FOUN 1105

Scientific and Technical Writing

Plenary 2

APPLICATION OF FORMAL AND INFORMAL ENGLISH

SUMMARY WRITING
PARAPHRASING
INTRODUCTION TO TECHNICAL WRITING
 Lessons Objectives
At the end of this session, students should be able to:

Identify formal and informal language structures

Explain what is meant by summary and paraphrase
Identify differences between summary writing and
paraphrasing
Offer a working definition of technical writing
Lessons Objectives, continued
Identify attributes of technical writing
Enumerate differences between technical writing and other types of
writing
Discuss technical writing as discursive prose
Critically assess a sample of technical writing
 (Reminder) - COFHER:
The Nature of Academic Writing

Complexity
Objectivity
Formality
Hedging
Explicitness
Responsibility

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(Reminder) COFHER: Formality
Formality - no abbreviations
- no contractions
- no clichs/no slang
- no use of Creole
- no sweeping
generalizations
- no superfluous
expressions
- use of linking words

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 Applying Formal and Informal English

The following sentences are formal and informal. Write F (formal) or

I (informal) after each sentence. Try to identify the features of
informal language use in the informal sentences and replace those
with more formal language structures.

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Formal vs Informal Exercise
1. The project will be completed next year.
2. I showed that his arguments didnt hold water.
3. I wonder why he put up with those terrible conditions for so long.
4. Five more tests will be necessary before the experiment can be
concluded.
5. It is possible to consider the results from a different viewpoint.
Formal vs Informal Exercise,
continued.
6. It has been proved that the arguments so far are without foundation.
7. Hell have to do another five tests before he can stop the experiment.
8. It is not clear why such adverse conditions were tolerated for so long.
9. There are a number of reasons why the questionnaire should be
revised.
10. Well finish the job next year.
 Summary vs. Paraphrase
Paraphrase
A re-statement of the text in your own words without
omitting points or examples. Utilised when the bulk of
the original content is necessary.

Summary
A re-statement of the text, reduced to its essentials, but
kept fluent by preserving the original connection
between these main ideas.
 Paraphrasing is
1. A way of preserving the content of a text in your own
words

2. A writing tool for avoiding overuse of quotations and for

clarifying ideas from your source

3. A study tool for reshaping ideas into a form that will

linger in your mind because the wording is compatible
with your own style

4. A reading technique for opening a text by rewording

ideas in a language that you can manage easily.
 Paraphrasing is not
1. A contraction to main points

2. Direct quotations

3. Near-quotation, with little difference in wording or sentence

structure

4. A combination of ideas from the text with your own ideas or

inferences

5. An adaptation of the original, adjusting the content.

 A further word on paraphrasing
Aspects of paraphrasing texts:
Retaining the original meaning
Completely rewording the text
Changing the word order
Changing the grammar
Acknowledging the source exactly according to the
referencing preference of your discipline (Chicago
Manual of Style).
 How to paraphrase
Do not attempt a word-for-word replacement of whole
sentences. Rather, condense sentences or short series of
sentences to phrases in your own words.

When you return to your notes, you are unlikely to

reconstruct these fragments in such a way as to
reproduce the authors expression too closely.
 What is an effective summary?
An effective summary is a condensed version of an
entire piece of writing. It maintains the central material
and omits the peripheral material while answering
basic questions about the original text such as:

"Who did what, where, and when?", or

"What is the main idea of the text?",
"What are the main supporting points?",
"What are the major pieces of evidence?".
 An effective summary
An effective summary may use key words from the
original text but should not contain whole phrases or
sentences from the original unless quotation marks are
used

Quotations should only be made if there is a reason for

using the original words, for example, because the
choice of words is significant, or because the original is
so well expressed.
 An effective summary
continued

An effective summary demonstrates that you have

understood the text.

It must be acknowledged by an in-text citation and in the

references.
 Exemplifying
Paraphrase vs. Summary
Original text taken from Rohlehr (1990) :

Sparrows early years were characterised by self-

assertiveness and individualism. These qualities informed
both his professional and personal lives. In four years he
recorded one hundred songs, an entirely new
phenomenon in Calypso and, one would imagine, any
other kind of popular music. Sparrows calypsoes were
almost all melodious. He was also versatile, singing in
several styles and on a wide range of themes political,
topical events, sex,
 Original text continued
prostitution, urban violence, Carnival among others. While
he is viewed as an innovator, almost everything he did was
traditional. It was only his style that seemed new. Popular
melodies from the Anglo-American argot that Sparrow is
said to have introduced into the Calypso, had in fact
penetrated the form since the thirties, while jazz-style
accompaniment had been complained about since the
twenties.
 Paraphrase of Rohlehrs text
Sparrows early development is aggressive and independent.
This was demonstrated publicly and privately. He produced
one hundred recordings in four years a remarkable
achievement for the genre. His calypsoes demonstrated not
only musical quality but variety of style and topic, including
Carnival. He covered a wide range of socially relevant subjects.
However, the originality for which he is famed lay in his style
rather than his content or in the actual type of music.
Influences like English and American popular songs and jazz
that some believe to be Sparrows innovations had been
established long before.
 Summary of Rohlehrs text
Sparrows early work is seen as prolific, varied, socially
relevant and delivered in an original style, although
neither the content nor the type of music was new.
 4 Modes of Writing
DEAN

Descriptive
Expository
Argumentative
Narrative
 Scientific Writing
Scientific writing is a genre of writing that is characterised by
the use of a related scientific register and so becomes
applicable to disciplines , topics, perspectives, theories and
arguments that deal with the sciences.

This focus ,together with formal language use, pivots scientific

writing as sound academic writing.
Although summary writing and reviews of related literature
may be found in every discipline, when applied to scientific
foci, topics and theses, they become elements of scientific
writing.
Technical Writing
Technical writing is a third aspect of
scientific writing. It may be related to two
of the major modes of writing:
1. Descriptive technical descriptions of
phenomena
2. Expository objective information in a
neutral tone
Technical Writing, continued
Technical writing involves communicating complex, often
field-specific information to those who need it to
accomplish some task or goal. This type of writing may
be found in the social sciences, the natural sciences ,
the pure sciences, the applied sciences, the medical
sciences, agricultural science and engineering.
A scientific register is used in the disciplines of the FST
and the FFA and so technical writing becomes
fundamental to the academic writing thrust of these
faculties.
The Concept
Technical writing is a sub-genre of writing that focuses on
specialized information pertinent to a specific discipline, is
presented by means of a neutral and impersonal tone and
succinct language use without bias or opinion, and is
underscored by clarity, comprehensiveness and
conciseness.

All FST and FFA disciplines require the use of technical

writing.
The goal
The goal of technical writing is to inform by presenting
specialized material in the clearest and most effective
manner possible.

The commonly used language in academic writing in any

Anglophone territory is formal Standard English.

The application of COFHER, previously discussed in

relation to two other dimensions of scientific writing
summary writing and literature reviews is also relevant
to technical writing.

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The language
As with any other dimension of scientific writing,
technical writing calls on the writer to consider the
following:

The purpose of the writing

The audience that is being written to
The use of diction and register
Appropriate style

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Your
purpose in To inform: to provide information without expecting
any action on the part of the reader
technical To instruct: to give information in the form of
writing directions, instructions, procedures, so that readers
will be able to do something
Understanding
To propose: to respond to a request for proposals
Why you are (RFP) or to suggest a plan of action for a specific
writing problem

(Your purpose) To recommend: to suggest an action or series of

actions based on alternative possibilities that have
been evaluated
To persuade: to convince readers to take action, to
change their attitudes or behaviours based on valid
opinions and evidence

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 Your audience in technical writing
Since the goal of technical writing is information
transfer (sending a clear, noise-free message), what
you say and how you say it depends on the
audience.
The nature of the audience determines the level of
Writing with your technical detail, the amount of
Audience in mind context/background information you provide, and
the organization of the
document.
It is important to understand who is reading the
document so that the information you convey is
transferred effectively.
As a writer, it is crucial to have an awareness of the
readers knowledge, ability level, and interest in the
information being conveyed.
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 Your diction in technical writing
Economy is the name of the game when it comes to technical
writing. Technical documents should be clear and concise,
never wordy and flowery. Always choose words and phrases
that are simple and straightforward.
Verbiage vs. Efficient
Using commence start
Efficient endeavour try
wording a large number of many
in the majority of instances usually
the reason why is that because
alternate choices alternatives
completely eliminate eliminate
connected together connected
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 Your style in technical writing
Technical writing tends to be rather dry. This is
because, compared to other types of writing, the
purpose of technical writing is to inform rather than
to entertain. Engineers and scientists are called upon
to record and document information in an objective
Using manner, and in doing so, the style of writing reflects
appropriate this objective approach.

writing style Avoid Personal Pronouns: for most documents, it is

unnecessary to use I, we, us, and especially
you. Instead of saying, I (or we) took
measurements, it is acceptable to say,
Measurements were taken.

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 Technical writing vs. Persuasive writing

TECHNICAL WRITING PERSUASIVE WRITING

Uses formal language May reflect informal or formal
language
Precision and brevity of
information Verbosity and circumlocution
may be utilized
Free of opinion and bias and is Relies on subjectivity
very objective
Uses a neutral and impersonal May use a mixture of personal
tone and impersonal tones
Underpinned by description and
exposition Underpinned by argument

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 Technical writing vs. Literary writing

TECHNICAL WRITING LITERARY WRITING

Primary purpose is to inform Primary purpose is to entertain

Evident in manuals , reports, Evident in novels, short stories ,
graphic organizers poetry and plays
Emphasis is on analysing Emphasis is on creative
techniques
phenomena
Largely unpredictable
Mostly predictable
Linear fashion is critical for
Free standing in structure and comprehension and completion
not depictive of a linear fashion of plot
Uses denotative vocabulary Uses connotative vocabulary
(literal, dictionary definition) (implied meaning of word)

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 Conclusive attributes of
technical writing

Its primary purpose is to inform and does so by means

of formal language and a scientific register

It is underpinned by precision, objectivity, neutrality of

stance, and impersonality of tone

It boasts of clarity, accuracy, conciseness and a lack of

verbosity

It is predictable and users should be able to find

information easily through an Index or hyperlinks
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 Attributes continued...
It deals with facts and figures and must be interpreted
literally, not figuratively

Its audience is small and specific as the material does not

necessarily appeal to a large audience or the man-on-
the-street

The technical writer has no room for indecision and

uncertainty. The writing skill depicts a measure of
decisiveness and certainty as the subject matter is well
understood by the writer.
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 Accuracy in technical writing
Being truthful and accurate is extremely important
in technical writing.
Technical and scientific writing is grounded in fact. It
is always wrong and unethical to falsify information
Providing and data, and that is particularly true in technical
writing.
accurate
Providing inaccurate or wrong information causes
information readers to question your credibility and reliability. It
is important to always report the facts about a
particular experiment, even if those facts are not
what was expected or desired.

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 Clarity in technical writing
While you may be able to say the same thing in a
variety of ways, clarity and directness are the most
important characteristics of technical writing.
Expressing information clearly is crucial; you NEVER
Expressing want to make your reader work harder than
necessary to understand the
Information message/idea/information you are conveying.
clearly Sentences must have a single meaning with no room
for ambiguity. Technical writing should be direct, not
suspenseful.
Technical writing is not the place for poetic language
and innuendo.

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The structure
Technical writing appears in descriptions and reports
May be seen in bulleted points, graphic organizers
(maps, charts, tables, graphs, etc), or prose
It may also appear as a combination of these
Its format features in print, multimedia and html
documents
The technical writer utilizes the structure that best
suits his purpose, writing context and reading audience

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 Accessibility in technical writing
Technical writing is known for its use of headings and
subheadings and for the way information is made easily
accessible by grouping material into chunks.
Paragraphs are usually much shorter in technical writing
Making than in other types of writing. Pages full of text only and
long paragraphs are discouraging to readers. Readers want
information to be able to quickly access information, and the best way to
help them find the info they need is to provide them with
accessible visual cues such as descriptive headings, and to make use of
numbered lists and bulleted items.
Figures and tables provide visual relief from all of the text
on the page and help the reader to access important data in
documents.

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 Examples of related
documents
Operations manuals Maps
Company ethics codes Graphs, tables and charts
Safety manuals Product reports
Manufacturing guidelines Drug algorithms
Scientific proposals Checklists
Technical descriptions Communications protocol
Technical reports

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 Your format in technical writing
Adherence to document type - understanding what
is expected in an email vs. a memo, knowing the
difference between a proposal and a
recommendation report, and understanding how to
write up the results of an experiment vs. the
Satisfying conclusions;
document
Format - many document types specify a specific
specifications format be followed, for example, various professional
(type of journals and government documents require
specified font, margins, labelling for figures and
document) graphics, line and paragraph spacing, number of
words per document or per section
section headings and subheadings

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 Choosing the layout/organization
The choice of layout/organization in any technical
document is dependent upon four factors:

1. The writers task/purpose/goal

2. The audience
3. The type of information to be communicated
4. The role of visual literacy, if any

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 The major layout/organization - prose
Prose is any stretch of meaningful discourse.
Words become sentences, sentences become paragraphs,
paragraphs become essays, etc.
Although technical writing may utilize other structural
elements such as bulleted points and graphic organizers,
prose serves to contextualize information while providing
objectivity and neutrality, utilize formality in English, and
foster appropriate academic writing communicative
competencies.

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 Organization in technical writing
In general, technical writing is organized in a direct,
linear format. ALL technical documents have a clear:
Introduction: this is where you provide motivation
and context/background for the
Organizing topic/material/information being presented in the
document; always provide the big picture before
Information jumping into the technical details
logically
Body: this is where the information is expounded
and linearly upon and where technical details are given
Conclusion: this is where the main points are re-
emphasized and where the big picture is once again
discussed

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 Functions of Prose in all
Modes of Writing

Gives information
Describes realties and perceptions
Relates and narrates events
Communicates ideas and opinions
Reasons and rationalizes
Argues and debates
Identifies relationships analysis of wholes into parts,
classifications based on commonalities, cause and
effect, comparison and contrast, etc
Outlines processes
Defines
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 Sources of Prose
Textbooks Science journals
Novels Encyclopedias
Print media Magazines
Printed advertisements Business communication
such as letters and reports
Your essay assignments
Newspapers

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Categories of prose
There are two broad categories of prose writing:

1. One type is aesthetic/literary

e.g. short stories, fairy tales, novels, movie plots

2. The other type is academic

e.g. essays, journal articles, textbooks, manuals

Technical writing falls under the latter category

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Aesthetic/Literary prose
The aesthetic/literary discourse reflects a subjective
orientation of the writer to the subject matter being
addressed.
It is characterized by several literary elements such
as character, characterization, conflict, setting,
narration, tone, mood, etc.

He is a tall, well-built man who claims the streets

with that irresistible Caribbean stride, shattering
hearts as he passes by.

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Assessing this writers account
Is subjective in order to fulfil an expressive purpose
(expresses bias, opinion, feelings,)

Does not appeal to the intellect of the reader, but to the

imagination or emotion

Uses connotative words that cause the reader to respond

emotionally rather than intellectually on hearing the words)

Aesthetic discourse tends to be imprecise

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Technical/Scientific writing prose

Technical/scientific discourse, on the other hand,

reflects the intent of the writer to be dispassionate
and neutral in his/her approach to the subject
matter.

He is 175 cm tall and weighs 210 lbs.

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Assessing this writers account
Reflects technical/scientific writing
Is precise
Conveys objective information
Contains statistical data that is interpreted literally and can
be verified
Is not subjective
Is underpinned by a neutrality and impersonality of tone
Boasts of clarity, accuracy, conciseness and a lack of verbosity
Depicts a measure of decisiveness and certainty as the
subject matter is well understood by the writer.

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Activity
Read the following sample of technical writing

Now, critically assess the sample to ascertain whether

it conforms to the characteristics of technical writing

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 Sample #1 of Technical Writing
The leopard is the smallest of the four great cats and most
resembles its cousin, the jaguar. Leopards vary in length
from 3 6.25 ft, with a tail of 22.5 43 in, and stand 17.5
30.5 in height at the shoulder. Males weigh between 80
150 lbs and females between 62.5 100 lbs. This spotted
cat has short powerful limbs, a heavy torso, thick neck, and
long tail. Its short sleek coat varies greatly from pale straw
and gray-buff to bright, deep ochre and chestnut, and
sometimes black. The black leopard is found mostly in wet,
dense forests. Large black spots are grouped into rosettes
on the shoulders, upper arms, back, flanks and haunches,
and smaller spots are scattered on the lower limbs, head,
throat and chest. There are black blotches on the belly.

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Recap of Todays Lecture
Application of Formal and Informal English
Summary Writing
Paraphrasing
Introduction to Technical Writing
Please Remember To.
Attend 2 two-hour plenaries and 1 two-hour tutorial each week
Download the course outline and student manual
Attend a tutorial, even if you have not yet received financial clearance
Do self-assessment exercises (student manual)
Read handouts on myeLearning
Next Lecture
1. Number Expression
2. Technical Writing and Data Interpretation
3. Technical Writing and Prose Writing