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A NEW APPROACH TO CONwXSUMER
THEORY*
KELVIN J. LANCASTER
Johns Hopkins University
goods which are apparently unrelated in of utility. The theory set out here goes
certain of their characteristics may be much further than these ideas. Multiple
related in others. characteristics, structurally similar to
We shall assume that the structure we those of the present paper but confined
have interposed between the goods them- to a particular problem and a point util-
selves and the consumer's preferences is, ity function, are implicit in the classical
in principle, at least, of an objective kind. "diet problem" of Stigler (1945), and
That is, the characteristics possessed by multidimensioned utilities have been
a good or a combination of goods are the used by workers in other fields, for ex-
same for all consumers and, given units ample, Thrall (1954). The third assump-
of measurement, are in the same quanti- tion, of activities involving complemen-
ties,2 so that the personal element in con- tary collections of goods, has been made
sumer choice arises in the choice between by Morishima (1959) but in the context
collections of characteristics only, not in of single-dimensioned utility.
the allocation of characteristics to the A variety of other approaches with
goods. The objective nature of the goods- similarities to that of the present paper
characteristics relationship plays a cru- occur scattered through the literature,
cial role in the analysis and enables us to for example, in Quandt (1956), or in
distinguish between objective and pri- Becker (1965), or in various discussions
vate reactions to such things as changes of investment-portfolio problems. These
in relative prices. are typically set out as ad hoc approaches
The essence of the new approach can to particular problems. Perhaps the most
be summarized as follows, each assump- important aspect of this paper is that the
tion representing a break with tradition: model is set out as a general replacement
1. The good, per se, does not give util- of the traditional analysis (which remains
ity to the consumer; it possesses charac- as a special case), rather than as a special
teristics, and these characteristics give solution to a special problem.
rise to utility. It is clear that only by moving to mul-
2. In general, a good will possess more tiple characteristics can we incorporate
than one characteristic, and many char- many of the intrinsic qualities of indi-
acteristics will be shared by more than vidual goods. Consider the choice be-
one good. tween a gray Chevrolet and a red Chev-
3. Goods in combination may possess rolet. On ordinary theory these are either
characteristics different from those per- the same commodity (ignoring what may
taining to the goods separately. be a relevant aspect of the choice situa-
A move in the direction of the first tion) or different commodities (in which
assumption has already been made by case there is no a priori presumption that
various workers including Strotz (1957, they are close substitutes). Here we re-
1959) and Gorman (1959), with the gard them as goods associated with satis-
"utility tree" and other ideas associating faction vectors which differ in only one
a particular good with a particular type component, and we can proceed to look
2 Since the units in which the characteristics are at the situation in much the same way
measured are arbitrary, the objectivity criterion as the consumer-or even the economist,
relating goods and characteristics reduces to the in private life-would look at it.
requirement that the relative quantities of a par-
ticular characteristic between unit quantities of any
Traditional theory is forever being
pair of goods should be the same for all consumers. forced to interpret quite common real-life
NEW APPROACH TO CONSUMER THEORY 135
happenings, such as the effects of adver- hold for all individuals, the coefficients
tising in terms of "change of taste," an ajk being determined by the intrinsic
entirely non-operational concept since properties of the goods themselves and
there is no way of predicting the relation- possibly the context of technological
ship between preference before and after knowledge in the society.
the change. The theory outlined here, al- 2. More heroically, we shall assume
though extremely rich in useful ways of that each consumption activity produces
thinking about consumer behavior, may a fixed vector of characteristics3 and that
also be thought to run the danger of add- the relationship is again linear, so that,
ing to the economist's extensive collec- if zi is the amount of the ith characteris-
tion of non-operational concepts. If this tic
were true, it need not, of course, inhibit Z= bikyk, (3)
the heuristic application of the theory. k
x > 0 which we shall assume to hold ini- economy, and the behavior of consumers.
tially, although in some applications and Certain properties of the transforma-
with some sign conventions they may not tions between G- and C-space follow
always form part of the model. immediately from the fact that B is a
In traditional consumer analysis, both matrix of constants, and the transforma-
the budget constraint and the utility tion z = Bx is linear. These can be stated
function are defined on G-space, and we as follows, proof being obvious.
can immediately relate the two as in the a) A convex set in G-space will transform
ordinary textbook indifference-curve dia- into a convex set in C-space, so that the budget
gram. Here we can only relate the utility constraint px < k, x _ 0 will become a convex
function to the budget constraint after constraint on the z's.
b) An inverse transformation will not neces-
both have been defined on the same sarily exist, so that an arbitrary vector z in
space. We have two choices: (1) We can C-space may have no vector x in G-space cor-
transform the utility function into G- responding to it.
space and relate it directly to the budget c) Where an inverse transformation does
constraint; (2) we can transform the exist from C-space into G-space, it will trans-
form convex sets into convex sets so that, for
budget constraint into C-space and relate any set of z's which do have images in G-space,
it directly to the utility function U(z). the convexity of the U function on the z's will
Each of these techniques is useful in be preserved in relation to the x's.
different circumstances. In the case of
The properties are sufficient to imply
the first, we can immediately write U(z)
that utility maximization subject to con-
= U (Bx) = u(x), so we have a new
straint will lead to determinate solutions
utility function directly in terms of
for consumer behavior.
goods, but the properties of the function
u(x) depend crucially on the structure of V. THE STRUCTURE OF CONSUMPTION
the matrix B and this, together with the TECHNOLOGY
constraints x >? and z = Bx > 0 give a
The consumption technology, which is
situation much more complex than that
of conventional utility maximization. as important a determinant of consumer
The second technique again depends cru- behavior as the particular shape of the
cially on the structure of B and again utility function, is described fully only by
will generally lead to a constraint of a the A and B matrixes together, but cer-
more complex kind than in conventional tain types of behavior can be related to
analysis. more generalized descriptions of the tech-
The central role in the model is, of nology. We shall distinguish broadly be-
course, played by tche transformation tween structural properties of the tech-
equation z = Bx and the structure and nology, such as the relationship between
qualitative4 properties of the matrix B. the number of rows and columns of B
Most of the remainder of the paper will and/or A and whether A, B are decom-
be concerned with the relationship be- posable, and qualitative properties, such
tween the properties of B, which we can as the signs of the elements of A and B.
call the consumption technology5 of the The leading structural property of the
4 "Qualitative" is used here in a somewhat more 5 If the relationship between goods and activities
general sense than in the author's work on the prop- is not one-to-one, the consumption technology con-
-erties of qualitatively defined systems for which see sists of the two matrixes B, A, as in the technology
Lancaster (1962, 1965). of the Von Neumann growth model.
138 KELVIN J. LANCASTER
consumption technology is the relation- r - n characteristics being determined
ship between the number of characteris- from the remaining r - n equations and
tics (r) and the number of activities (m), the goods vector x corresponding to z. In
that is, between the number of rows and this case, it is generally most useful to
columns of B. It will be assumed that B analyze consumer behavior by transform-
contains no linear dependence, so that its ing the utility function into G-space,
rank is the number of rows or columns, rather than the budget constraint into
whichever is less. We shall assume, unless C-space. What does the transformed util-
otherwise stated, a one-to-one relation- ity function look like?
ship between goods and activities. As shown in the Appendix, the utility
1. The number of characteristics is function transformed into G-space re-
equal to the number of goods. In this tains its essential convexity. An intuitive
case, there is a one-to-one relationship way of looking at the situation is to note
between activities vectors and character- that all characteristics collections which
istics vectors. We have z = Bx, x = are actually available are contained in an
B-1z. If B is a permutation of a diagonal n-dimensional slice through the r-dimen-
matrix then there is a one-to-one rela- sional utility function, and that all slices
tionship between each component of z through a convex function are themselves
and each component of y, and the model convex. The transformation of this n-di-
becomes, by suitable choice of units, ex- mensional slice into G-space preserves
actly the same as the traditional model. this convexity.
If B is not a diagonal permutation, the For investigation of most aspects of
objects of utility are composite goods consumer behavior, the case in which the
rather than individual goods, and the number of characteristics exceeds the
model has some important differences number of goods-a case we may often
from the conventional analysis. Note wish to associate with simple societies-
how specialized is the traditional case in can be treated along with the very spe-
relation to our general model. cial case (of which conventional analysis
If B is a diagonal permutation but is a special subcase) in which the number
there is not a one-to-one relationship be- of characteristics and goods is equal. In
tween activities and goods so that A is other words, given the consumption tech-
not a diagonal permutation, we have a nology, we concern ourselves only with
model similar to that of Morishima the particular n-dimensional slice of the
r-dimensional utility function implied by
(1959).
2. The number of characteristics is that technology6 and, since the slice of
greater than the number of goods. In the utility function has the same general
this case, the relationships Bx = z con- properties as any n-dimensional utility
tain more equations than variables xi so function, we can proceed as if the utility
that we cannot, in general, find a goods function was defined on only n charac-
vector x which gives rise to an arbitrarily teristics.
specified characteristics vector z. We can 6 Assuming no decomposability or singularities in
take a basis of any arbitrarily chosen n the consumption technology matrix B, then, if z,, is
the vector of any n components of z and Bn, the cor-
characteristics and consider the reduced responding square submatrix of B, the subspace of
n X n system 11= a, which gives a one- C-space to which the consumer is confined, is that
to-one relationship between n character- defined by zr-n = Br-nBn7 Zn, where zr-n, Br-n are
the vector and corresponding submatrix of B con-
istics and the n goods, with the remaining sisting of the components not included in zn, Bn-
NEW APPROACH TO CONSUMER THEORY 139
3. In the third case, in which the num- constraint px = k, can determine a char-
ber of goods exceeds the number of char- acteristics frontier consisting of all z such
acteristics, a situation probably descrip- that the value of the above program is
tive of a complex economy such as that just equal to k. There will be a determi-
of the United States, there are properties nate goods vector associated with each
of the situation that are different from point of the characteristics frontier.
those of the two previous cases and from As in the previous case, it is easy to
the conventional analysis. show that the set of characteristics vec-
Here, the consumption technology, tors in C-space that are preferred or in-
z = Bx, has fewer equations than vari- different to z transforms into a convex
ables so that, for every characteristics set in G-space if it is a convex set in
vector there is more than one goods vec- C-space; it is also easy to show that the
tor. For every point in his characteristics- set of z's that can be obtained from the
space, the consumer has a choice between set of x's satisfying the convex constraint
different goods vectors. Given a price px ? k is also a convex set. The charac-
vector, this choice is a pure efficiency teristics frontier is, therefore, concave to
I ;
FIG. I
choice, so that for every characteristics the origin, like a transformation curve.
vector the consumer will choose the most For a consumption technology with four
efficient combination of goods to achieve goods and two characteristics, the fron-
that collection of characteristics, and the
tier could have any of the three shapes
efficiency criterion will be minimum cost.shown in Figure 1. Note that, in general,
if B is a positive matrix, the positive
The efficiency choice for a characteris-
tics vector z* will be the solution of theorthant in G-space transforms into a
canonical linear program cone which lies in the interior of the posi-
tive orthant in C-space, a point illus-
Minimize px
trated in the diagrams.
subject to Bx = A* A consumer's complete choice subject
x> 0. to a budget constraint px ? k can be
considered as consisting of two parts:
Since this is a linear program, once we a) An efficiency choice, determining the
have the solution x* for some z*, with characteristics frontier and the associat-
value k*, we can apply a scalar multiple ed efficient goods collections.
to fit the solution to any budget value k b) A private choice, determining which
and characteristics vector (k/k*)z*. By point on the characteristics frontier is
varying z*, the consumer, given a budget preferred by him.
140 KELVIN J. LANCASTER
The efficiency choice is an objective tive goods prices may leave activity
not a subjective choice. On the assump- prices, and the consumer's choice situa-
tion that the consumption technology is tion, unchanged.
objective, the characteristics frontier is In most of the succeeding analysis, we
also objective, and it is the same for all will be concerned with the B matrix and
consumers facing the same budget con- the relationship between activities and
straint. Furthermore the characteristics characteristics, since this represents the
frontier is expanded or contracted linear- most distinctive part of the theory.
ly and proportionally to an increase or
decrease in income, so that the frontier VI. THE EFFICIENCY SUBSTITUTION EF-
has the same shape for all consumers FECT AND REVEALED PREFERENCE
facing the same prices, income differences At this stage, it is desirable to examine
simply being reflected in homogeneous the nature of the efficiency choice so that
expansion or contraction. we can appreciate the role it plays in the
We should note that, if the consump- consumer behavior implied by our model.
tion technology matrix has certain spe- Consider a case in which there are two
cial structural properties, we may obtain characteristics, a case that can be illus-
a mixture of the above cases. For exam- trated diagrammatically, and, say, four
ple, a matrix with the structure activities.
The activities-characteristics portion
[OB2] of the consumption technology is defined
by the two equations
where B1 is an (s X k) matrix and B2 is an
(r - s) X (n - k) matrix, partitions the 1- bily, + b12Y2 + bl3Y3 + b14y4
technology into two disconnected parts, (6.1)
one relating s of the characteristics to k of z2 b2ly1+ b22Y2+ b23y,+ b24y4.
the goods, the other separately relating With activity 1 only, the characteris-
r -s of the characteristics to n - k of the
tics will be obtained in proportion, 1ll/b2l
goods. We can have s > k and r-s <
(the ray labeled 1 in Fig. 2). Similarly
n-k giving a mixed case.
with activities 2, 3, 4, one at a time,
Dropping the assumption of a one-to-
one relationship between goods and ac- characteristics will be obtained in pro-
tivities does not add greatly to the diffi- portions b12/b22, b13/b23, b14/b24, respec-
culties of the analysis. We have, as part tively, corresponding to the rays 2, 3, 4
of the technology, x Ay, so that the in the diagram.
budget constraint px ? k can be written We are given a budget constraint in
immediately as pAy ? k. The goods goods space of the form ipixi_ k. If
prices transform directly into implicit there is a one-to-one correspondence be-
activity prices q = pA. Interesting cases tween goods and activities, the prices of
arise, of course. If the number of goods the activities are given by pi. If there is
is less than the number of activities, then not a one-to-one relationship, but a
not all q's are attainable from the set of goods-activities portion of the consump-
p's; and if the number of goods exceeds tion technology
the number of activities, different p vec-
tors will correspond to the same q vector. xi = ailyi + ai2y2 + ai3y3 + ai4y4 (6.2)
This implies that certain changes in rela- i = 1 .. e
NEW APPROACH TO CONSUMER THEORY 141
then the budget constraint can be trans- are efficient, giving the characteristics
formed immediately into characteristics frontier, while combinations 1 and 3, 2
space and 4, or 1 and 4 are inefficient.
Suppose that the consumer chooses
(E piaii) yi+( IPiai2) y2 characteristics in the combination repre-
sented by the ray z*, giving a point E*
(6.3)
on the frontier. Now suppose that rela-
+( -(v piai3) Y3+( E Pai4)Y4? k tive prices change: in particular, that the
price of activity 2 rises so that, with in-
wherethe compositepricesqj= =ipja, come still at k, the point E2 moves in-
j= 1 . . 4 representthe prices of each ward on ray 2. If the movement is small
Li)
E l
II 2
E&3)
C~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
FIG. 2
activity. The number of goods in relation enough, the characteristics frontier con-
to the number of activities is irrelevant tinues to have a corner at E2, and the
at this stage, since each activity has a consumer will continue to obtain charac-
unique and completely determined price teristics in proportion z* by a combina-
qj, given the prices of the goods. tion of activities 1 and 2. If income is
Given q1,q2, q3, q4, and k, the maximum adjusted so that the new frontier goes
attainable level of each activity in isola- through E*, the consumer will use the
tion can be written down (corresponding same activities in the same proportions
to the points E1, E9, E3, E4 in Fig. 2,) and as before.
the lines joining these points represent If the price of activity 2 rises suffi-
combinations attainable subject to the ciently, however, the point E2 will move
budget constraint. In the diagram it has inward past the line joining E1 and E3
been assumed that prices are such that to E2'. Combinations of 1 and 2 and of
combinations of 1 and 2, 2 and 3, 3 and 4 2 and 3 are now inefficient combinations
142 KELVIN J. LANCASTER
of activities, their place on the efficiency ing of activities will not, in general,
frontier being taken by a combination of occur7) but does not require that the
1 and 3. The consumer will switch from number of goods exceed the number of
a combination of activities 1 and 2 to a characteristics. In fact, with two goods,
combination of 1 and 3. two characteristics, and three activities,
Thus there is an efficiency substitution the effect may occur. With two goods,
effect which is essentially a switching two characteristics and one hundred ac-
effect. If price changes are too small to tivities (well spread over the spectrum),
cause a switch, there is no efficiency sub- an almost smooth efficiency substitution
stitution effect: If they are large enough, effect would occur.
the effect comes from a complete switch Since the efficiency substitution effect
from one activity to another. implies that consumers may change goods
The manifestation of the efficiency collections as a result of compensated
substitution effect in goods space de- relative price changes, simply in order to
pends on the structure of the A (goods- obtain the same characteristics collection
activities) matrix. There are two polar in the most efficient manner, it is obvious
cases: that the existence of substitution does
a) If there is a one-to-one relationship not of itself either require or imply con-
between goods and activities, the effi- vexity of the preference function on char-
ciency substitution effect will result in a acteristics. In other words, the axiom of
complete switch from consumption of revealed preference may be satisfied even
one good to consumption of another. if the consumer always consumes charac-
This might be regarded as typical of sit- teristics in fixed proportions (and possi-
uations involving similar but differen- bly even if the consumers had concave
tiated products, where a sufficiently preferences), so that the "revelation"
large price change in one of the products may be simply of efficient choice rather
will result in widespread switching to, or than convexity. A formal proof is given
away from, the product. in the Appendix.
b) If there is not a one-to-one relation-
ship between goods and activities and, in VI]. OBJECTIVE AND SUBJECTIVE
particular, if all goods are used in all CHOICE AND DEMAND THEORY
activities, the efficiency substitution ef- In an economy or subeconomy with a
fect will simply result in less consump- complex consumption technology (many
tion of a good whose price rises, not a goods relative to characteristics), we
complete disappearance of that good have seen that there are two types of
from consumption. If all cakes require substitution effect:
eggs but in different proportions, a rise
1. Changes in relative prices may re-
in the price of eggs will cause a switch
sult in goods bundle I becoming an in-
from egg-intensive cakes to others, with
a decline in the consumption of eggs, but 7This is a somewhat imprecise statement in that,
if the B matrix is partitionable into disconnected
not to zero. subtechnologies, for some of which the number of
The existence of an efficiency substitu- activities exceeds the number of characteristics and
tion effect depends, of course, on the for others the reverse, an efficiency-substitution
effect may exist over certain groups of activities,
number of activities exceeding the num- although the number of activities is less than the
ber of characteristics (otherwise switch- number of characteristics over-all.
NEW APPROACH TO CONSUMER THEORY 143
activity, but the activities are substi- the consumption good, the characteris-
tutes. tics resulting from the work-consumption
activity are given by a linear combina-
IX. LABOR, LEISURE, AND OCCU-
tion of the characteristics from work and
PATIONAL CHOICE
consumption separately, the weights in
Within the structure of the present the combination being given by the wage
theory, we can regard labor as a reversed rate.
activity, using characteristics as inputs Add another activity, leisure, which
and producing commodities or a com- gives rise to the two characteristics, and
modity as output. This is similar to the the constraint that the weighted sum of
standard approach of generalized con- the levels of activity labor and activity
ventional theory, as in Debreu (1959). leisure is a constant.
We can add to this approach in an im- The model is illustrated in Figure 3.
portant way within the context of the W represents a work-consumption activ-
present model by noting that a work ac- ity giving positive levels of both charac-
tivity may produce characteristics, as teristics, I represents a leisure activity,
well as the commodity labor, as outputs. also giving positive levels of both charac-
This is structurally equivalent to per- teristics. The constraint on total time
mitting some of the columns of the B (so that a linear combination of w and I
matrix to have both negative and posi- is a constant) is represented by some
tive elements, corresponding to activities line joining w, 1.
that "use up" some characteristics (or If the constraint line has, like AB in
produce them in negative quantities) and the diagram, a negative slope, then indi-
produce others. In a work activity, the vidual consumers' utility functions will
corresponding column of the A matrix be tangent to the constraint at different
will contain a single negative coefficient points (like in, in') and we will have a
for the commodity labor, or, more differ- neoclassical type of labor-leisure choice
entiated, for one or more types of labor. in which the proportions depend on in-
If a work activity corresponds to a col- dividual preferences. Some consumers'
umn of mixed signs in the B matrix, it is preferences may be such that they will
a recognition of the obvious truth that choose A (maximum work) or B (maxi-
some work activities give rise to valued mum leisure), but it is a private choice.
characteristics directly from the work it- In this model, however, for a certain
self. level of the wage, given the coefficients
Consider a very simple model of two of the technology, the constraint may
characteristics with two commodities, have a positive slope as in A'B, or AB'.
labor and consumption goods. Both labor If the constraint is A'B (corresponding,
and consumption goods correspond to ceteris paribus, to a sufficiently low real
separate activities giving rise to the two wage), all individuals will choose B, the
characteristics in different proportions- only efficient point on the constraint set
perhaps negative in the case of labor. OA'B. At a sufficiently high wage, giving
With no income other than labor, and constraint set OAB', A, the maximum
only one good available to exchange for labor choice, is the only efficient choice
labor, we can collapse work and consump- and will be chosen by all individuals.
tion into a single work-consumption ac- The above effect, in which for some
tivity. Given the wage rate in terms of wage range there is a private labor-leisure
146 KELViN J. LANCASTER
choice between efficient points while out- below which no peasant will offer himself
side the range all individuals will take as paid labor and that this is an efficiency
maximum work or maximum leisure, can choice and not a private choice.
only occur if both the work-consumption We can use the same type of model
and leisure activities give both charac- also to analyze occupational choice. Sup-
teristics in positive amounts. If the using pose that we have two types of work
up of characteristic 2 in labor exceeded (occupations) but otherwise the condi-
the amount of that characteristic gained tions are as above. If and only if the
by consumption, then the work-consump- characteristics arising from the work it-
tion activity might lie outside the posi- self are different in the two occupations,
tive quadrant, like w'. In this case, a the two work-consumption activities will
constraint like A'B can exist, but not one give rise to activities in different com-
C- A
11~~~~~~~
II
z2,
FI.I
like AB'. Furthermore, if the consumer binations. If the work characteristics are
will choose only positive characteristics in the same proportion, the characteris-
vectors, no consumer will choose maxi- tics of the work-consumption activity
mum work. will be in the same proportions and one
This model of the labor-leisure choice, or the other occupation will be the only
which provides for objective and univer- efficient way to achieve this characteris-
sal efficiency choices as well as private tics bundle.
choices, may be the basis for a useful Figure 4 illustrates one possible set of
working model for an underdeveloped relationships for such a model. In the
area. If the "leisure" be defined as diagram, w(, w2 represent the characteris-
"working one's own field," the work-con- tics combinations from work-consump-
sumption activity as entering the market tion activities in occupations 1 and 2, 1
economy, we see that there will be wages the characteristics combinations from
NEW APPROACH TO CONSUMER THEORY 147
leisure. The frontier consists of the lines have the very interesting effect, where
AC (combinations of wl and leisure) and those who choose occupation 1 will work
AB (combinations of w2 and leisure). We very hard at it; leisure-lovers will choose
shall impose the realistic restriction that private combinations of occupation 2 and
asnindividual can have only a single occu- leisure surely a good description of
pation so that AB is not a possible com- effects actually observed.
bination of activities. The loss to certain individuals from
The choice of occupation, given the confinement to a single occupation is ob-
relationships in the figure, depends on vious. Could he choose a combination of
personal preferences, being M1 (combi- occupations 1 and 2, the individual at
nation of w2 and leisure) for an individual M2 would do so and be better off than
WI
z ri 2 /
\ t
FIG. 4
XI. NEW COMMODITIES, DIFFERENTIATED Given the technology (or the relevant
GOODS, AND ADVERTISING portion of it) and given the intrinsic
Perhaps the most difficult thing to do characteristic of the activity associated
with traditional consumer theory is to with the new good, we simply insert it
introduce a new commodity-an event in the appropriateplace in the technol-
that occurs thousands of times in the ogy, and we can predictthe consequences.
U.S. economy, even over a generation, If a new good possesses characteristics
without any real consumers being unduly in the same proportionsas some existing
disturbed. In the theory of production, good, it will simply fail to sell to anyone
where activity-analysis methods have be- if its price is too high, or will completely
91 9
I,,~~~~
g.3
FIG. 5
come widely used, a new process or prod- replace the old good if its price is suffi-
uct can be fitted in well enough; but in ciently low.
consumer theory we have traditionally More usually, we can expect a new
had to throw away our n-dimensional good to possess characteristics in some-
preference functions and replace them by what different proportions to an existing
totally new (n + 1) dimensional func- good. If its price is too high, it may be
tions, with no predictable consequences. dominated by some combination of exist-
In this model, the whole process is ex- ing goods and will fail to sell. If its price
traordinarily simple. A new product sim- is sufficiently low, it will result in adding
ply means addition of one or more ac- a new point to the efficiency frontier. In
tivities to the consumption technology. Figure 5, ABC represents the old effi-
150 KELVIN J. LANCASTER
ciency frontier, on which some individ- an enables the consumer more efficiently
uals will consume combinations of goods to reach his preferred combination of
g1 and g2 in various proportions, some characteristics.
combinations of g2 and g3. If the price Many economists take a puritanical
of the new good, g4, is such that it repre- view of commodity differentiation since
sents a point, D, on the old efficiency their theory has induced them to believe
frontier, some persons (those using com- that it is some single characteristic of a
binations of gi and g2) will be indifferent commodity that is relevant to consumer
between their old combinations and com- decisions (that is, automobiles are only
binations of either gi and g4 or g2 and g4. for transportation), so that commodity
If the price of g4 is a little lower, it will variants are regarded as wicked tricks to
push the efficiency frontier out to D'. trap the uninitiated into buying unwant-
Individuals will now replace combina- ed trimmings. This is not, of course, a
tions of gi and g2 with combinations of gl correct deduction even from the conven-
and g4 or g2 and g4, depending on their tional analysis, properly used, but is
preferences. The new good will have manifestly incorrect when account is
taken away some of the sales from both gi taken of multiple characteristics.
and g2, but completely replaced neither. A rather similar puritanism has also
If the price of g4 were lower, giving been apparent in the economist's ap-
point D", then combinationsof g4 and g3 proach to advertising. In the neoclassical
would dominate g2, and g2 would be re- analysis, advertising, if it does not rep-
placed. At an even lower price, like D"', resent simple information (and little in-
combinations of g4 and g3 would domi- formation is called for in an analysis in
nate g2, and the corner solution g4 only which a good is simply a good), is an
would dominate all combinations of g1 attempt to "change tastes" in the con-
and g4 (since AD"' has a positive slope), sumer. Since "tastes" are the ultimate
so that g4 would now replace both gi datum in welfare judgments, the idea of
andg2 changing them makes economists uncom-
Differentiation of goods has presented fortable.
almost as much of a problem to tradi- On the analysis presented here, there
tional theory as new commodities. In the is much wider scope for informational
present analysis, the difference is really advertising, especially as new goods ap-
one of degree only. We can regard a dif- pear constantly. Since the consumption
ferentiated good typically as a new good technology of a modern economy is clear-
within an existing intrinsic commodity ly very complex, consumers require a
group, and within that group analyze it great deal of information concerning that
as a new commodity. Sometimes there technology. When a new version of a
appear new commodities of a more fun- dishwashing detergent is produced which
damental kind whose characteristics cut contains hand lotion, we have a product
across those of existing groups. with characteristics different from those
We may note that differentiation of of the old. The consumption technology
goods, if successful (that is, if the differ- is changed, and consumers are willing to
entiated goods are actually sold) repre- pay to be told of the change. Whether
sents a welfare improvement since it the new product pushes out the efficiency
pushes the efficiency frontier outward frontier (compared, say, with a combina-
NEW APPROACH TO CONSUMER THEORY 151
tion of dishwasher and hand lotion con- must have a price low enough relative to
sumed separately) is, of course, another the prices of other commodities to be
matter. represented on the efficiency frontier,
In any case, advertising, product de- otherwise it will be purchased by no one
sign, and marketing specialists, who have and will not appear in the economy. This
a heavy commitment to understanding implies that if there are n viable com-
how consumers actually do behave, them- modities in a group, each in a one-to-one
selves act as though consumers regard a relation to an activity, the equilibrium
commodity as having multiple charac- prices will be such that the efficiency
teristics and as though consumers weigh frontier has n-1 facets in the two-charac-
the various combinations of characteris- teristic case. In Figure 6, for example,
tics contained in different commodities where the price of commodity 3 brings
I
.2
3
FIG.~~~~~~~
FIG. 6
would give a many-faceted efficiency vant, while there are other individuals
frontier that would be approximated by for whom the Cadillac/Continental ratio
a smooth curve having the general shape is the relevant datum. If the A matrix
of a production possibility curve. For is strongly connected, however, the im-
many purposes it may be mathematically plicit price ratios between different ac-
simple to analyze the situation in terms tivities can correspond to price ratios
of a smooth efficiency frontier. We can between the same sets of goods, and the
then draw on some of the analysis that Paretian conditions may be relevant.
exists, relating factor inputs to outputs Finally, we may note that the shape
of goods, as in Samuelson (1953b). Goods of the equilibrium efficiency frontier and
in our model correspond to factors in the the existence of the efficiency substitu-
production model, and characteristics in tion effect can result in demand condi-
our model to commodities in the produc- tions with the traditionally assumed prop-
tion model. erties, even if the traditional, smooth,
The welfare implications of the model convex utility function does not exist. In
set out here are quite complex and de- particular, a simple utility function in
serve a separate treatment. We might which characteristics are consumed in
note several important aspects of the constant proportions-the proportions
welfare problem, however, which arise perhaps changing with income-can be
directly from a many-faceted, many- substituted for the conventional utility
cornered efficiency frontier: function.
1. Consumers whose choices represent
a corner on the efficiency frontier are not, XIII. OPERATIONAL AND PREDICTIVE
in general, equating marginal rates of sub- CHARACTERISTICS OF THE MODEL
stitution between characteristics to the In principle, the model set out here
ratio of any parameters of the situation can be made operational (that is, em-
or to marginal rates of substitution of pirical coefficients can be assigned to the
other consumers. technology). In practice, the task will be
2. Consumers whose choices represent more difficult than the equivalent task
points on different facets of the efficiency of determining the actual production
frontier are equating their marginal rates technology of an economy.
of substitution between characteristics To emphasize that the model is not
to different implicit price ratios between simply heuristic, we can examine a sim-
characteristics. If there is a one-to-one ple scheme for sketching out the effi-
relationship between goods and activi- ciency frontier for some commodity
ties, the consumers are reacting to rela- group. We shall assume that there is a
tive prices between different sets of one-to-one relationship between activi-
goods. The traditional marginal condi- ties and goods, that at least one charac-
tions for Paretian exchange optimum do teristic shared by the commodities is
not hold because the price ratio relevant capable of independent determination,
to one consumer's decisions differs from and that a great quantity of suitable
the price ratio relevant to another's. In market data is available.
common-sense terms, the price ratio be- In practice, we will attempt to operate
tween a Cadillac and a Continental is with the minimum number of character-
irrelevant to my decisions, but the price istics that give sufficient explanatory
ratio between two compact cars is rele- power. These may be combinations of
NEW APPROACH TO CONSUMER THEORY 153
FiG. 7a
zi
4 3 z I j 3
FIG. 7b
4 4-z
I / / f ':I of L
4 3 2a Z
FiG. 7b
NEW APPROACH TO CONSUMER THEORY 155
CHART 1
THIS THEORY CONVENTIONAL THEORY
Wood will not be a close substitute for bread, No reason except "tastes" why they should not
since characteristics are dissimilar be close substitutes
A red Buick will be a close substitute for a gray No reason why they should be any closer sub-
Buick stitutes than wood and bread
Substitution (for example, butter and marga- No reason why close substitutes in one context
rine) is frequently intrinsic and objective, should be close substitutes in another
will be observed in many societies under
many market conditions
A good may be displaced from the market by No presumption that goods will be completely
new goods or by price changes displaced
The labor-leisure choice may have a marked Labor-leisure choice determined solely by indi-
occupational pattern vidual preferences; no pattern, other than be-
tween individuals, would be predicted
(Gresham's Law) A monetary asset may cease No ex ante presumption that any good or asset
to be on the efficiency frontier, and will dis- will disappear from the economy
appear from the economy
An individual is completely unaffected by price An individual is affected by changes in all
changes that leave unchanged the portion of prices
the efficiency frontier on which his choice
rests
Some commodity groups may be intrinsic, and No presumption that commodities forming a
universally so group (defined by a break in spectrum of
cross-elasticities) in one context will form a
group in another context
APPENDIX
I. TRANSFORMATION OF THE UTILITY set S, is preferredor indifferent to x*. If we
FUNCTION INTO G-SPACE take some other z' in P, every x in S' such
that Bx ? z' is also preferredor indifferent
Consider some characteristics vector z* to x'*. Similarlyfor z" in P and S" such that
which does have an image x* in G-space, that Bx > z", and so on. From the theory
and consider the set P of all vectors z pre- of inequalities, the sets S, S', S" . . . are all
ferred or indifferent to z*. If U has the tra- convex, and since P is convex, a linear com-
ditional properties, the set P is convex with bination of z', z" is in P, so that a linear com-
an inner boundary which is the indifference bination of x's in S', S" is also preferredor
surface through z*. Now z ? z* implies z is indifferent to x*. Hence the set P of all x
in P so that every x such that Bx > z*, a preferred or indifferent to x* is the linear
156 KELVIN J. LANCASTER
combinationof all the sets S. S', S", . .. and the set of attainable z's and the set of z's
so is convex. preferredor indifferent to z*.
Thus the utility function transformed For the same satisfactions vector Z* and
into G-space retains its essential convexity. a new price vector p** the efficiency choice
A more intuitive way of looking at the situ- will be the solution y** (giving x**),
ation is to note that all characteristics col- V*, of
lections which are actually available are
contained in an n-dimensional slice through Min p**Ay:By = z* y > (8.2)
the r-dimensional utility function and that Max va*:vb< p**A .
all slices through a convex function are
themselves convex. The transformation of Since z* is the same in (8.1) and (8.2),
this n-dimensional slice into G-space pre- y** is a feasible solution of (8.1) and y* of
serves this convexity. (8.2). From the fundamental theorem of
linear programingwe have
II. "REVEALED PREFERENCE " IN
A COMPLEX ECONOMY p**Ay* > V**x*= p**Ay**, (8.3)
We shall use the structural properties of p*Ay** > V*z* - p*Ay*. (8.4)
the consumption technology A, B (dropping
the assumption of a one-to-one relationship A program identical with (8.2) except
between goods and activities) to show that that z* is replacedby hz* will have a solution
in a complex economy with more activities hy**, v**. Choose h so that hp**Ay** =
than characteristics the efficiency choice al- p**Ay*. From (8.3) h > 1. From (8.4),
ways satisfies the weak axiom of revealed
preferenceand will satisfy the strong axiom hp*Ay** > p*Ay** > p*Ay*. (8.5)
for sufficiently large price changes, so that If we now write p for p*, p' for p**;
satisfaction of even the strong axiom does x = Ay*, x' = hAy** we have
not "reveal" convexity of the preference
function itself. p'x' = p'x implies px' > px, (8.6)
Consideran economy with a consumption
technology defined by satisfying the weak axiom of revealedprefer-
ence.
z = By, The equality will occur on the right in
(8.6) only if equalities hold in both(8.3) and
x = Ay, (8.4), and these will hold only if y** is opti-
mal as well as feasible in (8.1), and y* is
and a consumer subject to a budget con- optimal as well as feasible in (8.2). In general,
straint of the form p*x < k who has chosen if the number of activities exceeds the num-
goods x* for activities y", giving character- ber of characteristics,we can always find two
istics ?. prices p*, p** so related that neither of the
We know that if the consumer has made solutions y**, y* is optimal in the other's
an efficient choice, y* is the solution of the program.
program (the value of which is k). Hence, if the number of activities exceeds
the number of characteristics (representing
Minimize p*Ay (= p*x): a) the number of primary constraints in the
By= z* , y 0, program), we can find prices so related that
the strong axiom of revealed preference is
which has a dual (solution v*). satisfied, even though the consumer has ob-
tained characteristics in unchanged propor-
Maximize vz*:vB < p*A . (8.1b) tions (z*, hz*) and has revealed nothing of
his preferencemap.
The dual variables v can be interpreted as The above effect represents an efficiency
the implicit prices of the characteristics substitutioneffectwhich would occur even if
themselves. From the Kuh-Tucker Theo- characteristics were consumed in absolutely
rein, we can associate the vector v with the fixed proportions. If the consumer substi-
slope of the separating hyperplane between tutes between different satisfactions bundles
NEW APPROACH TO CONSUMER THEORY 157
when his budget constraint changes, this compensation" in the conventional analysis
private substitution effect is additional to (see Samuelson 1948, 1953a), so the efficien-
the efficiency substitution effect. cy effect leads to "external overcompensa-
Just as the conceptual experiment im- tion" additional to private overcompensa-
plicit in rcecalcd preference implies "over- tion.
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