nities. These small, ecologically aware groups are making an effort to increase environ-
! mental awareness. It is likely that members of these groups would have the respect of
jopposition political parties were they to come to power in coming elections. These
groups are important allies for an integrated CZM program, and they are part of the basis
for CZM. However, expanded public education and training programs are needed to
maintain the CZM programs.
The shrimp industry constituency described by Meltzoff and LiPuma (1986) is cur-
 72 Kris Merschrod

rently highly visible because of its political and economic power and because it is part of
the most recent and dynamic force that has appeared on the Ecuador coast since the
banana, cacao, oil, and poultry booms. Development of this industry is the key issue in
the coastal economy because of the employment opportunities it creates along the entire
coast. The area occupied by the industry was, with notable exception,2 not used before. It
opened new frontiers geographically, in export commodities, and in economic opportu-
nity for a large segment of the coastal population. This has brought with it new economic
and political power and has strengthened existing power bases.
The political power of the industry is importantvirtually all the political parties and
all branches of the armed forces are involved in the industry. On the Sierra Costa level,
coastal people began the industry, but the Sierra interests were not far behind in acquiring
holdings.
This new industry had an important problem from 1984 through 1987 that was a
constraint on its development and a bottleneck for the present investment. There was a
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scarcity of larvae for the stocking demands of the ponds created. This shortage has been
seen as a financial crisis for the industry and the government. Because of this, the constit-
uency called on the government to help solve the problem. When the URI CRM project
was starting, high government officials asked that priority be given to working on this
problem, and thus it was identified as a crisis.
The URI CRMP began work on the shortage of larvae by examining the area where
immediate gains were possible: the reduction of larval mortality between capture and the
ponds. However, this was sufficient only to gain the attention of the constituency. To
build toward a program with more complex resources management goals and a broader
constituency is the longer range task.
As mentioned previously, the moderate Nino of 1986/87 alleviated this shortage. In
fact, the hatchery industry sought a longer closed season on larval fisheries because the
oversupply depressed the demand and the price for hatchery larvae. This, however, is a
transitory problem because the development of new and vacant ponds will use the supply.
Coping with the "Nino" cycle in terms of larval availability will be an interesting CZM
challenge for years to come.
The shrimp industry is a principal constituency of CZM because of its socioeconomic
and political power. In 1987 the Shrimp Producers Association of Guayas, US AID/
Ecuador, a maricultural consultant to the URI CRMP, and the URI in-country project
manager began to design a project to address the issues of the shrimp industry constitu-
ency. This was a substantial opportunity to combine financial resources of the CRMP
with USAID Mission and industry funds at a time of declining funding from USAID and
USAID/E. However, the CRMP director and URI insisted that the role of the CRMP was
to identify and study issues, but not to be directly involved in the implementation of
projects. With this decision, the URI CRMP gave up part of its catalytic role and lost
credibility with USAID/E and this key constituency. It lost the opportunity to show that
the CRMP would follow through the study and recommendations phase to create a
working program. Generally, in the case of university development work overseas, spe-
cifically under Title XII of the Foreign Assistance Act, it appears that land grant colleges
are more comfortable with the "research, plan, and recommend" role than they are with
implementation and the assumption of the corresponding responsibilities. This is impor-
tant because the promotion of CZM for the Third World, as funded by S&T/Washington,
is based on the university link.
The major goal of the CRMP was the establishment of a program. To be successful as
 Third World Coastal Zone Management 73

ajprogram, the follow through should include the establishment of "stand-along" pro-
grams. After all, these groups are potential allies on other issues, but if a reputation as a
"starter only" is established, little support can be expected from constituencies in the
future.
The shrimp industry is dependent upon the natural biological processes of marine/
land interface. It is in the midst of the aquatic food chain. It depends on the quality of
water. The source of its feed and product is the interaction of salt and fresh waters and the
nutrients that are carried by them. It occupies a niche into which the society empties its
waste products. Every activity in Ecuador west of the continental divide contributes to or
detracts from the shrimp mariculture industry. This watershed area includes practically
all the manufacturing, agriculture, and mining in the country. The impact of this activity
affects the entire coast. Thus any environmental impact that may be of concern anywhere
in the country is most probably a concern to the shrimp mariculture industry. Any irritant
to urban or rural dwellers can be an irritant to the shrimp mariculture industry.
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In brief, maintenance of the ecosystem is a direct concern of the shrimp mariculture

industry. This is not to say that integrated coastal resource management would be con-
flict-free with regard to the industry. No, there are issues between this constituency and
others (mangroves, agricultural runoff, hatchery vs. tourism), but when viewed in rela-
tion to the congruencies, they are small. Furthermore, one could begin immediately with
the communalities to broaden the constituency and build support for the maintenance of a
GZM program.

Conclusion

An example from the URI CRMP shrimp subproject illustrates the linkage of issues. The
Chamber of Shrimp Producers was presented with the example of pesticide contamina-
tion in Panama and a few results from water samples from the Ecuadorean coast. The
Chamber showed an immediate concern for water and feed quality. It realized that, as an
association, it could monitor feed quality by means of laboratory testing. Thus the
members, as consumers, could control their suppliers. Maintaining feed quality could be
a government rule, but this would require the development of trust in the government
institutions charged with sampling, testing, and reporting. Most likely, it would be more
expensive than the private program.
| Water quality protection could also be a government role. But the shrimp producers
could sample their own intakes and finance their own testing for parameters that are of
interest to them. As their needs change, they, as a small group, can change their testing/
sampling quickly. At the present time, the industry does not pay taxes to support a gov-
ernment effort. A water quality board at the national level would have to respond to a
very broad constituency.
If chemical contamination is detrimental to the shrimp industry, then others depen-
dent on a healthy ecosystem will also be concerned. The Nature Foundation has been
working on aspects of pesticide contamination and developing a constituency on this
issue for several years. Constituencies concerned with chemical contamination could join
forces and become sufficiently influential to bring about changes. This was the basis for
the working group strategy used to implement the URI CRMP.
The maintenance of a CZM program will be an ongoing battle, but if the issues are
linked to an active partnership with the constituencies, support will be assured.
 74 Kris Merschrod

Notes
1. The Science and Technology Foundation is yet another example of a relatively new mode of
USAID operation overseas. These foundations are a manifestation of: (1) U.S. government "faith"
in the private sector to manage what have been government functions, and (2) frustration with the
previously AID funded ministries to implement programs that respond to the needs of broad constit-
uencies, e.g., fanners. Thus one observes S&T foundations for the agricultural sector as AID
projects in Ecuador, Honduras, Bolivia, Costa Rica, etc. It is a continuation of "institution
building," but now with private sector boards rather than public ministerial control. The Bioaquatic
Foundation built upon this model (one of the leaders of this effort is the brother of an ex-minister of
agriculture who supported the S&T Foundation).
2. The most notable exception is the case of the forced eviction of a community that held the
land by common law on an island in the Gulf of Guayaquil. These people used the mangroves for
fishing, wood, and shellfish. In other areas, one notes that areas around ponds are "off limits" to
people who once fished there. Also, agricultural lands are now being converted to pondsareas
observed are both seasonal pasture and crop lands.
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References
Hurtado, Osvaldo. 1980. Political Power in Ecuador. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico
Press.
Meltzoff, Sarah K., and Edward LiPuma. 1986. "Economy of Coastal Zone Management: Shrimp
Mariculture in Ecuador." Coastal Zone Management Journal 14(4): 349-380.
Mills, C. Wright. 1959. The Power Elite. New York: Oxford University Press.
Perez, E. et al. 1986. "The Legal and Institutional Framework for Farmed Shrimp Management in
Ecuador." Paper presented at the Workshop on Development Strategy for a Sustainable
Shrimp Mariculture Industry. Guayaquil, Ecuador, 4 - 8 August.
Sanchez, R. 1982. "The Andean Economic System and Capitalism." In Ecology and Exchange in
the Andes, David Lehmann (ed.). London: Cambridge University Press.