Académique Documents
Professionnel Documents
Culture Documents
BALTICA
Weapons,
Weapons,
8
Weaponry
Weaponry
andMan
and Man
BALTICA 8
Institute of Baltic Sea Region
Weapons,
Weapons,
Weaponry
Weaponry
and Man
and Man
ARCHAEOLOGIA
(In memoriam Vytautas Kazakeviius)
Klaipda, 2007
UDK 902/904
Ar 46
Archaeologia Baltica volume 8 was prepared by Klaipda University Institute of Baltic Sea Region History and
Archaeology
Published with a grant from the Directorate for the Commemoration of the Millenium of Lithuania
Klaipda University Institute of Baltic Sea Region History and Archaeology, 2007
Lithuanian Institute of History, 2007
Article authors, 2007
Klaipda University Press, 2007
ISSN 1392-5520
CONTENTS
BALTICA 8
Preface 8
List of contributors 11
Algirdas Girininkas.
Vytautas Kazakeviius the Prominent Lithuanian Archaeologist 15
Vykintas Vaitkeviius. Publications by Vytautas Kazakeviius (19512005).
ARCHAEOLOGIA
Monographs, Scientific Articles, Publications Edited by V. Kazakeviius,
Reviews and Varia 17
I . S T E P P I N G F R O M T H E M A L E T O T H E WA R R I O R
IDENTITY
I I . B A R B A R I A N WA R R I O R S F R O M
T H E B A LT I C T O T H E D A N U B E
I V. WA R R I O R S A N D A R M A M E N T S F R O M T H E V I S T U L A
T O T H E D A U G U VA
V. T H E R O L E O F W E A P O N S A N D W E A P O N RY I N
P O L I T I C A L A N D M I L I TA RY L E A D E R S H I P
V I I . V I K I N G S : WA R FA R E A N D T R A D E F R O M T H E B A LT I C
BALTICA 8
TO THE DANUBE
ARCHAEOLOGIA
Jan Peder Lamm. Two Large Silver Hoards from Ocksarve on Gotland.
Evidence for Viking Period Trade and Warfare in the Baltic Region 328
X . T E C H N O L O G I C A L A S P E C T S O F W E A P O N RY
Plates (I VIII)
P r e fa c e
The eighth volume of Archaeologia Baltica, Weapons, The eighth volume of Archaeologia Baltica consists
Weaponry and Man, is a diverse collection of articles of ten chapters. In the first, the authors focus on the
Preface
on complex themes, devoted to the examination of search for the warriors identity in earlier prehistory.
weapons, armament, the evolution of the military, and The investigated burial rite features allow an eluci-
the armed persons status in various periods and com- dation of the different forms of identity of men and
munities. The publications subject matter is reflected warriors in Europe from the end of the Late Neolithic
bliujien
Audron
through the very evolution of weapons and armament, to the Bronze Age (Jakob Westermann). Importantly,
fortifications, and their significance in the expansion the situation in the East Baltic in the Bronze Age was
of a region and its military. The individuals relation- different. This is emphasized by the merely single at-
ship with weapons in prehistory is best reflected in the tributes of the warrior found in the region, which show
constantly changing funeral customs, in the analysis of that the warriors identity was not differentiated here,
which both the individuals specific relationship with and perhaps was not even known by this regions com-
the military and his social status within the community munities (Agn ivilyt). On the other hand, the ap-
can be considered. Victims of arms, armament, and the pearance of hill-forts and defensive structures, and the
spoils of war, and even certain elements of landscape, concentration of East Baltic bronze processing centres
reflect entire communities ties with the military and in them in the Bronze Age, would affirm that the region
the ideology formed by their world-view. was gradually becoming closer to northeast Europe
(Andrejs Vasks).
In this publication, scholars from 12 different countries
discuss arms, armaments, and what connects them to A long chapter is devoted to the Roman Periods barbar-
man. Thus, the theme is examined by invoking material ians weapons, armament and military in the immense
across a huge territory, from Finland in the north to Jut- barbarian part of the world between the Baltic Sea and
land and the United Kingdom in the southwest, to the the Danube. This chapter consists of two parts: the first
central Danube and the Balkan Peninsula in the south, covers the free Germanic peoples of the northwestern
and the forest belt sites of northeast Europe in the east. part of the barbaricum, while the second is oriented
The publications wide chronological span, from the toward the northernmost territory of the barbarians that
Late Neolithic to the Early Middle Ages, has allowed extended beyond the Vistula. However, the chapter be-
the compilation of a collection of reviewed academic gins with earlier Hallstatt and La Tne times and one
articles in which the chosen theme is discussed in a of the aspects of burial rites associated with armament
variety of ways. This is the first collection of articles of and that periods reflections of the social structure:
its kind in the English language in Lithuania, and in the graves with double or even triple sets of weapons, or
countries of the east Baltic Sea region. brothers-in-arms graves (Katarzyna Czarnecka).
The appearance of the eighth volume of Archaeolo- The Roman Periods Germanic peoples arms, arma-
gia Baltica is associated with an enormous loss. On 7 ment and military in the Mecklenburg area, Jutland,
September 2005, Lithuania lost its eminent scholar, the the southwestern part of Scandinavia, the lower Elbe,
Baltic weapons and armament researcher, and one of regions of the central Danube, and Przeworsk Culture
Archaeologia Balticas conceivers, as well as its main had many things in common. On the other hand, due to
editor, Vytautas Kazakeviius. Thus, the conference various contacts with the Roman Empire, the arms and
Weapons, Weaponry and Man has a second, painful armament of the Germanic tribes were similar to those
side: in memoriam Vytautas Kazakeviius (19512005). of the Romans (Hans-Ulrich Vo). However, the very
In honouring Vytautas Kazakeviius, a scholar, a col- custom of placing weapons in graves, in the opinion of
league and a friend, well-known European scholars the eminent arms and armament researcher Jan Bem-
gathered to give presentations and articles to the con- mann, is not in itself a reliable criterion in the investi-
ference organized by Klaipda Universitys Institute of gation and reconstruction of the social relationships of
Baltic Sea Region History and Archaeology that took that periods communities.
place at Klaipda University on 1115 October 2006,
Approaching the cultures of the West Balts, where, ac-
not only to honour their deceased colleague, but also to
cording to Tacitus the Suebian Sea, on its eastern
present their latest research results in this subject.
shore, washes the tribes of the Aestii, whose rites and
fashions and style of dress are those of the Suebi, while
BALTICA 8
ARCHAEOLOGIA
The conferences participants (photograph by V. Vaitkeviius).
their language is more like the British , on the one ing places in this chapter, a distinctive note is sounded
hand it is noticeable that the West Baltic cultures arms, by the article which examines not only the Taurapilis
armament, military and social processes had common dukes grave of the second half of the fifth to sixth cen-
aspects or certain cultural similarities with the northern turies, but also the Taurapilis site complexs surround-
Germanic peoples. On the other hand, Aistian tribes re- ings, which suggest that it is impossible to solve the
peated the processes that occurred in the vast barbaric meaning of this complex without an investigation of
lands only as an echo and in their own very unique the meanings of mythology hidden within the land-
way (Wojciech Nowakowski, Audron Bliujien, Do- scape there (Vykintas Vaitkeviius).
natas Butkus and Bartosz Kontny).
The authors of the chapter Warriors and Armaments
One of this publications chapters is devoted to the ex- from the Vistula to the Daugava analyse both the arms
amination of the arms and armament in the Thorsberg and armament of various periods, as well as the so-
and Nydham bogs. The abundant offerings of things cial processes that occurred in this region, based on the
associated with the military suggest that war, and un- specific material of the sites, or even individual graves
doubtedly the military, was one of the most important they have investigated (Bartosz Kontny, Magdalena
areas of social activity in southern Scandinavia. From Natuniewicz-Sekua, Ludwika Sawicka, Rasa Banyt-
famous battleships to the armament and personal ac- Rowell, Christine Reich, Ugnius Budvydas and Ilona
coutrement details of cavalry and infantry, bog finds Vakeviit).
provide important information about contacts with the
The chapter about the developing significance of arms
Roman Empire in the first to fourth centuries, as well as
and armament for a regions political and military po-
their uninterruptible development. The latest research
tential from the Migration Period to the Early Middle
regarding the Roman armament found in the Thorsberg
Ages is what prompted and led to the rise of the indi-
and Nydam bogs allows us to perceive the interactive
vidual highest-ranking persons and regions in the East
nature of Roman and barbarian armament, as well as
Baltic, northeast Europes forest belt sites, and Britain.
the most diverse adaptations and imitations of Roman
Despite the territorial and chronological differences,
arms and armament created by the Germanic peoples
arms and armament, as well as warriors graves with
(Claus von Carnap-Bornheim, Suzana Matei and
riding gear, by their importance in funeral customs,
Andreas Rau). With the associative reverberating cor-
bear witness to their significance in the development of
relations of southern Scandinavias originality of offer-
social life as well (John Hines, Mindaugas Bertaius, ably enhancing the utilization possibilities of such de-
Michel Kazanski). East Baltic society considered war- fensive installations (Algirdas Girininkas).
riors to be people with a high social status, while weap-
The traumatic injuries of several people buried in lower
ons became symbols of their social status both in life
Daugava cemeteries in the seventh to 17th centuries are
and in the afterlife. Military operations during the Ear-
discussed in Guntis Gerhards article. Based on the ar-
ly Middle Ages had a socio-political context: military
chaeological excavations undertaken at the Virbalinai
operations were a means to strengthen power (Andris
settlement, an effort is made to reconstruct furnace
Preface
ism of arms. Weapons in womens graves suggest that Aura Selskien and Jonas Navasaitis).
Audron
10
L ist o f Cont r ibuto r s
BALTICA 8
Prof. Dr habil. Vladas ulkus Rasmus Birch Iversen (PhD student)
Institute of Baltic Sea Region History and Archaeology, Institute of Anthropology, Archaeology and Linguistics
Klaipda University, Aarhus University,
Tils street 13 Faculty of Humanities
LT-91251 Klaipda Moesgrd, 8270 Hjbjerg
LITHUANIA DENMARK
vladas.zulkus@ku.lt farkrbi@hum.au.dk
ARCHAEOLOGIA
Dr habil. Algirdas Girininkas Dr Anna Bitner-Wrblewska
Institute of Baltic Sea Region History and Archaeology, State Archaeological Museum
Klaipda University, in Warsaw
Tils street 13 Duga street 52
LT-91251 Klaipda 00-241 Warsaw
LITHUANIA POLAND
algisg@post.skynet.lt a.bitner@pma.pl
11
Dr Guntis Gerhards Dr Michel Kazanski
Institute of History Centre National de la
University of Latvia, Recherche Scientifique,
Akademijas square 1 UMR 8167- Orient de
List of Contributors
BALTICA 8
Archologisches Museum fr Vor- und Frhgeschichte,
Landesmuseum Schleswig Schlo Charlottenburg, Langhansbau, 14059 Berlin
Schlo Gottorf, GERMANY
24837 Schleswig ch.reich@smb.spk-berlin.de,
GERMANY ch.reich@planet-interkom.de
matesic@schloss-gottorf.de
Liudwika Sawicka MA
Assoc. Prof. Dr Algimantas Merkeviius Institute of Archaeology,
ARCHAEOLOGIA
Department of Archaeology Warsaw University
Faculty of History Vilnius University, Krakowskie Przedmiecie 26/28, 00-927 Warsaw
Universiteto street 7 POLAND
LT-01513 Vilnius ludwika@centrum.cz
LITHUANIA
algimantas.merkevicius@if.vu.lt Dr Aura Selskien
Institute of Chemistry,
Magdalena Natuniewicz-Sekua (PhD student) A. Gotauto street 9
Institute of Archaeology and Ethnology LT-01108 Vilnius
Polish Academy of Sciences, LITHUANIA
Al. Solidarnoci 105 ausra@chi.lt
00-140 Warsaw
POLAND Dr Andra Simnikyt
magnat@iaepan.edu.pl Lithuanian Institute of History,
Krai street 5
Dr Jonas Navasaitis LT-01108 Vilnius
Kaunas University of Technology LITHUANIA
Kstuio street 27 andrasimnas@one.lt
LT-44025 Kaunas
LITHUANIA Dagnija Svarne
Institute of History
University of Latvia,
Prof. Dr habil. Wojciech Nowakowski Akadmijas square 1
Institute of Archaeology, Rga, LV-1050
Warsaw University LATVIA
Krakowskie Przedmiecie 26/28 dagnija.svarane@e-teliamtc.lv
00-927 Warsaw
POLAND Dr Andris n
samland@wp.pl Department of Ancient and
Medieval History
Dr Anne Pedersen Faculty of History and Philosophy
The National Museum of Denmark, Medieval and University of Latvia,
Renaissance Collections Brivibas blv. 32
Frederiksholms kanal 12 Rga, LV-1050
DK-1220 Kbh K LATVIA
DENMARK Andris.Sne@lu.lv
anne.pedersen@natmus.dk
Dr Vykintas Vaitkeviius
Mikalai Plavinski (PhD student) Institute of Baltic Sea Region History and Archaeology
National Museum of History Klaipda University,
and Culture of Belarus Tils street 13
Karl Marx 12 LT-91251 Klaipda
220055, Minsk LITHUANIA
BELARUS vikivait@takas.lt
plavinsky_arc@mail.ru
Prof. Dr Andrejs Vasks
Andreas Rau (PhD student) University of Latvia,
Archologisches raiu street 29
Landesmuseum Schleswig Rga, LV-1039
Schlo Gottorf, LATVIA
24837 Schleswig Andrejs.Vasks@lu.lv
GERMANY
rau@schloss-gottorf.de
13
Dr Ilona Vakeviit
Lithuanian Institute of History
Krai street 5
LT-01108 Vilnius
List of Contributors
LITHUANIA
vaskeviciute@istorija.lt
Dr Anna Wickholm
Department of Cultural Research, Archaeology
University of Helsinki,
P.O. Box 59, FIN-00014
FINLAND
anna.wickholm@helsinki.fi
Dr Antonija Vilcne
Institute of History
University of Latvia,
Akadmijas square 1
Rga, LV-1050
LATVIA
lvi@lza.lv
Dr Hans-Ulrich Vo
Rmisch-Germanische
Kommission des Deutschen Archologischen Instituts,
Gstrower street 5
D-19055 Schwerin
GERMANY
hans-ulrich.voss@t-online.de
Dr Wojciech Wrblewski
Institute of Archaeology
Warsaw University,
Krakowskie Przedmiecie 26/28 00-927 Warsaw
POLAND
wojciech_wroblewski@hotmail.com
Algirdas alnierius MA
Heritage Monuments
Restoration and Projection Institute
Raguvos street 5
LT-44275 Kaunas
LITHUANIA
adezalnier@yahoo.com
14
T he P rominent L ithuanian A rchaeologist
BALTICA 8
V y tautas K a z akevi ius
Algirdas Girininkas
ARCHAEOLOGIA
For already a year now, Vytautas Kazakeviius, an ar- ond to Eighth Centuries in the Territory of Lithuania,
chaeologist and a sincere friend, has been missing from and in 1998 he defended his second thesis and received
our ranks. We gathered at Klaipda University to hon- his habilitation degree Weaponry of the Baltic Tribes
our the memory of this scientist and the work he ac- in the Iron Age.
complished, and at the same time to continue the direc-
Beginning in 2005, Kazakeviius began to work at
tion of his work. Consequently, our conference topic
Klaipda Universitys Institute of Baltic Sea Region
Weapons, Weaponry and Man was selected.
History and Archaeology.
Vytautas Kazakeviius was born on 11 October 1951 in
Kazakeviius devoted all of his creative energy to re-
the small town of Marijampol in the region of Suvalk-
searching the weaponry of the Baltic cultures, and re-
ija. In 1969 he left secondary school, and in 1974 he
flections of the Migration Period in the territory of the
graduated from Vilnius Pedagogical University. Begin-
Baltic tribes. He wrote about 150 scientific articles and
ning in 1974, he worked in the Archaeology Depart-
four monographs on those topics. Many of the articles
ment at the Lithuanian Institute of History as a research
investigated artefacts from the material culture of the
fellow, and from 1987 to 1994 he was the head of this
Baltic tribes, as well as their origin and development,
department. In 1984 he defended his history disserta-
and analysed the weapons of the various Baltic tribes
tion Arms and Armour of the Baltic Tribes of the Sec-
and their neighbours.
His principal works are the monographs: Arms and
Armour of the Baltic Tribes of the Second to Eighth
Centuries in the Territory of Lithuania, 1988, The
Plinkaigalis Burial Ground, 1993, Ninth to 13th
Century Baltic Swords, 1996, and Iron Age Arrows
in Lithuania in the Second to 12th/13th Centuries,
2004.
Being interested in the Migration Period in Lithuania,
Kazakeviius excavated several Lithuanian cemeteries
and barrows. He studied thoroughly the cemeteries at
Plinkaigalis (Kdainiai district), Kalnikiai (Raseiniai
district), Kejnai (Raseiniai district), Liiai (Taurag
district) and the barrows at Visietiks, Mikiniai
(Anykiai district) and Paobrys (Raseiniai district),
and also carried out fieldwork surveys in his native Su-
valkija region. He published the research material in
scientific studies and articles.
He also had to devote a great deal of his energy and
time to making sure issues of Archaeologica Baltica,
of which he was the editor in chief, appeared. He par-
ticipated in the work of the board of editors of Lietuvos
archeologija and Istorija, was a member of the board
of editors of Eesti arheoloogia ajakiri, and managed
Vytautas Kazakeviius (19512005) scientific programmes. He studied at Helsinki, Stock-
(photograph by R. Miinas)
15
holm, and Frankfurt am Main, and managed doctoral
studies.
The Prominent Lithuanian
A r c h a e o l o g i s t Vy t a u t a s
16
P u b l i c at i o n s b y V y ta u ta s K a z a k e v i i u s
BALTICA 8
(19512005).
Monographs, Scientific Articles, Publications Edited by
V. K a z a k e v i i u s , R e v i e w s a n d Va r i a
ARCHAEOLOGIA
Vykintas Vaitkeviius1
I
. M
onographs 1981
Unikalus V a. pab. geriamasis ragas i Plinkaigalio (Kdaini
1988 raj.) kapinyno, Lietuvos TSR Moksl akademijos darbai
IIVIII (A), Vilnius, 1981, t. 3, p. 8191.
, : , 1988, 160 . Vienameni kalavij atsiradimas ir raida Lietuvoje, Lietu-
vos archeologija, Vilnius, 1981, t. 2, p. 4358.
1993
Plinkaigalio kapinynas. Monografija, Lietuvos archeologija, , -
Vilnius: Mokslo ir enciklopedij leidykla, 1993, t. 10, p. , , 1981, . 9899.
3181, 213218. ,
1980 , , 1981, . 357358.
1996
1982
IXXIII a. balt kalavijai, Vilnius: Alma Littera, 1996,
174p. M. e. I tkstantmeio strli antgaliai Lietuvoje, Jaunj
istorik darbai, Vilnius, 1982, kn. 4, p. 9193.
2004 Neolito kapai Plinkaigalio IIIVII a. kapinyne, Archeologiniai
tyrinjimai Lietuvoje 1980 ir 1981 metais, Vilnius, 1982,
Geleies amiaus strls Lietuvoje IIXII/XIII a., Lietuvos
p. 1516.
kariuomens istorija, Vilnius: Generolo Jono emaiio Li-
Plinkaigalio kapinyno tyrinjimai, Archeologiniai tyrinjimai
etuvos karo akademija, 2004, 136 p.
Lietuvoje 1980 ir 1981 metais, Vilnius, 1982, p. 5255.
,
II. Scientific Articles , , 1982, . 71
80.
1978 1983
Ietigaliai Lietuvoje VVIII a. (1. tveriamieji), Lietuvos TSR A rare animal-headed crossbow brooch from Plinkaigalis
Moksl akademijos darbai (A), Vilnius, 1978, t. 4, p. 37 in Lithuania, Fornvnnen, Stockholm, 1983, Nr. 3/4, p.
45. 189196.
VIX a. pradios kalavijai Lietuvoje, Jaunj istorik dar- Balt-hun geni ryi liudinink, Muziejai ir paminklai,
bai, Vilnius, 1978, kn. 2, p. 1423. Vilnius, 1983, ss. 5, p. 5962.
1979 alvarinis ratelis i Plinkagailio (Kdaini raj.), Archeologins
ir numizmatins mediagos komplektavimas ir konservavi-
Ietigaliai Lietuvoje VVIII a. (2. moviniai), Lietuvos TSR mas: Jaunj muziejinink konferencijos praneim tezs,
Moksl akademijos darbai (A), Vilnius, 1979, t. 2, p. 63 Vilnius, 1983, p. 3133.
75. ,
,
1981 , , 1983, . 371 (co-author
1978 , , 1979, . 456457. I. Vakeviit).
1980 1984
Geriamieji ragai i Plinkaigalio (Kdaini raj.), Jaunj Plinkaigalio ploktinis kapinynas, Archeologiniai tyrinjimai
istorik darbai, Vilnius, 1980, kn. 3, p. 9698. Lietuvoje 1982 ir 1983 metais, Vilnius, 1984, p. 7779.
Plinkaigalio (Kdaini raj.) senkapio tyrinjimai 1978 ir IIVIII
1979 metais, Archeologiniai tyrinjimai Lietuvoje 1978 ir ,
1979 metais, Vilnius, 1980, p. 8083. , , 1988, 24 .
, V . ,
1979 , , 1980, . 378379. . 1982, , 1984, .
497503.
,
I would like to express my gratitude to my colleagues
1 1982 , , 1984, . 384.
A. Bliujien, V. imnas, and G. Zabiela for compiling
V.Kazakeviius bibliography.
17
1985 Vistiki (Anyki raj.) pilkapyno tyrinjimai 1988 metais,
Kazakeviius (19512005)
Archeologiniai tyrinjimai Lietuvoje 1988 ir 1989 metais,
Ankstyvieji virvelins keramikos kultros kapai Lietuvoje, Vilnius, 1990, p. 4952.
P u b l i c a t i o n s b y Vy t a u t a s
Lietuvos archeologija, Vilnius, 1985, t. 4, p. 1424 (co- Kalniki (Raseini raj.) kapinyno tyrinjimai 1989 m., Ar-
authors A. Butrimas, G. esnys, I. Balinien, and R. cheologiniai tyrinjimai Lietuvoje 1988 ir 1989 metais,
Jankauskas). Vilnius, 1990, p. 83.
, Kryiai ir archeologijos paminklai, Katalik pasaulis, Viln-
1983 , , 1985, . 425. ius, 1990 06 06, Nr. 11, p. 1315 (co-authors B. Dakanis,
1986 A. Kunceviius, M. Michelbertas, and G. Zabiela).
18
Piliakalnio piliakalnis; altini pirmieji pilkapiai; Pakark- Kalniki kapinyno tyrinjim rezultatai, Archeologiniai
BALTICA 8
los kalnas; oveni-Budri piliakalnis; Varguli piliakaln- tyrinjimai Lietuvoje 1998 ir 1999 metais, Vilnius, 2000,
is; Varkuj-Varniki piliakalnis; Vistiki pilkapiai, p. 257261.
Kultros paminkl enciklopedija. Ryt Lietuva, Vilnius, Kejn kapinyno kasinjimai 1999 m., Archeologiniai
1996, t. 1, p. 39, 42, 46, 48, 55, 58, 60, 64, 70, 89, 91, 99, tyrinjimai Lietuvoje 1998 ir 1999 metais, Vilnius, 2000,
101, 102. p. 261263.
1997 2001
On one type of Baltic sword of the Viking period, Archaeolo- In Search of Baltic-Scandinavian weaponry relations, Vi
ARCHAEOLOGIA
gia Baltica, Vilnius, 1997, vol. 2, p. 117132. fr tacka Lamm, Stockholm, Statens historiska museum/
Stockholm, Studies 10, 2001, p. 91101.
1998 Kurhan 47 z mieczem z cmentarzyska w wirblach
I vlyvojo geleies amiaus balt ginkl istorijos (Kalavij (virbliai), Lietuvos archeologija, Vilnius, 2001, t. 21, p.
makt apkalai), Lietuvos archeologija, Vilnius, 1998, t. 241266 (co-author G. Iwanowska).
15, p. 287332. Ptjumi Vistiu uzkalniakapulauk Lietuvas Slijas daa,
Kalnikiai burial ground: investigation, results, prospects, Latvijas Zintu Akadmijas Vstis, Rga, 2001, 55 sj.,
Archaeologia Baltica, Vilnius, 1998, vol. 3, p. 251260. Nr. 5/6, p. 8393.
Geleies amiaus balt geni ginkluot. Habilitacinis dar- iemgalos didiko kapas, iemgala, Kaunas, 2001, Nr. 1, p.
bas. Humanitariniai mokslai, 05H Istorija, Vilnius, 1998, 24.
68 p. Archeologin kultra, archeologin periodizacija, arche-
Military aspects of Baltic tribes in the Iron age : Summary ologiniai radiniai, Visuotin lietuvi enciklopedija, Viln-
of the research report presented for habilitation. Vilnius, ius, 2001, t. I. AAr, p. 720 21.
1998, 48 p.
2002
Tyrinjim Kalnikiuose deimtmetis, Archeologiniai
tyrinjimai Lietuvoje 1996 ir 1997 metais, Vilnius, 1998, vadas, Archaeologia Baltica, Vilnius, 2002, t. 5, p. 58.
p. 198201. Tyrinjimai lietuvikoje Slos dalyje, Sli paveldas ir dabar-
The Plinkaigalis burial ground, Lithuanian archaeology: in- tis. Mokslins konferencijos, vykusios 2001 m. rugpjio
vestigations and findings, Vilnius, 1998, p. 15. 10-11 d. Zarasuose, mediaga, Zarasai, 2002, p. 1636.
Apkart pilkapynas; epeliki pilkapynai; Gailiutiks- Kalniki kapinynas, Archeologiniai tyrinjimai Lietuvoje
Santupi pilkapynas; Galmini pilkapynai; Jukn ka- 2000 metais, Vilnius, 2002, p. 100101.
pinynas; Kavoli kapinynas; Kloviki pilkapiai; Krat Lii senkapis, Archeologiniai tyrinjimai Lietuvoje 2000
kapinynas; Liaudiki kapinynas; Lygalauki kapinynas; metais, Vilnius, 2002, p. 109.
Pratkn milinkapis; Rikoni kapeliai; Rusteiki pilka- Kalniki kapinynas, Archeologiniai tyrinjimai Lietuvoje
pynas; Salako pilkapynas; Subatikio pilkapynas, Kultros 2001 metais, Vilnius, 2002, p. 120122.
paminkl enciklopedija. Ryt Lietuva, Vilnius, 1998, t. 2, Aukso dirbiniai, Visuotin lietuvi enciklopedija, Vilnius,
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(i-i i), i, 1998, . 129 bartis, Zarasai, 2002, p.1636.
135.
2003
1999
Decorated Pottery from the Kalnikiai Migration Period
Auktaii kapinynas emaii etnokultrinje periferijoje, Cemetery in Lithuania, Arheoloogiga Lnemeremaades
Lietuvos archeologija, Vilnius, 1999, t. 18, p. 5767. Uurimussi Jri Selirana auhs. Muinasaja teadus 13,
Dl E tipo ietigali ornamentuotomis movomis chronologi- TallinnTartu, 2003, p. 105118.
jos ir kilms, Archaeologia Lituana, Vilnius, 1999, t. 1, p. Buteiki piliakalnis; Caune Andris (Andris Cun), Visuotin
179196. lietuvi enciklopedija, Vilnius, t. III. BeketeriaiCh, 2003,
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2000
2004
Balt ir skandinav karini ryi beiekant, Lietuvos auktj
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Paalksni, Kelms r. pilkapyno kalavijas, I balt kultros ija, Vilnius, 2004, t. 4950, p. 312 (co-author A. Malo-
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Pratarm, Lietuvos archeologija, Vilnius, 2000, t. 20, p. 56. Kalniki V-VI ami kapinyno keramika, Lietuvos arche-
Sli paminklai Lietuvoje, Lietuvos archeologija, Vilnius, ologija. Vilnius, 2003, t. 26, p. 528.
2000, t. 20, p. 720. Durklas, Visuotin lietuvi enciklopedija, Vilnius, 2004, t. V.
Vistiki pilkapynas, Lietuvos archeologija, Vilnius, 2000, Dis-Fat, p. 223.
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Sli kapai Mikini pilkapyje, Lietuvos archeologija, Viln- ininkas Algirdas Visuotin lietuvi enciklopedija, Vilnius,
ius, 2000, t. 20, p. 115139. 2004, t. VI. FauGori, p. 329330, 675676, 701.
Tyrinjimai Paobrio pilkapyno vietoje 1998 m., Arche-
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ius, 2000, p. 170172. Unikalus balt ginklas i Vilkijos, Acta Baltica, Kaunas,
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Vidurami kalavijas i Nevio (Kdaini m.), Lietuvos ar- 1997
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Vilnius, 2006, p. 165. A. Mickeviius).
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2004 metais, Vilnius, 2006, p. 107108. 2006
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Archeologins miniatiros i Plinkaigalio, Mokslas ir gyven- VI. In memoriam
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imas, Vilnius, 1981, Nr. 2, p. 32. Vy t a u t a s K a z a k e v i i u s
Penkeri metai Plinkaigalio kapinyne, Tarybinis kelias
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mas, Vilnius, 1982, Nr. 8, p. 3132. Istorija, 2004, t. 62, p. 1.
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1984 2005), Vilnius, 2006, 12 p.
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Kazakeviius), Klaipdos universitetas, 2006, spal. 25,
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1986 torijos metratis, 2005/2, Vilnius, 2006, p. 213216.
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ius, 1989 10 10, p. 3.
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1991 08 20.
Kalnikis dygst poudaa, A mon sakaa? (Palanga), 1991, Nr.
3, p. 2.
1993
Archeolog darbai Kalnikiuose, Naujas rytas (Raseiniai),
1993 09 29.
1994
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Vilnius, 1994 03 24, p. 12. (co-authors R. Rimantien, P.
Repys, A. Butrimas, G. Karalius, and V. ekanauskas).
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Nauji archeolog atradimai Kalnikiuose, Naujas rytas (Ra-
seiniai), 1995 12 16, p. 4.
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Prisilietimas prie protvi / Pokalb ura V. Kvedys, Nau-
jas rytas (Raseiniai), 1997 09 20, p. 2.
2001
Lietuvos archeologijai 10 valstybs nepriklausomybs met,
prepared by G. Zemlickas, Mokslo Lietuva, 2001, Nr.
3, p. 1, 1415. (co-authors A. Nikentaitis, G. Zabiela,
M.Michelbertas, A. Kunceviius).
21
Neolithic/Early Bronze Age I. STEPPING FROM THE MALE
T O T H E WA R R I O R I D E N T I T Y
Europe, 28002300 BC
Male Identity in Late
M A L E I D E N T I T Y I N L AT E N E O L I T H I C / E A R LY
BRONZE AGE EUROPE, 28002300 BC
WESTERMANN
JAKOB
JAKOB WESTERMANN
Abstract
22
gen by dividing the grave and discussing its elements. my choice of graves. In the analysis of the graves, one
BALTICA 8
Julian Thomas has analysed British Bell Beaker graves should involve a whole row of factors in relation to
and the placement of the beakers. I will try to use both each grave, eg terrain, topography, surrounding natural
of their phenomenological and spatial approaches in a and cultural landscape, a cemetery context, if any, and
discussion of social identity, body culture, and gender. a larger comparison of its graves. By choosing to fo-
cus only on the grave room as a context, I exclude the
When a member of society dies, a social drama takes
above-mentioned factors, but including them would go
place; there is a rupturing of existing relations (S-
beyond the physical limits of this paper. It might seem
ARCHAEOLOGIA
rensen 2004, p.168). These relations are renegotiated
problematic that the male graves chosen in this study
in the burial, so the placement of the grave goods and
are very different in their expression. There is a large
the body creates an image of the deceased; an image of
difference in the degrees of material richness com-
the values and ideals of the society (2004, p.168). Ju-
pared to their surrounding contemporary graves and
lian Thomas sees the grave as a text, where the objects
cemeteries. Their similarities are the fact that they are
are signifiers (1991, p.38). The grave must eventually
male graves with weapons and pottery, they are with
be seen as a potential semiotic room and the objects
preserved skeletons, and they are clearly positioned in
must be seen as an extension of the body and body-
the graves.
related actions, for example, cooking, eating, drinking,
dressing, hunting and fighting (Thomas 1991, p.38;
Srensen 2004, p.173; Vandkilde 2006, p.394). Spatial analysis of grave rooms
The main pillar for theorising identity and gender is
The spatial analysis is simply made by dividing the
I
social anthropology. It is used within archaeology to
grave room to see if there are any clusterings or regular- STEPPING
add an extra dimension to the archaeological mate- FROM
ities in the position of the different artefacts in connec- THE MALE
rial proposing a more balanced view of a possible TO THE
tion with the body and the grave room. I have chosen to
structure of prehistoric society (eg Apel 2001; or Wier- WA R R I O R
divide the grave into squares using the body as a start- IDENTITY
mann 1998, p.131). Social identity and gender denote
ing point. The mid-axis goes along the spine, cross-
the individuals perception of the self and the affilia-
ing the skull, pelvis and feet, while the cross-axis goes
tion in society, and are also a way societies categorise
across the mid-axis across the pelvis (Fig. 1). Starting
individuals using sex, age, profession, rank and status
from the objects in these four squares, I will describe,
(Eriksen 1998; Vandkilde 2006). Status may be added
and to some extent compare, the three graves. I have
or achieved and different kinds of status may vary in
chosen to divide the grave goods into four groupings:
meaning in different contexts.
pottery, dress equipment (eg bone pins) and adornment
In her work Warriors and Warrior Institutions in (eg tooth beads or gold jewellery), weapon-related
Copper Age Europe, H. Vandkilde (2006) theorises objects, and craft-related objects. It may very well be
on warriors and warriorhood using ethno-historical debatable whether such a division in weapon and craft-
perspectives. Warriorhood must be seen as a second- related objects can be legitimized. It is a discussion of
ary status; a group identity added to the male gender. weapon-tools and tool-weapons (cf Vandkilde 2006,
It may work ad hoc or be institutionalised in soci- p.404). In my opinion, the division is made from their
ety (Vandkilde 2006, p.397). She puts up three eth- everyday context. For example, the working axe from
nographic models for institutionalised warriorhood, the Vikletice grave is determined to be a craft-related
where access is regulated through: 1) age, possibly by object. Vikletice is a CWC cemetery in the northwest of
initiation rites; 2) personal qualities, where the warrior the Czech Republic. Due to the chalky subsoil, bones
is more independent; and 3) distinctions of rank, where are well preserved. The cemetery is made up of a total
the warriors form a kind of warrior elite (Vandkilde of 179 graves, of which the majority date from CWC
2006, pp.399-403). (Buchvaldek, Kouteck et al. 1970).
Grave 58, which was excavated in 1964 (Fig. 1a), is
Source criticism determined to be a male grave according to the grave
goods and the position of the body. The skeleton is de-
Within source criticism, there are several factors to termined to be of a juvenile. The grave is orientated
mention. The more elementary ones are the states of approximately east-west, measures 156 by 120 centi-
preservation. One has to bear in mind that artefacts metres, and has a rectangular shape with rounded cor-
of organic material, such as leather, wood or textiles, ners. The body is centrally placed in the grave with
may have played a role in the material expression of the left arm resting across the stomach region and the
the grave, but are most often not preserved. However, right arm resting along the side of the body. The body
the greatest source criticism should be pointed toward is surrounded by objects on all four sides, and several
23
Neolithic/Early Bronze Age
Europe, 28002300 BC
Male Identity in Late
WESTERMANN
JAKOB
Fig. 1. Model
for spatial analysis of grave goods: a Vikletice grave 58 (Bohemia, Czech Republic) (no scale); b the Spil-
amberto grave (northern Italy) (no scale); c the Amesbury grave (southern England) (no scale). The objects are numbered
according to their metonymical aspect: 1 weapon-related objects; 2 craft-related objects; 3 pottery; 4 dress equipment/
adornments (rearranged after Buchvaldek, Kouteck 1970, p.169, Abb. 107; Barfield 1997, p.117, Fig. 9; Wessex Archaeol-
ogy 2002).
of them seem to have had a direct connection to the ing beaker is placed on the side. In contrast, other pots
placement of the body. are generally placed in an upright position. The amount
of content, the irregularity of the grave bottom, or the
Dividing the grave by the mid and the cross axis, the
size of the beaker may have, of course, caused it to
grave is divided into four, where the square behind
tip over. One could also imagine that the beaker may
the legs is apparently empty. In the quadrant in front
have been emptied before or while it was placed in the
of the legs, just below the right knee, you can see an
grave as part of a ritual act. I find this very interest-
approximately seven-centimetre-long, almost pointed
ing in connection with the idea of the institutionalized
blade knife (Buchvaldek, Kouteck et al. 1970, p.55).
warriorhood in CWC, where drinking rituals may have
In the southwest quadrant, in front of the face, which
played a part in the warrior group (cf Vandkilde 2006,
is facing south, a mace head or what could possibly be
p.415). What we see in male graves with corded beak-
a very eroded battleaxe is placed. Its placement indi-
ers is probably a reflection of these drinking rituals in
cates that when shafted, it had been laid in the hand of
the grave rituals. Besides the slender corded beaker, an
the deceased. With this direct connection to the body,
undecorated globular amphora is found. The amphora
the placement stresses action, and its function as a
is almost always placed along the northern side in all
weapon, practically, socially and symbolically, seems
graves in the Vikletice cemetery, regardless of the sex
obvious. In the last quadrant, behind the mans back,
or geographical orientation of the deceased. It is placed
a large working axe made of a type of rock is found
behind the back or in front of the legs. In grave 58, the
behind the neck. At first glance it has a very prominent
amphora is placed behind the back and no terms of ac-
and an almost violent placement, with the edge pointed
tion are stressed in its placement. It possibly served as
directly towards the skull. In this case, I do not find that
a container for food or beverages.
the specific placement is so important. In several other
graves, such axes are found in the same quadrant of the The Spilamberto grave is from the Spilamberto cem-
grave (Buchvaldek, Kouteck et al. 1970, eg pp.102, etery in northern Italy (Barfield 1986). The dating is
113, 166), and the axe may have been moved a bit in chalcolithic or eneolithic. The graves here are
the grave, which may cause that marked placement. I different from the rest of the north Italian cemeteries
have chosen to mark the axe and the blade knife as from the same period of time, eg Remedello, which
craft-related objects, but it is with some reservation, has given its name to a local culture group.According
since they may have weapon or violence-related po- to Lawrence Barfield (1986), Spilamberto is not un-
tentials. Approximately ten to 20 centimetres above der the same influence of CWC as the more northern
the skull lies a corded beaker with the mouth point- cemeteries in the area, and compared with these, the
ing south. It seems as if it could have been deliber- Spilamberto graves are much more uniform and not as
ately pointed towards the deceaseds skull region. In strictly divided into male and female graves. For exam-
the cemetery, corded beakers are only found in male ple, the orientations of the graves are alike, regardless
graves, and almost always at the head end of the grave of sex and age; both males and females are buried lying
in front or behind the skull. In several cases, the drink- on their back, with their hands resting on the lap.Al-
24
so, the objects are not as strictly divided according to BBC male grave. The arms are folded along his chest.
BALTICA 8
male and female graves. For example, there are several The body is centrally placed in the grave, and with
female graves equipped with arrow points, and in the the exception of above the skull, it is surrounded by
Remedello cemetery, anthropologically determined fe- objects.
The grave contains no less than 100 artefacts,
males are buried with copper daggers and arrow points most of which are flints.
(Barfield 1986, p.243).
The mid and the cross axes divide the grave into four
The grave (Fig. 1b) is oriented north to south, with the equally sized quadrants; however, the grave goods
ARCHAEOLOGIA
head at the north. The skeleton of an adult male is lying are unequally placed. In the quadrant behind the legs,
on his back with his face slightly turned eastwards and along the mid-axis, only a bell beaker is placed. In the
his hands resting on his lap.Between his thigh bones quadrant in front of the legs, a beaker is placed by the
lies a large bone dagger with the tip pointed towards feet near the mid-axis. A number of status markers,
his left groin. On each side of his pelvis, a tanged ar- such as a
red sandstone wristguard, a shale belt ring,
row point, probably of flint, is placed, and just south a tanged copper dagger, and two gold so-called bas-
of his left foot stands a beaker. The beaker placed ket earrings are also placed in this area of the grave.
near the left foot and the face are turned left, making a Much points towards the fact that this is an extra set of
vague marking of that side of the grave. Despite that, equipment, possibly including clothing. It looks as if
the composition of the grave is very symmetrical. Un- it is deliberately placed at that very spot in the grave.
fortunately, it has not been possible to find any further Fitzpatrick calls it equipment for a dress or possible
descriptions of the beaker or the arrow points in the regalia, and infers by these means that we are dealing
literature. The bone dagger looks very much like the here with some kind of king or chief (2002). Further-
I
shafted copper daggers known from the area and the more, in front of the legs, in the northeast part of the STEPPING
FROM
rest of Europe. It is cut in one piece, and the end of grave, 15 arrow points were found scattered one level THE MALE
TO THE
the shaft is almost semicircular shaped. The blade is above the bottom of the grave. These are probably the WA R R I O R
thicker in the middle. remains of a quiver, with the arrows placed above a IDENTITY
possible lid of the chamber (Fitzpatrick 2002, p.630).
If you lay out the mid and cross axes, it is remarka-
In the quadrant in front of the face,
a copper knife is
ble that the area above the waist is apparently empty.
placed near one hand, and along his underarm lies a
All the weapon-related objects are placed around the
black sandstone wristguard and a bone pin. In front of
pelvis, and, with the beaker placed near the feet, no
the arms there is a cache of flints, such as flakes, scrap-
terms of bodily action are stressed (cf Srensen 2004,
ers, knives (small daggers, my comment), blanks for
p.173), just as with the globular amphora in the Viklet-
arrow points, a small tanged copper dagger, a red deer
ice grave.
spatula, a small lump of iron (possibly for a strike-a-
The hitherto richest male grave from BBC in Britain is light), and some boar tusks. In the quadrant behind the
the so-called Amesbury Archer, which was excavated back, there is a bell beaker behind the skull and another
with another nearby BBC grave by Wessex Archaeol- cache of flints, for example, scrapers, some boar tusks,
ogy in 2002. The two graves are situated in southern and a small cushion stone (possibly a small anvil for
England only three miles from Stonehenge. The results working gold).
To sum up the weapon-related objects
have not been thoroughly published yet, but are men- in the grave, there are three small tanged copper dag-
tioned among news in Antiquity (Fitzpatrick 2002). gers, two small flint dagger blades, two wristguards,
However, Wessex Archaeology has published some of and 15 arrow points. An overall view of the numbered
the results on their web page (www.wessexarch.co.uk/ version of the plan of the Amesbury grave shows that
projects/amesbury/archer.html [Wessex Archaeology all weapon-related objects (1) are placed in the two
2002]). The richest of the two graves, the Amesbury quadrants in front of the body, to the right of the mid-
Archer, is referred to as the Amesbury grave. Radio- axis. In my opinion, the copper dagger placed by the
carbon analysis dates the grave to 24002100 cal. BC. hand of the deceased stresses a term of action. It is the
The results of stable isotope analyses of oxygen, 18O, same for the objects referred to as adornment and dress
from the human tooth enamel are of great interest. It is equipment (4), which are also placed in the two right
an indication that the man grew up in the Alpine area quadrants. The so-called craft-related objects (2) are
(Wessex Archaeology 2002). placed above the cross-axis, above the waist. The five
The grave (Fig. 1c) is
oriented WNW-ESE, with the bell beakers (3) are found in all four quadrants, with
head at WNW. The grave has probably been supported predominance in the quadrant in front of the face.
by some kind of wooden chamber. The man, deter- Like Fitzpatrick, I find the cache of prestige objects or
mined as an adult male between 35 and 50 years old, the so-called regalia significant in its placement, be-
lies in left positioned hocker, the most common for a cause of its role as an extra set of special dress equip-
25
Neolithic/Early Bronze Age
Europe, 28002300 BC
Male Identity in Late
WESTERMANN
Fig. 2. Positions of the bell beakers in British Bell Beaker graves: a a simplified representation of the four common place-
JAKOB
ments of the bell beaker in Britain (after Clarke 1970, p.455, 3.9); b the same model rearranged showing the placement of
the five bell beakers in the Amesbury grave.
ment. Yet, I find the other objects just as significant In J. Thomas model of sequencing (Fig. 3), I have
in their placement in relation to the body. In his work marked the objects found in the grave with the num-
about bell beakers in Great Britain and Ireland, D. bers used in the spatial analysis (Fig. 1). If we assume
Clarke has also researched the placement of the bell that each beaker starts a sequence in the model, five
beakers in graves (1970). Bell beakers, of which there beakers might be necessary for the presence of all the
is only normally one found in each grave, if any, have other objects in the grave. However, a grave found
statistically four positions (Fig. 2a): 1) in front of the nearby, the so-called Archers Relative, does not corre-
face; 2) in front of the legs; 3) behind the head; and spond with this idea. He has no beaker in the grave, but
4) behind the legs (Clarke 1970, p.455). To this he re- has a boars tusk at his side and two basket-earrings
lates, among other things, statistics over gender and in his mouth (!) (Wessex Archaeology).
age, classified as male, female and child (Thomas
1991, p.39, Fig. 5), where most male graves have the
Discussion
beaker in position 3, most female graves have it in po-
sition 2, and most children graves have it in position 1.
The battleaxe or mace is as a weapon only associated
All three groups are represented in the four positions
with
warfare, unlike daggers and archery equipment,
(1991, p.39).
which are also linked with hunting (Vandkilde 2006,
I have marked the beakers positions in the Amesbury p.394). In this connection, I would like to add the com-
grave (Fig. 2b), and it is obvious that all aforemen- ment that battleaxes, maces and daggers might as well
tioned positionings have been used. There is a stylistic be associated with the (ritual) slaughtering of animals.
difference in the beakers placed near the head and the Like the rest of the material, we may look at several
ones placed near the legs. The different styles of the aspects of the dagger as an artefact: the utilitarian as-
bell beakers may very well be a marking of social rela- pects and the symbolic aspects. Daggers are tradition-
tions between ethnic groups inside BBC and possibly ally seen as almost purely symbolic objects; but, in my
also mark connections to other chiefs (Clarke 1970). opinion, discussions and analysis of the utilitarian pur-
poses and real function are just as important.
With this analysis of the Amesbury grave, I see sev-
eral common features with M.L.S. Srensens analysis The bone dagger from Spilamberto (Fig. 4c) has, as
of the Leubingen grave (2004). The Amesbury Archer mentioned, been inferred as non-functional and purely
was probably not a craftsman (eg goldsmith, ceram- symbolic grave equipment by L. Barfield and C. Chip-
ic artist or furrier), nor did he carry five daggers and pindale (1997, p.116). I disagree with their opinion. A
two wristguards. The way the objects are placed in bone dagger may very well have utilitarian purposes
the grave in function spheres indicates that he was a connected with the material and morphology, not nec-
powerful person and had a number of crafts and crafts- essarily in acts of war. From the south Scandinavian
men under him. In connection with the placement of Mesolithic and Neolithic, several bone daggers made
the objects and the body, we can see that he was put from the elbow bones of larger mammals, for example,
in the grave not dressed as the powerful man he pos- are known. They have traditionally been suggested to
sibly was, but more as a warrior. This is evident from be skinning knives (Brndsted 1957, p.101 and 211).
the dagger in his hand, a wristguard on his arm, and a J. Apel has, in his technological study of Scandinavian
bone pin to close his garment. His status as a powerful flint daggers, also commented upon their utilitarian
man is stressed by the objects placed around him in the purposes. He finds the flint daggers use as stabbing
grave thereafter. devices rather poor, whereas experiments with and the
26
BALTICA 8
ARCHAEOLOGIA
I
STEPPING
Fig. 3. Possible sequence for the choices involved in the combination of grave goods in British bell beaker graves (rear- FROM
ranged after Thomas 1991, p.35, Fig. 1). The numbered items mark the objects represented in the Amesbury grave. The THE MALE
meanings of the numbers are the same as in the spatial analysis (cf Fig. 1). TO THE
WA R R I O R
IDENTITY
Fig. 4. Daggers and knives: the blade knife from Vikletice, length 7 cm; b a flint dagger blade and the largest tanged copper
dagger from the Amesbury grave (no scale); c the bone dagger from the Spilamberto grave (no scale) (after Buchvaldek and
Kouteck 1970, p.169, Abb. 107. 5; www.wessexarch.co.uk and Barfield 1997, p.117, Fig. 9, respectively).
use of flint daggers have shown that they are excel- is mostly traces of shafting that you see on the daggers
lent as cutting devices for slaughtering and skinning (Keeley 1982). Many flint daggers from Scandinavia
animals (Apel 2001, p.311). Apparently no thorough have been re-sharpened, which destroys the use-wear,
use-wear analyses on flint daggers or any other kinds but also shows the importance of resharpening as a
of daggers have been made. However, in single cases, result of breakage or ritual sharpening (Apel 2001,
use-wear on daggers has been analysed. On a flint dag- p.311). Of course, it is possible that the daggers have
ger from Ffair Rhos, for example, all use-wear on the just been used as ordinary cutting devices. It would be
edges has been inferred as a result of the dagger being interesting, if it was possible, to study several kinds
pulled in and out of a sheath (Keeley 1982, p.495), a of daggers from grave contexts, such as bone daggers,
treatment that destroys any other possible use-wear. It flint daggers, copper and bronze daggers, more system-
27
atically for traces of use-wear to see if certain patterns and two wristguards are clear components of BBC in
arise. northwest Europe. The red sandstone wristguard locat-
Neolithic/Early Bronze Age
2001, p.356).
of the flint daggers from the Amesbury grave and the
blade knife from the Vikletice grave look very much J. Thomas and H. Vandkilde have different conclu-
alike in shape and also in size (Fig. 4a and 4b). The sions of the pottery in the graves. H. Vandkilde sug-
blade knives from the Vikletice cemetery are not found gests, from a social anthropological view, that beakers
in female graves, but only in some male graves with in male graves, the corded beaker and the bell beaker,
maces and working axes. In approximately half of the are connected with gender or institutionalized war-
cases, the blade knives are placed near the legs (Buch- riorhood. Food, and especially beverages, may have
valdek, Kouteck et al. 1970, p.238). Some gloss was played an active part in rituals, and therefore the beak-
observed on the blades (Buchvaldek, Kouteck et al ers played a central role in denoting the male identity
1970), and the use-wear analysis of 53 of the Viklet- (2006, p.410). In a bell beaker grave, at Ashgrove
ice blades by Kjel Knutsson indicates that the artefacts Fife in Scotland, traces of an alcoholic beverage were
divide into two equally sized groups. They were either found in a bell beaker, which may support her hypoth-
used for cutting vegetable material or were unused. esis (Vandkilde 2006). It is a common view that the
They were used for scraping skin in only four cases consumption of alcoholic beverages was a customary
(Knutsson 1995). Further use-wear analyses like this practice in prehistoric societies (eg Vencl 1994, p.317).
could be interesting concerning the use of blades from A corded beaker from a single grave at Refshjgrd
other CWC graves in Europe, for example cutting in East Jutland, has also been found to contain starch
hides, meat or fat by the skinning or slaughtering of grains in a non-carbonized crust, which implies a clear
animals, or as seen in Vikletice, used mostly for plant trace of an alcoholic beverage (Klassen 2005, p.7).
working.
J. Thomas takes the view of the bell beaker being
The dagger has traditionally been seen as a status sym- the primary object in graves (if any grave goods are
bol, more precisely male status (Barfield, Chippindale present) in BBC of males, females and children (Tho-
1997, p.117; Apel 2001, p.311). In her work with the mas 1991, p.35). His thesis is that choices of grave
Singen am Hohentwiel cemetery, Emily Weglian sees goods are determined by certain patterns or sequences.
the daggers function as having a symbolic meaning. For example, v-perforated buttons are only present
She infers that the bronze dagger was an adornment if other objects are as well (Fig. 3), and the presence
in line with other contemporary bronze objects, which of a bell beaker determines whether other objects are
are mostly jewellery related (Weglian 2001, p.147). In present (1991, p.35). Pottery ornaments have often
parts of the Alpine area, daggers are depicted on the been seen as a symbol of ethnicity (eg Clarke 1970)
so-called statue-menhirs (Fig. 5). They are found in ar- or as an indication of use and content. According to
eas where the deceased are buried in communal graves ethnographic studies, pottery has a variety of functions
without any grave goods, and they are meant to stress categorized in a complex system where, as mentioned
a male identity not expressed in the funerary practice before, form, function and context are central aspects
(Barfield, Chippindale 1997). In this connection, Bar- (Miller 1985).
field infers the dagger or its depiction as the symbol
Chemical analyses of ceramics and the study of macro
of the adult male (Barfield 1986, p.244), because
fossils in connection with them are, in my opinion, of
some of the statue-menhirs are shaped like a phallus or
great interest and importance to the understanding of
the shaft of the dagger. He thereby sees a symbiosis of
the pottery. The function, practically as a container, and
male, body, phallus and dagger (1986, p.244).
symbolically in the stylistic variation, makes the study
The archery equipment is heavily emphasized in the of pottery more complex (eg Lindahl 2000, p.163).
Amesbury grave. The 15 barbed tanged arrowheads
28
BALTICA 8
ARCHAEOLOGIA
I
STEPPING
FROM
THE MALE
TO THE
Fig. 5. Statue-menhirs from the Lunigiana area in northeast Italy (no scale) (after Barfield 1997, p.119, Fig. 11: 1-3). WA R R I O R
IDENTITY
Male Identity and warriorhood association with the male or the warrior. L. Barfield
compares his view of the dagger as a symbol of male
As discussed in the analysis, I assume the Amesbury identity in the north Italian area (1986, p.245) to the
Archer has been buried primarily with warrior equip- rock engravings at Mont Bgo, which depict ploughing
ment with connection to the body, and buried with scenes, oxen, and male figures with halberds. These
warrior status. Second, he has a status as a powerful halberds are morphologically closely connected with
man with rich equipment and grave goods, which may daggers (1997, p.120). He suggests that this sphere
symbolize his powers over various crafts and crafts- with male graves, statue-menhirs and rock engravings
men. The amount of bell beakers and their placements belongs to the adult male. He sees the engravings as a
in the grave refers to, besides food preparation, eating result of rites de passage, where young men are initi-
and drinking rituals, a manifestation or stressing of the ated by making the rock engravings, and maybe, in this
grave cult and symbolism, as D.L. Clarke and J. Tho- connection, gains male status and become members of
mas have proposed. I suppose a further study of this the group of men carrying the dagger (Barfield, Chip-
grave would bring new information to the understand- pindale 1997, p.122). In this case, if the dagger was a
ing of British bell beaker graves. In the discussion of symbol of institutionalised warriorhood, it must have
warrior identity, the Amesbury grave is interesting. As been regulated by age (cf Vandkilde 2006).
with the other two graves, first and foremost, it con-
tains a deceased man with weapon-related objects and
symbols centrally placed in connection with the body. Concluding remarks
In the Spilamberto grave, the deceased is completely In my analysis of the three graves, I have not been able
differently placed than in the two other graves in this to prove any pronounced similarities. As a starting
analysis. The placement of the grave goods in relation point, they are different and maybe also too different to
to grave room and body is also different, since all pre- generalize on male identity in Late Neolithic Europe.
served objects are placed below the waist and no terms It would require a much larger amount and variety of
of action are stressed whatsoever. We may conclude graves and cemeteries to go further into this issue. The
that what we see here is another kind of body culture, basic analyses are best made on the cemetery, cultural
such as a different way to dress and the use of symbolic and geographical levels. I would suggest multi-varied
objects in relation to the body. Still, the weapon-related analyses as a method for handling the data concern-
objects have some connection with the body, and I find ing objects and their placement in relation to body
it plausible that the equipment has the same symbolic and grave room, determination of age, and sex of the
29
skeletons, etc. Such analyses can point out possible KLASSEN, L., 2005-last update. Zur bedeutung von getreide
Neolithic/Early Bronze Age
clusters or groupings that may relate to different social in der einzelgrabkultur jtlands [online]. Available: www.
jungsteinSITE.de 2005.
identities. Furthermore, I propose some future studies:
Europe, 28002300 BC
a further study of the actual uses of objects, for exam- stridsyxegravar i Vikletice, Tjeckiska republiken, Appen-
ple by chemical or use-wear analysis of tools, weapons dix 1. In: H. KNUTSSON, ed. Slutvandrat? Aspekter p
and pottery. vergngen frn rrlig til bofast tillvaro. Uppsala: Soci-
etas Archaeologica Upsaliensis, 221-224.
A common feature of the three graves is that body and LANTING, J.N., VAN DER WAALS, J.D., 1974. Bea-
weapon-related objects are closely connected in the ker Culture Relations in the Lower Rhine Basin. In:
marking of identity. Whether the meanings in the three I.N.LANTING and VAN DER I.D.WAALS, eds. Glo-
chenbechersymposium Oberried, 18-23 Mrz 1974. Haar-
WESTERMANN
BALTICA 8
A Case Study from Singen am Hohentwiel, Germany. In: su amatais. Kape i Vikletice mirusysis paguldytas ant
B.ARNOLD and N.L.WICKER, eds. Gender and the
deiniojo ono, kairioji jo ranka buvo padta ant pilvo,
archaeology of death. Walnut Creek, CA: AltaMira Press,
137-155. o deinioji itiesta (1: a pav.). kaps iame kape ids-
WESSEX ARCHAEOLOGY, 2002-last update. Internet tytos aplink mirusj. Keli kap dt daikt pozicija
pages about the bell beaker grave, the Amesbury Archer (kirvio ir virvelins keramikos taurs) buvo tiesiogiai
[Homepage of Wessex Archaeology], [online]. Available: susijusi su mirusiojo padtimi kape. Kirvio padtis
http://www.wessexarch.co.uk/projects/amesbury/archer.
kape rodyt jo, kaip ginklo, svarb, taip pat io dirbinio
ARCHAEOLOGIA
WIERMANN, R.R., 1998. An Anthropological Approach to
Burial Customs of Corded Ware Culture in Bohemia. In: padtimi kape buvo akivaizdiai parodyta socialin ir
M.BENZ and S.VAN WILLIGEN, eds. Some New Ap- simbolin kirvio reikm. Tam tikros vyr grups, ma-
proaches to the Bell Beaker Phenomenon. Lost Paradise tyt, kari, kapuose rastos virvelins keramikos taurs
... ? Proceedings of the 2nd Meeting of the Association atspindi ir grimo ritualus.
Archologie et Gobelets, Feldbetg (Germany), 18-20 April
1997, 129-140. Analizuojamame kape i Spilamberto kapinyno miru-
sysis buvo palaidotas prieingai nei likusiuose dvie-
Received: 22 January 2007; Revised 5 June 2007 juose kapuose (1: b pav.). Didiausi susidomjim
iame kape kelia kaulinis durklas, padtas mirusiajam
V y r tapatumas tarp launikauli. Todl atrodyt, kad kape i Spilam-
E u r opo j e v lyvo j o berto matome kitoki laidosen, kuomet simboliniai
neolito ankstyvojo dirbiniai ir j ryys su mirusiojo knu buvo kitokie,
I
b r on z os am iaus laikais skyrsi ir mirusiojo apranga.
STEPPING
( 2 8 0 0 2 3 0 0 m . pr . K r . ) Iki iol kapas i Amesbury yra turtingiausias varpini FROM
THE MALE
tauri kultros kapas Jungtinje Karalystje. Mirusy- TO THE
sis, iskyrus kaukols srit, palaidotas kapi apsuptyje WA R R I O R
Jakob Westermann (1: c pav.). Kape i Amesbury rasta ne maiau kaip 100
IDENTITY
ANDREJS VASKS
Abstract
A characteristic of the Bronze Age in the area of present-day Latvia was a fairly wide range of bronze, stone and bone weap-
ons. The possibility of military clashes, too, is indicated by the building of fortified residential sites, hill-forts. A whole corpus
of evidence testifies to the new way of life adopted by the elite of Bronze Age society, where the ideology of warfare also
played a certain role.
Key words: Bronze Age, weapons, hill-forts, elite, ideology, Latvia.
Introduction We a p o n r y
The earliest age in prehistory where archaeological ma- Since bronze is the material that defines the age, we
terial clearly shows a complex of evidence connected will first consider the weapons made of this material.
with warfare is the Bronze Age. From the Mesolithic Of the 165 bronze objects from the Bronze Age found
and the Early and Middle Neolithic, there is no direct in Latvia, 67 (41%) are weapons. The remaining 98
artefactual evidence of warfare: there are no finds that (59%) include: 70 ornaments, 25 toiletry articles (ra-
can unequivocally be regarded as weapons or military zors, pincers and awls or tattoo needles), and only three
structures. Of course, this does not mean that there was tools. These figures show that bronze was mainly used
no strife, conflict or armed confrontation among the to make objects that served to accentuate an individu-
hunter-fisher communities. (For example, burial 179 als personal appearance, set the individual apart from
at the cemetery of Zvejnieki, with a flint arrowhead the rest, and emphasise their importance.
that had penetrated a vertebra and four perforations
Forty-seven (70%) of the weapons are axes: flanged
in the pelvis (Zagorskis 2004, p.32), may be a witness
and Nortycken-type axes in the Early Bronze Age, and
of such an encounter.) The first items connected with
socketed axes in the Late Bronze Age. These weapons
warfare appear in the the Late Neolithic: these are the
have been found in hoards or have been registered as
polished stone battle-axes or boat axes. Various views
stray finds, and only three come from residential sites.
have been expressed regarding the significance of these
No bronze axes have been found with burials.
axes. They have been interpreted as weapons, some-
thing that Mats Malmer has disputed, considering them Spearheads constitute the second largest group of
unsuitable for real combat (1962, p.661), that they are bronze weapons: 16 have been found (24%). In the
symbols of a new cult or a different way of life, or that Early Bronze Age, they reach as much as 20 centime-
they served to indicate an individuals social status tres in length, while in the Late Bronze Age shorter
(Loze 1996, p.34). It seems, however, that, regardless forms also appeared, measuring nine to 11 centimetres.
of whether the battle-axes of the Late Neolithic were It has been suggested that the longer spearheads served
actually used as weapons of war, or had only a sym- for stabbing, while the shorter ones were missile weap-
bolic significance, there is an undeniable connection ons (Harding 2000, pp.281-283). Like the bronze axes,
with the idea of combat and warfare. the spearheads, too, have mainly been recovered as
stray finds. There are two spearheads from two resi-
The Bronze Age brought not only a much wider range
dential sites, and another two from two burials. Only
of arms and armour, but also saw the construction of
one spearhead derives from a hoard.
strong fortifications. Accordingly, we may ask what
kind of role, and how significant a role, was played Out of three bronze arrowheads, two have been found
by weapons, fortifications and warfare in the life of on hill-forts, the third being a stray find, the conditions
Bronze Age societies of the East Baltic, and what is the of discovery being unknown.
situation specifically in the area of present-day Latvia. Only one bronze sword has been found in Latvia. It
In seeking answers, we shall first consider the archaeo- comes from the Koknese area, near the River Daugava,
logical evidence. This is of two kinds: weaponry and but the actual find conditions are unknown. The sword
fortifications. is dated to Period VI of the Bronze Age and belongs
32
to a sword type that is not widely distributed (Atgzis rowheads of triangular cross-section and the socketed
BALTICA 8
2002, pp.352-353). arrowheads already mentioned. The latter are charac-
teristic of the final phase of the Bronze Age and the be-
In the Bronze Age, stone weapons were also used.
ginning of the Pre-Roman Iron Age. Bone arrowheads
Widespread at this time were shaft-hole axes of simple
are generally regarded as hunting weapons, but they
form and in many cases carelessly made. The work axes
could just as well have been used in warfare. The bow
are generally between seven to eight and 12 to 13 cen-
and arrow was used in all periods of history, from the
timetres long, smaller than the battle-axes. Stone celts
Late Palaeolithic right up to and including the Viking
ARCHAEOLOGIA
(with no shaft-hole) constitute a second group of stone
Age. Moreover, in military encounters, the bow was
axes, known already in the Neolithic. The Bronze Age
practically the only long-distance missile weapon for
examples are smaller, rarely exceeding 10 centimetres
dispatching enemies.
in length, and most commonly between six and eight
centimetres long. The majority of examples of both axe Indirect support for the idea that bone-tipped arrows
forms are stray finds, but a significant number have also had a role as weapons of war can be obtained by com-
been found on the hill-forts of the Late Bronze Age and paring the numbers of bone arrowheads and the num-
Pre-Roman Iron Age, which indicates that they were bers of wild animal bones at the hill-forts of ivutkalns
widely used during the period of study. Although these and Brikui. At ivutkalns, 65 bone arrowheads were
axes tend to be included in the category of tools, they found, constituting 2.4% of the total of 2,700 artefacts.
could also have been useful in military clashes. At Brikui, only four bone arrowheads were recov-
ered, constituting 0.4% of the total of 1,000 artefact
From the area of present-day Latvia, there are about I
finds. Compared with these figures, wild animal bones
40 straight-backed stone axes. These measure between STEPPING
constituted 6.2% of the total number of bone finds at
eight and 12 centimetres in length, with only a few ex- FROM
ivutkalns, while the figure for Brikui is 13.3%. Thus, THE MALE
ceeding this size. In this regard, they resemble simple TO THE
the figures show that at ivutkalns, six times as many
work axes. However, unlike the latter, the straight- WA R R I O R
arrowheads have been found, compared with Brikui, IDENTITY
backed axes are characterised by a symmetrical form,
but only half the number of wild animal bones. If we
careful workmanship and an extension of the shaft-
assume that hunting methods were more or less simi-
hole. On the basis of these characteristics, the straight-
lar throughout the area of present-day Latvia, then the
backed axes may be regarded as weapons. The majority
great number of bone arrowheads at ivutkalns may
of the axes are stray finds, but finds of four fragmentary
be explained in terms of the use of these weapons not
axes at Daugmale Hill-fort, where habitation began at
so much in hunting, as in military conflict.
the end of the second millennium BC, indicates that
they are of Bronze Age date (Urtns 1969, p.89). The careful workmanship seen on bone arrowheads
might be taken as an indication that at least one sec-
A second group of stone axes that may be regarded as
tion of these arrows were intended as weapons. Forms
weapons are the double-bladed axes, totalling about
suggestive of a function as battle weapons include ar-
20. These axes, too, are small, having a length of be-
rowheads of triangular cross-section and socketed ar-
tween nine and 12 centimetres. One such axe has been
rowheads, which seem to have been modelled after the
found in cremation burial 99 of Barrow 2 at the cem-
bronze arrowheads used in the Volga-Kama Basin or in
etery of Reznas, and is dated to the Late Bronze Age
the steppes of southern Russia. One of the three bronze
(turms 1936, p.80). The other double-bladed axes are
arrows found in Latvia represents this particular type
stray finds.
(Graudonis 1967, Table XX: 10). Further to the south-
There are about 20 stone mace-heads with a shaft-hole, east, finds of such arrowheads are more common: thus,
and these are of several types: rhombic or hexagonal in Belarus, more than 20 have been found (Zalashka
(nine pieces), as well as oval and round (11 pieces), 1983, pp.72-77).
including one rosette-shaped mace-head. Two finds of
As we can see from this overview, there is quite a wide
round mace-heads from the hill-fort of ivutkalns in-
range of weapons, made from different materials. It
dicate that they were used in the Late Bronze Age.
is not possible to say in all cases whether particular
In the Bronze Age, bone arrowheads continued in use artefact forms were used as weapons (or as symbolic
as a characteristic artefact form. These may be classed weapons), or whether they served as hunting weapons
as tanged arrowheads, and only seven bone arrow- or tools. Unlike tools, whose form and details were
heads, from Mkukalns, were socketed (Graudonis entirely subject to functional considerations, weapons
1967, Table XII: 7-12). The prototypes for the majority have in all times been given various qualities in addi-
of bone arrowheads can be found already in the Stone tion to their primary function, as seen in the form and
Age, but new forms did appear in the Bronze Age: ar- design of the details, and the decoration. The bronze
33
axes and spearheads, not to mention the bronze swords, millennium BC, appearing in both western and eastern
the Bronze Age in the Area of
We a p o n s a n d Wa r f a r e d u r i n g
and likewise a string of stone axes of specific forms, Latvia. Judging from stray finds, particularly the stri-
and the stone mace-heads, can unequivocally be cate- ated pottery, about 100 hill-forts in the area of present-
gorised as weapons. At the same time, the simple stone day Latvia were occupied in the Late Bronze Age and
ANDREJS VASKS P r e s e n t - D a y L a t v i a
axes, like the bone arrowheads, could have served both Pre-Roman Iron Age. Among the archaeologically ex-
as weapons of war and as hunting weapons and tools. cavated hill-forts, evidence of fortifications from this
time has been found at 14, most notably at the com-
pletely excavated sites of Doles ivutkalns, Ikiles
Fortifications
Vnakalns, Kokneses Mkukalns and Lubnas Brikui.
The remains of the fortifications give a picture of a
In the Bronze Age, a new type of residential site ap-
very diverse range of defensive structures, from simple
peared in the area of present-day Latvia, as it did in the
wooden fences up to powerful and structurally com-
whole of the East Baltic: the hill-fort. Defences were
plex fortifications (Fig. 1; Pl. II.1).
built at residential sites already in the Late Neolithic,
but these sites were located in places with low relief The defensive structures of Late Bronze Age and Pre-
by lakes and the streams that flowed into them. On the Roman Iron Age hill-forts included the following ele-
other hand, in the Bronze Age, hill-forts were estab- ments and combinations of elements:
lished at less easily accessible high points in the relief,
1. Timber fences and defensive walls of various con-
at the sides of glacial river valleys or in hilly glacial ter-
struction. At Lielvrdes Dievukalns, the defensive
rain. Life on the hill-forts, compared with the open set-
wall consisted of a slightly sloping outer palisade
tlements known from this same period, was in certain
of standing timbers and a double wall of horizon-
respects less convenient. At the hill-forts, the supply of
tal logs within it, supported by posts (Zaria 1982,
food, water, firewood and possibly also domestic stock
p.52, Fig. 6);
to the plateau of the hill-fort, within the fortifications,
was a matter of some difficulty. Evidently, the security 2. Artificially dug ditches. At Brikui, the hill-fort
aspect was of primary importance to the residents of plateau within the palisade was enclosed within
the hill-fort, and other factors were less significant. two ditches, with a width of up to seven metres
and a depth of up to 2.4 metres (Vasks 1994, pp.9-
The earliest hill-forts were established at the end of
10);
the second millennium and the beginning of the first
Fig. 1. ivutkalns: remains of wooden chambers in the middle of the bank (photograph by J. Graudonis).
34
3. Steepened slopes; The causes, character and
BALTICA 8
4. Banks of sand, clay and stones. At ivutkalns and possibilities of warfare
Vnakalns, the bank had wooden chambers in the
In order to try to assess the causes, character and pos-
middle (Fig. 1), and the steep outer slope of the
sibilities of warfare among Bronze Age societies in the
bank was covered in certain places (at ivutkalns)
area of present-day Latvia, we may begin by consider-
(Pl. II.1) or all over (at Vnakalns) with stones laid
ing how these issues have been approached in Central
in clay and covered over with more clay on the
and northern Europe, where the Bronze Age was much
ARCHAEOLOGIA
outside (Graudonis 1989, p.91).
richer and more splendid. For example, Anthony Hard-
At more extensively excavated hill-forts, it has been ing, considering various conditions, mentions the fol-
possible to trace the development of the fortifications, lowing as possible causes of military conflict: revenge
from simpler and weaker structures to more complex (including blood feud), insult, robbery (particularly the
and powerful defences. Likewise observable is a ten- abduction of women), murder and other acts regarded
dency to extend the area of the plateau, shifting the for- as evil. In the Bronze Age, we cannot speak of war as
tifications outwards to the slopes of the hill. an institutionalised practice with the possibility of mo-
At ivutkalns, J. Graudonis distinguished a total of bilising the necessary human and material resources,
four phases in the development of the defences. In the since this is a characteristic exclusive to state societies.
earliest phase, the plateau was protected by double and More characteristic of tribal societies are military raids
triple fences of posts. In the second phase, a 2.5-metre- involving no more than tens of people (Harding 2000,
wide and 1.2-metre-high bank was thrown up, covered pp.273-274). However, warfare provided the opportu- I
in clay. During the next phase, the bank was increased nity for individuals to distinguish themselves by their STEPPING
in height, and wooden chambers were built in its core courage and thus gain the recognition and respect of FROM
THE MALE
to improve the stability. In the final phase, the width of others. From this point of view, warfare became a pres- TO THE
the bank reached five to six metres (Graudonis 1989, tige activity, something that was emphasised by the WA R R I O R
IDENTITY
pp.15-19). use of special weapons and armour. In many cases, the
bronze weapons and armour were purely decorative,
An important element of the defensive system was the for show: breast armour, greaves, shields and helmets
entrance to the hill-fort. This was the most vulnerable made of bronze sheet, and likewise some of the bronze
part of the defences, and so particular attention was axes and swords, appeared radiant and fascinating,
given to fortifying it. At ivutkalns, Vnakalns, Di- pointing to the special status of the owners, but were
evukalns and Brikui, the entrances were corridor-like unsuited for actual combat (Kristiansen 1998, pp.116-
structures of posts and stones, with a width of 1.2 to 119, Fig. 59; Neustupny 1998, p.69).
two metres. At Brikui, the entrance corridor was two
metres wide and five to six metres long. At Dievukalns, Warfare in the Central and northern European Bronze
this kind of corridor of vertical timbers was traced as Age is also described as an essential element in the
projecting outwards from the defensive wall by 1.5 lifestyle of the elites of decentralised societies with
metres, and was funnel-shaped: at the outer end the a corresponding military ideology (Kristiansen 1998,
entrance was two metres wide, reduced to 1.2 metres p.379). At the same time, warfare could have had a
at the place where the corridor passed through the line purely ceremonial character, without significant loss of
of the defensive wall. At Vnakalns, the entrance was life (Neustupny 1998, p.67). This kind of elite lifestyle
indicated by a six-metre-long gap in the stones piled on and ideology was also reflected in personal attributes,
the slope. At the foot of the slope, the entrance was two appearance and behaviour, where people presented
metres wide, reduced to 1.2 metres further along. It themselves as warriors (bronze weapons and armour),
seems quite clear that this kind of narrowing entrance emphasising social distance by their personal appear-
corridor gave the defenders more opportunity to fight ance (using bronze toiletry articles), and demonstrated
off an attack. their genetic line and superiority by burying deceased
members of the family in specially built tombs, which
This overview of the defensive structures shows that were sometimes even monumental and visible from
already in the Bronze Age all the most important tech- afar, namely grave barrows. Artefacts of bronze, es-
niques of fortification had been mastered, techniques pecially weapons, were an important way of express-
that remained in use in later periods of prehistory. ing social prestige, and so the elites in these societies
controlled metalworking and maintained the necessary
long-distance contacts. The fortified residential sites,
centres of districts of various sizes, served to maintain
these functions (Kristiansen 1998, p.111).
35
To what degree could social relationships of this kind cial till or promontories,that were naturally delimited
the Bronze Age in the Area of
We a p o n s a n d Wa r f a r e d u r i n g
have been characteristic of the Bronze Age societies of and thus less easily accessible, as locations for build-
the East Baltic, including those of the area of present- ing hill-forts, is usually explained in terms of purely
day Latvia? Although Latvia, like the whole of the practical defensive considerations. However, such a
ANDREJS VASKS P r e s e n t - D a y L a t v i a
East Baltic, was peripheral in relation to the social, location had another effect, too, namely that it was vis-
economic and ideological developments in Central and ible from a long distance. When one approached the
northern Europe, several features indicate that certain hill-fort, ones gaze was directed upwards, while the
similarities can be observed in the trajectory of devel- gaze of those standing on the defences was directed
opment of the local societies. The significant propor- downwards. This situation may have had a definite so-
tion of weaponry among the bronze objects has already cio-psychological significance in the system of social
been mentioned, while the toiletry articles point to the relationships, emphasising the higher social rank of
increased significance of personal appearance. At the the residents of the hill-fort. Many of the Eneolithic
same time, there are no finds in the East Baltic of such and Bronze Age fortifications of Central Europe have
supplementary equipment as shields of bronze sheet, likewise been regarded as being more of symbolic than
cuirasses, helmets and greaves. Bronze swords were practical significance (Neustupny 1995, pp.199-201).
likewise very rare. This might indicate that the socie- Without denying the defensive functions of the forti-
ties in this region were not as complex and that military fications of hill-forts, it does seem, nevertheless, that
ideology had a weaker influence on the lifestyle, for the new military ideology also played a certain role.
which reason it did not find any reflection in the burial It seems that many of the bronze axes found in Latvia
practices. Grave goods have been found very rarely in likewise had a more symbolic importance related to
the several hundreds of Bronze Age burials excavated military ideology than practical significance, as indi-
in Latvia. Against this background, the bronze spear- cated either by the small size of these axes, or by the
heads found as the only grave goods in two burials may absence of any traces of practical use.
be regarded more as the exception than the norm. Thus,
At the same time, the symbolic role of military ide-
there are no grounds for suggesting that there existed a
ology and warfare in the life of Bronze Age societies
special social group of warriors in the societies of this
in the area of present-day Latvia should not be over-
region in the period concerned.
emphasised. These competing societies may also have
In the area of present-day Latvia, certain hill-forts had many mercantile reasons for bloody encounters
stand out in terms of their powerful defensive struc- (the wish to take away domestic stock, agricultural
tures, which, apart from their purely practical function produce, stocks of bronze, etc). At the same time, the
of defence, possibly also had a definite symbolic sig- existence of many fortified residential sites testifies
nificance. Such massive fortifications, as are observed, to a defensive strategy on the part of these societies,
for example, at ivutkalns or Vnakalns, seem out of using passive means of defence (Vencl 1983, pp.284-
proportion to the actual threat of attack in this period 286). Such a situation, where all are armed and all
and the practical possibilities of breaching such de- the important centres are fortified, could have created
fences. Since a water source has not been identified at something of a military balance, which nobody really
any of these hill-forts, they could have been taken after had an interest in disrupting. However, some archaeo-
a prolonged siege, blocking the defenders access to logical evidence of actual armed clashes in this period,
outside water sources. However, such a tactic is unlike- be it indirect and open to a variety of interpretations, is
ly to have been possible, since it would have required impossible to ignore. Thus, evidence of major fires has
a large besieging force and a considerable concentra- been found at several hill-forts (Vnaklns, Brikui, Di-
tion of resources. This would not have been possible evukalns, etc). Of course, such fires could have started
for a Bronze Age group of raiders, numbering some for a variety of reasons, by lightning, or by the care-
tens of men and oriented towards military raids. Evi- less use of fire on the part of the residents themselves,
dently, the building of powerful fortifications also had but they could also represent the result of deliberate
a purely psychological role: it demonstrated the elites activities by enemies. Evidence of possible military
capacity for engaging resources and organising build- encounters can also come from examination of human
ing work. These hill-forts were also important centres skeletal remains in burials. Significant in this regard
of bronze-working. A fortified residential site of this is the cemetery of ivutkalns, from the Early Bronze
kind had to give contemporaries the impression of be- Age, where a total of 240 inhumed individuals have
ing a monumental, impregnable fortification, and, like been excavated. Indications of a violent death were
the barrows, it may also have had the symbolic mean- found on five skeletons.
ing of indicating a hold over ones land. The choice of
One of these skeletons was missing the skull (burial
high points in the relief,isolated hills, ridges of gla-
10), while another was missing the right foot and lower
36
leg (burial 135). One individual (burial 23) had two way of life adopted by the elite of Bronze Age soci-
BALTICA 8
funnel-shaped injuries to the lower jaw and had had ety, where the ideology of warfare also played a certain
two front teeth knocked out. In the opinion of palae- role.
opathologist V. Derums, such an injury could have
Translated by Valdis Brzi
come about from a blow with a studded mace (Derums
1978, pp.73-74). Damage to the lower jaw and nose
was also observed on another burial (82), and in one References
case the skeleton was missing the right side of the pel-
ARCHAEOLOGIA
ATGZIS, M., 2002. Latvij atrastie senkie zobeni. Civitas
vis (burial 159) (Denisova et al. 1985, pp.10-31). In all
et castrum ad Mare Balticum. Questions on the Archaeol-
these cases, bone preservation was very good, and there ogy and History of the Baltic in the Iron Age and Midle
was no indication of disturbance or later damage to the Ages. Riga, 345-366.
skeletons. Such injuries could, of course, have come DENISOVA, R., GRAUDONIS, J., GRAVERE, R., 1985.
about for various reasons, but military conflict and vio- Kivutkalnskij mogilnik epokhi bronzi. Riga.
DERUMS, V., 1978. Tautas veselba un dziedniecba senaj
lence are among the possible causes. The ivutkalns
Baltij. Rga.
cemetery does, however, relate to the period before GRAUDONIS, J., 1967. Latvija v epokhu pozdnej bronzi i
the beginnings of hill-fort construction, when a state ranego zhelezo.
Riga.
of military balance had not yet been established. So, GRAUDONIS, J., 1989. Nocietints apmetnes Daugavas
it may be that this reflects a different model of social lejtec. Rga.
HARDING, A.F., 2000. European Societies in the Bronze
relationships.
Age. Cambridge University Press.
KRISTIANSEN, K., 1998. Europe before history. Cam-
I
bridge University Press. STEPPING
Summary LOZE, I., 1996. Agrais akmens kaujas (laivas) cirvis: FROM
THE MALE
tipoloija un izplatba Latvijas teritorij. Latvijas Zintu
TO THE
Characteristic of the Bronze Age in the area of present- Akadmijas Vstis, A, 2 (583), 28-37. WA R R I O R
day Latvia was a fairly wide range of bronze, stone MALMER, M., 1962. Jungneolotische Studien. Acta Ar- IDENTITY
and bone weapons. One section of these would have chaeologica Lundensia, Series in 8a, N 2, Lund.
NEUSTUPNY, E., 1995. The significance of facts. Journal of
functioned exclusively as weapons of war (bronze
European Archaeology, 3.1, 199-201.
axes, spearheads, swords, certain types of stone axes NEUSTUPNY, E., 1998. Otherness in Prehistoric Times. In:
and mace-heads), while others may have been of uni- L.LARSSON and B.STJERNQUIST, eds. The World-
versal function (the simplest forms of stone axes, bone View of Prehistoric Man. Papers presented at a symposium
arrowheads). Chopping and percussion weapons for in Lund, 5-7 May 1997, arranged by the Royal Academy
of Letters, History and Antiquities along with The Founda-
close combat include axes, swords and mace-heads. It
tion Natur och Kultur, Publishers. Konferenser 40. Stock-
seems that the longer bronze spearheads may also have holm, 65-71.
been used as stabbing weapons in close combat, and TURMS, E., 1936. Pirms bronzas laikmeta kapenes
could also have been suitable for use by fighters on Latvij. Senatne un Mksla, 1, 70
-
84.
horseback. The smaller bronze spearheads could have URTNS, V., 1969. Arheoloiskie ptjumi Daugmal. In:
Muzeji un kultras piemineki.
Rga, 89-96.
served as missile weapons, thrown from a distance of
VASKS, A., 1994. Brikuu nocietint apmetne. Lubna ze-
tens of paces, while the bow and arrow served as a miene vlaj bronzas un dzelzs laikmet (1000.g pr.Kr.
long-distance missile weapon. 1000.g.pc Kr.). Rga: Preses names.
VENCL, S., 1983. K problematice fortifikac v archeologii.
From the Late Bronze Age, the possibility of military Archeologick rozhledy, XXXV, 3. 284-286.
clashes is indicated by the building of fortified residen- ZAGORSKIS, F., 2004. Zvejnieki (Northern Latvia) Stone
tial sites, hill-forts. Fortifications of this kind represent Age Cemetery. BAR International Series, 1292. Oxford:
defensive action, and possibly indicate the existence of Archaeopress.
ZALASHKA, G., 1983. Pomniki ranniaga zheleznaga veku
a military balance in Late Bronze Age societies. At the
na pravabiarezhi Pripiatsi. Vesci Akademii navuk BSSR.
same time, the unusually massive defensive structures Seryia gramadskih navuk, 2, 72-77.
of some hill-forts, which had the role of bronze-work- ZARIA, A., 1982. Celtniecba nocietint apmetn
ing centres, also had a purely psychological function Lielvrdes Dievukaln. Latvijas PSR Zintu Akadmijas
in defence, demonstrating the might of this particular Vstis, 7 (420), 4664.
community and its elite.
Received: 6 January 2006; Revised: 3 May 2007
This whole corpus of evidence, bronze weapons, some
of which, on account of their small size, can be seen
more as symbolic, bronze toiletry articles for maintain-
ing a distinctive personal appearance, and defensive
works on a monumental scale, all testify to the new
37
the Bronze Age in the Area of
We a p o n s a n d Wa r f a r e d u r i n g G inklai ir karyba
dabartin s L atvijos teri -
torijoje bronzos am iuje
ANDREJS VASKS P r e s e n t - D a y L a t v i a
Andrejs Vasks
Santrauka
38
I S A WA R R I O R W I T H O U T A W E A P O N N O T
BALTICA 8
A WA R R I O R ? S O M E I D E A S A B O U T B R O N Z E A G E
WA R FA R E I N T H E E A S T E R N B A LT I C R E G I O N
AGN IVILYT
ARCHAEOLOGIA
Abstract
Bronze weapons hint not only at the intensity and effectiveness of warfare in particular societies, but, even more, they may
reveal the identity of warriors as a separate group within society. Over most of Europe weaponry is one of the important
categories of material culture, although in some regions, like the Eastern Baltic, bronze weapons are a real rarity. There is
no doubt that people fought wars here, but instead of bronze weapons they effectively used stone, bone or wooden weapons.
Because of the scarcity of bronze weapons, defensive settlements, such as those known from Central and Southeast Europe,
and warrior graves, warfare cannot be seen as an organizational principle of social ties per se. There is no reason to assume
the existence of retinues or warrior aristocracies as fundamental social units in the Eastern Baltic. However, warfare or war
ideology without the existence of the warrior as a social layer is simply inconceivable.
Key words: warrior identity, bronze weapons, warfare, war ideology, bronze deposition, ritual. I
STEPPING
Introduction warriors as a separate layer of society. In other words, FROM
THE MALE
in reconstructing the cultural biography of weaponry, TO THE
During the last few decades prehistoric warfare has WA R R I O R
biographies of their owners also unfold. Maybe it con- IDENTITY
become one of the most important subjects of archaeo- cerns a strong and brave warrior, a priestess or a child
logical research. It would not be a mistake to say that awarded weapons, or maybe a tribal leader, warrior
the Bronze Age is becoming more and more dominant and priest all in one?
in this field of study. It is a very mysterious and evoca-
However, these archaeological expectations cannot al-
tive era, attracting scholars with plenty of gripping and
ways be vindicated. Over most of Europe, weaponry
elusive details. This pull lies first of all in archaeo-
is one of the important categories of material culture,
logical evidence. A stunning abundance of weapons,
although in some regions bronze weapons are a real
various remains of defensive fortifications, as well as
rarity. The East Baltic is one of those regions, which
elusive places where prehistoric battles and massacres
for various reasons, primarily because of the scarsity of
may have taken place help us to realize the refinements
bronze artefacts and the monotony of forms, could be
of one particularly human trait, aggression. Societies
described as the periphery of the periphery (ivilyt
which had not developed writing left traces for us that
2005, p.329). Does it mean that in this region bronze
allow us to debate why people carried weapons with
weapons were unpopular and unacceptable? And may-
them and who they were, and how the weapons were
be ignorance of weapons reflects the social and war-
used. New anthropological, ethnological, sociological
like amorphousness of societies living here? There is
and psychological investigations add to these ques-
no doubt that people here were at war: this has been
tions. However, in the centre of all these considerations,
discussed in detail in the reports of colleagues. How-
nonetheless, are weapons. In fact, bronze weapons hint
ever, does it really reflect warfare and violence itself?
not only at the intensity and effectiveness of warfare
Is it possible to talk about war ideology and connected
in separate societies, but, even more, at the identity of
processes in the East Baltic? After all, is it possible to
recognize warriors as individuals? If yes, why were
It is easy to see that not only new studies about warrior
culture have separate chapters for the Bronze Age (Hard- they not given the right to keep bronze weapons? Does
ing 2000, p.271), but also there are more definitive mono-
graphs devoted to this topic (Randsborg 1995; Osgood
The cultural biography of bronze objects, including weap-
1998; Carman, Harding 1999). ons, is subjected to broad discussion in David Fontijns
Recently, interest in Bronze Age weaponry, especially study, which reveals innovative interpretative views of the
swords, has increased considerably. A few of the more re- significance of things in human life (Fontijn 2003).
cent studies should be mentioned: Kilian-Dirlmeier 1993;
The Eastern Baltic is the name we give here to the region
Quillfeldt 1995; Bridgford 1997; Tarot 2000; Bridgford between the Vistula in the south and the Gulf of Finland
2000; ivilyt 2003; Wstemann 2004; Stockhammer in the north. This region covers northeastern Poland, the
2004; Mdlinger 2007. Kaliningrad Oblast and the three Baltic States (Lithuania,
In greater detail, see Carman, Harding 1999; Haas 1999. Latvia and Estonia).
39
it mean that a warrior without a weapon is not really a Sterawki Wielki (Suwaki voivodship) hoard (Gedl
I s a Wa r r i o r w i t h o u t a We a p o n
a b o u t B r o n z e A g e Wa r f a r e i n
warrior at all? 1980, p.47, Nr. 107, tab. 14; Blajer 1990, p.138, Nr.
n o t a Wa r r i o r ? S o m e I d e a s
AGN IVILYT t h e E a s t e r n B a l t i c R e g i o n
122, tab. CII, 5). It should be observed that in both
In trying to answer these questions, first of all, I would
hoards only fragments of daggers are found; and that
like to itemize the definition of weaponry. Practically
the axes found are deformed.
any sharp and heavy thing can inflict death or injury
in a battle. Anthropological findings show that even The rest of the daggers dated to Period IIIII are dag-
wooden clubs served that purpose (Fontijn 2003, gers with a rhomboid cross-section and middle-rib, one
p.221). Therefore, I think it is necessary to distinguish of them is a lancet-like spike-tang dagger with rivet.
multi-functional objects, for which the function of Further there are two flang-hilted daggers (Gedl 1980,
a weapon is just one example, from objects that are p.58, Nr. 152, tab. 18, p.62, Nr. 167, tab. 19, p.65, Nr.
specialized weaponry (ivilyt 2003). Consequently, 181, tab. 20; LAB, 1961, Fig. 55: 2). As was men-
talking about weapons, I mean daggers, swords and tioned, two daggers were found in hoards; all the oth-
spearheads. The problem of bronze axes and battle- ers were discovered as single objects. One of them was
axes will be discussed here in the context of the analy- found in a river.
sis of weapons.
In the Middle Bronze Age the first swords appeared.
Seven are known from this period. Six of them be-
Bronze weaponry in the Eastern Baltic long to flang-hilted swords (Griffzungenschwerter),
region Sprockhoff type I and II and dated to Period III (LAB
1961, Fig. 55: 1, 3; Bezzenberger 1904, Fig. 15;
Only nine bronze daggers were found from the Early turms 1936, tab.: 16, a-g). They are widely prevalent
and Middle Bronze Age (Periods I to III) in the whole in Europe, although one of the centres of their produc-
of the East Baltic region. One of them, a bronze met- tion could have been Denmark and northern Germany,
al-shaped halberd, belonging to the so-called Great and maybe even part of west Pomerania (Dbrowski
Poland type from Veliuona (Jurbarkas district) (LAB 1968, p.49). The seventh sword, the earliest in the East
1961, Fig. 50), is dated to the second half of Period Baltic, is the solid-hilted sword (Vollgriffschwert),
I (Gedl 1980, pp.33-34). However, the circumstances found in Konojady (
Kujawsko-Pomorskie voivodship,
of its discovery are not clear, and if this object was . It belongs to the Dreiwulstschwerter group,
Poland)
not brought to Lithuania by a hobbyist, then it can be type Illertissen (Dbrowski 1997, Fig. 43: c). This
called a unique example on the East Baltic coast. Such sword seems to have been an import from the south of
metal-shaped halberds were especially rare all over Eu- Germany (Dbrowski 1997, p.57). Five swords were
rope; therefore the dagger from Veliuona, moreover, an found separately, and two in graves, in the Marjinskoe,
example of this type found its way as far as northeast Primorsk district, Kaliningrad region of Russia (for-
Europe, is an especially valuable and exotic example merly Marscheiten, Kr. Fischhausen) and Zaostrove,
of an import. Primorsk district, Kaliningrad region of Russia (former
Rantau, Kr. Fischhausen) barrows. The latter was laid
Furthermore, two daggers should be mentioned, which
in the grave after being broken. It seems to have been
are also dated to the second half of Period I. A piece of
in a wooden sheath (turms 1936, p.109). Two swords
the first was found in the Zotoria (Kujawsko-Pomor-
were found in a bog. One of them, the sword from
skie voivodship, Poland) hoard, together with two low-
Chelma (
Kujawsko-Pomorskie voivodship, Poland ),
flanged axes. This is the ntice-type dagger (Gedl
was also found in a wooden sheath, which crumbled
1980, p.14, Nr. 10, tab.: 31, B). The second dagger was
after it was unsheathed (turms 1936, p.117).
found together with the axe from the Ubiedrze-type
Twenty spearheads are known from this Bronze Age
The same distribution of material is followed by Fontijn period. Most of them belong to types Valsmagle (six
(Fontijn 2003, p.221). examples), Ullerslev (four examples) and Hulterstedt
All bronze weapons are analysed in chronological order
(from the Early, Middle and Late Bronze Age). For a long
(three examples), showing relations with north Middle
time scholars were wont to divide the period into two parts, Europe (Dbrowski 1968, pp.56-57, 196; 1997, pp.58-
namely Early and Late Bronze Ages, but archaeological 59). Two so-called Sejma-type spearheads (Okulicz
material allows us to distinguish a Middle Bronze Age 1976, Fig. 23) argue for contacts with the VolgaKama
too. The most recent studies use this tripartite chronology region, where those spearheads mostly prevailed
(Brazaitis 2005, p.257). However, according to Brazaitis
model, the third Bronze Age period belongs to the Late
(Dbrowski 1968, p.59). Fourteen spearheads were
Bronze Age. Parallels can be found with German and found as single objects, three were found in hoards.
Polish chronologies (Sommerfeld 1994, p.15; Dbrowski Six spearheads were found in bogs, two in rivers.
1997, pp.81-89). I allocate this period to the Middle stage
rather than the Late stage.
40
In the Late Bronze Age (Periods IVVI) the number of or Gndlingen-sword (Dbrowski 1997, Fig. 43, d),
BALTICA 8
weapons slightly increases. To be more specific, spears imported from southern Germany (Dbrowski 1968,
are much more significant: all in all 71 have been found. p.49), and in the Tehurmarne hoard the only Griffan-
At this stage we can start to talk about local production gelschwert-type sword (Tallgren 1922, p.75, Fig. 12).
of spearheads. This is proven by the clay moulds found No single sword was found in a grave, but there was a
in the fortified settlement of Brikui in Latvia (Vasks tendency to put them into hoards, this has been noted
1994, p.46, tab. 16: 1, 2), as well as many distinctive (six swords in four hoards). Two hoards were found in
forms of spearheads attributable to local types. The bogs, two swords as single objects in bog and water.
ARCHAEOLOGIA
most predominant form of spearheads comprises Lusa- Antennae swords that were found in the hoard from
tian-type spearheads (28 examples) (Dbrowski 1968, Nikolajevka, Ozersk district, Kaliningrad region of
pp.196-197; 1997, p.59). Three spearheads were found Russia (formerly Waldburg, Kr. Knigsberg) seem to
in graves (Fig. 1), 13 in hoards. Also, 11 were found in have had crossed handles (Kossinna 1917, p.194, Fig.
the hoard of Zorino, Primorsk district, Kaliningrad re- 54).
gion of Russia (formerly Littausdorf, Kr. Fischhausen)
In the Late Bronze Age we are aware only of four
(Engel 1935, tab. 87: b). Three spearheads were found
daggers: three antennae (Gedl 1980, p.26, Nr. 43,
in bogs, three in rivers.
pp.25-26, Nr. 41, tab. 6, 7; Grigalaviien 1995, p.162,
Only ten swords were found from the Late Bronze Age. Fig. 90: 2) and one Griffangeldolch. One of them was
The earliest of them is dated to Period IV Sprockhoff found in a hoard, others were found as single objects.
type III a, found in Kpa Tolnicka (Warmisko-Mazur- A dagger from the Vakai (Pasvalys district) hoard
I
skie
voivodship, Poland, former Altkamp, Kr.
Rel) (Grigalaviien 1995, Fig. 90) is undoubtedly an im-
STEPPING
(Engel 1935, tab. 31: c). Such swords are found in the port from Scandinavia, representing a so-called mini- FROM
region stretching from Pomerania up to Jutland, from ature-sword (Grigalaviien 1995, p.162). THE MALE
TO THE
whence they were imported (Dbrowski 1968, p.49). WA R R I O R
Four swords belong to the antennae-type (Antennen- IDENTITY
The issue of warrior identity in the
schwerter) (Bezzenberger 1904, Fig. 20, 21; Kossinna
Eastern Baltic region
1917, Fig. 54; Dbrowski 1997, Fig. 43: b), and two to
the Mrigen-type (Dbrowski 1997, Fig. 43, c; 52). The
This diachronic review of weapons brings us to make
first were brought to the region as an import from Cen-
some distinctions. A bronze weapons, even if this
tral Europe, though possibly local copies of them could
means a simple spearhead, is an inseparable element
have been produced in Pomerania. The same could be
of elite society. There is no doubt that swords formed
said about the Mrigen-type swords (Dbrowski 1968,
the cultural high point of these societies, judging from
p.50). In the Braniewo (Warmisko-Mazurskie voivod-
their elaborate character, their presence in the largest
ship
in Poland, formerly Braunsberg) hoard, together
graves and in specialized deposits.
with an antennae-type sword, was found a hallstat
Some reflections of the adoration of swords can be seen
in the East Baltic region: in the Zaostrowie/Rantau bar-
row a sword accompanies its owner in the journey to
the afterlife. According to a frequent custom in Europe,
it experiences a ritual of damage before being placed
in the grave (ivilyt 2004). An outstanding phenom-
enon in the East Baltic is the Trehumarne hoard, which
also includes the practice of the broken sword. The
hoard from Nikolayevka, Ozersk district, Kaliningrad
region of Russia (formerly Waldburg, Kr. Knigsberg),
in which both swords had crossed handles, is interest-
ing as well.
The special significance of swords in the social system is
revealed by many other clear factors in addition to the ones
already mentioned, such as the fact that they are found to-
gether with especially rich grave goods (
see ivilyt 2003,
chapter 6). Archaeological data is complemented by many
written sources concerning famous swords (Maraszek
1998, p.19; Kristiansen 2002, pp.329-331).
For more on the cross-wise placement of bronze artefacts
Fig. 1. The grave of Jaun Muia (Latvia) with a spearhead in hoards as a ritual which was widespread throughout Eu-
of the Lusatian type (after Okulicz 1976, Fig. 58). rope in the Bronze Ages, see Soroceanu 1995, pp.44-45.
41
erally, a growing emphasis
I s a Wa r r i o r w i t h o u t a We a p o n
a b o u t B r o n z e A g e Wa r f a r e i n
on the social and ideologi-
n o t a Wa r r i o r ? S o m e I d e a s
AGN IVILYT t h e E a s t e r n B a l t i c R e g i o n
cal significance of warfare
is envisaged in swords, and
the ideological martial tradi-
tion in their owners (Fontijn
2003, p.223). We can speak
about the self-confidence of
a warrior only in a case when
we are able to recognise the
social intermingling of the
individual with martial val-
ues, in other words, if the
individual is closely linked
with the manifestation of
some sacred customs. A clear
example of this is found
in Funnel Beaker Culture,
where the so called Beak-
er Package as an image
of a warrior has developed
(Fig.2) or the mass appear-
ance of daggers of Sgel-
Wohlde type found in graves
(Fig. 3) has led to some argu-
ments for the widely shared
conceptualization of persons
as a specific type of warrior.
This ideal is highlighted not
Fig. 2. The so-called Beaker Package from Pedmosti (Moravia) (after Neolithikum,
only by weaponry itself, but
Fig. 96).
also with apparel and out-
The same should be said about Early Bronze Age dag- fit emphasizing personality, such as razors or tweez-
gers. Although only their components were put into ers (Kristiansen 1999a, pp.176-177, 180-181; Fontijn
hoards, they were important components of these 2003, pp.81-82, 227-229). All this shows the establish-
hoards. This is not a coincidence; on the contrary, it is ment of new customs connected with new ideas of so-
an action connected with rituals. A symbolic meaning cial behaviour and lifestyles, and the appearance of a
is attributed to the daggers mentioned. In archaeology warrior aristocracy. Having said this, it is unlikely
it is called pars pro toto. that this could have affected the East Baltic: the rarity
of the Bronze Age funeral in the region does not fit this
Let us remember that many weapons and especially
theory. As with other regions of Europe (for example,
spearheads were found in water deposits or in a damp
the Netherlands and Belgium) (Fontijn 2003, p.224),
environment, and this is connected with ritual activities
there is no reason to assume the existence of retinues or
as well . Thus, some ideological principles, and even
10
warrior aristocracies as fundamental social units in the
rules as to how to behave with them in the last stage
Eastern Baltic. A question arises: how should bronze
of their life, were encoded in weapons. These ideas
weapons found here be interpreted and how can their
came from other regions together with weapons. But is
meaning be realized?
it right to connect this with warfare? We can also read
some remarks about warfare ideology and the identity
of warriors in the Late Neolithic and Early Bronze I n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f b r o n z e w e a p o n s i n
Age in Jacob Westermanns article in this volume. But t h e E a s t e r n B a l t i c r e g i o n
I would like to emphasize some more aspects. Gen-
10
The depositing of Bronze Age artefacts in wet zones and At the beginning of this paper I mentioned the biog-
water sites has been interpreted by scholars since the 19th raphy of weapons. Swords are distinguished by their
century as a cultural act most often associated with sacri- special flamboyance. The discussion about the use of
fices. For more on this topic see ivilyt 2004, pp.229-230 swords for only prestigious and ritual spheres of life is
and references; Fontijn 2003, pp.267-268.
42
status of their owner. It was enough
BALTICA 8
for him to unsheathe the sword and
demonstrate its power, and at the
same time to strengthen the honour
and fear of the people around him
(Osgood 1998, p.3; Harding 1999a,
p.91). Many swords had no practi-
cal use at all, they merely bore a
ARCHAEOLOGIA
ceremonial function13. Spearheads,
though performing more practical
functions, had an important social
meaning as well: some spears are
so abundantly decorated that they
may have only been display items
in the first place: the spear was a
sign of extreme honour. During
the Early Roman Empire it was a
symbol of authority and of the sov-
ereign. Supernatural powers were
thus accredited to spears (Tarot I
2000, pp.46-48). Daggers reflect STEPPING
the tradition of the formation of a FROM
THE MALE
warrior as a personality. Besides, TO THE
abundantly decorated and easily WA R R I O R
IDENTITY
broken blades were display items
as well (Wstemann 1995, p.36;
Harding 1999, p.161)
Fig. 3. The grave from Baven (Lower Saxony) with a Wohlde type dagger (after All these aspects reflecting the
Schauer 1990, Fig. 10b) close relationship between weap-
ons and their owners could be ap-
becoming more and more entrenched in archaeological plied to East Baltic weapons as well. Having said this,
scholarship (Born, Hansen 1991; Wstemann 1992; their disposal was very different from that in other
ivilyt 1997)11. Other studies deal with this aspect too regions. Most of them were carried to these countries
in the context of other possibilities that swords were from far away to become the symbolic property of
used practically in battle (Bridgford 1997; Kilian-Dirl- their new owner, and later to be sacrificed to the gods.
meier 1993, pp.130-162; Quillfeldt 1995, pp.19-25; This ideology of sacrifice reflects not the practical, but
Harding 2000, pp.88-91). Speaking about the practical rather the symbolic meaning of bronze weapons in the
use of swords, they were unsheathed in hand-to-hand East Baltic. Their rarity in these lands shows that the
combat, bringing honour for their owners. In my study idea of a warrior as a personality and also as a social
about the deposition of Bronze Age weapons in north- status was not yet formed here. Weapons got here by
east Europe and after studying the specific aspect of way of exchange, as exotic, special objects, but not as
the breaking of weapons, I have noticed that the tops of symbols of the warrior. If the ideology of warfare had
the blades of most swords are broken (ivilyt 2003,
pecially those of antennae swords, were clearly visible
chapter 3.4), and stabbing movements were into a tar-
when the sword was hung (Harding 2000, p.278). Such a
get, which could be the enemy or another object, for demonstration of swords stresses even more their repre-
example, an animal being sacrificed (Quillfeldt 1995, sentative function and idealisation (Steffgen 1997, p.190).
pp.19-20). This is well documented in the Mycenaean 13
This is to be said first and foremost of solid-hilted swords.
iconography (Kilian-Dirlmeier 1993, p.137). Thus, Often the hilts are attached unstably to the blades and are
too short (Harding 1999 a, p.88; Quillfeldt 1995, pp.19-
swords may have been used in some rituals. Their par-
24; Wstemann 2004; for a differing opinion, Kristiansen
ticularity is emphasized by the fact that swords were so 2002, p.320). That these swords were produced only for
elaborately decorated12, even further emphasizing the representational-cultural purposes is confirmed by the fact
that certain technical production errors visible to the naked
Against this theory: Kristiansen 1999b; 2002.
11
eye were corrected, despite the fact that the swords them-
Not only were the hilts of swords decorated but also, on
12
selves could not have been used in battle because of other
occasion, their blades (Harding 1999b, p.166). Hilts, es- defects (Born, Hansen 1991).
43
been established here, today we would have much big- weapons, stone, bone or wooden weapons could be ef-
I s a Wa r r i o r w i t h o u t a We a p o n
a b o u t B r o n z e A g e Wa r f a r e i n
ger deposits of weapons, because societies living here fectively used (Dbrowski 1996, pp.177-179; Osgood
n o t a Wa r r i o r ? S o m e I d e a s
AGN IVILYT t h e E a s t e r n B a l t i c R e g i o n
were able to obtain bronze articles and the bronze itself 1998, p.37; Chapman 1999, pp.109-142; Fontijn 2003,
for their production. In this region, in particular, the p.221)15. However, warfare or war ideology without
tradition of axes and battle-axes was established, even the existence of the warrior as a social layer is simply
in the Early Bronze Age. In another paper I have raised inconceivable. We can see that defensive settlements,
the question that these objects may have been imported such as those known from Central and Southeast Eu-
from Atlantic Western Europe, and might have reached rope (Jockenhvel 1990), are rare16 and the evidence of
the Eastern Baltic by the way of Nordic Bronze Age warrior graves is lacking, so warfare cannot be seen as
Culture (ivilyt 2005, p.337). Such objects may have an organizational principle of social ties in themselves.
made up the largest part of bronze artefacts, reflecting I agree with the theory that in the Bronze Age there
the strong conservatism of forms with regard to other were not organized and hierarchically structural war
bronze objects. This limitation of forms can be noted affairs, and that Bronze Age conflicts should generally
in the stone and flint inventory, where axes and battle- be seen as small-scale, endemic warfare that took place
axes prevail, whereas daggers and spears are a rarity. between groups that were socially and spatially distant.
Although bronze exemplars differed strongly in their They may even have been simply armed conflicts dur-
form from stone and flint ones, they reflect the con- ing cattle rustling raids, because of the important role
servatism of values and the continuation of old tradi- of cattle, not only economically but socially as well
tions. The transmission from stone to bronze in the East (Fontijn 2003, pp.224-226)17. I would like to end my
Baltic happened in a very distinct way. The value of the assertions here with the view from David Fontijn that
old tradition and of bronze as a new material were unit- warriorhood was a stage in life for some, and that
ed in particular in bronze axes. Their deposit as single weaponry was only part of a more encompassing cul-
objects in water, bogs or moist places and large hoards tural idealization involving the construction of martial
reflect the desire of their owners to express their social personal identities (Fontijn 2003, p.227). However,
status in a ritual act. This tendency can be noted as late for societies that lived in the East Baltic, this identity
as the end of the Bronze Age. was alien, and maybe even a totally unfamiliar social
phenomenon.
Therefore, in this context bronze weapons are to be
understood as chance finds here, especially in the re- Summarising the current archaeological material and
gions to the East of the Sambian peninsula, where the theories based on anthropological, ethnological and
evidence of these weapons considerably declines14. sociological research, the following remarks could be
Like axes and battle-axes, they might have been seen made:
as symbols of status and prestige. Those who had the
. Primarily ideological principles, rather than the
honour to obtain any bronze object, or participate in
practicalities of use, were encoded in Bronze Age
grand ritual ceremonies and be buried in graves with
weapons.
bronze artefacts, no doubt realized the significance of
bronze weapons. However, these weapons could also
be interpreted as illustrating the unwillingness of soci- 15
After examining archaeological material from the Bronze
eties that inhabited the region to break with tradition, and early Iron Age in Eastern Lithuania, it is apparent that
and, I would even be so bold as to say, a social, and es- much of it comprises bone and flint arrowheads, spear-
heads and daggers, which tell us something about the
pecially warlike, amorphousness. The ideology which
conflicts which took place at that time (Luchtanas 1992,
pertains to bronze weapons in other regions was not pp.64-67).
apparently established in these areas, and is evidenced 16
It would be wrong to deny that there were fortified settle-
only as a peripheral episode. ments in the Eastern Baltic. From Eastern Lithuania alone
we know of more than 370 hill-forts from the first mil-
The subtext of this paper is the question Is a warrior lennium BC, for the post-Ice Age relief of this area was
without a weapon not a warrior? and this could be an- very convenient for building such forts (Luchtanas 1992,
swered in the affirmative. I am not denying that in the pp.61-62). However, Bronze Age hill-forts were usually
protected by ditches or ramparts, and more complex de-
East Baltic there were no any wars. I mentioned this
fensive constructions from wood or stone were used only
at the beginning of the report. But instead of bronze seldom (Luchtanas 1992, p.62).
17
Certain scholars are of a different opinion. They claim
Here we should draw attention to the very small number
14
that military matters occupied one of the most important
of swords in the Eastern Baltic, in contrast to other regions, parts of human life, distinguishing the social role of both
such as Scandinavia, where they were important prestige different groups of people and individuals and that by the
objects, showing cultural connections with Central Eu- Bronze Age we can speak of organised battles led by com-
rope. Meanwhile, the Eastern Baltic region played no part manding chiefs (Harding 2000, pp.273-275; Kristiansen
in such connections (Luchtanas, Sidrys 1999, p.24). 2002, p.329).
44
. It is unlikely that the establishment of a warrior ENGEL, C., 1935. Vorgeschichte der altpreuischen Stm-
BALTICA 8
identity as a social unit could have affected the me. Knigsberg.
FONTIJN, D.R., 2003. Sacrificial Landscapes. Cultural bi-
East Baltic.
ographies of persons, objects and natural places in the
3. Apparently, the ideology which is held to have Bronze Age of the southern Netherlands, c. 2300600 BC.
pertained to bronze weapons in other regions was Leiden.
GEDL, M., 1980. Die Dolche und Stabdolche in Polen
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as a peripheral episode. GRIGALAVIIEN, E., 1995. alvario ir ankstyvasis
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geleies amius Lietuvoje. Vilnius: Mokslo ir enciklopedij
leidykla.
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Santrauka
BALTICA 8
B A LT I C T O T H E D A N U B E
B R O T H E R S - I N - A R M S ? G R AV E S F R O M
ARCHAEOLOGIA
THE PRE-ROMAN PERIOD FURNISHED
W I T H A D O U B L E S E T O F W E A P O N RY
KATARZYNA CZARNECKA
Abstract
Graves of two warriors equipped with rich sets of weapons, emerge on the Celtic territories from the early La Tne period till
the end of phase D2.
Graves with double sets of weapons (one and two-edged swords) placed in metal vessels are known from the apparently
Germanic cultures of northern Europe. Celtic graves are evident burials of two (or more) persons, warriors of similar status
expressed by analogous weaponry. Germanic Oksywie Culture, and Scandinavian finds are burials of individual persons, II
notable warriors, who were given special sets of weapons to show their social position. A similar situation observed at an BARBARIAN
archaeological level could have had different grounds and meant different phenomena. WA R R I O R S
FROM THE
Key words: burials with weaponry, Celts, Pre-Roman Period. B A LT I C T O
THE DANUBE
47
ons were placed near the heads; bronze
Furnished with a Double Set
vessels, a bridle bit and a spur near the
from the Pre-Roman Period
Brothers-in-arms? Graves
legs.
Not far away from Nove Mesto, in
Magdalenska Gora, in grave 29, barrow
o f We a p o n r y
48
bosses would indicate three indi-
BALTICA 8
viduals.
Burials of more than two indi-
viduals with a full set of equip-
ment are not unusual in the Celtic
world. A well-recorded burial
of three persons equipped with
ARCHAEOLOGIA
weapons comes from Sogny-aux-
Moulins Sur les Ctes (Fig. 2)
in northern France
(Thirot 1930,
Fig. 2)
. Grave 13 contained two
swords and two fibulae. It is dated
to the transition period between La
Tne A and La Tne B. There is a
grave from a cemetery in Wrgl-
Egerndorfer Feld, in which three
strongly bent La Tne swords in
iron scabbards, a big knife, belt
fittings and a fibula were found.
There were the burnt remains
of three individuals inside three
clay vessels. This seems to sug- II
gest that all three were buried at
BARBARIAN
the same time (Egg 1999, p.350). WA R R I O R S
The grave should be dated to the FROM THE
B A LT I C T O
early La Tne Period. Grave 13 THE DANUBE
discovered in Leithagebire (Hut-
weide bei Au am Leithagebirge)
in Lower Austria, dated to the
La Tne B Period, revealed three
swords, four spearheads, a battle
Fig. 2. Sogny-aux-Moulins, grave 13 (after Thierot 1930, Fig. 2). knife, blacksmiths tools and or-
naments (bracelets and a fibula).
ple from France could be a grave from Verna, in Isere. The bones were decomposed, so we cannot establish
It is a cremation grave in a barrow, dated to La Tne the exact number of buried people (
Nebehay 1973).
D1, found in 1818 with two swords (one in a scabbard
of Ludwigshafen type), spearheads, shield elements, a The double graves of warriors with similar or equally
bronze helmet and bronze vessels, and wagon fittings rich outfits appear even in the first century before Christ,
(Schnfelder 2002, p.386). in the region of Skordiski. In Ripotek-Plavinacki Potok
in Serbia, a cremation grave was discovered contain-
A very rich outfit, including a cart (metal wheel bands ing two adequate sets of weapons:two swords in iron
and other parts were preserved), three swords, three scabbards, two band-shaped shield bosses, two big
shield bosses, five spearheads, two battle-axes and spearheads, two belts made of iron chain links and one
luxurious objects like a tripod, a cauldron with a chain, knife (Todorovi 1973, p.74).
glass vessels, Feuerbock etc were found in a grave
from Mailleraye-sur-Seine in Normandy (Lequoy A very interesting example of different ways of express-
. The grave is dated to the transition pe- ing a possibly similar practice is a find from a cemetery
1993, Fig. 6)
riod between La Tne C and La Tne D (second half of in Wederath-Belginum, in North Rhine (Haffner 1989).
the second century). Anthropological analysis does not In grave 805, a warrior was buried who had a partially
allow us to state unequivocally how many dead people preserved sword (without a hilt), two shield bosses,
were buried there, but three swords and three shield and equipment not connected to weaponry, such as
From France, lOctroi de Beaucaire, we know also a grave
shears and pottery. In grave 809, apart from pottery and
with a parallel set of weapons (two identical spears, two a fragment of a knife, two spearheads and a swords
shield bosses) and other equipment (boar tusks) but with hilt was found, which turned out to be the missing part
only one sword, interpreted as the grave of two warriors of the sword from grave 805. Likewise, a large piece of
(Py 1891, p.147).
49
pottery from grave 809 fitted a broken vase from grave Help from the other warrior was very often an indis-
Furnished with a Double Set
805. The situation described is the result of deliber- pensable requirement to effective fighting, increasing
from the Pre-Roman Period
Brothers-in-arms? Graves
ate practices. The author of the excavations excluded chances of surviving. A Celtic charioteer and war-
the possibility of random muddling. Two shield bosses rior standing on a chariot created such a tandem. In a
in one grave and two spearheads in the second point few cases, double weaponry,two swords and several
to an intentional exchange of weapons between the spearheads, were found in graves furnished with carts
o f We a p o n r y
two burials. The only sword (probably warriors did (chariots) from France or Slovenia. These finds were
not have a second sword at their disposal) was divided explained
(Nav
arro 1959, p.90; Gutin
1984a, p.122)
between them, too. These two graves clearly suggest as burials of the main warrior and the driver of his
a close link between both buried men, a relationship chariot. We can find many parallels in written sources,
CZARNECKA
KATARZYNA
that somehow corresponds with the Waffenbrder especially in the (obviously later) tales of tradition and
idea, although the men were not placed in one grave. the heroic mythology of the Celts.
According to an anthropological analysis, each grave
contained the remains of young individuals (between
Graves furnished with double set of
14 and 18 years old). Both graves are dated to the D2
weaponry in the Germanic world
phase. A. Haffner, the author of the excavations, in-
dicates the possibility of relating the premature death
The phenomenon of double sets of weapons in graves
of the two young warriors to the uprising of Treveri
is known not only from Celtic cemeteries but also
(
Haffner 1989, p.230).
from Przeworsk Culture, Oksywie Culture and from
Scandinavia from the A3 phase of the pre-Roman pe-
Tw o w a r r i o r s b u r i e d i n o n e g r a v e : riod, more or less parallel to the La Tne D2 phase.
interpretation possibilities The custom of depositing weapons in graves appears in
European Barbaricum (Central and northern Europe),
A very interesting issue is the interpretation of this in different Germanic cultures in a different intensity,
phenomenon: the simultaneous burial of warriors and is interpreted as the influence of Celtic civilisation
of equal or similar status in one grave, suggested by as one of the elements borrowed or adapted from the
similar outfits, was usually related to the elites of the Celts. It is hard to say whether only external forms of
contemporary society. In general, it may be stated that burial rite were adapted, such as numerous technical
double burials (and even triple) with two (or more) sets achievements with that most crucial one, iron smelt-
of weaponry, present in the Celtic tradition, as early ing, or the whole world of spiritual values standing
as in the Hallstatt period, are burials of two (or more) behind it,beliefs, but also certain social phenomena,
warriors. Equipment may sometimes even be placed in were imbibed as well. Celtic societies, though richer
different, separate parts of a grave and not muddled. in the advanced technical and economic achievements
It is difficult to explain unequivocally why they were of civilisation, such as the potters wheel, glass pro-
buried together. Was death at the same time, perhaps duction or coin minting, in the case of military or-
in one battle or campaign, the reason? Were they fam- ganisation did not stand out much from their northern
ily: brothers (we still lack DNA tests that could an- neighbours the Germans. Warriors created an impor-
swer this question), or foster brothers, whose loyalty tant social group with a specified status and prestige
towards each other is the groundwork for many dra- adequate to the same circumstances success at war,
matic Celtic tales? Or perhaps, as we may wonder, it is personal charisma etc. Even the institution of a retinue
the result of ties of friendship or comradeship arising (Gefolge), confirmed in written sources, was present
out of jointly experienced hardship and dangers. These in both societies mentioned.
pairs of warrior friends had archetypes in mythology
Germanic weaponry was partially adapted from the
and heroic tales: some already in Greek tradition and
Celts: long double-edged swords in iron scabbards,
mythology,Achilles and Patroclus, Orestes and Py-
shields with circular bosses, and some types of spear-
lades, Theseus and Peirithous, but first and foremost
heads. On the other hand, elements of personal equip-
the divine twins Castor and Pollux.
A two-man team of Scythian archers from a chieftains
burial from Ryzanovka, Ukraine, is a distant but good ex-
Homer makes Achilles avenge Patroclus in that brilliant
ample. According to an anthropological analysis of patho-
fashion, not as his favourite, but as his comrade. Orestes logical changes in the skeletons, one of the archers shot
and Pylades, Theseus and Peirithous, along with many arrows to the right, the second one to the left, so that they
other noble pairs of demigods, are celebrated as having could move side by side, protecting each others backs
wrought in common great and noble deeds, not because (Chochorowski 1997, p.10).
they lay unarmed, but because of the admiration they felt
Perhaps some techniques of fighting as well: for instance
for one another (Xenophon, Symposium 8.31). infantry mixed with cavalry, technique proved for Celts
50
the burial of two individuals. The set of equip-
BALTICA 8
ment is quite opulent, with a full weaponry outfit
(two kinds of spearheads, a shield) but also with
shears and spurs that are a rare element of equip-
ment, suggesting a high social position of the
warriors buried there.
Furnishing with double elements of equipment is
ARCHAEOLOGIA
rare, but happens in Przeworsk Culture. A grave
equipped with two shield bosses is known from
Czelad Wielka (Sawcice)
(Pescheck 1939,
p.207 ff., Fig. 145).
Moreover, the grave con-
tained four knives, bronze handles, a sword and
two spearheads. Grave 65 from Oblin (unpub-
lished, State Archaeological Museum, Warsaw,
IV/8896) revealed two shield bosses, two spear-
heads and one single-edged sword; grave 24 from
Siemiechw two shield bosses, a shield grip (
?), a
single-edged sword and a
knife (M.
Jadewska
1985, pl. II);
probably also Ciecierzyn grave 8
was furnished in similar way (Martyniak 1997,
pl.
X)
. Two shield bosses were found on the terri-
tory of Oksywie Culture in Pruszcz Gdaski, site II
10, grave 434 (both of Bohnsack 7 type) with
BARBARIAN
Fig. 3. Korytnica, grave 4, swords, State Archaeological Museum two spearheads and a shield grip (Pietrzak,
1997, WA R R I O R S
in Warsaw. pl. CXXX)
. Graves at Czelad and Oblin can be FROM THE
B A LT I C T O
dated to phase A2, the grave at Siemiechw and THE DANUBE
ment, such as chain mail or helmets, did not become Ciecierzyn to the transition period between A2 and A3,
accepted. A single-edged sword of native origin still and the one at Pruszcz to phase A3.
remained in use. The question whether the Latenies- A new find from Troszyn on the island of Wolin, from
ierung process referred only to external symptoms the area between Oksywie and Jastorf Culture, throws
and why only to some of lifes aspects, will probably a new light on the discussed problem of the interpreta-
remain open. This concerns the discussed phenomenon tion of double burials (Machajewski, 2006). In 2004,
of so-called brother-in-arms as well. an amateur collector looking for military accessories
In a Przeworsk Culture cemetery in Korytnica (Fig. 3), using a metal detector discovered a cremation grave. A
district Jddrzejow, voivodship witokryskie, investi- bronze bucket, that was used as a cinerary urn was cov-
gated by the amateur archaeologist Father Skurczyski, ered with a clay vessel. In the bucket two swords with
a local parish priest, in grave 4 were found two sets their scabbards and two spearheads were placed; two
of weaponry typical of phase A3 (
Skurczyski 1947, shields were situated next to the bucket. A one-edged
p.13).
These were two double-edged swords in nearly sword represents a classic specimen used in Oksywie
identical iron scabbards (both ritually bent) with lad- culture in phases A2 and A3. Similar swords were used
der-shape mountings, pointed chapes (it is likely that at that time on the Baltic islands and in stergotland.
one of the scabbards originally had a bronze openwork The other, a double-edged sword in an iron scabbard,
plate in the upper part), and two shield bosses of type is very similar to finds from Korytnica, with ladder-
8 according to D. Bohnsack (1938), two folded lance shape mountings and an ornamental iron plate with a
heads, two barbed spearheads, four spurs, two fibulae grid pattern fixed near the mouth. There were also two
of M type according to J. Kostrzewski (1919), four spearheads and two shield bosses of types Bohnsack 5
knives, four awls, shears, a spindle whorl, rings on sta- and Bohnsack 8 among the outfit. The shield grips are
ples, coiled wire, and fragments of pottery. Unfortu-
We may presume from the find of the spindle whorl that a
nately, there are no results of anthropological analysis, woman was buried in the grave; however, single finds of
but the arrangement of objects in the grave suggests spindle whorls occur in men graves,perhaps as a special
grave gift, or haphazardly.
Only a small fragment of the second shield boss is pre-
served.
and Germans, but unknown to Romans and therefore
I would like to thank H. Machajewski PhD
for access to
arousing their curiosity. the materials.
51
Brothers-in-arms? Graves
from the Pre-Roman Period
KATARZYNA Furnished with a Double Set
52
CZARNECKA o f We a p o n r y
Fig. 4. Rzdz, grave 1/1883, (after Boguwolski and Kurzyska 2001, Fig. 51).
very interesting. The first one refers to type D accord- shield boss, a shield grip and several tiny objects. What
BALTICA 8
ing to N. Zieling; so far there are no analogues known attracts attention are two folded, gold rings, fragments
to the second one. The whole assemblage may be dated of bronze vessels (excluding a cauldron-cinerary urn)
to phase A3. The outfit derives from the Celtic (double- and parts of a cart. This is one of the wealthiest graves,
edged sword) but also from Scandinavian traditions clearly indicating the high social position of the buried
(shield boss and grip). person (or persons).
A nearly identical set comes from the Oksywie Cul- Another grave with a double weaponry outfit is grave
ARCHAEOLOGIA
ture cemetery in Rzdz, grave 1/1883 (Fig. 4) (Bohm 1 from Simblegaard on Bornholm (
Vedel 1897, p.127).
1985, p.5; Anger
1890, p.10, pl. IV: 2; Boguwolski
This is a cremation burial furnished with a cauldron of
and Kurzyska 2001, p.59, Fig. 51)
. Inside a bronze Eggers 4 type, three iron swords, a spur (?), a spearhead,
bucket there was a double-edged sword in a scabbard a shield boss and a shield grip.In Birket, in Jutland, a
with ladder-shape mountings and a pointed chape and grave was found that uncovered a double-edged sword
a bronze openwork plate in the upper part, a single- with a cross-guard, a fragment of a single-edged sword
edged sword, a spearhead, a shieldboss type Bohnsack and fittings from its scabbard, a destroyed shield boss,
7 and a fibula. Although the description left no doubts two spearheads, a knife with a socket (? a preserved
that both swords were found together in the vessel, the fragment) and other knives (Martens 2002, Fig.7).
grave inventory was thought to be muddled in terms of
A well-preserved burial with a double set of weapons
the presence of the two swords. The Troszyn discovery
(grave 2) was discovered in vre lebck (Fig. 5), on
has verified the cohesion of this assemblage.
land (Sjberg Beskow 1991, Figs. 19). There were
From the territory of Oksywie Culture, we know an- two single-edged swords, scabbard fittings, two spear-
other, however accidentally discovered and therefore heads, a shield boss and a shield handle fitting placed
not very certain, find from Bolszewo (Bolschau). inside a bronze cauldron with an iron rim (cauldron of II
A cremation grave with a bronze cauldron of type 4 Eggers 4 type). Another grave comes from Ringstad BARBARIAN
according to H.-J. Eggers (1951), that was used as a Mo (stra Eneby) in Sweden. The assemblage com- WA R R I O R S
FROM THE
cinerary urn, was supposed to contain a hilt, part of prised of a double-edged sword, a single-edged sword, B A LT I C T O
a blade and a scabbard of a double-edged sword, two a spearhead, a low spiked shield boss, a second de- THE DANUBE
big shield bosses, two big, folded spearheads, and one stroyed shield boss and a fibula of Kostrzewski K type.
totally folded big sword (Virchow, 1870, p.85). An- The assemblage was thought to be uncertain and mixed
other grave, with two bent together La Tne swords, (Nicklasson 1997, p.212).
two spearheads, a shield boss and fragments of iron
Many graves with double sets of weaponry are old
objects, was found in Gdask Nowolipki (Dreilinden)
finds, sometimes random ones. Assemblages with two
with a big cinerary urn with bones situated half a metre
swords seemed unbelievable and were often treated
underground (Lissauer 1887, p.127).
in literature as muddled. This, for instance, concerns
The find from Ciepe (WarmhofAbbau) presented Rzdz and the grave from Ringsted Mo, too. Obvi-
by J. Kostrzewski (1919, p.106) with bronze cauldron ously, the credibility of such finds must be verified, as
type Eggers 4 with double-edged sword and scabbard some of these discoveries are undoubtedly spoiled as-
fittings from the single-edged sword could also be in- semblages. As an example, let us give a grave 1 from
terpreted as a grave with two different types of swords, Piotrkw Kujawski (Zielonka 1956, p.276) with one
one of them symbolically represented (pars pro toto) double-edged and one single-edged sword, but inco-
by elements of the scabbard. herent chronology. Nevertheless, in many cases there
are no reasons for subverting the coherence of assem-
Burials with multiple sets of weapons placed in bronze
blages.
vessels are known from Fyn, Bornholm and land.
Grave 1 found in 1877 in Langaa (Lang) on the island Unfortunately, in the majority of cases, graves with
of Fyn is the most impressive (
Sehestad 1878, Pl. XXX- double sets of weapons are old finds that do not have
VIIXXXIX; Albrectsen 1954, p.29, pl. 4)
. A cauldron any anthropological analyses of burnt remains. The
of Eggers 4 type served as an urn, covered with a big, lack of anthropological analyses makes us unable to
flat stone. It was equipped with four folded single- determine if we are undoubtedly dealing with buri-
edged swords, part of a spearhead, a badly preserved als of two warriors (Waffenbrder) or with an ex-
According to A. Lissauer, there was only one spearhead; tremely richly equipped single burial (of one person).
according to J. Kostrzewski (1919, p.78), who checked In recently discovered grave from Troszyn, according
Lissauers information, there were two spearheads. to anthropological analysis (Machajewski 2006), one
According to J. Martens (2002, p.261), there was only one
sword and three long knives, and (probably) two shield determination is difficult.
Anyway, it is a grave with a mul-
bosses. All are preserved only in fragments, and the exact tiple set of weaponry.
53
Furnished with a Double Set
from the Pre-Roman Period
Brothers-in-arms? Graves
o f We a p o n r y
CZARNECKA
KATARZYNA
person was buried, an adult, over 20 years old. A few It is very difficult to establish if the weaponry is double
analyses of graves with double shield bosses (Pruszcz, or if it is a full set of weaponry used by one warrior.
grave 434, Oblin, grave 65) indicate burials of single It depends on the technique of fighting. Two or more
persons. On the other hand, a notable part of graves spearheads are thought to be one-person equipment, as
with double sets of weapons from the Celtic area are thrown weapons,spears, are in some senses used once
inhumation graves with well proven two (or more) in- only. In the early Roman Period, in Przeworsk Culture
dividuals in one grave. (a culture that, thanks to the custom of richly equip-
It seems interesting that graves from Pomerania and ping the dead with weapons, is most suitable for such
Scandinavia with two or more swords often do not observations, although the phenomenon is observed
contain a higher number of spearheads or shield bosses in the Elbian area also) a common set of weaponry, a
(only one spearhead in Langaa and Troszyn; two spear- lance head and a smaller, often barbed, spearhead, is a
heads in vre lebck, but only one shield boss). This good example of full equipment, as in practice these
situation differs in Przeworsk Culture,in Korytnica, two objects are used for different purposes,different
for instance. Similar to finds known from the Celtic ways of fighting (one for throwing, another in close
area, there are two separate sets of weapons, not one combat). Two nearly identical double-edged swords
extremely rich one. (as in the case of grave 4 from Korytnica) are double
54
weapons, because they in fact may function only in the period, especially from Mecklenburg but also from
BALTICA 8
same way. Double and single-edged swords (Troszyn, Denmark and Sweden (Wegewitz 1986; Rasch 1994,
Rzdz and Birket) are two kinds of weaponry used for p.229; Vo 2005, p.35). This custom had begun yet
different fighting techniques (Kontny 1998). Long, in phase A2, but most finds are from phase A3 or even
double-edged swords are most efficient in fighting from the beginning of the Roman Period. Weaponry
from a horse, while shorter, single-edged swords are is a common element of outfit in these graves; often
infantry weapons. Of course, they may be used in other full sets of weapons (a sword, a spearhead and a shield
ways, when needed, but their construction features (the boss), and they are linked to elite warriors (Sjberg
ARCHAEOLOGIA
shape of the blade, hilt dimensions that decide the cen- Beskow 1991, p.474; Rasch 1994, p.231; Vo 2005,
tre of gravity) are optimally adjusted to a specific type p.35). It is nothing bizarre that the best, most distin-
of fighting. We can understand the sense of possessing guished, warriors or chiefs were honoured with an out-
both swords, used according to necessity. There is yet standing set of weapons, such as two kinds of swords
another aspect of the problem in the case of shields. (single and double-edged, explained by different ways
Two shields cannot obviously be used at once. Howev- of fighting), or two swords of the same kind, two sin-
er, it is an element prone to damage during battles. The gle-edged (vre lebck or Langaa) or two double-
aim of a wooden shield, even with metallic rim fittings edged (Bolszw, Gdask Nowolipki). One of each
that are very rare in the pre-Roman period, is to receive could be an heirloom or important war trophy, which
strokes from a sword or spear (not to mention a battle- was supposed to stress the prestige and position of the
axe). It is not imperishable, so the necessity to have a dead person.
spare one seems to be justified (Sawinski 2006). What
The custom of equipping graves with weaponry was
still needs to be mentioned is ceremonial weaponry
an influence Celtic civilisation; weapons, double-
that was not designed for fighting purposes but could
edged swords in metallic scabbards, too. Metallic ves- II
have been placed in a grave. Ceremonial weaponry is
sels were imports as well. However, the origin of the
known from the Roman Period (shield bosses with sil- BARBARIAN
custom and the meaning of equipping with a higher WA R R I O R S
ver or gold sheet etc). It is also known from the Roman
number of weapons could have been different from FROM THE
army (helmets with masks covered with silver foil). B A LT I C T O
the Celtic custom. The same or a similar situation ob- THE DANUBE
served at an archaeological level could have had differ-
Summing up ent grounds and meant different phenomena.
GUTIN, M., 1981. Keltische Grber aus Dobova. Archo RASCH, M., 1994. The appearance of weapon graves in
logischer Korrespondenzblatt, 11, 223-229. Scandinavia around the Birth of Christ Some interpreta-
GUTIN, M., 1984. Die Kelten in Jugoslawien. Jahrbuch tions in the light of weapon graves from land. In: C. von
des Rmisch-Germanischen Zentralmuseums Mainz, 31, CARNAP-BORHEIM, ed. Beitrge zu rmischer und bar
305-363. barischer Bewaffnung in den ersten vier nachchristlichen
o f We a p o n r y
GUTIN, M.,
1984a. Prazgodovinski grobovi z vozovi na Jahrhunderten, Marburg, 223-231.
ozemjlu Jugoslavije. In: M. Gutin and L. Pauli, eds. RASCH, M.,
2002. Vorrmische
Waffentypen und Waffen-
Keltski Voz, Posavski Muzej Breice 6, 111-132. kombinationen auf den Inseln land und Gotland in der
HAFFNER, A., 1989. Die Kriegergrber 805 und 809 vom sdstlichen Ostsee und ihre chronologische Stellung im
Ende der Latnezeit. Zur Bedeutung des Beigabesplittings. Licht der kontinentalen Waffenfunde, In: C. von CAR-
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kleinen Hutweide bei Au am Leithagebirge, p.B. Bruck a. 23, 275-276.
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NICKLASSON, P., 1997. Svrdet ljuger inte. Stockholm. Received: 22 January 2007; Revised: 26 May 2007
PESCHECK, Ch., 1939. Die frhwandalische Kultur in Mit-
telschlesien. Leipzig.
PIETRZAK, M., 1997. Pruszcz Gdaski, Fundstelle 10. Ein
Grberfeld der Oksywie- und Wielbark-Kultur in Ostpom-
mern. Monumenta
Archaeologica Barbarica IV, Krakw.
56
G inklo draugai ?
BALTICA 8
P rie rom ni kojo
laikotarpio kapai su
dvigubais ginkluot s
rinkiniais
Katarzyna Czarnecka
ARCHAEOLOGIA
Santrauka
R O M A N I R O N A G E WA R R I O R S F R O M H A G E N O W,
Mecklenburg, and their
M E C K L E N B U R G , A N D T H E I R R E L AT I O N S W I T H
a n d R o m a n Wo r l d s
From the Baltic to
HANS-ULRICH VO
HANS-ULRICH
Abstract
VO
At the Early Roman Iron Age graveyard of Hagenow, Mecklenburg, five or six generations of an elite manifest rank and status
through the burial custom, among other things using weapons and components of military equipment. The wealth and quality
of the grave goods obvious based on the participation in Germanic retinues and also in Roman services.
Key words: cremation graves, weapons, spurs, Marcomannic wars.
Fig. 2. Hagenow, Rmergrber site. Equipment patterns of weapon graves. Without scale (drawings by J. Seele, Schwe-
rin; photograph by S. Suhr, Wiligrad).
59
Fig. 3. Mehr-
the Danube: Early Roman Iron
A g e Wa r r i o r s f r o m H a g e n o w,
of a Germanic
Auxiliar (after
a n d R o m a n Wo r l d s
From the Baltic to
Gechter and
Kunow 1983).
HANS-ULRICH
VO
3), in the northwest of the Ruhr Valley, from around well as three bronze drinking horn mountings and frag-
5060 AD (Gechter, Kunow 1983), and grave V in Do- ments of different bronze vessels, they originate from
brichov-Pichora in Bohemia (Droberjar 1999, p.220ff., an unfortunately incomplete traditional weapon grave
Taf. 14-17) which is also richly equipped with bronze of the late first century AD.
Roman objects.
Weiler type Helmets were worn by Roman soldiers
The grave good assemblages of these two reconstruct- from the 1st until the early second century (Feugre
ed burials correspond in some elements to the graves 1993, p.104ff., Fig.109). As grave goods, they are
of the Gallo-Roman elite of the Augustan and Tibe- found in west Celtic burials and graves of the Suebi
rian era. Common are bronze dishes, among them the Nicreti in southwest Germany (Lenz-Bernhard 1999,
characteristic iron-edged cauldron, as well as the com- Abb. 25), an area in which also iron-edged cauldrons
plete armament, consisting of sword, lance, spear and have been discovered in burial deposits (Peschel 1995,
shield, and furthermore spurs (eg Ferdiere, Vaillard p.78). Hagenow is the only grave find with a helmet in
1993). Contacts between Celtic tribes from Gaul and the Elbe area and beyond. In addition, the occurrence
Germanic groups from the River Elbe probably date of completely or almost completely preserved chain
back to at least the time of the Gallic war (Adler 1993, mail in three weapons graves in a single cemetery is
p.221; Eger 1999, p.153). extraordinary.
First let us have a look at the Roman elements of the In southern Scandinavia and western Mecklenburg,
equipment, a Roman equestrian warrior Weiler type chain mail already appears in graves of the late Repub-
helmet and three sets of chain mail. Together with the lican and the Augustan Period; however, with a ring di-
full armament of sword, lance, spear and shield, as ameter of only five millimetres, these pieces are proba-
60
BALTICA 8
ARCHAEOLOGIA
II
BARBARIAN
WA R R I O R S
FROM THE
B A LT I C T O
THE DANUBE
Fig. 4. Weiler type helmets and chain mail in Late Pre-Roman and Early Roman Iron Age graves (after Hansen 2003;
Kaczanowski 1994; Lenz-Bernhard 1999).
bly products of Celtic origin (Hansen 2003, p.43, Figs. that clearly. Another important part of their equipment
11-15). A good example is grave A 4137 in Hedegrd are the belt buckles and accessories.
in Mid-Jutland (Madsen 1996/97 p.85, Figs. 27; 28)
and a grave with a bronze cauldron in Holdorf in north-
The equipment of a high-ranking
west Mecklenburg (Vo 1998, p.47, II-02-4/1.3).
warrior
As in the helmet grave from Hagenow found in 1899,
the bearer of the chain mail in grave VII excavated in Grave 9/1995 contained next to the sword belt a silver
1907 and the warrior of grave 9/1995 were also armed Cingulum and a figurative, partially gilded magnificent
with sword, spear and lance, as well as a shield. The 55- belt (Lth et al. 2000, p.173ff. Abb. 18, 19). An until
year-old man buried around 100 AD in grave 9/1995, today unique silver-inlayed belt buckle with a twin-
as well as the man deceased around the middle of the spiked buckle (Madyda-Legutko 1987, p.54, 57ff., Taf.
second century and buried in grave VII, were equestri- 17:44) and fitting strap end was discovered in grave
an warriors. The spurs among the grave goods indicate VII. The detailed examination of grave 9/1995 carried
out in the laboratory of the archaeological state collec-
61
From the Baltic to
the Danube: Early Roman Iron
A g e Wa r r i o r s f r o m H a g e n o w,
Mecklenburg, and their
HANS-ULRICH Relations with the Barbarian
62
VO a n d R o m a n Wo r l d s
Bornitz
Putensen
Kosroln
Hagenow
Krchow,
Brokr, Grab
AMannersdorf,
Grab v. 1988
CZ Dobichov-
Pichora, I
CZ Dobichov-
Pichora, VI
D
FK 29
D
Grab 150
PL
Domaradzice
Grab 1
SK
Grab 35
D
Grab 9/1995
D
Grab v. 1935
DK
v. 1878
Ta b l e 1 . E q u i p m e n t p a t t e r n o f w e a p o n g r a v e s w i t h i r o n - e d g e d b r o n z e c a u l d r o n s . A E a e s ( c o p p e r a n d c o p p e r a l l o y s ) ; E t y p e a f t e r
H.J. Eggers, Der rmische Import im freien Germanien. Atlas der Urgeschichte 1 (Hamburg 1951); NoPan belt garnitures from Nori-
cum and Pannonia; Sf shield grip.Brooches after O. Almgren, Studien ber nordeuropische Fibelformen der ersten nachchristlichen
Jahrhunderte mit Bercksichtigung der provinzialrmischen und sdrussischen Formen. (2. Aufl.) Mannus-Bibliothek 32
(Leipzig 1923). Sex: m, f archaeologically determined; M anthropologically determined
Grave
Lance
Lance/Javelin
Shield
Shield grip
Spurs
- silver
inlay
Drinking horn
Metal vessel
Brooches
after
O.Almgren
State of
preservation
Dating
(phase)
Origin, grave
S Stenstugu, Gotland K Fe 0 B2
S Bengstorp, land, Grab 2 K Fe 1 B2
D Bordesholm, KS 10316 Depot? AE/(Ag) 3 B2
D Hamfelde, Grab 366 U AE/(Ag) 5 V, Ser. 9? 3 B 2b
D Hagenow, Grab 9/1995 U AE/Ag 6 (
) E7 V, Ser. 9 3 B 2a
S Hrnige, land K AE/Ag 2 1 B2
K inhumation grave;
Ta b l e 2 . E q u i p m e n t p a t t e r n o f g r a v e s w i t h k n o b - e n d e d s c a b b a r d s . A E ; E a n d b r o o c h e s s e e t a b l e 1 .
U urn grave. S
t a t e o f p r e s e r v a t i o n : 0 d e s t r o y e d , m i x e d f i n d , i n c o m p l e t e . 1 p a r t i a l l y d e s t r o y e d , i n c o m p l e t e .
2 found in situ, later parts of the find mixed with others, 3 original, complete find
ARCHAEOLOGIA
II
63
BALTICA 8
FROM THE
WA R R I O R S
B A LT I C T O
BARBARIAN
THE DANUBE
From the Baltic to
the Danube: Early Roman Iron
A g e Wa r r i o r s f r o m H a g e n o w,
Mecklenburg, and their
HANS-ULRICH Relations with the Barbarian
64
VO a n d R o m a n Wo r l d s
BALTICA 8
rite. The cremated bone had been completely covered in design and decoration (Rasch 1991, p.109, Fig. 54).
by the chain mail, and had probably been doused with
A speciality of the shield are the four silver decoration
mead. All weapons were intentionally destroyed, bent
discs, 4.3 centimetres in diameter, which were prob-
or broken, and were exposed to the burning pyre, as
ably put in front of the bevelled shield corners (Lth
well as the sword belt, and the figurative decorated
et al 2000, p.166, Abb. 14, 3). Similar ornament discs
magnificent belt, but not the silver fittings of the waist
are known from some graves of the Augustan-Tiberian
belt or the spurs (Lth et al. 2000, Tab. 1). The equip-
ARCHAEOLOGIA
Period in central Germany, the lower Elbe area and
ment pattern of grave 9/1995 with complete armament
central Jutland (Schultze 2002; Vlling 2005, p.171ff.;
(armament group A after Adler 1993) and high-value
293, Karte 23).
personal equipment permits a comparison with ei-
ther chronologically older or younger weapon graves. It was not until the end of the second and the beginning
These were found from western Scandinavia down to of the third century, that round decoration discs in the
the central Danube area. An example is burials with shape of face-masks or tutuli, made out of gilded silver
iron-edged bronze cauldrons, which were used as urns sheet foil, appear again on the splendid shields of the
(Table 1). war booty from Illerup A in northern Jutland (v.Car-
nap-Bornheim, Ilkjr 1996, p.433ff., Abb. 257-260).
Equally informative are the graves which contained
Therefore, the shield of Hagenow is a chronological
knob-ended scabbards (Table 2). Most of these char-
link between the adornment of the shields during the
acteristic scabbards are Germanic imitations of Roman
Late La Tne-Period/Early Roman Iron Age and the
types (Kaczanowski 1994, p.211ff., Abb. 2). Notice-
Late Roman Iron Age.
able is their concentration in the lower Elbe area (Fig.
4), where they were used from the middle of the first II
century to the middle of the 2nd century. Like in the Common elements of burial customs
BARBARIAN
graves with bronze cauldrons, the spurs often found WA R R I O R S
here are typical for equestrian warriors. The importance of the burial custom of adding weap- FROM THE
B A LT I C T O
ons and Roman vessels to the grave can be shown in THE DANUBE
No less important are the preserved components of the
an exemplary way by the grave of a four or five-year-
shields in the graves of Hagenow. The almost com-
old boy at the cemetery of Hagenow. Beside his ashes,
pletely preserved metal fittings in grave 9/1995 make it
buried in an organic and not in a bronze vessel, the
clear that the shield also indicates the rank of the warri-
remains of a glass vessel, the complete handle of a Ro-
or. On the basis of the bronze edge-mounts (bindings),
man miniature sword from the second century (Bal
together with the also bronze shield grip and the iron
and Feugre 1987) as well as three iron arrowheads
shield boss with a short spike (Dornschildbuckel, Jahn
were found in the grave. So this is rare evidence for
type 6), it was possible to reconstruct a shield, which
the addition of arrowheads in graves of the early Impe-
was 115 centimetres of high and 67 centimetres wide.
rial period. Right now there are no equivalents for both
It was apparently built out of three wooden boards.
the miniature sword and the shape of the arrowheads,
In the inhumation grave F 19 of Hunn i Borge near neither in the Elbe area nor in the area of Przeworsk
the Oslofjord, a similar shield in situ could be docu- Culture.
mented (Resi 1986, p.71, Taf. 8; 57). Again, it is an
An example of a grave of the Roman Empire containing
equestrian warrior, who carried silver-inlayed spurs
a miniature sword is the grave of a six to ten-year-old
(Stuhlsporen). However, like the shield bosses with
boy from the cemetery of Roberg near Darmstadt in
long spikes (Stangenschildbuckel, Jahn type 7), the
the Roman province Germania Superior from around
Dornschildbuckel found in grave 9/1995 is a very
125 AD (Schmidt 1996, p.91f.; 278, Taf. 15, 11).
long-lived form, worn from the Pre-Roman Iron Age
until the end of the Early Roman Iron Age during the Other than what this single find implies, there are
Marcomannic Wars (Zieling 1989, p.40ff.; and 84ff.). many more examples of the similarity in the beliefs
Noticeable is the combination of such shield-bosses about the afterlife and burial customs of the Germanic
with decorated bronze egde-mounts in the western part warrior elite of the Early Roman Iron Age. An espe-
of the distribution area, oriented to the River Elbe. On cially impressive grave, comparable to grave 9/1995
the other hand, the extraordinarily decorated and sil- in Hagenow, is cremation grave 37 of Kostoln, close
ver filigree trimmed shield grip belongs to a relatively to the Danube Dunaji in the southwest of Slovakia
small group, apparently developed in Scandinavia dur- in the area of the former regnum Vannianum (Kolnk
ing the late first and second century AD. A shield grip 1980, p.111f., Taf. 52-53). Although the copy of an
iron-edged bronze cauldron made out of clay is used
65
as an urn here, the armament and equipment is similar The participation in Germanic retinues and probably
the Danube: Early Roman Iron
A g e Wa r r i o r s f r o m H a g e n o w,
Abb. 9). This grave can also be dated back to the end of ment, as well as metal and glass vessels, and other pre-
a n d R o m a n Wo r l d s
From the Baltic to
the first and the beginning of the second century. cious metals.
Definite evidence for the connections between the pop- The contact with Roman culture and with Germanic
ulation of the lower Elbe and the middle Danube area elites of different cultural imprint resulted in innova-
during the second half of the first and the first half of the tive, exclusive status symbols: splendour belts with
second century is the distribution of the characteristic figurative images, belts imitating Roman cinguli, sil-
belt buckle with rolled up ends of the frame (Rahmen) ver-inlayed belt fittings, shields with complex fittings,
HANS-ULRICH
Madyda-Legutko (1986, p.12ff., Taf. 4: 1-3) group B splendid shoes with spurs. The selection of material
type 1. The same applies to a group of silver-inlayed and the manufacturing technology uncovers differ-
VO
66
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BALTICA 8
gabe aus dem neckarswebisch-rmischen Grberfeld von
Adler, W., 1993. Studien zur germanischen Bewaffnung. Ladenburg am Erbsenweg. Mannheimer Geschichts-
Waffenmitgabe und Kampfesweise im Niederelbegebiet bltter, N. F. 6, 11-58.
und im brigen freien Germanien um Christi Geburt. Saar- Lth, F. et. al., 2000. Neue Rmergrber aus Hagenow
brcker Beitrge zur Altertumskunde, 58. Bonn: Habelt. ein Vorbericht. Bodendenkmalpflege in Mecklenburg-
ALMGREN, O., 1923. Studien ber nordeuropische Fibel- Vorpommern, Jahrbuch 2000, 48, 149-214.
formen der ersten nachchristlichen Jahrhunderte mit Madsen, O., 1996/97. Hedegrd a rich village and cem-
Bercksichtigung der provinzialrmischen und sdrus- etery complex of the Early Iron Age on the Skjern river. An
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sischen Formen (2. Aufl.). Mannus-Bibliothek 32, Leip- interim report. Journal of Danish Archaeology, 13, 57-93.
zig. Madyda-Legutko, R., 1986. Die Grtelschnallen der
BEAL, J.-C. and FEUGERE, M., 1987. pes miniatures Rmischen Kaiserzeit und der frhen Vlkerwanderung-
fourreau en is, d`poque romaine. Germania, 65, 89-105. szeit im mitteleuropischen Barbaricum. BAR Interna-
Beckmann, C. H., 1969. Metallfingerringe der rmischen tional Series 360. Oxford: B.A.R.
Kaiserzeit im freien Germanien. Saalburg-Jahrbuch, 26, Peschel, K., 1995. Beobachtungen an zweigliedrigen Kes-
5106. seln mit eisernem Rand. Alt-Thringen, 29, 69-94.
von Carnap-Bornheim, C., 2002. Der Trachtschmuck, Rasch, M., 1991. Glmminge socken. In: U.E. Hag-
die Grtel und das Grtelzubehr. In: J. PEKA and berg, B. Stjernquist and M. Rasch eds., lands
J.TEJRAL, eds. Das germanische Knigsgrab von Muov jrnldersgravflt 2. Kalmar: Hgskolan, 39-152.
in Mhren 1. RGZM Monographien, 55,1. Mainz: RGZM/ Resi, H.G., 1986. Gravplassen Hunn i stfold. Norske Old-
Habelt. funn 12. Oslo: Univ. Oldsaksamling.
von Carnap-Bornheim, C., Ilkjr, J., 1996. Illerup Schmidt, R.H., 1996. Rmerzeitliche Grber aus Sdhes-
dal. Die Prachtausrstungen. 5 Textband. Jutland Ar- sen. Untersuchungen zu Brandbestattungen. Materialien
chaeolocial Society Publications 25.5. Aarhus: University zur Vor- und Frhgeschichte von Hessen 17. Wiesbaden:
Press. Selbstverlag des Landesamtes fr Denkmalpflege Hessen.
Droberjar, E., 1999. Dobichov-Pihora. Ein Brand- Schultze, E., 1986. Zur Verbreitung der Waffenbeigaben
grberfeld der lteren rmischen Kaiserzeit in Bhmen bei den germanischen Stmmen um den Beginn unserer II
(Ein Beitrag zur Kenntnis des Marbod-Reichs). Fontes Ar- Zeitrechnung. Bodendenkmalpflege in Mecklenburg. Jahr-
chaeologici Pragenses 22. Prag: Nationalmuseum. buch 1986, 93-117. BARBARIAN
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Eger, ChR., 1999. Die jngere vorrmische Eisen- und r- Schultze, E., 2002. Bemerkungen zu den FROM THE
mische Kaiserzeit im Luhetal (Lneburger Heide). Interna- Schildzierscheiben der jngeren vorrmischen Eisen- B A LT I C T O
tionale Archologie, 56. Rahden/Westf.: Marie Leidorf. zeit. In: C. von CARNAP-BORNHEIM, J. ILKJR, A. THE DANUBE
Ferdiere, A. and Vaillard, A., 1993. La tombe au- KOKOWSKI and P. UCZKIEWICZ, eds. Bewaffnung
gustenne de Flr-la-Rivire (Indre) et les spultures aris- der Germanen und ihrer Nachbarn in den letzten Jahr-
tocratiques de la cit des Bituriges. 7e Supplement Revue hunderten vor Christi Geburt. Lublin: Uniw. Marii Curie-
Achologique du Centre de la France [Mmoire 2 Muse Sklodowskiej.
d`Argentomagus]. Saint Marcel: Muse d`Argentomagus. Vlling, Th., 2005. Germanien an der Zeitenwende.
Feugre, M., 1993. Les Armes des Romains. Paris: Er- Studien zum Kulturwandel beim bergang von der vor-
rance. rmischen Eisenzeit zur lteren rmischen Kaiserzeit in
Gechter, M. and Kunow, J., 1983. Der frhkai- der Germania Magna. BAR International Series 1360.
serzeitliche Grabfund von Mehrum. Ein Beitrag zur Frage Oxford: Archaeopress.
von Germanen in rmischen Diensten. Bonner Jahrbch- Vo, H.-U., (Bearb.) 1998. Corpus der rmischen Funde im
er, 183, 449-468. europischen Barbaricum. Deutschland Band 3, Bundes-
Hansen, L., 2003. Die Panzerung der Kelten. Eine dia- land Mecklenburg-Vorpommern. Bonn: Habelt.
chrone und interkulturelle Untersuchung eisenzeitlicher Vo, H.-U., 2005. Hagenow in Mecklenburg. Ein frhkai-
Rstungen. Kiel: Selbstverlag. serzeitlicher Bestattungsplatz und Aspekte der rmisch-
Kaczanowski, P., 1994. Aus den Forschungen an der germanischen Beziehungen. Bericht der Rmisch-Germa-
territorialen Differenzierung des Zustroms rmischer nischen Kommission, 86, 19-59.
Waffenimporte im Barbaricum. In: C. von CARNAP- Vo, H.-U., (forthcoming). Zwischen Vannius-Reich und
BORNHEIM, ed. Beitrge zu rmischer und barbarischer Vimose. Die elitren Krieger von Hagenow. In: C. von
Bewaffnung in den ersten vier nachchristlichen Jahrhun- CARNAP-BORNHEIM, and J. ILKJR, eds. Aktuelle
derten. Verffentlichungen des Vorgeschichtlichen Semi- Forschungen zu Kriegsbeuteopfern und Frstengrbern
nars Marburg, Sonderband 8. Lublin/Marburg: Eigenver- im Barbaricum. Internationales Kolloquium Schleswig
lag. 1518. Juni 2006. Schleswig.
Kolnk, T., 1980. Rmerzeitliche Grberfelder in der Zieling, N., 1989. Studien zu germanischen Schilden der
Slowakei. Teil I. Archaeologia Slovaca Fontes, 14. Bra- Sptlatne- und der rmischen Kaiserzeit im freien Germ-
tislava: Veda. anien. BAR International Series 505. Oxford: B.A.R.
Kontny, B., 2005. Times of war or well-being? Changes
in weapon sets in the Przeworsk culture burials from the Received: 27 January 2007, Revised: 9 May 2007
late stage of phase B 2. In: P. UCZKIEWICZ, M. GLA-
DYSZ-JUSCINSKA, M. JUSCINSKI, B. NIEZABIT-
OWSKA and S. SADOWSKI, eds. Europa barbarica.
wier wieku archeologii w Masomczu. Monumenta
Studia Gothica 4. Lublin: Uniw. Marii Curie-Sklodowsk-
iej, 215-232.
67
N uo B altijos j ros iki tus su vakarine Pevorsko kultros dalimi ir Dunojaus
the Danube: Early Roman Iron
A g e Wa r r i o r s f r o m H a g e n o w,
( M eklenburgo em ) ir
j ry iai su barbar B E I
rom ni kuoju pasauliais
Hans-Ulrich Vo
HANS-ULRICH
Santrauka
VO
BALTICA 8
C E N T R A L G E R M A N Y I N T H E L AT E R O M A N I R O N
A G E A N D T H E M I G R AT I O N P E R I O D *
JAN BEMMANN
ARCHAEOLOGIA
Abstract
Neither the sword burials of the Late Roman Iron Age, nor the combination of an axe and arrows in graves indicate the pres-
ence of Burgundians in any particular region. A comparison of weapon burial practice associated with inhumation and crema-
tion burial practice demonstrates beyond doubt that those differences which were identified in older publications reflect only
overall changes in weapon burial practice over time. Some lance-heads and in particular the few spear-heads known show a
close similarity to Scandinavian weapon types and indicate that weapon types became less specific for regions.
Key words: Roman Iron Age, Migration Period, weapon graves, burial rite, ethnic interpretation.
graves with
an axe and
arrows from
the Late Ro-
man Iron Age
(after Schulze
1982);
2 the distribu-
tion map
JAN BEMMANN
updated (by
J.Bemmann).
of grave finds is no longer valid (Fig. 1, 2) (Schuster interpretation of the graves containing a double-edged
2001). The area between the Rivers Werra and Elbe sword is widely accepted up to this day (Ament 1995,
shows now an even distribution of warrior graves fur- p.84; Martin 1997, p.163ff.; Neubauer 2005, p.56).
nished with axe and bow. On the basis of this apparently proven fact, H. Sch-
ach-Drges developed a simple formula, published in
Since J. Schusters article in 2001, the interpretation
the catalogue of an exhibition on Alamans in Stuttgart
of the weapon combination of axe and arrows as an
1997: Sword-graves in the Rhine-Main-area are a
ethnic feature of the Burgundians is no longer valid.
sign of the settlement of east German Burgundians in
On the contrary, M. Schulze-Drrlamms (1985) ethnic
the fourth century AD (Schach-Drges 1997, p.94,
70
Abb. 78). When reading Schulze-Drrlamms article Ginalski (1991, p.66f.), the band-shaped strap sus-
BALTICA 8
and looking at her maps, three aspects come to mind pender and the iron fittings of a wooden bucket (Leube
which question the Burgundian Thesis. Left out of 1995, p.30ff., Karte 3; Szydowski 1985) show strong
consideration are the following points: first, the unu- links with Przeworsk Culture and support, together
sual selection of the mapped finds when comparing it with a lance-head with cylindrical socket and a shield
with older maps (Schach-Drges 1969, Taf. 58, Karte boss with an extended apex, a date to Period B2/C1a.
4); second, the dating of most of them; and third, the Comparable remains of buckets are known from the
change in burial practice from cremation to inhuma- sword graves of Jessern (Leube 1975, p.123, Nr. 251,
ARCHAEOLOGIA
tion. Taf. 28), Marxdorf (Schulz 1931, p.69f., Taf. 14; 15,
1; Leube 1975, Taf. 32, 2.6-17) and Horno feature 4c
A supplemented map of the area between the Rhine
(Schwarzlnder, forthcoming). The deposition of axes
and the Oder and the source of the Elbe shows a con-
is unknown in Przeworsk Culture, and with the ex-
centration between central Elbe and Schwarze Elster
ception of Jessern, no axes have been found in sword
with few find-spots reaching lower Spree and the area
graves between the Elbe and the Oder. The combina-
around lower Saale (Fig. 2). Between the Harz Moun-
tion of a sickle-shaped knife and a straight one as in
tains and Thringer Forest, at the beginning of the Late
Wilhelmsaue grave 33 is a characteristic and almost
Roman Iron Age, part of the Rhine-Weser Germanic
exclusive grave good combination in weapon graves
cultural area, no such grave finds are known up to this
of Przeworsk Culture (Godowski 1977, Taf. 25; 49;
day. In this concentration of find-spots, the double-
Godowski, Wichman 1998, Taf. 27; 42; 67).
edged swords were found in cremation graves simi-
lar to the situation in Bohemia. Swords in cremation A still unpublished cremation grave from Glebitzsch,
graves are a special feature of Elbe-Germanic areas Landkreis Bitterfeld, (Fig. 3) is of particular interest in
west of the central River Elbe, Bohemia, the Altmark this context. During construction work a double-edged II
and Berlin. In Bohemia, two weapon deposits, dated sword, a spear- and a lance-head, an axe, a spur and
BARBARIAN
to Period C1, are known, the one from Bezenec was two knives were discovered 0.5 metres below the sur- WA R R I O R S
found at an old way through the Erzgebirge Mountains. face. The sword, similar to those of the Rllang type FROM THE
B A LT I C T O
A second concentration of swords are findings in rivers and the spear-head of the Simris type, date the burial to THE DANUBE
and areas of humid soil conditions in Vorpommern; a Period C1. The lance-head can be compared with one
third find concentration is marked by four inhumation found in a cremation grave of Period C1 from Lbnitz,
graves from the Rhine-Main-area. Up to now it was not Landkreis Delitzsch (Meyer 1971, p.265ff., Abb. 151).
possible to fit the three swords from the Altmark into Knives with a very long tang, most recently mentioned
any typological framework (personal communication by J. Schuster (2001, p.74ff.), were not found in cen-
with Rosemarie Leineweber and Erdmute Schultze). tral Germany after the end of Period C1. The spur with
three-point mounting of U. Gieslers Scandinavian var-
The idea to deposit swords in graves, and in this re-
iant A (Giesler 1978, p.10) has no parallels in central
spect we follow the arguments of Schulze-Drrlamm,
Germany. According to Giesler (1978, p.21ff.), spurs
was brought into the region between Elbe and Spree
of this type are restricted to the first half of the third
from Silesia, the distribution area of Przeworsk Cul-
century AD. This supports the dating of the complex
ture (Schultze 1989, p.22). The transfer of this idea has
based on the weapons found in it.
to be seen in connection with the settlement of eastern
Brandenburg and the lower Lausitz at the turn of the The custom of depositing double-edged swords in
Early Roman Iron Age to the Late Roman Iron Age graves ends in central Germany and Bohemia in Period
in which groups connected with Przeworsk Culture C2. One exception is cremation burial 2 of Dresden-
took part (Schuster 2005). The dating of the sword Dobritz (Meyer 1971, p.52f., Abb. 25), which is dated
graves, the ensemble of grave goods and the distribu- to Period C3 at the earliest; a date in the Migration Pe-
tion of several types of artefacts support this hypoth- riod is also possible.
esis. The earliest grave is grave 33 from Wilhelmsaue
Of the four known inhumation graves containing
(Schach-Drges 1969, p.128ff., Taf. 16, 11-13; 17-19).
swords from the Rhine-Main area, grave 1 from Stock-
The rectangular iron buckle with double thorn, type
stadt (Pescheck 1978, p.278f., Taf. 136) is dated to the
G 37 according to Madyda-Legutko (1986, p.53, Taf.
final stage of Period C2 because of the disproportion-
16; Karte 39), as well as spurs type F3b according to
ally propeller-shaped belt-fitting and the vessel found
M. Schulze-Drlamm adds the double-edged sword from
in the grave. All other graves belong to Period C3.
a grave at Jessern dated to Period C1a to the list of sword- The sword graves of the Rhine-Main area are geo-
graves of the late 3rd and 4th century. For consistency, all
graphically isolated and there is only a slight overlap
other graves with double-edged swords of the Late Roman
Iron Age need to be added to the list, which will be done. with the date ranges of sword-graves in the other re-
71
We a p o n r y a n d We a p o n B u r i a l
Practice in Central Germany
in the Late Roman Iron Age
and the Migration Period JAN BEMMANN
Fig. 2. The distribution of double-edged long-swords from the Late Roman Iron Age between the Rhine and the Oder and
the upper reaches of the River Elbe.
gions mentioned; the burial practice is different, and bearded axe from Stockstadt grave 1; this axe type is
clear differences in the combination of grave-goods common in central Germany, in contrast to areas east
found in the graves are obvious. Neckrings, like in of the Elbe (Bemmann 2003, p.61f., 73; 104 Abb. 19).
Lampertheim grave 3, are not found in Oder-Ger- The crossbow-shaped brooch from Stockstadt grave
manic regions, but are common findings in the area of 2 is also typical of Elbe-Germanic Culture (Bhner
Elbe-Germanic settlements. The same counts for the 1963, p.141ff.). Arrowheads, which can be found in
72
BALTICA 8
ARCHAEOLOGIA
II
BARBARIAN
WA R R I O R S
FROM THE
B A LT I C T O
THE DANUBE
73
We a p o n r y a n d We a p o n B u r i a l
Practice in Central Germany
in the Late Roman Iron Age
74
JAN BEMMANN and the Migration Period
Fig. 6. The distribution of shield bosses without an extended apex from the Late Roman Iron Age between the Rhine and the
Oder and the upper reaches of the River Elbe.
three out of the four known western sword-graves, are Why the people in the Rhine-Main area, in spite of a
totally absent in sword-graves of central Germany and change of the burial custom and of the combination of
Brandenburg. On the other hand, in the Rhine-Main grave goods, should belong to the same ethnic group
area there are no parallels with wooden buckets with as the people living between the central Elbe and Oder,
iron fittings, shears, spurs and shield bosses. needs a more careful explanation than the one given
75
Fig. 7. Herbs-
We a p o n r y a n d We a p o n B u r i a l
Practice in Central Germany
in the Late Roman Iron Age leben, Unstrut-
Hainich-Kreis,
and the Migration Period
inhumation
grave (d
rawings
by S. Mager).
JAN BEMMANN
up to now. Against this background, Bhners (1963, of the axes can be seen at 11 centimetres. Furthermore,
p.144) idea of an independent development of the cus- all axes from osteologically identified childrens and
tom of sword deposition in the area in front of the Ro- adult graves were recorded. It can be seen that the axes
man Limes has to be preferred. in graves of adults are always longer than 11.9 cen-
timetres. Most of the axes from childrens graves are
The deposition of axes in graves is typical of the Oder-
shorter than ten centimetres. As another possibility to
Germanic cultural area (Leube 1975, p.34; Meyer
separate miniature axes from normal-sized axes, the
1976, p.187ff.; Schach-Drges 1969, p.49f.). The Elbe-
axes of the Late Roman Iron Age votive deposit from
Germanic cultural area is characterised by depositions
Nydam (G. Bemmann and J. Bemmann 1998, p.185ff.,
of miniature axes in childrens graves (Mildenberger
Kat. Nr. 18531866, Taf. 185187), which were ob-
1970, p.50). The size of an axe counted as a miniature
viously used as weapons, were analysed. The shortest
type is disputed. Figure 4 shows all the axes found in
object has a length of 11 centimetres, the longest of
central Germany, Lausitz and southern Brandenburg
19.4 centimetres. The average length is 14.5 centime-
according to their length. A gap in the range of lengths
tres. By adding up all arguments, it seems reasonable
76
BALTICA 8
ARCHAEOLOGIA
II
BARBARIAN
WA R R I O R S
FROM THE
B A LT I C T O
THE DANUBE
to draw the line between miniature and ordinary axes G.Kieferlings mapping (1994, p.336, Abb. 1) shows
at 11 centimetres. that axes were most of all used as grave goods by Ger-
mans living in the catchment area of the Elbe, Spree
Miniature axes are concentrated in central Germany
and Havel. In southwest Germany, Moravia and Bohe-
(Fig. 5), but are also found in Upper Lausitz and North-
mia, only a few axes were deposited in graves.
ern Germany (Schach-Drges 1969; Schultze 1989).
Isolated finds come from the Lampertheim cemetery It has to be stated clearly that in central Germany, weap-
and Bohemia. Miniature axes are not found in the on burial practice as such is not significant in terms of
Lower Lausitz region and the Oder-Spree area. The ethnic identity. Closer analysis shows common traits
distribution map of a larger area shows no clear area among groups defined by their material culture, and
of concentration of axes longer than 11 centimetres. there are indications of the integration of new elements
77
in burial practice, such as
We a p o n r y a n d We a p o n B u r i a l
Practice in Central Germany
in the Late Roman Iron Age
and the Migration Period the deposition of swords
in the southern Elbe-Ger-
manic region during a short
period of time.
The custom of
weapon
deposition:
JAN BEMMANN
a difference in
burial practice
between cremation
and inhumation
graves?
BALTICA 8
Camburg, Saale-Holzland-Kreis (Fig. 9). edged sword, which is richly furnished in comparison
with other inhumation graves of the region.
In the Late Roman Iron Age the deposition of spear-
heads, lance-heads and/or a double-edged sword is a
burial practice with its main distribution beyond the We a p o n t y p e s a n d c u l t u r a l c o n t a c t s
area of inhumation graves. It is therefore not surprising
that these weapon types were not deposited in inhuma- A broad-bladed iron lance-head, engraved on both sides
ARCHAEOLOGIA
tion graves almost exclusively found west of the Saale along a leaf-shaped outline and with an approximate
(Bemmann and Vo, forthcoming, Abb. 5). Spears, length of 25 centimetres (Fig. 10, 1), finds its best par-
lances and swords are rare in contexts dated later than allels in Scandinavia. It was found in 1951 in a partly
Period C1, which indicates that large weapons are ex- excavated cremation cemetery (Behrens 1952, p.294;
cluded from burial practice before inhumation burial Schmidt-Thielbeer 1963, p.946, Taf. 2, b) and it is not
practice became common. The lack of weapons finds possible to assign the lance-head to a certain grave. Be-
an explanation in the late date range of inhumation cause of modern disturbances of the terrain, it is not
graves and their distribution outside the regions in possible to answer the question whether the chieftain
which weapon burial is common, but not in differences burial from Gommern, which also shows Scandinavian
in burial practice. There is, however, a single inhuma- connections in the grave goods, was dug in the same
tion grave of the Migration Period from Zwochau, cemetery. Because of its cross-section, proportions and
II
BARBARIAN
WA R R I O R S
FROM THE
B A LT I C T O
THE DANUBE
Fig. 10. Lance-heads: 1 Gommern, Landkreis Jerichower Land (drawing by S. Mager); 2 lance-head from Wegeleben,
Landkreis Halberstadt (drawing by G. Hhn after a sketch by G. Mildenberger); 3 lance-head from Mncheberg-Dahmsdorf
(after Leube 1975).
79
inlaid lance and spear-heads, mapped in the Muov-
We a p o n r y a n d We a p o n B u r i a l
Practice in Central Germany
in the Late Roman Iron Age
and the Migration Period publication (Peka and Tejral 2002, p.110, Abb. 8). The
piece from Wegeleben is the most southwesterly find,
the densest concentration of this type is found in the
area of Przeworsk Culture.
The third specimen to be mentioned here is the lance-
head from Berlin-Mariendorf, with its strong simi-
larities to the Scandinavian-type Skiaker. The same
applies for most Late Roman Iron Age spear-heads,
JAN BEMMANN
BALTICA 8
known, show a close similarity
to Scandinavian weapon types
and indicate that weapon types
became less specific to regions.
The surprisingly high number
of weapons from the Roman
provinces in central Germany
ARCHAEOLOGIA
has been pointed out before.
The deposition of individual
components of weapons such
as shield mounts, sword scab-
bard fittings and arrowheads
representing only part of the
contents of a quiver indicate
that the weapon burial practice
was symbolic. The combina-
tions found in graves are not
suitable for a reconstruction of
functional weapon combina-
tions. The weapon burial prac-
tice does not seem to have been II
influenced by periods of war
BARBARIAN
or their intensity. There are no WA R R I O R S
indications for burial practices FROM THE
B A LT I C T O
specific to ethnic groups. There THE DANUBE
are, however, regional differ-
ences, and differences related to
age groups. For these reasons,
the weapon burial practice ex-
amined here is not suitable for
a study of the lebende Kultur
according to Eggers.
Fig. 12. Spear-heads from the Late Roman Iron Age: 1 Verchen (after Lampe et al. Translated by
1970); 2 Central Germany (drawing by J. Klemet); 3 Falkenberg (after Pescheck Hendrik Kelzenberg
1939); 4 Dresden-Blasewitz (after Meyer 1971); 5 Prieschka (drawing by J. Klemet).
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We a p o n r y a n d We a p o n B u r i a l
Practice in Central Germany
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paprotys siejamas su griautiniais ir degintiniais miru-
sij laidojimo paproiais. ie laidosenos skirtumai,
inomi i ankstesns literatros, rodo tik apskritai per
tam tikr laik besikeiiant ginkl djimo kapus pa-
prot (3; 7; 8; 9 pav.). Kai kurios lengvos svaidomosios
ietys ir kelios tam tikr tip ietys rodo ryius su skandi-
JAN BEMMANN
84
A E S T I O R U M G L A D I I . S W O R D S I N T H E W E S T B A LT
BALTICA 8
CIRCLE IN THE ROMAN PERIOD
WOJCIECH NOWAKOWSKI
ARCHAEOLOGIA
Abstract
In the mid-1990s the finds from the West Balt Circle, whose peoples could be identified as the Aestii of Tacitus, included
only ten swords dating back to the Roman Period. Excavations conducted in the following years and the retrieved part of the
Prussia Museum in Knigsberg, as well as numerous other archive materials, have not significantly increased this number.
Therefore, it must be assumed that the Aestii rarely used this weapon, regardless of its great appreciation by other barbarians.
This might be presumed to have been related to the specific techniques of mounted combat, in which, apart from spears, axes
and long battle-knives were used.
Key words: swords, Aestii, West
Balt Culture Circle.
the Roman Period in the southwest of the territory then was a single-edged D/1-type sword from the cemetery
occupied by Balts, the
West Balt Circle
, ie in Masuria, at Mojtyny (formerly Moythienen) in Masuria (Fig.
on the Samland Peninsula, including Natangia and 1: 6), found in a cremation grave along with a pair
Nadrovia, in other words in former East Prussia, and of spurs and an Almgren 80 fibula from the B2b phase
also in Suvalkia, in the northeast of Poland. At the con- (Hollack, Peiser 1904, pp.47-48, pl.
V: 27; cf Biborski
clusion it was asserted that swords, weapons extremely 1978, pp.125-128, Fig. 70; Nowakowski 1994, p.383).
valued by other barbarians as well, were rarely used in Likewise, we may date the loose find from the ceme-
the
West Balt Circle, and, apart from spears, long kni- tery at Grunajki (formerly Gruneyken) (Tischler 1879,
ves and battle axes were the basic weaponry ( Nowa- pp.253-255; Stadie 1919) in the northeast of Masuria
kowski 1994
).
Let us note that Vytautas Kazakeviius (Fig. 1: 2). The sword had a narrow and short, only 39-
had come to similar conclusions while investigating centimetre-long, blade (Stadie 1919, p.415, Fig. 187;
finds of weaponry in Lithuania (Kazakeviius 1988, Jahn 1916, p.128), which makes it resemble items of
pp.93-104; cf Atgzis 2002). Biborski II-type existing in Przeworsk Culture dur-
ing the B1 phase and at the beginning of the B2 phase
(Biborski 1978, pp.62-63, Fig. 7-8; Godowski 1992,
p.81). Another completely documented and published
I would like to thank all my collegues who have facilitated
these studies, enabled access to their materials and let them find came from the cemetery at Khrustalnoe
(formerly
be used in the publication: Prof. Dr Wilfried Menghin, Dr Wiekau), on the Sambian Peninsula (Fig. 1: 3), where
Christine Reich and Andrea Becker-Hagen, Horst Junker a Roman gladius alongside a decorative harness was
and Mr Horst Wieder (Museums fr Vor- und Frhge- discovered in a rich grave. Its blade was short, with
schichte, Berlin), Anatoly Valuev and Konstantin Skvorcov deep fullers running to the point (
Bujack 1889, p.281;
(Istoriko-Chudozhestvennij Muzej, Kaliningrad), Prof.
Dr Claus von Caranap-Bornheim and Dr Volker Hilberg Heydeck 1909, Pl.
XXXVIII; Gaerte 1929, Abb.159:
(Archologisches Landesmuseum, Schleswig), Mirja Ots e): a pattern such as this indicates beyond doubt that
(Ajaaloo Institut, Tallinn), Dr Arnis Radi and Jnis Cig- the blade had originally been longer and that it might
lis (Latvijas Nacionlais Vstures Muzejs, Riga). The ma- have been broken and later repaired by sharpening.
terials and data used in this paper were collected during the
The Almgren 129 and 130 fibulae accompanying the
2006 research scholarship financed by the Foundation for
Polish Science, whose help I am really grateful for. sword make the whole grave complex date back to the
B2/C1 Phase.
85
Aestiorum Gladii. Swords
i n t h e We s t B a l t C i r c l e
in the Roman Period
NOWAKOWSKI
WOJCIECH
Fig.1.The archaeological sites of the West Balt Culture Circle with the swords from the Roman Period mentioned in this
paper: 1 Fedotovo, Pravdinsk district; formerly
Plauen, Kreis Wehlau; 2
Grunajki, Godap district; formerly Gruneyken
(Gruneiken), Kreis Darkehmen; 3
Khrustalnoe,
Zelenogradsk district; formerly Wiekau, Kreis Fischhausen; 4
Koczek,
Pisz district; formerly Koczek (Kotzeck; Waldersee), Kreis Johannisburg ; 5 ane,
Olecko district; formerly Haasznen,
Kreis Oletzko (Marggrabowa);
6 Mojtyny, Mrgowo district, grave 27; formerly Moythienen, Kreis Sensburg; 7 Parusnoje,
Zelenogradsk district; formerly Gaffken, Kreis Fischhausen;
8
Sibirskoe, Polessk district; formerly Moritten, Kr. Labiau
;
9 Skomack,
Ek district; formerly Skomatzko, Kreis
Lyck
; 10Szurpiy, Suwaki district; 11Szwajcaria, Suwaki district;
12
Wlka, Ktrzyn
district
; formerly Wolka, Kreis Rastenburg.
The last two swords on the list come from the cemetery and illustrations without any formal documentation al-
at Szwajcaria (Fig. 1: 11), in the Suvaki region, the lowing precise classification or dating.
only two artefacts discovered after the Second World
Over a span of 12 years since the conference in Mar-
War. Both of them were found in rich graves dated to
burg, no new finds of swords have been recorded at
the Late Roman Period. One of the swords, nearly one
the excavated sites; however, revolutionary progress
metre long, came from a grave also containing a pair
has been made as far as the source of references to the
of Almgren 167-fibulae, a hemispherical Jahn 8-shield
Roman Period in East Prussia is concerned. Namely,
boss, two spearheads, including one of Venolum type,
archaeologists have been given access to part of the
and two Godowski VII-spurs, which allows the dat-
collection and archive materials of the Prussia Mu-
ing of the whole grave complex to the C1b phase (Sz-
seum, found in Berlin and Kaliningrad, and, within
wajcaria, barrow 2; Antoniewicz et al. 1958, pp.23-31,
the international scientific data exchange, to scientific
Fig.1-6, pl. I
-
IX; cf Godowski 1970, pp.52
-
54, pl.
XI;
records of archaeologists investigating Prussian collec-
1992, p.83
).
The blade of the other sword bears traces
tions in museums before 1945. The enlarged sources
of damascene steel, which enables us to consider it a
have provided information on thousands of grave com-
Roman import. The sword was accompanied by a bal-
plexes as well as tens of thousands of finds. These cir-
teus button and a so-called Bgelknopffibel of C3 phase
cumstances cause the necessity for the reinvestigation
(Szwajcaria barrow 25; Antoniewicz 1961, pp.8-9,
pl.
V: 7; 1962, pp.191-196, Fig.3;
cf Godowski 1970,
It can be exemplified by finds of a poorly documented dis-
pp.53
-
54, pl.
XI; 1992, p.85; Biborski 1978, pp.94- covery in the 19th century, on the drained lake bed in Wl-
ka (formerly Wolka) (Fig. 1:12). Two of the swords found
95). Information on other swords dated to the Roman there might come from the Roman Period, the other ones
Period within the West
Balt Circle
, which was available must be classified as Teutonic or even Modern Times: cf
in the mid-1990s, comes in the form of short writings Raddatz 1993, p.128 and 131, Fig. 1; Nowakowski 1994,
pp.384-386, Fig.2: 8-10; 2001a, pp.115-116, pl. IX.
The exceptional history of collections and archive materi-
als within former East Prussia during and after the Second
World War has resulted in the specific state of the source of
86
of former research findings and opin-
BALTICA 8
ions. Therefore, it appears indispens-
able to check whether the thesis on
the rare use of swords adhere to pre-
historical reality or whether it could
have been concluded only on the ba-
sis of research data available in the
early 1990s. Moreover, it is essential
ARCHAEOLOGIA
to find whether the description de-
tails of particular finds or their initial
dating do not need to be changed in
the light of new data records.
references: cf Nowakowski 1986; Kolendo, Nowakowski surements of the sword, which can be reestablished
2000, pp.5-8; Reich 2003. despite the fact that the blade is bent in a U-shape (Fig.
87
3), indicate that it can be classified
under D/2-type, and, what is more,
Aestiorum Gladii. Swords
89
facts extremely rare and valued in Ostpreuen at that gravel pit. The grave goods comprised a short single-
time, are not mentioned in the records of archaeolo- edged sword, a spearhead, a javelin head with barbs, a
Aestiorum Gladii. Swords
gists researching the collection of the Prussia Museum knife, a piece of fire steel, a buckle, a spur and a fibula
i n t h e We s t B a l t C i r c l e
before 1945; most importantly, no references can be with a high catch-plate (Fundarchiv, PM-IXd1.1688,
in the Roman Period
traced in the archive of M. Jahn, whose main inter- Bd. 1/7; cf Guttzeit 1937). The official record of hand-
est was weaponry. It can be supposed, then, that these ing the finds down to the Prussia Museum does not
swords might have been just big knives or fragments mention a sword, whereas two knives, instead of one,
of rusty long objects, erroneously interpreted by not are listed (Fundarchiv, PM-IXd1.1688, Bd. 1/9; cf
fully professional researchers. Bohnsack 1938, p.26). Thus, it must be assumed that
an amateur archaeologist had made an erroneous as-
NOWAKOWSKI
90
sia-Sammlung, 1938:1264; cf Gaerte 1929, Abb. 242: edged swords dated to the first or second century AD;
BALTICA 8
b, g), typical of the end of the Migration Period and the such swords are thought to have been infantry rather
beginning of the Early Middle Ages. than cavalry weapons. Still, we have to bear in mind
that ancient horsemen had neither stirrups nor a sta-
Considering all the aforementioned, the latest and
ble saddle, so the most effective use of a long sword
most reliable discovery of a
West Balt Circle
sword
cutting from above, which had to be performed while
is a part of a single-edged sword from Szurpiy, in Su-
standing in stirrups was impossible. In such cases a
valkia (see L. Sawickas article in this volume) (Fig.
more effective weapon could have been a short sword
ARCHAEOLOGIA
1: 10). Although this item was discovered in 2006
enabling quick forceful thrusts and deep penetration: a
not during excavations but while tidying the rooms of
characteristically shaped point of a single-edged sword
the Institute of Archaeology of Warsaw University, its
from Mojtyny/Moythienen (a Finnish knife tip), in-
relation to one of the Roman Period sites at Szurpiy
dicating its best usefulness for thrusting, was pointed
should remain beyond doubt. It comes from the collec-
out by Marcin Biborski nearly 30 years ago (Biborski
tion of Tadeusz urowski, who conducted excavations
1978, p.132). Today, we can add to this the similarly
at the place for several years nearly half a century ago
shaped single-edged sword from Koczek, or the nar-
(cf urowski 1961; 1963). The artefact discovered
row long-foibled sword from Sibirskoe.
earlier this year is a small piece of the blade with the
complete tang and hilt furniture, representing the D- An example of a similar use of the short sword, use-
type, dated to the B2 phase and the beginning of the ful for thrusting, can be found within weaponry and
Late Roman Period (Biborski 1978, pp.125-128). combat ways of the nomadic Scythians (Grekov 1978,
pp.81-84, Fig. 20-22), whose invasions terrorised East-
ern and Central Europe in the middle of the first mil-
Conclusion
lenium BC. The most important weapon for a Scythian II
horseman was an exquisite bow, but for close-quarter
What has been presented above, despite its anecdotal BARBARIAN
combat he used an akinakes, a very short sword, whose
manner at some points, shows that the previous inter- WA R R I O R S
length did not exceed the length of long knives found in FROM THE
pretation of the scarce number of finds of Roman Pe- B A LT I C T O
male graves in the West Balt cemeteries (Nowakowski
riod swords within the West
Balt Circle
is still valid. It THE DANUBE
1994, pp.386-387).
cannot be excluded though, that some of the numerous
fragmentary pieces of blades retained in the collection Accepting the hypothesis that the main and intention-
of the Prussia Museum are fragments of Roman Period ally chosen weapon of the Aestii in the first and second
swords, but this fact does not put a new slant on the century AD was a short sword or a long knife opens up
matter. Therefore, it is necessary to consider the rea- the possibility of further interpretations. Thus, it might
sons why the Aestii used these weapons so rarely. well be considered whether the instance of shorten-
ing the sword from Khrustalnoe was in fact only the
A number of swords have been found in graves ex-
outcome of repairing its broken blade, or whether it
ceptionally rich in their equipment (Khrustalnoe and
might rather have been an intended act in adjusting its
Szwajcaria), which can be interpreted as a basis to
length to the requirements of the preferred way of com-
formulate the thesis that swords within the
West Balt
bat. Such an approach could enable us to understand
Circle
were first of all used as parade weapons or
the puzzling presence of a dagger or a short double-
prestige weapons, whose function was an expression
edged sword with a mere 25-centimetre-long blade at
of their owners prestige in society rather than being
the burial ground in ane/Haasznen (Fig. 1: 5), in the
a tool for fighting. Without negating such claims, it
northeast of Masuria (Stadie 1919, 415, described as
is worth pointing out that at almost every grave com-
Waffe (Dolch?); Gaerte 1929, Fig. 197: a; cf Fun-
plex a find of a sword has been accompanied by pieces
darchiv PM-IXd1.1559, Bd. 1/9 Eisenmesser). The
of equestrian equipment: spurs or parts of a harness.
list of very short double-edged swords can then be ex-
Obviously, mounting a horse might also have been an
tended by the find from Fedotovo (formerly Plauen),
indicator of high social rank; this, however, does not
in Nadrowia (Fig. 1: 1; cf Bezzenberger 1900), known
exclude the possibility that swords within the West
exclusively from a drawing from H. Jankuhns record
Balt Circle
belonged to the specialised weaponry of
files (Fig. 2: 5). The wide and flat blade of this sword
cavalry. Such an interpretation is acceptable in the case
was only 26 centimetres long (H. Jankuhn Archive).
of the long Late Roman Period spathae, but it does not
This sword was purchased in 1891 for the collection
seem acceptable in the case of short gladii and single-
of the Prussia Museum ( IV.447.6297) with other ac-
cidentally discovered finds dated to the Roman Period
I would like to thank Ludwika Sawicka, who is research-
ing materials from the settlement of Szurpiy-Targowisko, and to the Early Middle Ages (Bezzenberger 1892,
Suwaki district, for this information. p.221; 1900, p.124). The difference in size between the
91
two artefacts and West Balt combat knives, contem- M. Schmiedehelm Archive Scientific archives of Marta
porary with them, is not particularly big (Szymaski Schmiedehelm, currently stored at the Aialoo Institut, Tal-
Aestiorum Gladii. Swords
tion when we can rarely find swords, weapons highly skiego dokonane w 1957 r. w miejscowoci Szwajcaria,
WOJCIECH
valued by other barbarians, in rich graves of warriors pow. Suwaki. Wiadomoci Archeologiczne, XXVII, 1
-
26.
in Masuria, or on the Sambian Peninsula. Taking into ANTONIEWICZ,J.,1962. O kilku importach prowincjo-
nalnorzymskich i kultury wenedzkiej, znalezionych na
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by referring to the most spectacular find of weapons 183
-
204.
: the famous pugio in a sil-
within the
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ver-encrusted scabbard from the cemetery in Divnoe 1958. Wyniki bada przeprowadzonych w 1956 r. w miej-
(formerly Ilischken; Gvardejsk district; formerly Kreis scowoci Szwajcaria, pow. Suwalki. Wiadomoci Archeo-
logiczne, XXV, 22-57.
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LABAUME,W.,1941a. Nachbildungen vorgeschichtlicher
Waffen und Gerte aus Ostpreuen. Alt-Preuen 6 (4), A estiorum gladii .
52
54. R om ni kojo laikotarpio
LABAUME,W.,1941b. Vorgeschichtliche Forschungen und vakar balt kult r
Denkmalpflege in Ostpreuen (1939 u. 1940). Nachrich-
tenblatt fr die Deutsche Vorzeit, 17, 82
-
88. rato kalavijai
MADYDA-LEGUTKO,R.,1987. Die Grtelschnallen der
rmischen Kaiserzeit und die frhen Vlkerwanderungs-
zeit im mitteleuropischen Barbaricum. BAR International Wojciech Nowakowski
Series 360. Oxford: B.A.R.
MADYDA-LEGUTKO,R.,1990. Doppeldornschnallen
mit
rechteckigem Rahmen im europischen Barbaricum. Ger- Santrauka
mania, 68 (2), 551
-
585.
NOWAKOWSKI,W.,1986. Stan i potrzeby bada nad za- I
ki
XIX a. 10-ojo
deimtmeio vidurio vakar balt
chodniobatyjskim krgiem kulturowym na terenie Polski, kultr rate (Mozrija, Sembos pusiasalis, Natangi-
ze szczeglnym uwzgldnieniem kultury bogaczewskiej. ja ir Nadruva, kitaip tariant, buvusi Ryt Prsija bei
In: K. GODOWSKI, R. MADYDA-LEGUTKO, eds.
93
Suvalkijos dalis, esanti iaurs ryt Lenkijoje) tebu- rowskio, kuris madaug prie 50 met valg urpil
vo inoma 10 romnikojo laikotarpio kalavij. Tik apylinkse, kolekcijos.
Aestiorum Gladii. Swords
94
ARMED MEN AND THEIR RIDING HORSES
BALTICA 8
A S A R E F L E C T I O N O F T H E WA R R I O R
HIERARCHY IN WESTERN LITHUANIA
DURING THE ROMAN IRON AGE
ARCHAEOLOGIA
AUDRON BLIUJIEN AND DONATAS BUTKUS
Abstract
Three vast areas in northern Europe during the Roman Period are known for their peoples development of a distinctive
viewpoint regarding the riding horse that was reflected in sacrificial rites (north Germany; the Jutland Peninsula; Zealand,
Funen, other Baltic Sea islands, as well as southern Scandinavia) and burial rites (Dollkeim-Kovrovo, Sudovian, West Lithua-
nian Stone Circle Grave cultures, and, in part, the Lower Nemunas and Bogaczewo cultures). The custom at the end of the
second century and in the third century to bury a riding horse (usually only the horses head, head and legs, or individual
teeth) with armed men was especially distinct in the West Lithuanian Stone Circle Grave Culture area. This burial rite feature
distinguishes the mentioned cultural unit (Aistians) area from the communities of other Balts who lived in current Lithuanian
territory. The burial rite features that had developed in the West Lithuanian Stone Circle Grave Culture area illustrate the war-
riors hierarchy and the militarys dependency on the societys nobility that already existed in the Roman Period. These social
structure features link the West Balt communities with the northern Germanic peoples. West Lithuanian Stone Circle Grave
Culture was the northernmost barbaricum territory in which riding horses were so often buried with people. II
Key words: mens graves with horses, horsemen, warriors hierarchy, riding gear. BARBARIAN
WA R R I O R S
FROM THE
The diffusion of horse graves and sociated with water in the Jutland Peninsula, Zealand, B A LT I C T O
horse sacrifices in the Roman Period Funen, land, Bornholm, the Gotland islands, as well THE DANUBE
95
Wa r r i o r H i e r a r c h y i n We s t e r n reflected not only in the bog offerings themselves, but teeth or fragments have been found in the human buri-
Horses as a Reflection of the
Armed Men and their Riding
DONATAS
BUTKUS
southwest Latvia, and the lower of the second century and in the first half of the third
Nemunas century, horsemens graves in the West Lithuanian
Stone Circle Grave Culture area might have comprised
Armed mens graves with horses are known from 18 approximately up to 9.1% of the entire communitys
cemeteries of the West Lithuanian Stone Circle Grave members (Fig. 2). Thus, even though Aistian men were
Culture area and three lower Nemunas River cemeter- armed, and well-armed, such a prestigious grave good
ies (Fig. 1; Appendix). Unfortunately, a large portion of as a riding horse was accessible only to a small circle
these cemeteries was excavated at the end of the 19th of people (Fig. 2). The social profile of coastal commu-
century and the research results remain unpublished or nities at the end of the second century and in the third
only partly published. Moreover, a part of the mate- century shows a different status among its members.
rial was scattered during the last war. Many cemeteries Noblemen, most usually horsemen and well-armed in-
have been destroyed by farming activity. A large pro- fantrymen, were especially well distinguished, as were
portion of these cemeteries investigations was small, the noblewomen (Bliujien, Braiulien 2007, forth-
so not enough data exists to determine the connections coming).
between the people and their riding horses.
Be that as it may, 86 human burials that are in one T h e h o r s e m e n s h o r s e s : f r o m b u r i a l
way or another associated with horses are known from rites to funeral repasts
21 cemeteries. Among these, 44 graves undoubtedly
belonged to armed men, usually horsemen (see Ap- In both the West Lithuanian Stone Circle Grave Cul-
pendix). The horses ownership by the horseman is ture area and in other regions of Lithuania, only the
indicated either by the bridle parts or spurs found in parts of the horse used in ritual, which constitute the
the mans grave, or by the horsemans spurs and riding riding horse grave, are found in or beside excavated
bits found in the horses grave. Cases are also known in human burials. Usually the horses head was buried (41
which several men share one horse. According to other graves), less frequently the horses head and legs, or
features, seven additional graves might belong to men, the horses head, legs, and parts of its spine and ribs
but their grave inventories lack the more characteristic (nine graves). Horses teeth and legs would be put into
weapon or set of weapons. Nevertheless, they contain the graves infrequently (three graves). Fourteen burials
buckles of belts and of various other items, typical- with only individual horse teeth or a single horse tooth
ly found in mens burials. The sex of the interred is were found. Only one instance is known in the entire
unclear in seven graves since they contain no grave discussed area in which a man was buried together with
goods that would more clearly suggest the interreds an entire horse in one grave (Reket, grave 35).
gender, but usually these graves have been destroyed
The age of the researched horses from the West Lithua-
or were plundered in antiquity (see Appendix). Four
nian Stone Circle Grave Culture area is around two to
of the graves could belong to children or adolescents
3.5 to 4.5 years (Bliujien 1998, p.283; 2005, p.96; the
(Gintarai, grave 12, girl?; Baitai, grave 4, adolescent
horses teeth were analysed by Prof. Linas Daugnora,
of indeterminate sex; Lazdininkai [Kalnalaukis], grave
of the Lithuanian Veterinary Academy). So, the horses
39/1940, child) (see Appendix). Only separate horse
that were buried were young. The Aistian communi-
This particular grave found in the Gintarai cemetery, like ties could have continued to use these horses in their
the burial found in Lazdininkai, was ascribed to a child
based only on archaeological data. A bioanthropological
practical lives. We have no data that suggests that trau-
analysis of preserved bones and teeth was not performed matised or sick horses were buried.
(
Baleninas 1940; Michelbertas
2002).
Human and animal
The horse parts found in the graves would suggest that
bones found in West Lithuania are rarely preserved due to
the coastal soils properties. the burial rites were quite bloody and heart-wrench-
96
BALTICA 8
ARCHAEOLOGIA
II
BARBARIAN
WA R R I O R S
FROM THE
B A LT I C T O
THE DANUBE
Fig. 1. Distribution of armed warriors graves with horses in the West Lithuanian Stone Circle Grave Culture and surround-
ing regions, Dollkeim-Kovrovo and Sudovian cultures (* one grave in cemetery; 23 graves in cemetery; 48 graves
in cemetery; 912 graves in cemetery; list of cemeteries in Appendix) I.A: Roman Period diffusion of horse graves in
Europe: 1 complete horse skeleton; 2 parts of horse skeleton; 3 only separate horse bones; 4 Dollkeim-Kovrovo Culture
horse graves; I.B: Details of riding gear from Roman Period and Migration Period southern Scandinavian find sites: 1 bridle
and saddle details; 2 weapons and equipment hoards; 3 individual artefacts (after the authors; I.A and I.B after Mller-Wille
1972).
ing spectacles. As far as can be determined from the cemetery. Individual horse teeth have been found in
current data, the head of the horse would be chopped the ploughed layer and previous ground surface of the
off, and its skin would be flayed, leaving the head, legs Baitai and Upelkiai cemeteries that were excavated in
and sometimes even the hoofs attached to the skin. It is recent years.
most difficult to imagine a ritual in which the horses
The custom of burying a horses head in a burial pit to-
head would be cut up into smaller pieces, removing
gether with a person dominated in the West Lithuanian
and placing only separate teeth into the grave. The in-
Stone Circle Grave Culture area (Fig. 3). However, the
dividual teeth found on the former and current ground
custom itself of burying a person with a horse was not
surface of the cemetery could be either the remains of
standardised. Conversely, a large variability is notice-
the burial ritual and quartering of the horse or the con-
able within this tradition, which allows for the suppo-
sequence of later farming activity. Instances of the de-
sition that burial rites were not only diverse, but also
struction of horse graves are known from the Upelkiai
strictly unregulated (Fig. 3). If only the horses head or
97
Wa r r i o r H i e r a r c h y i n We s t e r n mitted that, regardless of the distinctions of new as-
Horses as a Reflection of the
Armed Men and their Riding
DONATAS
Culture society at the end the second century and in the will never find out what was done with the tongue, tail,
third century, based on the number of excavated graves. and other, in many respects, ritually important body
parts of the horse. However, apparently the remain-
even individual teeth were buried separately, then large ing parts of the horse that were not placed in the grave
burial pits (21090cm; 210200110cm and the like) would become food for the funeral repasts that con-
predominated. In other words, the size of the burial pits nected the living with the dead. Both written sources
was as if the entire horse was being buried (Figs. 4, 5). and the burial material speak of the funeral repast and
This important element of horse burial rites would ap- the placement of food inside the grave together with the
pear to emphasize that, regardless of the obvious fact deceased (Gimbutien 1943, p.59ff.; Bliujien 2005,
that only parts, albeit important parts of the animal p.81ff.). At the end of the ninth century, the Anglo-
were buried, the horseman, just like his horse, would Saxon traveller and merchant Wulfstan wrote about the
journey to the afterworld both healthy and whole. It significance of the riding horse in Esti or Osti funeral
would appear that the important pagan world-views customs. He mentioned the funeral repasts drinks, and
provision of pars pro toto was reflected in the horses the horse races that used to take place on the day of
quartering rituals. Thus, the burial of a part of the the funeral for the distribution of the deceased persons
horse is equivalent to the burial of the entire horse and property (Wulfstans Reisebericht 1996, p.166ff.).
once again, only in a different way, emphasizes the
horses significance as a fully-fledged mediator, and
People and horses: aspects of their
allows the perception of the horses purpose in rituals
interrelatedness
and its importance in world-view as diverse.
Contemporary authors discern a special supernatural Armed men with one or even two riding horses buried
significance of the horses head in other searches re- with them in diverse ways dominate West Lithuanian
garding the horses significance, but return to the me- stone circle graves. The Lithuanian coast differs in its
diator role of the horse, emphasizing that it was the clear prevalence of the bond between riding horses
main intermediary in different spheres of world-view and armed men in Sudovian and Dollkeim-Kovrovo
(Loumand 2006, p.131ff., Fig. 1). Thus, it must be ad- Culture sites, in which burials of unarmed people with
II
BARBARIAN
WA R R I O R S
FROM THE
B A LT I C T O
THE DANUBE
Fig. 5. Upelkiai (Kretinga district) male grave 81 and his horses grave 3. The horses and warriors grave goods
(after Bliujien, drawings by V.Truklickas).
horses dominate; moreover, graves with grave goods horses, individuals stand out who undoubtedly have the
characteristic of women are found among the graves highest status, whether they were tribal or community
with horses, while noblemens graves usually do not leaders (Jaskanis 1974, p.198; Tiurin 2006, p.147).
have ornate bridles with metal fittings (Jaskanis 1966,
The societys social structure was already changing in
p.58ff, 1968, p.100ff., 1974, p.198f., 203; Baranowski
the Baltic Sea region in the Early Roman Period; the
1973, p.397; Pitkowska-Maecka 2000, p.187; Engel
first military organizations that consisted of infantry-
et al. 2006, Plate IX: 7). In recent years, Dollkeim-Ko-
men and their leader horsemen appeared (Godowski
vrovo Culture sites with horses have tended to be as-
1960, p.82). West Lithuanian and Nemunas delta com-
sociated with warrior horsemen who belonged to the
munities repeat this process at the end of the second
nobility (Kulakov 2005, p.41ff., Figs. 71-72; Tiurin
century and in the third century (Fig. 2). Despite the
2006, p.147). Unarmed peoples graves might possibly
Gothic historian Jordaness allusion to the Aistians as
have belonged to individuals who looked after the rid-
a very peaceful people, their grave inventories show
ing horse herds (Jaskanis 1966, p.64), but more likely
that the communities men, in a vast region between
they belonged to those individuals who controlled the
the Nemunas in the south and the Daugava in the north,
horse herds, ie to high-ranking animal rearers. Howev-
were armed. Graves in which men were armed com-
er, in both cultural areas that have burials of men with
prise up to 70% of known graves in West Lithuania
99
Wa r r i o r H i e r a r c h y i n We s t e r n (Michelbertas, Vitknas 2003, p.27). In the opinion of ena of the vast barbarian world to his readers, thereby
Horses as a Reflection of the
Armed Men and their Riding
DONATAS
BALTICA 8
the men and horses were buried in separate burial pits. groups of warriors that are clustered around a horse
Usually such graves are enclosed by a stone circle. that belonged to them can be discerned in the ernai
Sometimes this groups stone circle does not encircle cemetery, although at first glance it appears that this
the graves. Only in one instance of the 16 graves in this burial site has many single graves of horses that are not
burial group was the horse buried to the persons right. associated with any people. However, the vast majority
A gap ranging from 0.30 to 0.50 centimetres wide sep- of individual horse graves in the ernai cemetery can
arates the persons and horses burial pits, while the be associated with interrelated groups of warriors and
ARCHAEOLOGIA
burial place of the horse and the burial pits size vary their horses, that are identical or similar to the ones dis-
(Figs. 3. II. 1-6; 4-5; Appendix). Riding bits are found cussed in the third group of burials with horses (Figs.
in the horses mouths. One or two iron spurs are more 3. III; 6; Appendix). Nevertheless, it is difficult to cor-
often found not in the mens graves, but in the graves rectly interpret the ernai cemetery material because
of their horses, as if this was emphasizing the horses there are no plans of its graves with precise grave good
dependence on the horseman (Fig. 4). Meanwhile, or- locations.
nate bridles with bronze fittings and other important
The Lazdininkai cemeterys horse grave 1/1940, in
details are found in the graves of their warrior masters,
which only a horses head together with an iron bit
thereby indicating the bond between the horseman and
with a three-jointed mouthpiece and bronze rein ring
his horse (Fig. 3). On the other hand, the spurs or spur
and distributor were found, was surrounded by five
placed together namely with the horse would indicate
warriors graves and one childs grave (34/1940, 36
that the warrior would be accompanied to the after-
40/1940). Judging from their artefacts and Roman
world by a horse distinguished for riding.
coins, the members of this warriors and horses group
Human burials with horses within Groups I and II in are contemporaneous and date from the beginning of II
which only teeth are found are problematical. The in- the third century (Fig. 6; Appendix). It is possible that
BARBARIAN
ventories of such human graves are usually not expres- the military leader and a part of his retinue, along with WA R R I O R S
sive, appearing as if the buried individuals gender and the child, died at the same time. The members of this FROM THE
B A LT I C T O
social status have disappeared or deliberately not group of warriors buried around a horse are not only THE DANUBE
shown for some reason (see Appendix). Weapons are interrelated, but their specific interrelations, just like
not found in the inventories of such graves. So far the their relationship with the buried horse that they sur-
largest amount of such graves has been found in Baitai rounded, were different (Fig. 6). It would appear that
(see Appendix). Adolescents and unsexed individuals all the groups members not only shared the horse, but
graves buried with individual horse teeth apparently had an obviously different right to it. It could be that
belong to community members with a lower social sta- this groups leader, buried in grave 38/1940, is sharing
tus. Horse teeth might have been placed in the graves the horse with his retinue.
of adolescents, evidently boys, because of their age.
All the warriors in this group were buried with neck-
Instances in which the horses grave (usually the rings around their necks, ornate belts, or even shoul-
horses head) is encircled by a group of armed warriors der-belts, to which were hung knives that, judging
comprise the third group of mens graves with horses by their length and other attributes, could have been
(Figs. 3. III; 6; Appendix). The horse is usually sur- weapons. Moreover, a large amount of Roman sestertii
rounded by a small group of people who are unequally was found in their graves and additional grave goods
armed, buried with different military equipment, orna- were placed into small birch bark boxes for them. Only
ments, and additional grave goods. The position of eve- for the warrior buried in grave 34/1940 was a bridle bit
ry member of the group in respect to the horse shows placed inside the grave with him; this horseman was
the individual warriors bond with the centrally buried buried with a belt and shoulder-belt, so his connection
horse, as well as each ones distinct subordination to with the horse was emphasized rather clearly. Grave
the military leader who is also buried among his subor- goods characteristic of horsemen were not found in the
dinate warriors and horse. These graves of a horse and graves of the other members of this group, so this fact,
a group of warriors, which at first glance appear prob- together with the warriors arrangement around the
lematical, are the most revealing regarding hierarchi- horse, would indicate that the group consisted of horse-
cal associations (Fig. 6). Burials like this were found men and infantrymen. On the other hand, the warriors
in 1940 while excavating the Lazdininkai cemetery in graves 37/1940 and 36/1940 were buried in such a
(horse grave 1 and armed mens graves 34, 3638, 40, way that the horse is to their left, i.e., in the dominant
as well as childs grave 39) (Fig. 6). Groups of graves horses position in this cultural region. Thus, to some
in which a horses grave is encircled with more or less degree, the horse also belongs to them. A somewhat dif-
armed buried men are known from the cemeteries of ferent relationship with the buried horse is demonstrat-
101
Wa r r i o r H i e r a r c h y i n We s t e r n one inevitably had to
Horses as a Reflection of the
Armed Men and their Riding
warriors belonged to
this groups leader or
military commander,
who had the highest
BLIUJIEN
DONATAS
BUTKUS
doubtedly belonged
to the Aistian nobil-
ity. Such a person, ac-
cording to his superior
set of notable grave
goods comprised of
22 items, must have
been buried in grave
38/1940. Two differ-
ent-function spears,
a shield with an iron
shield boss and han-
dle, a socketed axe, a
small scythe, a knife,
and a whetstone were
found in this grave.
The neck of the de-
ceased was probably
adorned with a sil-
ver or bronze neck-
ring covered with a
white metal, and an
iron crossbow fibula,
while four Roman
Fig. 6. Lazdininkai (Kalnalaukis, Kretinga district) cemetery, horse grave 1/1940 surrounded
by five warriors (34/1940, 3638/1940, 40/1940) and a childs grave (39/1940); + indicates the coins and an amber
direction of the deceaseds head (after Baleninas 1940; supplemented by the authors). bead were apparent-
ly placed inside the
pouch fastened to his
ed by the warrior with two different-function spears, belt. Neck-rings, especially made of silver, were an at-
a socketed axe, and ornate belt with a bronze belt-end tribute connected with the social status of the deceased
fitting, buried in grave 40/1940, and by the child buried person (Vaitkunskien 1996, p.8ff.). In addition, five
in grave 39/1940. The horse is to their right, so it could more Roman coins and ornaments that belonged to
be that the peoples position in this group shows their a woman were placed inside a small birch bark box
different social status one that is somewhat higher (Baleninas 1940). Thus, evidently the horse was the
than that of the warriors buried to the horses left. Since property of this notable person with the most meaning-
the warriors buried in graves 37/1940 and 36/1940 are ful set of grave goods; in demonstrating his excellence,
the poorest in terms of grave goods in this group, it he shared his property with the members of his small,
could be that in wanting to somewhat heighten their armed retinue. Judging by the set of grave goods with
social position and to show more clearly their connec- which they were buried, this group of warriors and
tion with the horse, they were buried to the horses left. horse consisted of well-armed men who belonged to
It could be that this groups leader and child, buried to a warrior elite. On the other hand, however, the set of
the leaders left, were closely related kin. On the other grave goods of the members of this group shows that
hand, in burying the warriors around the horse, some- there was a certain hierarchy among the groups mem-
102
BALTICA 8
ARCHAEOLOGIA
Fig. 7. Contents of the birch bark box with bronze ornaments characteristic of women of West Lithuanian Stone circle
graves from Lazdininkai (Kalnalaukis, Kretinga district) warriors grave 65/2000 (photograph by D.Rudinskas).
II
bers, and some of them were true horsemen, while the the head of the deceased are found in the majority of BARBARIAN
others fought on foot. graves of the highest-ranking warriors (Fig. 7). Roman WA R R I O R S
FROM THE
coins are found near the deceased in the graves of the
Thus, the Lazdininkai example shows that the organi- B A LT I C T O
highest social status warriors; moreover, they are ad- THE DANUBE
sation of Aistian society could have exemplified the
ditionally placed inside little boxes. Small birch bark
Germanic peoples, whose military leaders found it
boxes with additional ornaments are found in contem-
important to have as much retinue as possible, since,
poraneous noblewomens graves as well. However,
according to Tacitus, in times of peace, the retinue was
the ornaments characteristic of women that are found
their pride, while in times of war, it was their support
in high status warriors mostly horsemens graves
(Tacitas 1972, 13). Moreover, citing Tacitus, we can
constitute a phenomenon that can be explained in vari-
suppose that the war tactics of the Aistian and Ger-
ous ways. The ornaments found in the little boxes are
manic peoples were similar: the infantrymen fought
typical West Lithuanian Stone Circle Grave Culture
intermixed with the horsemen, he also mentions that
womens ornaments (Michelbertas 1986). Meanwhile,
Germanic people (Suiones), do not have personal
the discussed periods mens complex of accoutre-
weapons, their weapons are corporate (Tacitas 1972,
ments, and especially their riding gear, are of an inter-
6, 44). Thus, the specific Lazdininkai cemetery exam-
regional nature (Figs. 4, 8).
ple shows the existence of infantrymen and horsemen,
a certain hierarchy of warriors, and the formation of a The fourth group of West Lithuanian Stone Circle
military leader and his retinue already at the end of the Grave Culture human graves with horses is comprised
second century and the first half of the third century. of single horse graves that for various reasons
Few ornaments related to military equipment are found
Single evidence when horses
belonging to the Late Roman
Period were buried separately, away from human graves,
in the high social status graves of horsemen and in- is known from the several Sudovian burial grounds in the
fantrymen in West Lithuanian Stone Circle Grave Cul- Godap and Suwaki area (Netta, grave 47; Korkliny, site I,
ture cemeteries at the end of the second century and barrow 1; Bowinka, barrow XII and on Samland (former
beginning of the third century. Neck-rings and fibulae Koddien, grave 14, Kaliningrad region), and evidence that
in warriors graves, like other personal ornaments, the horses were buried as votive offerings (Bitner-Wr-
blewska 2007, p.105). This evidence, when horses were
are rarely found. Bracelets were placed on warriors really found away from humans, or horse graves which
arms especially rarely. Thus, the discussed Lazdininkai were marking the edges of the cemeteries, give various
cemeterys group of warriors stands out for its neck- ideas. First of all, those burial rites which involve animals,
ring wear. Sets of ornaments characteristic of women, in the circum of the West Baltic cultures, were much more
placed inside small birch bark boxes, wrapped in birch complicated and diverse than we are expecting.
Human graves with riding horses, horses grave goods
bark or linden bast bundles, that would be placed at in human graves, various horse graves, and the burial of
103
Wa r r i o r H i e r a r c h y i n We s t e r n
Horses as a Reflection of the
Armed Men and their Riding
DONATAS
BUTKUS
2 3
Fig. 8. Bridle parts found in West Lithuanian Stone Circle Grave and Dollkeim-Kovrovo culture burials: 1 horses
grave goods from a common grave of a warrior and a horse, grave 23/1942 at Mazkatui (Liepja district) cemetery; 2
Lazdininkai (Kalnalaukis, Kretinga district) cemetery horse grave 6/1992; 3 Cherniachovsk (formerly Althof-Insterburg,
Kaliningrad region, Cherniachovsk district) grave 135 (after turms 1942, archive of the Latvian History Museum; Nowa-
kovski 1998, Plate 104; photograph by Bliujien).
usually due to a small excavated plot or due to the for the entire community on various occasions in the
published materials peculiarities cannot be assigned discussed cultural area are so far unknown, while sin-
to a specific persons grave (Fig. 3. IV. 1-2; Appendix). gle horse graves appeared due to various destructive
It is the conviction of this articles authors that horse reasons that can be generalized: the horseman lost his
burials unassociated with a person or horse sacrifices horse, or the horse his horseman (Senkai, Rdaiiai II,
Prymaniai II, Upelkiai, and others). At least a por-
horse parts (characterized as horse sacrifices) spread in tion of the graves in the ernai cemetery also fall into
the lands of the Balts and in Europe in the fifth to eighth this group because the illustrated and textual material
centuries (
Mller-Wille 1972; Vaitkunskien 1981, p.58ff.;
Oexle 1984, p.138ff., Figs. 1-8). In Baltic lands and during
published by Adalbert Bezzenberger for this cemetery
the Migration Period, the horse and parts of the horse were allows a fairly diverse understanding and interpretation
mostly buried for people of the highest social stratum, and of the text (Bezzenberger 1892, pp.141-186).
these typically were the warrior horsemen (Vaitkunskien
1981, p.72 ff.).
104
The last and fifth group of human burials with horses nities. However, ornate bridles and spurs are also found
BALTICA 8
is ascribed to the graves known usually only from very in well-armed or exceptionally wealthy mens graves
brief accounts in literature or reports and which known that could be ascribed to horsemen with the highest so-
data does not allow us to detail (Fig. 3. V). cial status or to community leaders (Lazdininkai, grave
9/1992; viliai, grave 47) (Butkus et al. 1994, p.143,
Fig. 13; Vaitkunskien 1989, p.58ff.) (Fig.10).
Horsemen without horses
ARCHAEOLOGIA
Already at the turn of the second and third century T h e A i s t i a n B a l t i c c u l t u r e s h o r i z o n s
(Phases B2/C1C1a) mens graves with spurs and some graves with horses in the Baltic Sea
horse riding gear, usually bridles and bridle bits (metal area
bridle fittings, pendants, and even metal rein rings, are
found in the Western Lithuanian stone circle grave area The appearance of numerous horsemens graves in
and in the lower Nemunas, as well as in the burial sites the area of West Lithuanian Stone Circle Grave Cul-
of Samogitia and the southwestern part of Lithuania. ture is related to the direct influence of Dollkeim-Ko-
It must be emphasized that graves with the accoutre- vrovo Culture, since the social-economic processes
ments of horsemen and horses were diffused across a that occurred in both cultural areas at the end of the
much broader territory than mens burials with hors- B2 Phase and in the B2/C1-C2 Phases were rather well
es (Fig. 9) (Michelbertas 2000, Abb. 2). Horsemens synchronized. The first human burials with horses that
graves and mens graves with elements of riding gear had riding gear appeared in the Dollkeim-Kovrovo
and spurs are found in the same cemeteries in the West cultural area in the middle of the first millennium or
Lithuanian Stone Circle Grave Culture area; they are in its third quarter, which is just slightly earlier than
contemporaneous. along the Lithuanian coast (La Baume 1944, p.2ff.; II
Jaskanis 1966, p.64; 1974, p.197; Baranowski 1974,
A larger diffusion of graves with elements of riding BARBARIAN
p.397; Michelbertas 1986, p.40ff., 178; Ibsen, Skvor-
horse and horseman accoutrements than the diffusion WA R R I O R S
zov 2004, p.404ff.; Kulakov 2005, p.21). Due to the FROM THE
area of men buried with horses is most likely a distinc- B A LT I C T O
Dollkeim-Kovrovo cultural influence, burials with
tive form of expression of the common custom of the THE DANUBE
horses appeared in the Sudovian cultural environment
Balts to bury the horse; it not only marked the bur-
(Jaskanis 1966, p.46).
ied individuals social status, but also the diversity of
burial rituals. On the other hand, the absence of horses The coast of western Lithuania and southwestern
in regions beyond the coast, ie in the funeral customs Latvia was the northern barbaricum boundary where
of other communities living in the surrounding area of mens burials with horses were especially abundantly
the Balts, could have formed due to the different eco- widespread from the end of the second century to the
nomic structure, in which horse rearing did not consti- beginning of the third century. The first mens graves
tute an important part of the economy, so that the burial with horses or with elements of riding gear along the
of horses that were healthy and necessary in vital ac- Lithuanian coast appeared with the A58-60 types of
tivities would have been economically unsubstantiated brooches or the eye brooches of the Old Prussian se-
or even an altogether detrimental act. Thus, instead of ries, metal rein rings, and iron Sarmatian-type riding
the horse, only symbols that denoted the horseman and bits with curbs (Jablonskis 1979). At a similar time,
his horse (bridle parts and spurs) were used for burial or a bit later (in the C1b Phase) the Sarmatian rid-
rituals and for the demonstration of social status or ing bits appeared among the Thorsberg bog finds (von
the warriors hierarchy. In all of Lithuania, cemeteries Carnap-Bornheim 2003, p.377ff., Abb. 4-5). Armed
and loose finds of this kind are known from 24 burial mens graves with horses, as well as mens graves
sites, whose largest portion is along the coast and in the with riding gear, in the western Lithuanian stone cir-
lower Nemunas, and smaller portion in the Samogitian cle grave area and in lower Nemunas cemeteries were
barrow area (Fig. 9). Single graves with riding gear most abundantly widespread in the third century (Fig.
have been found in southwest and east Lithuania (Fig. 2). However, already by the end of the third century,
9). The appearance of ornate bridles in burials of peo- their numbers were notably reduced in these cultural
ple without horses is also known in other communities surroundings. Apparently, the number of burials with
of the West Balts (Jaskanis 1966, p.64). horses consistently declined throughout the entire
fourth century, while the very latest of mens burials
The placement of riding gear in a warriors or an armed
with horses along the coast reached the middle of the
mans grave, usually only of bridle bits instead of ornate
fifth century. At the beginning of the Migration Period,
bridles, could be a token of the existence of a warriors
mens graves with horses spread to sites peripheral to
hierarchy or of the unequal wealth of separate commu-
the West Lithuanian Stone Circle Grave Culture area,
105
Wa r r i o r H i e r a r c h y i n We s t e r n
Horses as a Reflection of the
Armed Men and their Riding
DONATAS
BUTKUS
Fig. 9. Distribution of warriors graves with riding gear and horsemens accoutrements (details of bridles and spurs)
12 graves in the cemetery, or stray finds; 35 graves in the cemetery: 1 Kapsde (Liepja, district, LV); 2 Mazkatui
(Liepja, district, LV); 3 Lazdininkai (Kalnalaukis); 4 Padvariai; 5 Kurmaiiai; 6 Reket; 7 Upelkiai; 8 Prymaniai II
(nos. 38 in Kretinga distict); 9 Banduiai (Klaipda district); 10 Auktkiemiai (formerly Oberhof, Klaipda district);
11 Juodkrant (Neringa city, Curonian Lagoon); 12 Strazdai-Jacik (ilut district); 13 Niklai (ilut district);
14 Mikuiai, Klaipda district); 15 Vluikiai (Taurag district); 16 viliai (ilal district); 17 Kritanai (Jonikis district);
18 Paalksniai (Kelm district); 19 Poer (ilal district); 20 Maudiorai (Kelm district); 21 Vaitieknai (Radvilikis dis-
trict); 22 Gibaiiai (iauliai district); 23 Dzirmiks (Alytus district); 24 Eitulionys (Trakai district) (after the authors
and Michelbertas 2000).
to sites like Reket (grave 35), Rdaiiai I (grave 19), with horses are found in new lower Nemunas cemeter-
and Upelkiai (grave 66) (Michelbertas 1968, p.101f; ies in the Migration Period (in Rubokai and Vidgiriai,
Navickait-Kuncien 1968, p.165, Figs. 7, 8; Bliujien both in the ilut district) (Bezzenberger 1909, pp.151-
1998, p.283f., Figs.5, 10.2). Graves from the Migra- 171; imnas 2006, Fig.30). For example, mens
tion Period are found in the Auktkiemiai cemetery graves with horses in the Rubokai cemetery in the fifth
(formerly Oberhof) which is distinguished for its and sixth centuries comprise as much as 32% of mens
abundance of graves and was undoubtedly one of that graves (Tautaviius 1996, p.77).
periods main sites along the coast (see Reichs article
Despite the influence of Dollkeim-Kovrovo Culture
in this volume). Bridle bits and iron bridle buckles are
on the origin of graves with horses in West Lithuanian
found in only a small number of armed mens graves
Stone Circle Grave Culture, graves of this type found
along the coast in the Migration Period. Mens graves
in both areas also have their differences. More mens
106
BALTICA 8
ARCHAEOLOGIA
II
BARBARIAN
WA R R I O R S
FROM THE
B A LT I C T O
THE DANUBE
Fig. 10. Lazdininkai (Kalnalaukis, Kretinga district) cemetery, grave 9/1992 in site, and: 1 bronze sash-like bracelet; 2
bronze neck-ring; 39 belt set (before conservation; for a picture of the set after conservation, look at the inside front
cover): tin/bronze belt buckle with mount, rectangular bronze openwork belt mounts, bronze belt-end fitting and bronze
rivets; 1011 iron bridle bits; 1213 iron buckles; 14 bronze ring; 15 iron scythe; 16 iron socketed axe; 17 iron spearhead
(illustrations by P.Gasinas; plan of the grave by J.Kanarskas).
107
Wa r r i o r H i e r a r c h y i n We s t e r n burials with elements of riding gear are found in Dol- p.55ff., Abb. 1). Analogues to the bridles with Kehlber-
Horses as a Reflection of the
Armed Men and their Riding
Skvorzov 2004, p.402ff., Figs. 13, 14; Kulakov 2005, Culture material and in Denmark (Baranowski 1973;
p.41ff.). In Dollkeim-Kovrovo Culture burials, just as Wilbers-Rost 1994). The ornate, rhombic bridle details
in burial sites of Sudovian Culture, the entire horse is of the West Lithuanian stone circle grave area have
usually buried west of the person, ie to his right (Jas- analogies both in Dollkeim-Kovrovo and Sudovian
BLIUJIEN
AUDRON
DONATAS
kanis 1966, pp.34-47; 1968, Figs. 1-2; Pitkowska- sites (La Baume 1944, Fig. 13; Nowakowski 1996,
BUTKUS
Maecka 2000, p.186; Ibsen, Skvorzov 2004, Fig. Fig. 104; Bitner-Wrblewska 2003, Fig. 7). Besides el-
14; Kulakov 2006, p.41; Tiurin 2006, p.148). Despite ements of riding gear in the same Scandinavian as well
the fact that throughout the entire Roman Period, the as southeast and east Baltic Sea region sites, similari-
number of mens graves with horses continually in- ties are also found in the metal quadrangular openwork
creased in Dollkeim-Kovrovo Culture sites, these and rhombic belt mountings as well as in the forms of
graves were characteristic of the nobility and com- belt-end fittings (Fig. 8; 10.3-7) (Raddatz 1957, Figs.
prised only about 2% to 3% of the total number of 1.3, 2.3; Fabech 1996, p.140; Bitner-Wrblewska et al.
graves (Tiurin 2006, p.147). At the beginning of the 2001, Fig. 10).
fifth century, mens graves with horses in Dollkeim-
Horsemens graves with horses that appeared in West
Kovrovo Culture comprised up to 20%. Human burials
Lithuanian Stone Circle Grave Culture and lower
with horses also increased in the Suwaki region and
Nemunas sites spread to the Samogitian barrow cem-
Masurian Lakeland in the Migration Period (Jaskanis
etery area (see Appendix). The appearance of indi-
1966, Fig. 1; Pitkowska-Maecka 2000, Fig. 1, Tab. 1-
vidual horse teeth in Samogitian barrow cemeteries
3). Meanwhile, only single graves of well-armed men
is related to the general cultural development of the
with horses or with riding gear are known in the first
entire east Baltic Sea region, the penetration of adja-
half of the fifth century along the Lithuanian coast.
cent cultures into this territory, and traditional inter-
Several graves with elements of riding gear, including cultural influences. In its traditional intercultural and
bronze rein rings, are known from Bogaczewo Culture commercial influences, the area of Samogitian as well
(Figs. 1, 9) (Jaskanis 1966, p.33 and 64, Fig. 1; 1968, as northern Lithuanian and southern Latvian barrows
p.84; Baranowski 1973, Figs. 11, 15, 25; Bitner-Wr- was bound by the area of West Lithuanian stone cir-
blewska et al. 2001, p.75ff., Figs. 6, 12). cle graves (Banyt-Rowell 2004, Figs. 3, 4; Bliujien
2005, p.123, Fig. 1).
Dollkeim-Kovrovo, West Lithuanian Stone Circle
Grave, Sudovian, and Bogaczewo cultures are related Single burial sites with horse graves are known in
not only by their custom of burying horses, but also in southwest Lithuania and in the developing East Lithua-
the uniformity of their riding gear, visible in the bridles nian Barrow Culture (Fig. 1; Appendix). The initial
construction and in the forms and ornamentation of stage of East Lithuanian Barrow Culture in the Roman
their metal decorative details (Fig. 8) (La Baume 1944, Period was related to the Sudovian Cultures expansion
Figs. 5-10; Baranowski 1973, pp.401-452; Raddatz to the northeast (Astrauskas 1998; Vaitkeviius 2005,
1993, p.143ff., Fig. 9, 15b; Wilbers-Rost 1994, Tafel p.71ff.; Bliujien 2006, p.123ff.).
4-9, Beilage 1-3; Nowakowski 1996, Tafel 51, 81, 99,
Graves with horses in the West Lithuanian Stone Circle
104; Kulakov 2005, p.41ff., Figs. 70-72).
Grave Culture area markedly diminished at the very
In their construction, form of fittings and metal reins, end of the third century. Today it is difficult to say
the Baltic regions horse bridles are similar to the bog with what kinds of phenomena this decrease of graves
finds of Zealand on the Jutland peninsula and of Funen with horses was associated. The number of armed men
Island in the third century. Obvious analogies to round with horses, just as graves in general, and even peo-
bridle fittings and nosebands are known not only from ple themselves, possibly decreased because a portion
Sambland Peninsula sites, but also from bog offerings of Aistians were drawn into the migration of Wielbark
in the Jutland peninsula (the Illerup bog find site A) Culture people (Goths-Gepids) (ulkus 1995, p.96ff.,
and in the Schleswig-Holstein region in the north (the Figs. IX, XII). Thus, it is altogether possible that some
Thorsberg bog) (Fig. 4) (Baranowski 1973, p.447, Fig. Aistian noble leader horsemen and their mounted war-
27d; Wilbers-Rost 1994, Beilage 3.2b, 4e; Ilkjr 1997, rior retinues, as a mobile, well-armed group of people,
108
streamed into the military being formed by the Gothic nobility, and the military commanders retinue, which
BALTICA 8
elite, and together engaged near the northern shores of had already formed by the end of the second century.
the Black Sea into the developing Chernyakhov Cul-
The fourth group is comprised of single horse graves
tures territory. The significant consolidation process
that, because of various circumstances, usually due to a
of the Gothic military force and its movement south-
small excavated plot or to the peculiarities of the mate-
eastward is suggested by the third centurys Wielbark
rials publication, cannot be attributed to a specific hu-
cultural material (Urbaczyk 1998, p.404f.). The third
man burial. The fifth group of human and horse burials
century is time of barbarians and military activity in
ARCHAEOLOGIA
is ascribed to the graves known usually only from brief
the vast Germania expanses, when pillage and mili-
accounts in literature or reports and which known data
tary raids by mobile groups in the Roman provinces
does not allow us to detail.
became an inseparable and the main aspect of the so-
cial life of various barbarian collectives (Brather 2005, Already at the end of the second century and beginning
p.159). Thus, in one way or another, Aistian horsemen of the third century mens graves with spurs and some
could have streamed into this process. horse riding gear, usually bridles and bridle bits, are
found in the West Lithuanian stone circle grave area
and in the lower Nemunas, as well as in the burial sites
Conclusions of Samogitia and southwest Lithuania.
Armed mens graves with horses constitute an expres- The appearance of abundant horsemens graves in the
sive feature of the West Lithuanian Stone Circle Grave West Lithuanian stone circle grave area is associated
and lower Nemunas cultures in the Roman Period with the direct influence of Dollkeim-Kovrovo Cul-
(Phases B2 and B2/C1). Currently, 21 cemeteries and ture, since the social-economic processes that occurred
86 human graves with horses are known. A large por- in both cultural areas at the end of Phase B2 and in
Phases B2/C1-C2 were synchronous. West Lithuanian
II
tion of West Lithuanian Stone Circle Grave and Lower
stone circle graves constituted the northernmost bar- BARBARIAN
Nemunas culture graves with horses, if their grave WA R R I O R S
complexes are known and not destroyed, belonged to baricum territory in which horses were so often buried FROM THE
B A LT I C T O
well-armed horsemen. At the end of the second century with people. THE DANUBE
until the second half of the third century, horsemens Graves with horses markedly diminished in the West
graves in the West Lithuanian stone circle grave area Lithuanian Stone Circle Grave Culture area at the very
might have comprised up to about 9.1% of all the com- end of the third century. Thus, it is entirely possible
munitys members. that a portion of Aistian noble leader horsemen and
In the West Lithuanian Stone Circle Grave Culture their mounted warrior retinue members, as a mobile,
area, as in other Lithuanian regions, only ritually used well-armed group of people, streamed into the military
parts of horses, which constitute the horses graves, being formed by the Gothic elite and engaged together
are found in or alongside peoples graves. Usually on the northern shores of the Black Sea and into the
the horses head was buried, more infrequently the developing Chernyakhov Cultures territory. Warriors
horses head and legs, or the head, legs, and parts of the graves with horses disappeared along the coast in the
spine and ribs. The horses teeth and legs were placed first half or middle of the fifth century.
in the graves only rarely. Separate horse teeth or a sin-
gle tooth are found in a large portion of the graves. Translated by Indr Antanaitis-Jacobs
Only one case is known in the entire discussed area in
which a man and an entire horse were buried in one
grave. The horses that were buried were young. APPENDIX
Human graves with horses can be divided into five Catalogue of males and unsexed individuals graves
groups. To the first belong the graves in which the per- with horses (Types IIV of human burials with horses,
son and the horse were buried in the same burial pit; see Fig. 3)
the second group is ascribed to graves in which the
person and horse were buried in separate burial pits. West Lithuanian Stone Circle Grave Culture
The third group of human and horse graves is com- (1) Mazkatui (Liepja district, Latvia)
prised of graves in which a horse grave is encircled by
peoples graves. These burial groups provide the most 1.1. Mazkatui, male grave 23/1942 (Type I.3) (Fig.
information about a warriors hierarchy, horsemen and 8.1).
infantrymen, the military leaders who belonged to the Chronology: B2/C1-C1a
(Reference: turms 1942)
109
Wa r r i o r H i e r a r c h y i n We s t e r n (2) Lazdininkai (Kalnalaukis, Kretinga district) 2. 11/1-2. Lazdininkai, male grave 70/2000 with horse
Horses as a Reflection of the
Armed Men and their Riding
2. 1/6. Grave 39, child 3.1. Reket, male grave 35 with horse (complete skele-
2. 1/7. Grave 40, male ton), buried in same grave pit; horse is left of deceased
person; grave pit is 270170cm (Type I.8).
Chronology: C1aC1b.
Chronology: D2.
(Reference: Baleninas 1940)
(Reference: Navickait-Kuncien 1968)
2. 2/1-2. Lazdininkai, male grave 1/1991 and horse
head grave 1/1991 in separate grave pits; horse head (4) Kurmaiiai (Kretinga district)
buried left of deceased person (Type II.4a). 4.1. Kurmaiiai, grave 23, human of indeterminate sex,
2. 3/1-2. Lazdininkai, male grave 4/1991 with horse and horse teeth, buried in same pit, surrounded by stone
head grave 2/1991 in separate grave pits inside stone circle; fragment of bronze rein ring inside circle. Only
circle; horses head left of deceased person (Type II.1) one human tooth found indicative of human burial; hu-
(Fig. 4). man without grave goods (Type I.4).
110
6.4. Rdaiiai II, male grave 6 and horse head, buried (9) Prymaniai II (Kretinga district)
BALTICA 8
in same grave pit (Type I.2).
9.1. Prymaniai II, single horse grave; might belong
6.5. Rdaiiai II, male grave 7 and horse head with re- to males buried in graves 2, 3 and 4 (Type III).
mains of legs, buried in same pit (Type I.1).
Chronology: B2/C1C1a
Chronology: B2/C1C1b.
(Reference: Navickait-Kuncien 1968a)
(Reference: Michelbertas 1968a)
(10) glikiai-Anduliai (formerly Andulen, Kret-
ARCHAEOLOGIA
(7) Upelkiai (Kretinga district) inga district)
7.1. Upelkiai, destroyed grave of male?, grave 1, with 10.1/1-2. glikiai-Anduliai, male grave 43/2002 with
single horse tooth in same grave pit (Type I.4). horse head, both within same stone circle, in separate
grave pits; horse left of deceased person (Type II.1).
7.2. Upelkiai, single horse grave 1 (horse head and
hoofs); association to human grave unclear (Type Chronology: B2/C1C1b.
IV.1).
(Reference: Bliujien 2005)
7.3. Upelkiai, horse grave 2 (horse tooth in northern
(11) Palanga (Palanga city, Baltic square)
part of grave, legs in southern) and male grave 66, both
within stone circle, in separate grave pits (Type II.1). 11.1. Palanga, male with horse inside stone circle;
found accidentally in 1938 (Type II.1 or II.2).
7.4. Upelkiai, horse grave 3 was possibly surrounded
by male graves (81 and 79, as well as some destroyed 11.2/1-2. Palanga, male grave 2 with horse head and
graves) within stone circle (Type III) (Fig. 5). remains of legs in one grave pit (disturbed) (Type I.1).
7.9. Upelkiai, male grave 65, contains one horse tooth 12.4. Banduiai, male grave 21 with one horse tooth on
(Type IV.1) bottom of grave pit (Type I.4a).
8.1. Senkai, horse head, surrounded by inhumation 13.1. Auktkiemiai, grave 2, with horse head, teeth
graves and cremation burials dated to the 11th12th (Type V).
centuries. Late Viking Period human graves are dug 13.2. Auktkiemiai, male grave 7, with horse teeth
into the stone circles of the Roman Period. The horse right of male (Type I.1a).
head might belong to the Roman Period. Jablonskis
13.3. Auktkiemiai, male grave 360, with horse bones
notes that the association of the late human graves with
(?) (Type V).
the horse head is unclear (chronologically, and based
on the cemeterys stratigraphy) (Type V). 13.4. Auktkiemiai, male grave 365, with horse head
fragments (Type V).
Chronology: Roman Iron Age
Chronology: B2/C1C1b
(Reference: Jablonskis 1986)
(Reference: personal communication with Dr Christine
Reich, Berlin).
111
Wa r r i o r H i e r a r c h y i n We s t e r n (14) Gintarai (Kretinga district) 17.9. Baitai, human grave 34, sex unknown, with sin-
Horses as a Reflection of the
Armed Men and their Riding
DONATAS
BUTKUS
(Reference: Michelbertas 2002) 18.2. ernai, single horse head, grave 18, association
with human graves in the area is not clear (Type IV.1).
(15) Stragnai (Klaipda district)
18.3. ernai, single horse head, grave 49, associated
15.1. Stragnai, male grave 13, with horse head and
with male grave 50 (Type III).
hoofs in same grave pit (Type I.1).
18.4. ernai, male grave 50, with horse head (Type
Chronology: C1aC1b
III).
(Reference: Varnas 1985)
Note: Males buried in graves 49 and 50 have a cer-
(16) Toleikiai (Thalen-Jacob), Klaipda district tain connection with the horses grave and can be as-
cribed to Type III. Male graves 38 (in which only one
16.1. Toleikiai (Thalen-Jacob), known graves of hu-
horses tooth was found) and 53 might also belong to
mans buried with horses, dated to the third/fourth cen-
this group.
turies (Type V)
18.5. ernai, male grave 53, with horse head (Type
(Reference: Tautaviius 1977)
I.7).
(17) Baitai (Klaipda district)
18.6. ernai, male grave 54, with horse head (Type
17.1. Baitai, destroyed human grave 1, sex unknown, I.7).
with separate horse teeth, in the same grave pit (Type
18.7. ernai, grave 60, single horse head, association
I.4).
with human grave unclear.
17.2. Baitai, adolescent male?, grave 4, with horse
Note: Horse head grave 60 might be connected with
tooth in same grave pit (Type I.4a).
warriors graves 55, 58, 61, 63, 75, 76 and 74, and
17.3. Baitai, human grave 12, sex unknown, with frag- thereby be ascribed to Type III.
ment of horse tooth in same grave pit (Type I.4a).
18.9. ernai, single horse head grave 62, association
17.4. Baitai, grave 22, male? and horse in same grave with human graves (possibly male graves 61 or 63?)
pit (horse head might have been placed over the head not clear (Type IV.1).
of the deceased person, horses legs were by the left
18.10. ernai, male grave 95, with horse head (Type
side of the person) (Type I.4a).
I.7).
17.5. Baitai, human grave 29, sex unknown, with three
Note: The male buried in grave 95 might be associated
individual horse teeth in the same grave pit (Type
with the warrior horsemen in graves 90, 92, 100, 101
I.4a).
and 107. This group of warriors might also belong to
17.6. Baitai, human grave 30, sex unknown, with three Type III.
single horse teeth in the same grave pit (Type I.4a).
18.11. ernai, single horse head grave 97 (Type IV.1).
17.7. Baitai, male grave 31 (robbed in prehistory), with The connection of this horses grave with the nearest
two horse skulls in the same grave pit (Type I.6). human graves (male? grave 83 and male grave 84) is
17.8. Baitai, male?, grave 32, with horse teeth (Type unclear.
I.4a). Note: Individual horse teeth were found in Fundstellen
Note: Graves 31, 30, 12, 29 and 32 were somehow as- 29, 30 and 82. In the ernai cemetery, graves of males
sociated with each other. and individuals of indeterminate sex buried with horse
heads and teeth are concentrated in the southern part
of the cemetery.
112
Chronology: C1aC3 East Lithuanian Barrow Culture
BALTICA 8
(Reference: Bezzenberger 1892) (24) Moa/Nausodai (Trakai district)
Cemeteries of the Lower Nemunas group 24.1. Moa/Nausodai, barrow 2, horse skeleton?, bur-
ied to the left of the human (Type I.1a).
(19) Cemetery at ilut estate, former AdligHey-
dekrug Chronology: C2C3
19.1. Cemetery at ilut estate, horse grave found in (Reference: Abaraviius 1994).
ARCHAEOLOGIA
19th century. Riding gear: cross-shaped bridle mounts,
crescent-shaped forehead pendant, Kehlberge, and oth-
Abbreviations
ers. Find circumstances not clear (Type V).
Chronology: B2C2 LAP Lietuvos archeologiniai paminklai. Lietuvos pajrio
IVII a. kapinynai. Vilnius: Mintis, 1968.
(Reference: Nowakowski and Banyt-Rowell 2001) LII R Lithuanian Institute of History, Archive, Vilnius.
LNB RS Lithunian National Library, Department of Manu-
(20) Joguiai (Klaipda district) scripts, Vilnius.
20.1. Joguiai, single horse grave (head) in Plot II; as-
sociation with male grave 1 in Plot I not established References
(Type IV.1). Manuscripts
Chronology: C1bC2 ABARAVIIUS, G., 1994. Moos (Nausod) pilkapyno
(AR-1662) (Trak raj., Auktadvario apyl.) archeologini
(Reference: Tamulynas 2005) tyrim ataskaita /1994 m./. LII, R, f.1, b. 2339.
(21) Dauglaukis (Taurag district) ASTRAUSKAS, A., 1998. Marvels bendruomen (II a. pa- II
baigaV a.). Daktaro disertacija. Humanitariniai mokslai
21.1. Dauglaukis, male grave 12, with horse head and (kodas 05 H Istorija). Thesis (PhD). Vilnius University. BARBARIAN
WA R R I O R S
part of spine in the same grave pit (Type I.2). LNB RS, f. 132736. FROM THE
BALINAS, J., 1984. Dauglaukio kapinyno (Taurags raj.) B A LT I C T O
Chronology: B2/C1C1a 1983 met valgomj archeologini tyrinjim ataskaita. THE DANUBE
LII, R, f.1, b. 1144.
21.2. Dauglaukis, single horse head (Type IV.1). BALENINAS, P., 1940. Lazdinink kapinyno, Kretingos
Chronology not clear; trench without clearly dated ma- raj., 1940 m. kasinjim dienynas. LII, R, f. 1, b. 978.
BANYT ROVELL, R., 2001. Vakar Lietuvos kapinyn
terial. su akmen vainikais kultrin sritis III a.V a. pradioje.
(Reference: Balinas 1984; Jovaia, Asadauskas Daktaro disertacija, Humanitariniai mokslai, istorija (05H).
Thesis (PhD). Vilnius University.
1993)
JABLONSKIS, I., 1979. Padvari pilkapiai. Kretingos r-nas,
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115
Wa r r i o r H i e r a r c h y i n We s t e r n III mogaus ir irgo palaidojim grup sudaro kom-
Horses as a Reflection of the
Armed Men and their Riding
DONATAS
BUTKUS
116
F O R E I G N I N F L U E N C E S O N T H E W E A P O N RY
BALTICA 8
O F B O G A C Z E W O A N D S U D O V I A N C U LT U R E S .
THE CASE OF THE SHAFTED WEAPON
BARTOSZ KONTNY
ARCHAEOLOGIA
Abstract
The author shows traces of the influence on the Baltic shafted weapon from the territory of Poland (Bogaczewo Culture,
Sudovian Culture). These cultures present completely different views of the shafted weapon. In the former, the Przeworsk
cultural impact prevailed, in the latter the Lithuanian influence is noticeable.
Key words: weapon, Bogaczewo Culture, Sudovian Culture, shafted weapon, the Roman Period.
Przeworsk Culture (1995), J. Ilkjr (1991) and J. Bem- from Dubravka, are stylistically earlier and should be
Foreign Influences on the
mann and G. Hahne (1994) for Scandinavia, and, last attributed to Phase B211. The described model of deco-
o f t h e S h a f t e d We a p o n
but not least, V. Kazakeviius (1988) for Lithuania. ration was probably taken from Przeworsk Culture;
less plausibly, it came from Scandinavia, as Norwegian
specimens known by me12 represent Hunn type, ie a
Ornamented lance heads
slightly different form of head (Ilkjr 1990, p.149, pl.
197).
First of all, I tried to deal with the problem of orna-
mented lance heads. They appeared very scarce in Bo- Another kind of decoration we should deal with is the
gaczewo Culture, and only exceptionally in Sudovian so-called negative ornament in the shape of triangles
Culture (so far a single specimen). One kind of orna- (Fig. 2). It was quite popular in Przeworsk Culture
BARTOSZ
KONTNY
ment may be circumscribed as short lines, punched on during the late stage of Phase B2 and in Phase C1a, ap-
the blade surface, vertical or parallel to the edges of pearing mainly on heads of type VIII and XII after
the blade (Fig. 1). We may enumerate here an example P.Kaczanowski (1995). Some scholars assume that
from grave 13 at Marcinkowo (on a lance head type they actually represent a kind of weapon typical of
VII.1 after P.Kaczanowski) and from Stara Rudwka, Wielbark Culture (Kaczanowski and Zaborowski 1988,
grave 13 (type I.4/II.3 after P.Kaczanowski). Similar p.235, Fig. 9). Obviously, we generally do not know
but not identical decoration is confirmed in Dollkeim- Wielbark Culture armaments, but triangular, negative
Kovrovo Culture: on the lance head type I.4/II.3 after decoration seems to be characteristic of it (it appears
P.Kaczanowski from grave 154 at Tiulenino (formerly quite frequently on pottery). There is also a single ex-
Viehof) found together with shield boss type Jahn 8 ample known from Bogaczewo Culture: the head of a
(Jahn 1916), as well as an example from Dubravka, shafted weapon type XII.2 after P.Kaczanowski from
Zelenogradsk district (formerly Regehnen). Although grave 13 at Stara Rudwka. Therefore, the triangular
such a pattern is confirmed also for Luboszyce Culture, pattern might have been adopted from Przeworsk as
Lubusz Group, Elbian Circle and Scandinavia, it was well as Wielbark Culture. It seems, nevertheless, that it
most popular in Przeworsk Culture. I have dealt with was made by local craftsmen. It might be confirmed by
the problem lately (Kontny 2004), and it occurred to Bogaczewo Culture specimens from Stara Rudwka
me that its origins came from the Late Pre-Roman Pe- (quoted above) but also from Paprotki-Kolonia type
riod, but generally it appeared in the late stage of Phase VII.1 after P.Kaczanowski (presented lately by Jan
B1 and in Phase B2. Starting from Phase B2 there spread Bogacki during the Fourth International Scientific
a new variant of the decoration in question: it only had Conference in Honour of Jonas Puzinas held in Vil-
smaller, arched surfaces punched along the midrib. It nius, 11 to 13 October 2005). The triangular pattern
lasted till phase C1a (this is also the case of the lance here embraced the whole blade or was doubled and
head from grave 13 at Marcinkowo). In Phase C1 also became a negative square one. There are no other
different variations of the punched lines pattern were objects of that kind known from the Central European
present, eg one stamped with a utensil with an arched barbaricum, so probably it is of local origin influenced
or pointed punching end, one with a herring-bone de- from the outside.
sign, or even one with lines acquired with the use of
We should also recall two ornamented lance heads of
etching, ie treated with acid10.
unclear chronology. The first of them comes from ne-
The example from Tiulenino should be counted as the cropolis at Babita, grave 372 (Fig. 3: bc). It is deco-
late group, as it had a crescent punched pattern, but rated with a zigzag pattern, placed on the blade along
the midrib. It was mentioned several times in literature
I am not taking into consideration punched ornaments of
different kinds and patterns, very popular eg in Scandina- (Okulicz 1973, p.355; Jaskanis, Okulicz 1981, p.222;
via in the Early and Late Roman Period (see: Ilkjr 1990, Nowakowski 2002, p.139), starting from Wilhelm
p.32ff., Fig. 20). Gaertes Urgeschichte Ostpreussen (1929, Abb. 196.
It is gathered in the Prussia Collection (Museum fr Vor- d), who put it in an illustration presenting punched13
und Frhgeschichte in Berlin), inv. No. IV, 36, 4073, with
artefacts (Gaerte 1929, p.244); it is also included in M.
no more precise information.
From the territory of Luboszyce Culture eg Wilhelmsaue, Schmiedehelms files (7.20c/102). Although so far it
Kreis Frstenwalde, grave 33 (Kossina 1905, Fig. 12;
Schach-Drges 1969, p.53f., Fig. 17, pl. 16-19), Saders- 11
They were found with no dating elements but the chro-
dorf, Kreis Guben (Jentsch 1895, pl.3.1); from Przeworsk nology of certain types is precise enough to establish the
Culture: Zbchy, district Kocian (Kostrzewski 1914, chronology.
p.329, Fig. 748). 12
Eg Hunn, grave 2, Borge, Egge vre
parish and Tingels-
10
d-agiewniki,
district d
from the territory of Prze- tad, Brandbu parish (Resi 1986, p.70ff., pl. 5-9, 40).
worsk Culture (Kontny 2004). 13
In German: eingeschlagenen.
118
BALTICA 8
ARCHAEOLOGIA
II
BARBARIAN
WA R R I O R S
FROM THE
B A LT I C T O
THE DANUBE
Fig. 1. Heads of shafted weapon ornamented with pattern of short punched lines: af Baltic items; gi Przeworsk Culture;
a, b Stara Rudwka, grave 13 (a after Gaerte 1929, Abb. 196: f; b after M. Jahns files); c, d Marcinkowo, grave 13 (c after
Gaerte 1929, Abb. 196.a; d after M. Schmiedehelms files 7.13d. 47); e, f Tiulenino, grave 154 (e after Gaerte 1929, Abb.
196: c; f after M. Jahns files); g cinawa-Jew, loose find (Kontny 2001a, Fig. 4); h Grudynia Maa, grave 2 (Kontny
2003, pl. XVI: a); i Modzikowo, grave 100 (Dymaczewski 1958, Fig. 179.13).
has been linked with the Late Pre-Roman Period, we type XV or VII after P.Kaczanowski, and then dated
cannot exclude its later chronology. Late Pre-Roman to phases B2bC1a (Kaczanowski 1995, pl. XX). Simi-
specimens were decorated with such a pattern, but it larly punched decoration is confirmed for the territory
was acquired with acid treatment, punching and en- of Przeworsk Culture14, although it is not frequent here.
graving were surely excluded (uczkiewicz 2002, I
t was far more frequent in Scandinavia. J.
Ilkjr de-
p.17; Bochnak 2005, p.81ff.). Moreover, it does not
have equivalents, neither in the typology of Late Pre- 14
czany, Radom district, loose find (Cielak-Kopyt et al.
Roman heads proposed by T. Bochnak (2005), nor by 2004, p.87, Fig. 48) found on the necropolis dated to the
P.uczkiewicz (2006). Its exact dating is unknown, Early Roman Period (generally Phase B2) and Phase C1a.
but we may suppose that it should be attributed to As to the form of lance head, probably both specimens
were quite similar.
119
Sudovian Cultures. The Case
We a p o n r y o f B o g a c z e w o a n d
Foreign Influences on the
o f t h e S h a f t e d We a p o n
BARTOSZ
KONTNY
Fig. 2. Heads of shafted weapons decorated with negative ornaments in the shape of triangles: a Stara Rudwka, grave 13,
Bogaczewo Culture (M. Jahns files); b Garwolin, grave 57, Przeworsk Culture (Niewgowski 1991, Fig. 35.c); c Ni-
emirw, grave 1, Przeworsk Culture (Rusin 2001, Fig. 2).
scribed it as an ornamental type 3 (1990, Fig. 20). Its 1, Fig. 13). Nevertheless, due to the character of the
appearance was proved for so-called bog sites15. sketch, it is not quite clear whether we are dealing with
a Pre-Roman element. If this really was a Pre-Roman
The cemetery at Babita also delivered the second or-
specimen, it should be joined with Przeworsk Culture
namented lance head, from grave 321 (Fig. 3: a). Its
or Oksywie Culture influences (in detail: see Kontny,
shape is confirmed only by a very schematic drawing
forthcoming)16.
from M. Schmiedehelms files (7.13e/181, 7.20c/104),
which seems to show the specimen with a very long There are also two known examples of Bogaczewo Cul-
midrib (which is a Pre-Roman trait) and irregular ture heads with notched edges of the blades (Fig. 3.d,
decorating areas, possibly etched (?), assigned by fh)17. They came from abapa, grave 67 (La Baume
P.uczkiewicz to his group A, dated to the Late Pre- 1941a, p.87, pl. 30) and Muntowo, grave 120 (Gaerte
Roman Period (uczkiewicz 2002, pp.19-20, Table 16
The problem of attribution of both lance heads from
15
Eg Vimose (Engelhardt 1869, pl. 14: 4), Illerup (almost ex- Babita cannot be solved based on the Prussian Archive,
clusively on lance heads type 15 Vennolum, and sporadi- as despite the description of the grave furnishing, there is
cally also type 14 Skiaker, both characteristic of phase no precise information concerning the shape of the items
C1b; Ilkjr 1990, p.163, 328, Table 102, Fig. 197), Nydam and type of ornament here (SMB-PK/MVF, PM-A 096/1,
(G. Bemmann and J. Bemmann 1998, pl. 71.685), type 244, 247).
Lynghjgrd, characteristic of phases B2C1 (Ilkjr 1990, 17
I am aware of the discussion concerning the function of
Fig. 328). notches, and also arguments questioning its ornamental
120
1929, Abb. 196: b; Nowakowski
BALTICA 8
2003, p.203 and 209, pl. XXI: 6;
Kontny, forthcoming). The for-
mer, made in a very careful way,
has the closest analogies in Prze-
worsk Culture materials (Fig. 3:
e), eg Weski, Kalisz district,
site 1, grave 45 (Dbrowscy
ARCHAEOLOGIA
1967, Fig. 52: 3) and probably it
was an import. The latter, more
primitive, seems to be of local
origin. Both should be dated
to Phase A3 or A3/B1 (Kontny,
forthcoming).
As well as the blade decoration,
we should not forget the differ-
ent marks located on the sockets.
The most important is here the
pattern of horizontal
(or/and ob-
lique) incisions and engravings
made near the hole for a rivet
or nail fastening in the socket. II
I have tackled the problem to-
BARBARIAN
gether with K. Czarnecka (Czar- WA R R I O R S
necka, Kontny, forthcoming; see FROM THE
B A LT I C T O
also Kontny 2001, p.118). A par- THE DANUBE
ticularly numerous model con-
sists of horizontal, straight, not
very deep lines, usually of sever-
al millimetres in length, located
in the lower part of the socket.
It was spotted on a Bogaczewo
Culture spearhead from Judziki,
type F2/G after P.Kaczanowski,
as well as a lance head from
grave 107 at Bogaczewo-Kula
and lance heads from Strgiel
Wielki, site II, grave 63 (Fig.
4: a), Skomack-Ostrw (loose
find). Such marks appear also
on Sudovian ones. We may enu-
merate here Drstwo (type XIII
after P.Kaczanowski) and Os-
owa, barrow 114, grave 2 (close
Fig. 3. Ornamented and notched heads of shafted weapons: a Babita I, grave 321 to type II after V. Kazakeviius).
(M. Schmiedehelms files 7.20c.104), Bogaczewo Culture; b, c Babita I, grave 372 Actually, it was not the decora-
(b after Gaerte 1929, Fig. 196: d; c after M. Schmiedehelms files 7.20c.102), Bogac-
tion but simply the technologi-
zewo Culture; d abapa, grave 67 (La Baume 1941a, pl. 30), Bogaczewo Culture; e
Weski, grave 45, Przeworsk Culture (Dbrowscy 1967, Fig. 52: 3); f, h Muntowo, cal trace. They probably served
grave 120, Bogaczewo Culture (f after H. Jankuhns files; g after Gaerte 1929, Abb. to make the socket thinner, and,
196: b; h after M. Jahns files) . as a result, easier to punch a
rivet or nail hole in. It should be
BALTICA 8
it directly with the Celtic
heritage. Inasmuch as
representations of human
heads are one of the most
characteristic motifs in
Celtic art, the eye motif it-
self is almost entirely un-
ARCHAEOLOGIA
known. It refers rather to
German mythology. The
eye may thus be somehow
connected with the figure
of Odin/Votan. This de-
ity devoted his own eye
to gain wisdom, knowl-
edge of the supernatural.
It should be remembered
that his attribute was the
spear. It is not known how
old the story of Odin/Vo-
tans eye is, or whether
it was known in Roman
times. The representations II
on the bracteates from BARBARIAN
WA R R I O R S
the Migration Period are FROM THE
interpreted as images of B A LT I C T O
THE DANUBE
Odin/Votan, so it should
be assumed that this myth
might have been known
a little earlier18. Drawing
the eye motif on the head
of a spear, Odin/Votans
weapon, is absolutely un-
derstandable, and may
symbolise the act of evok-
ing this deity of war and
BALTICA 8
etery at Pakalniai, barrow 2, grave 2,
dated to the Late Migration Period.
A problem drawing special atten-
tion is the only decorated lance head
from Sudovian Culture, found at Sz-
wajcaria, in barrow 2, grave 1, the
ARCHAEOLOGIA
only known inlaid specimen from
Baltic territory (Fig. 5). The surface
of its blade is fostered with symbolic
meanings: there are solar and crescent
motifs here, known from numerous
Przeworsk Culture or generally Cen-
tral European objects of that kind.
It was discussed several times by
scholars, eg J. Antoniewicz claimed
that it was a Przeworsk Culture im-
port (Antoniewicz 1962, p.198ff.),
but P.Kaczanowski questioned that
statement, taking into consideration
the fact that it was generally of non-
Przeworsk form (Kaczanowski 1988, II
p.64). Actually, it is very similar to
BARBARIAN
type XV after P.Kaczanowski, but WA R R I O R S
there are technological premises to FROM THE
B A LT I C T O
exclude the import theory. As far THE DANUBE
as I know, all Przeworsk Culture in-
laid decorations on heads of shafted Fig. 7. Bogaczewo Culture local forms of shafted weapon heads: a Spychwko,
weapons were made in the following loose find (Gaerte 1929, Fig.
149: a); b Bogaczewo-Kula, loose find (drawn by
way: small depressions in the sur- B. Kontny).
face were punched or engraved, then
125
Sudovian Cultures. The Case
We a p o n r y o f B o g a c z e w o a n d
Foreign Influences on the
o f t h e S h a f t e d We a p o n
BARTOSZ
KONTNY
Fig. 9. Scandinavian types of heads of shafted weapon from Sudovian Culture: a Netta, grave 81, type Saeli/Ilkjr
23?
(drawn by B. Kontny); b Szwajcaria, barrow 2, grave 1, type Vennolum (drawn by B. Kontny); c Osowa, barrow 13, type
Mollestad (Jaskanis 1958, p.90, pl. XIX: 4).
filled with molten silver and finally polished after set- In concluding, we may assume that we are dealing with
ting. Instead, the specimen from Szwajcaria was orna- a form influenced by Przeworsk Culture but surely lo-
mented with silver fragments cut out in a sheet of silver, cally made.
and then pressed down the holes in the blades surface.
There is one more non-Przeworsk trait: the rivet head Shafted weapon heads from
ornamented in a typically Baltic way, ie pearl-wire en- Bogaczewo and Sudovian cultures
circling it. We should remember that at that time (late
stage of Phase C1b) inlaid ornamentation was no longer As for types of heads of shafted weapons, we may notice
used in Przeworsk Culture (Kaczanowski 1988, p.63). a surprisingly different situation if we take into consider-
126
XV, XVIII, XXI.
BALTICA 8
Also, we have to
mention the scarce
but registered
barbed spearheads
of type G, F2/G
and L.3. It should
be underlined,
ARCHAEOLOGIA
nevertheless, that
sometimes local so-
lutions also appear:
eg loose finds from
Bogaczewo-Kula
and Spychwko
(Fig. 7). Other
cultural elements:
Scandinavian and
eastern are hardly
recognizable; only
some rarely noticed
features like the
concave upper part
of the blade (Koc- II
zek II, grave 22), a BARBARIAN
WA R R I O R S
wide conical socket FROM THE
(Onufryjewo, grave B A LT I C T O
THE DANUBE
187), or the quite
frequent employ-
ment of nails (not
only rivets, I no-
ticed on roughly a
quarter of the speci-
mens) to fasten the
socket seem to be
eastern traits.
The most popular
were types VII, VIII
and XII, partly also
X, XIIIXV (Fig.
8). Frequently they
had faceted sockets.
Examples of types
III and XVII,
XVIII are rarely
Fig. 10. Sudovian
Culture heads of shafted weapons: a Netta, loose find, type IB variant after V. spotted. Neverthe-
Kazakeviius (drawn by B. Kontny); b Szwajcaria, barrow 8, type IVA after Kazakeviius (drawn
by B. Kontny); c Szwajcaria, barrow 5, type IB after Kazakeviius (drawn by B. Kontny); d Netta, less, some forms
grave 55, type II after Kazakeviius (Bitner-Wrblewska, in print); e Netta, grave 42B, type ID seem to be more
variant after V. Kazakeviius (Bitner-Wrblewska 2007). primitive than their
Przeworsk Culture
ation Bogaczewo and Sudovian cultures. In the former, models, eg specimens of type XII from grave 107
influence Przeworsk Culture is overwhelming. Almost at Bogaczewo-Kula. The V-shaped lower part of the
all typically Przeworsk types represented in Bogacze- blade proved on specimens of type VI, VII, VIII from
wo Culture material (Fig. 6). We may list examples of Bogaczewo Culture seems to be also of local origin.
type I, II, V, VI and VIII, VII, X, XI, XII, XIIIXIV, We should not forget the rarity on barbed spearheads
127
and other forms (like type VI after P.Kaczanowski), barb, based on the Scandinavian pattern22. The most as-
Sudovian Cultures. The Case
We a p o n r y o f B o g a c z e w o a n d
very popular in Przeworsk Culture. Therefore, I be- tonishing is the fact that the vast majority of Sudovian
Foreign Influences on the
lieve that the overwhelming majority of Bogaczewo lance heads (Fig. 10) should be linked with examples
o f t h e S h a f t e d We a p o n
Culture shafted weapon heads were produced in local described by V. Kazakeviius (1988). Most frequent
workshops, and so far eventual Przeworsk Culture im- are specimens of type IB (inc. its variant), then IVA,
ports are almost impossible to point out. finally IA, ID, II and different mixed types.
Chronological aspects are hard to scrutinize, as lance
heads frequently come from graves with no pre- Conclusions
cise chronological indicators. Despite this, there are
grounds enough to draw some conclusions and state In concluding, it should be stressed that we are deal-
that generally there are no discrepancies in dating of ing with two different milieus as regards heads of
BARTOSZ
KONTNY
Przeworsk Culture artefacts and Bogaczewo Culture shafted weapons, which are very good cultural indi-
ones. An astounding fact is that specimens dated to the cators. Bogaczewo Culture, as far as we know, was
later stages of the Roman period, starting from phase strongly influenced by Przeworsk Culture, although
C1b are unique. The latest specimens known by me are there are also local elements noticeable. The Sudovian
loose finds from Skomack, Pociczno (both type XXIII lance heads and spearheads, on the contrary, expressed
after P.Kaczanowski) and Drstwo (type I.V after V. mainly Lithuanian forms. We should remember that,
Kazakeviius). The first type is dated to phase C2 and hypothetically, Sudovian Culture appeared as a mix-
the chronology of the other is not precise. I have to ture of eastern and western (Bogaczewo Culture) ele-
stress the fact that these two objects may not be linked ments (see eg Nowakowski 1995, p.76ff.; Vaitkeviius
unequivocally with Bogaczewo Culture, eg in the late 2005). Taking into consideration the heads of shafted
stages of the Late Roman Period the Augustw re- weapons, this theory is delivered with a strong prem-
gion, where Drstwo is placed, should rather be joined ise. Scandinavian specimens create here evidence of
with Sudovian Culture, whilst an item from Pociczno northern influence of so far unknown importance. It
should be uneqivocally linked with it. demands further research to conclude how strong the
Scandinavian current was.
A completely different situation existed in Sudovian
Culture. Heads of shafted weapons as a whole cannot Translated by the author
be fitted to Kaczanowskis scheme. There are a few List of Baltic shafted weapon heads
typically Przeworsk Culture lance heads (eg Szwajcar- m e n t i o n e d i n t h e t e x t 23:
ia, barrow 41 and ywa Woda, barrow 6, both type VI;
Abbreviations
Osowa, barrow 114, grave 2, type XII20), from the ear-
liest stage of Sudovian Culture. Probably they should AMW State Archaeological Museum in Warsaw.
be connected with the Bogaczewo Culture influence on PMB Podlaskie Museum in Biaystok.
the process of formation of Sudovian Culture. Never- Prussia Collection in MVF Prussia Collection in the Muse-
um fr Vor- und Frhgeschichte in Berlin.
theless, Scandinavian influences seem to be of greater
importance (Fig. 9). We may mention here the lance
head from Osowa, barrow 13, very close to type Moll- 22
In the Przeworsk Culture such spear-heads described as
estad (C3-D1 Phases), the lance head from ywa Woda, a type O after P.Kaczanowski are extremely rare. So far
barrow 16, which should be attributed to type Vennno- there are known only two examples of that kind: Sulmi-
erzyce, Kalisz com. (according to A. Gazowska M.A.
lum or Drby, the specimen of type Vennolum from Sz- from the Archaeological Museum in Pozna, it was prob-
wajcaria, barrow 2, grave 1 from Phase C1b (see Ilkjr ably found together with fibula type 132 after O. Almgren
1990, p.387; von Carnap-Bornheim and Ilkjr 2001, (1923) and shield boss type 7a after M. Jahn (1916)) and a
p.320, 477), and Netta, grave 81, spearhead type Saeli loose find from Wola Skarbkowa, Radziejw (parish) (see:
or Ilkjr 23, probably from Phase B2b or C1a21 (Bitner- Kaczanowski 1995, p.35).
23
I would like to express my gratitute to Anna Bitner-Wr-
Wrblewska 2002). The last one had a facetted socket blewska PhD from the State Archaeological Museum in
and the remains of a blade protruding from the upper Warsaw, Katarzyna Rusin M.A. from Podlaskie Museum
part of a clearly visible socket. Probably we are deal- in Biaystok, Christine Reich PhD and Horst Wieder PhD
ing with a locally made lance head (type Kaczanowski from the Museum fr Vor- und Frhgeschichte in Berlin,
Prof. Dr habil Wojciech Nowakowski and Anna Juga-
VIII) that was rearranged into a spearhead with one
Szymaska MA from the Institute of Archaeology, Warsaw
University, Mirosaw Hoffmann PhD from the Museum of
Warmia and Mazury in Olsztyn, and last but not least Prof.
20
Found together with belt buckle type G 43 after Madyda-
Dr Claus von Carnap-Bornheim from Archologisches
Legutko (1987), belt-end fitting type J.IV.1 after Raddatz
Landesmuseum Schlo Gottorf in Schleswig, for their help
(1957) and another lance head.
and for giving me an opportunity to use the collections and
21
A horseshoe fibula was found there.
128 archives they keep.
1. Babita, Mrgowo district, site I (formerly Babienten, 20. Netta, Augustw district, loose find (Bitner-Wrblewska
BALTICA 8
Kreis Sensburg), grave 321 (M. Schmiedehelms files 2007; collection of
AMW
, inv. no PMA IV/364), type IB
7.20c.104; Prussia Archive SMB-PK/MVF, PM-A 096/1, variant after V. Kazakeviius.
244), type? 21. Onufryjewo, Pisz district (formerly
Onufrigowen, Kreis
2. Babita, Mrgowo district, site I (formerly Babienten, Sensburg), grave 187 (H. Jankuhns files; Prussia Archive
Kreis Sensburg), grave 372 (Gaerte 1929, Fig. 196: d; M. SMB-PK/MVF, PM-A 1162/1, 145), close to type I.G or
Schmiedehelms files 7.20c.102; Prussia Archive SMB- I.D after V. Kazakeviius? (wide socket).
PK/MVF, PM-A 096/1, 247), type? 22. Osowa, Suwaki district, barrow 13 (Jaskanis 1958, p.90,
3. Bogaczewo-Kula, Giycko district (formerly Kullabrcke pl. XIX:
4), type Mollestad.
ARCHAEOLOGIA
near Bogatzewen, Kreis Ltzen), grave 107 (Okulicz 23. Osowa, Suwaki district, barrow 114, grave 2 (Jaskanis
1958, p.59, pl. III: 5; collection of Museum of Warmia 1962, p.274, pl. VII: 6;
collection of PMB, inv. no MB/
and Mazury in Olsztyn, inv. no 1302/69), type XII.2 after A/128, 542343).
P.Kaczanowski. 24. Osowa, Suwaki district, barrow 114, grave 2 (Jaskanis
4. Bogaczewo-Kula, Giycko district (formerly Kullabrcke 1962, p.274, pl. VII: 7;
collection of PMB, inv. no MB/
near Bogatzewen, Kreis Ltzen), loose find (Okulicz 1958, A/128, 542344).
p.59, pl. XIII: 4; collection of Museum of Warmia and 25. Pakalniai, Vilnius district, barrow 2, grave 2 (Vaitkeviius
Mazury in Olsztyn, inv. no 982/69), local form. 2003, Fig. 7: 4), type IG? after V. Kazakeviius.
5. Bogaczewo-Kula, Giycko district (formerly Kullabrcke 26. Paprotki-Kolonia, Giycko district, type VII.1 after
near Bogatzewen, Kreis Ltzen), grave in stone cist? (M. P.Kaczanowski.
Jahns files; Okulicz 1958, pl. XIII:
6), type XII after 27. Pociczno, Suwaki district, grave 9 (Prussia collection in
P.Kaczanowski. MVF, inv. no PM 1941: 100), type XXIII.2 after P.Kac-
6. Drstwo, Augustw district, loose find (collection of PMB zanowski.
inv. no MB/A/130, 564), type XIII after P.Kaczanowski. 28. Skomack-Ostrw, Ek district, loo
se find (collection of
7. Drstwo, Augustw district, loose find (collection of PMB PMB, inv. no MB/A/233, 1163), type XXIII.2 after P.Kac-
inv. no MB/A/130, 566), type I.V after V. Kazakeviius. zanowski.
8. Dubravka, Zelenogradsk
raj.
(formerly Regehnen, Kreis 29. Skrzypy, Giycko district (formerly Steinhof, Kreis An-
Fischhausen), in Prussia collection in MVF, inv. no IV, 36, gerburg), loose find (H. Jankuhns files), 2 specimens) of II
4073). type X? after P.Kaczanowski.
9. Judziki, Augustw district, loose find (Marciniak 1950, pl. 30. Spychwko, Szczytno district (formerly Klein-Puppen, BARBARIAN
WA R R I O R S
XVIII: 10; collection of AMW
, inv. no PMA IV/201, 67), Kreis Ortelsburg),
loose find (Gaerte 1929, Fig. 149: a), FROM THE
type F2/G after P.Kaczanowski. local form. B A LT I C T O
10. Judziki, Augustw district, loose find (Marciniak 1950, 31. Stara Rudwka, Giycko district (formerly Alt Ru- THE DANUBE
p.59, pl. XVIII: 12; collection of
AMW
inv. no PMA dowken, Kreis Sensburg), grave 13 (Gaerte 1929, Fig. 196:
IV/201, 65), type XIV/XV after P.Kaczanowski. f; M. Jahns files; Prussia Archive SMB-PK/MVF, PM-A
11. Koczek, Szczytno district (formerly Kotzeck, Kreis Jo- without no), type I.4/II.1 after P.Kaczanowski.
hannisburg), site II, grave 22 (H. Jankuhns files), close to 32. Stara Rudwka, Giycko district (formerly Alt Ru-
type Ilkjr 4? dowken, Kreis Sensburg), grave 13 (M. Jahns files), type
12. abapa, Giycko district (formerly
Labap, Kreis Anger- XII.2 after P.Kaczanowski.
burg), grave 67 (La Baume 1941a, p.87, pl. 30), type S1 33. Strgiel Wielki, Giycko district (formerly Gro Stren-
after P.uczkiewicz,
7c after T. Bochnak. geln, Kreis Angerburg), site II, grave 63 (Herbert Jankuhns
13. Marcinkowo, Mrgowo district (formerly Mertinsdorf, files; Prussia collection in MVF, inv. no PM 13774); type
Kreis Sensburg), gr. 13 (M. Jahn files; M. Schmiedehelms H1 after P.uczkiewicz (2006, p.119) or 7d after T. Boch-
files 7.13d.47; Gaerte 1929, Abb.196: a). nak (2005, p.119).
14. Mitkie, Szczytno district (formerly Mingfen, Kreis Or- 34. Strgiel Wielki (formerly Gro Strengeln, Kreis Anger-
telsburg), loose find (Nowakowski 1998, p.77, 118, Fig. burg), site II, grave 128 (Herbert Jankhuhns files, Martin
26: 342, pl. 17: 342), type XIII after P.Kaczanowski. Jahns files); type C3 after P.uczkiewicz (2006, p.109-
15. Muntowo, Mrgowo district (formerly Alt-Muntowen, 110) or 7d? after T. Bochnak (2005, p.78).
Kreis Sensburg), grave 47 (Gaerte 1929, Fig. 147: k), type 35. Szwajcaria, Suwaki district, barrow 2, grave 1 (Antonie-
VII after P.Kaczanowski. wicz et al. 1958, p.26, 31, pl. V:
6; collection of AMW,
16. Muntowo, Mrgowo district (formerly Alt-Muntowen, inv. no PMA IV/4998, 88), type XV after P.Kaczanowski.
Kreis Sensburg), grave 120 (Gaerte 1929, Fig. 196: b; 36. Szwajcaria, Suwaki district, barrow 2, grave 1 (Antonie-
Nowakowski 2003, p.203, 209, pl.
XXI: 6; Kontny, in wicz et al. 1958, p.26, 31, pl. V:
7; collection of AMW,
print; H. Jankuhns files; M. Jahns files; M. Schmie- inv. no PMA IV/4998, 89), type Vennolum.
dehlms files 7.13e.480), type S2 after P.uczkiewicz, 7c 37. Szwajcaria, Suwaki district, barrow 5 (Antoniewicz
after T. Bochnak. 1961, p.4, pl.
I: 15; collection of
AMW
, inv. no PMA
17. Netta, Augustw district, grave 42B (Bitner-Wrblewska IV/4998, 231), type IB after V. Kazakeviius.
2007; collection of AMW
, inv. no PMA IV/364), type ID 38. Szwajcaria, Suwaki district, barrow 8 (Antoniewicz aet
variant after V. Kazakeviius. al. 1956, p.311, pl.
XXVIII: 5; collection of
AMW
, inv. no
18. Netta, Augustw district, grave 55 (Bitner-Wrblewska PMA IV/4998, 4), type IVA after V. Kazakeviius.
2007; collection of
AMW
, inv. no PMA IV/364), type II 39. Szwajcaria, Suwaki district, barrow 41 (Antoniewicz et
after V. Kazakeviius. al. 1958, p.41, pl.
XII: 6; collection of AMW, inv. no PMA
19. Netta, Augustw district, grave 81 (Bitner-Wrblews- IV/4998, 195), type VI. 1 after P.Kaczanowski.
ka 2002, p.287, Fig. 3: 3; collection of
AMW
, inv. no 40. Tiulenino, raj. Polessk (formerly Viehof, Kreis Labiau),
PMA IV/364), type Saeli/Ilkjr 23 or VIII? after P.Kac- grave 154 (Hollack 1893, p.26; Gaerte 1929, Fig. 196: c;
zanowski. M. Jahns files), type I.4/II.3 after P.Kaczanowski.
129
41.
Wonice, Mrgowo district (formerly Wosnitzen, Kreis CIELAK-KOPYT, M. et al. 2004. Radomskie alfabet wy-
Sudovian Cultures. The Case
We a p o n r y o f B o g a c z e w o a n d
Sensburg), loose find (H. Jankuhns files), type I after kopalisk. Przewodnik archeologiczny. Radom.
Foreign Influences on the
42. Wyszembork, Mrgowo district, grave 33 (Szymaski ply ornament or something more? Marks of undetermined
2005, pl. XXV: 3), type VI after P.Kaczanowski. function found on Barbarian lance- and spearheads. Jour-
43. Wyszembork, Mrgowo district, grave 12 (Szymaski nal of Roman Military Equipment Studies, 16.
2005, pl. XIII: 7), type XVII after P.Kaczanowski. DBROWSCY, I. AND K., 1967. Cmentarzysko z okresw
44. ywa Woda, Suwaki district, barrow 6 (Ziemliska-Od- pnolateskiego i wpyww rzymskich w Weskach, pow.
ojowa 1958, p.103, Fig. 5), type VI.2 after P.Kaczanow- Kalisz. Wrocaw-Warszawa-Krakw.
ski. DYMACZEWSKI, A., 1958. Cmentarzysko z okresu rzym-
45. ywa
Woda, Suwaki district, barrow 16 (Ziemliska- roda. Fontes Archaeologici
skiego w Modzikowie pow.
Odojowa 1966, pp.234-235, Fig. 5; collection of PMB, Posnanienses, VIIIIX, 179-442.
inv. no MB/A/155, 694), type Vennolum or Drby. ENGELHARDT, C., 1869. Vimose Fundet. Kjbenhavn.
BARTOSZ
BALTICA 8
nowi w siedemdziesit rocznic urodzin. wiatowit Su- vor Christi Geburt. Akten der Internationalen Tagung in
pplement Series P: Prehistory and Middle Ages. VII. Naczw, 23. bis 25.
September
1999. Lublin, 137-146.
Warszawa, 117
-
125. OKULICZ, J., 1958. Cmentarzysko z okresu rzymskiego
KONTNY, B., 2001a. Uzbrojenie kultury przeworskiej z odkryte w miejscowoci Bogaczewo, na przysiku Kula,
okresu wpyww rzymskich odkryte w 1884 roku w miej- pow. Giycko. Rocznik Olsztyski, I, 47
-
116.
scowoci cinawa-Jew (Georgendorf). Silesia Antiqua, OKULICZ, J., 1973. Pradzieje ziem pruskich od pnego
42, 77
-
95. paleolitu do VII w. n. e. Wrocaw-Warszawa-Krakw-
KONTNY, B., 2003. Die
Wiederentdeckung eines Fundes Gdask.
ARCHAEOLOGIA
aus Grudynia Maa Versuch einer Neuinterpretation des RADDATZ, K., 1957. Der Thorsberger Moorfund, Grtel-
Grabes 2. In: W. NOWAKOWSKI, and M. LEMKE, eds. teile und Krperschmuck. Offa-Bcher, 13, Neumnster.
Auf der Suche nach der verlorenen Archologie. Warsza- RESI, H.G., 1986. Gravplassen Hunn i stfold. Norske Old-
wa, 61-71. funn. XII. Oslo.
KONTNY, B., 2004. (forthcoming). Dawna technika na RUSIN, K., 2001.
Cmentarzysko kultury przeworskiej w
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CARNAP-BORNHEIM et al., eds. Bewaffnung der Ger-
131
inoma i Marcinkovo (kapas 13) ir Stara Rudwkos beveik iimtinai tik Pevorsko kultros paminkluose.
Sudovian Cultures. The Case
We a p o n r y o f B o g a c z e w o a n d
(kapas 13) kapinyn bei analogij Dollkeimo-Kovrovo is specialiai ietigalio movoje padarytas enklas buvo
Foreign Influences on the
kultros paminkluose (Tulenino kapo 154 ir Dubrav- ne tik technologikai pagrstas, bet ir dekoratyvinis, jis
o f t h e S h a f t e d We a p o n
kos) (1: ef pav.). Net jei ornamentuoti ietigaliai yra galjo turti ir magin paskirt.
inomi vairiose Vidurio Europos vietose, jie vis dlto
Keli inkrustacijos technologija pagaminti dirbiniai yra
B2 periodu populiariausi buvo Pevorsko kultroje.
inomi i sduvi kultros (5 pav.). veicarijos pilka-
Kitas Pevorsko kultrai bdingas ietigali plunks-
pyne, pilkapyje 2, kape 1, rasto ietigalio plunksna yra
n ornamentas yra trikampiai, idstyti veidrodinio
inkrustuota enklais, inomais i Pevorsko kultros
atspindio principu abipus briaunos. Pevorsko kul-
ar bdingais visai Vidurio Europai (sauls ir mnulio
troje ietigaliai, dekoruoti tokiu ornamentu, skiriami
motyvai) (5 pav.). Mintas veicarijos pilkapyno ieti-
B2 ir C1a periodams (2: bc pav.). Pavieni ietigali,
galis pagamintas kitokiu nei Pevorsko kultros bdu:
BARTOSZ
KONTNY
132
III. BOG FINDS AND THE PREHISTORIC
BALTICA 8
LANDSCAPE
ARCHAEOLOGIA
O N R O M A N O - G E R M A N I C R E L AT I O N S H I P S
R E G A R D I N G E A R LY T H I R D C E N T U RY M I L I TA R I A
Abstract
Thorsberg has revealed a large amount of Roman originals and Germanic copies as regards weaponry and status symbols of
third-century Germanic elites. The weaponry of Thorsberg is ideal material to analyse the mechanisms of contacts between
Barbarian societies and the so-called advanced civilizations. This concerns craftsmanship, signs of power and the choice
of different precious materials.
Key words: war booty sacrifice, bog find, the third century, military equipment, Romano-Germanic contacts, Romanization,
sword sets, chapes.
The importance of bog finds umf Norden i skyggen af det romerske Imperium in III
summer 2003 in Copenhagen, the state of the research BOG FINDS
Certainly
no other type of find from the Roman Em- was recorded impressively, in the comprehensive cata- AND THE
PREHISTORIC
pire in barbaricum permits such differentiated insights logue containing many important articles (Jrgensen et LANDSCAPE
into the role of war and the military as the war booty al. 2003). With the research project Jernalderen i Nor-
sacrifices from southern Scandinavia. Today more than deuropa (Carnap-Bornheim and Ilkjr 2006; Abegg-
25,000 objects are known, most importantly from Il- Wigg 2005; Abegg-Wigg and Rau, forthcoming; www.
lerup, Nydam, Thorsberg and Vimose, providing us kaiserzeitimnorden.de) international cooperation is
with crucial information on the material culture rang- allowing the reappraisal of other complexes (Nydam,
ing from military shipping and cavalry to soldiers Thorsberg, Vimose) so that by 2009/2010 the academic
weaponry and personal equipment, as well as insights reappraisal of these and other bog finds will be com-
into social and military relations and their dynamics pleted provisionally some 150 years after they were
in the first four centuries AD. Especially in the past first approached scientifically by Conrad Engelhardt
15 years, considerable advances have been made here. (for research history see rsnes 1969, Vff.).
The material has been chronologically integrated into
The potential of the Thorsberg finds for answering
a convincing framework (Ilkjr 1990), and in addition
questions of Romano-Germanic contacts is exam-
we are able today to work with a national model based
ined below using several selected examples. We have
on origin and mobility (Ilkjr 1993). On the basis of
concentrated on examples which elucidate especially
progressively documented finds and features, it is now
clearly the existing possibilities and future exercises in
at last possible to once again assemble large sets of
research in and about Thorsberg.
complex pieces of weapons and equipment, thereby
isolating individual sets from the massive amounts of
finds (v. Carnap-Bornheim and Ilkjr 1996). The com- The Thorsberg militaria
plete publication of material excavated long ago has
also led to the material basis being significantly broad- It is well known that a large number of Roman ob-
ened (Raddatz 1987; Bemmann and Bemmann 1998). jects were imported into the barbaricum (Erdrich and
In numerous specialist studies, light has been thrown v.Carnap-Bornheim 2004), making the Roman influ-
on individual aspects of the find material (eg Werner ence visible in many parts of Germanic life. However,
1941; Raddatz 1957; with numerous references too in it has been the non-military imports, be they objects of
Jrgensen et al. 2003). With the exhibition Sejrens Tri- bronze or glass, as well as coins, which have hitherto
133
come to the fore in the discussion. From bog finds, just generation descendants could already serve in the
single groups of Roman militaria have been registered legions. In the year 212 the situation changed with the
Some Remarks on Romano-
he Thorsberg Bog Find:
so far (v.Carnap-Bornheim 1991). Only now, with so-called Constitutio Antoniniana, an edict from the
Germanic Relationships
Regarding Early Third
studies completed on the swords from Illerup, has a emperor Caracalla, which declared that all free-born
Century Militaria
great leap forward succeeded in enabling these impor- men in the Roman Empire were to be given full Ro-
tant groups of weapons to be interpreted against the man citizenship.Therefore, the owner of the Thorsberg
background of comparable Roman finds (Biborski and phalera was a retired auxiliary soldier, at least a sec-
Ilkjr 2007). These studies show that when it comes to ond-generation descendant or a soldier who had served
military equipment, adoption from the Roman Empire during or after the reign of Caracalla.
becomes more significant, and this is so in the material
Another connection to the Roman world becomes ap-
and SUZANA
BORNHEIM
finds from well-dated graves. a similar function whereby, it should be noted, there is
Germanic Relationships
Regarding Early Third
BORNHEIM
time. Therefore, these indications of Romanization in wire which render a formally unified picture by way
MATEI
CARNAP-
the Germanic barbaricum display the knowledge and of the pommel, grip, guard (not shown in Plate IV.2),
experience Germanic tribesmen must have collected sword belt mounts and suspension loop.For every
within the Roman Empire. component, the high-quality workmanship is convinc-
ing. The suspension loop, in particular, must be one of
Military service was the easiest way for a foreigner to
the finest examples of Germanic smiths craftsmanship
gain access to Roman culture. There, he got used to Ro-
of the early third century AD. As no examinations have
man weapons, as well as to the cultural mindset. The
been made on the actual material of this set or other
Thorsberg chapes contain a number of originally Ro-
sets (ie metal analysis), the question as to whether the
man chapes without alterations and display their sim-
simple silver scabbard side fittings can be assigned here
ple adoption. But apart from that, the modified chapes
must remain open. There is no doubt, however, that the
with a visibly Roman form and Germanic decoration
fittings which are predominantly made of silver were
are proof of a deeper process of Romanization. Since
hardly equipped with bronze or iron mounts. In prin-
a copy always displays an appreciation of the original,
ciple, the corresponding hilt sets with a large round
the Thorsberg material mirrors the Germanic esteem
pommel and a half-rounded guard can be derived from
for Roman military equipment, and also the barbarian
corresponding Roman weapons, even though in this
willingness to receive it.
case components such as the grip decorated in press-
The Roman influence on splendid Germanic sets of blech may be of Germanic manufacture. Also notable
gear can be shown to exist, especially in the decisive are the round mounts of the sword belt, which were pre-
details of some elaborate sword sets. Two impres- sumably attached to the belt directly beside the wooden
sive examples come from the Thorsberg bog and are scabbard, as seen in finds from Illerup and Scandinavia
presented here. The basis for the reconstruction of (sword group 5: comp. v.Carnap-Bornheim and Ilkjr
such sets are the sets assembled from findings in Il- 1996, p.309 ff., 318 with Fig. 215). The find from Il-
lerup (v.Carnap-Bornheim and Ilkjr 1996, p.299 ff.), lerup in particular, with its possible Roman scabbard
which provide a good impression of the great variety with a simple bronze strap loop and crossover strap,
Ta b l e 1 A n a t t e m p t t o r e c o n s t r u c t t w o r i c h s w o r d s e t s f r o m T h o r s b e r g
object component Set 1 (after Raddatz 1987) Set 2 (after Raddatz 1987)
sword hilt Pommel Cat. No. 6; Taf. 5, 5; 75, 1. Cat. Nos. 8 &. 13; Taf. 3, 2 &. 5, 1.
Grip Cat. Nos. 47 &. 49; Taf. 7, 2 Cat. Nos. 47 &. 48; Taf. 7, 1. 3 &. 4; 76,
&. 6; 76, 1 &. 2. 3 &. 5.
Guard Cat. No. 9; Taf. 5, 10. Cat. No. 7; Taf. 5, 3.
scabbard mount of scabbard Not present Cat. No. 66; Taf. 8, 1.
mouth
Strap loop Cat. No. 95; Taf. 75, 2 Cat. No. 87; Taf. 10, 8.
Side fittings/mounts Poss. Cat. Nos. 324 &. 325; poss. Cat. Nos. 324 &. 325; Taf. 30, 4. 9.
Taf. 30, 4. 9. 10. 11. 10. 11.
chape Cat. No. 135; Taf. 14, 3.
(after Raddatz 1957 &. 1987 a.)
sword belt buckle Cat. No. 350; Taf. 20, 10.
suspension
belt fittings Cat. Nos. 349 &. 351; Taf. 20, 9 &. 11.
Cat. No. 847; Taf. 108, 26. 27.
Strap-end fitting (?) Cat. No. 382; Taf. 32, 32.
136
BALTICA 8
ARCHAEOLOGIA
III
BOG FINDS
AND THE
PREHISTORIC
LANDSCAPE
Fig. 2. A scabbard from Illerup with rounded sword belt mounts (after von Carnap-Bornheim and Ilkjr 1996, Vol. 6, 64).
allows the function of the two simple bronze heads to rectangular side mounts of the sword belt which are
be clearly recognized (v.Carnap-Bornheim and Ilkjr placed beside the suspension loop on Plate IV.1. The
1996, Vol. 6, p.140 f., Figs. 63-64; here Fig. 2). tongue-shaped pattern of one of the two long sides of
the mounts is reminiscent of the arched ornamentation
The basis for the composition of Set 2 with its silver
and, in addition, their width corresponds to that of the
mounts is the decoration of important components with
suspension loop.If this reconstruction is correct, we
arched ornamentation (Plate IV.1). This ornamentation
thus have here an example of a sword suspension with
is on all the fittings of the scabbard (mouth mount,
rectangular side mounts. Corresponding models are
suspension loop, chape) and can also be followed on
known from Illerup (sword group 14; comp. v.Car-
the sword belt. Here, the buckle as well as two silver
nap-Bornheim and Ilkjr 1996, Vol. 5, p.303 ff.); com-
mounts decorated with gilt pressblech are correspond-
parable mounts of Roman provenance are known from
ingly ornamented. In the case of the two belt mounts
Thorsberg (Raddatz 1987, Cat. 173, Taf. 16, 12, Fig.
with the crescent-shaped motif, the question could be
3) as also from Dura-Europos, from Aldborough and,
posed as to whether they could be derived from those
in similar form, from South Shields and from Abusina
X-shaped mounts which are to be found with the Utere
(Eining) (James 2004, pp.75-76, No.36; Gschwind
Felix-Sets (warrior grave from Lyon; comp.Feugre
2004, Taf. 41, C265). They verify the provenance of
1993, Fig. p.149; Bishop and Coulston 2006, p.160,
appropriate systems from the Roman military which
Fig. 101) or from mounts with double peltae as from
were obviously adapted and further developed by Ger-
Eining (Gschwind 2004, Taf. 47, C416). Hypotheti-
manic craftsmen in the third century.
cal but still probable is the classification of the two
137
Conclusions
Some Remarks on Romano-
he Thorsberg Bog Find:
BORNHEIM
Abbreviations
References
138
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139
nesudtingai adaptuot dirbini pavyzdi, inomi ir
pakeisti kalavij maki gal apkalai, kuriuose aki-
Some Remarks on Romano-
he Thorsberg Bog Find:
BORNHEIM
140
REMARKS ON FINDS OF WOODEN QUIVERS
BALTICA 8
FROM NYDAM MOSE, SOUTHERN JUTLAND,
DENMARK*
ANDREAS RAU
ARCHAEOLOGIA
Abstract
Due to the extraordinary find preservations in Nydam mose, Southern Jutland, Denmark, larger parts of quivers from organic
material have survived as very rare objects from the first millennium AD. Different quiver types and constructions from two
different offerings in the fourth century AD are presented and are used as the background for some general remarks on re-
mains of quivers and on archers of the Roman Iron Age and the Migration Period.
Key words: Nydam, quivers, archers, war booty sacrifices, organic material, fourth century AD.
The new Nydam excavations recognizable differences in the horizontal and vertical
distribution of the different offerings.
The excavation campaigns carried out by the National
Among the new finds in Nydam is a large amount of ar-
Museum of Denmark in the well-known Nydam eng-
chery equipment. Concerning the studies on bows and
mose in Southern Jutland have produced a vast amount
arrows of the Roman Iron Age, the material of the war
of artefacts of different materials. More than 12,000
booty sacrifices, and especially Nydam, has always
objects were discovered in the years 1989 to 1997 and
been in particular focus of researchers (Beckhoff 1963;
1999. By far the largest material group is constituted of
Raddatz 1963, 1985, pp.319-320, 324; Paulsen 1998). III
wooden items, including boat parts, weapons, bowls,
In the following, very rare finds of quivers, containers BOG FINDS
musical instruments, saddle boards, tools and all kinds AND THE
for arrows, from the new material shall be presented, PREHISTORIC
of handles for knives, fire steels, etc.
after a short survey of quivers from the Stone Age to LANDSCAPE
The extensive history of excavations and research in early medieval times.
Nydam from 1858 until 1999 has been dealt with by
various authors (eg Bemmann and Bemmann 1998a,
pp.27-111; Petersen 1994; Jrgensen and Petersen General remarks on prehistoric
2003; Rieck 2003). The finds which are discussed in quivers in western, middle
the following all derive from an excavation area la- and northern Europe
belled the boat field because it is the area in which
All recent and ancient cultures in all parts of the
C.Engelhardt already excavated two large rowing
world which use bows and arrows as hunting or fight-
ships in 1863 and which was reexamined in the years
ing weapons know containers for arrows (cf Demmin
1989 to 1999 (Fig.1).
1886; Mason 1893; Pope 1923, 1947; Vilkuna 1950;
At least five different depositions of larger quantities Marcotty 1958). First of all these containers ease the
of war booty can be traced in the new material from carrying of the arrows, but they also protect them from
the boat field, ranging from the second half of the third negative influences such as rain or high humidity,
century AD to the end of the fifth century AD. These which would have damaging effects on the shaft wood
sacrifices took place at the same site, but there are some and the attached feather fletching. Traditional quivers
are usually made from organic material, mostly wood,
* Because the paper The Late Roman Iron Age and Migra- bark, wattle, leather or even textiles.
tion Period War Booty from Nydam: New Finds and Per-
spectives given at the conference Weapons, weaponry The organic material of quivers has vanished in ordi-
and Man was designed as a short overview on the new nary find contexts and it is sometimes only the densely
material from Nydam, it seemed more suitable to pick out packed arrow points or some remaining metal or bone
one aspect for the proceedings.
I would like to thank R. Birch Iversen (Aarhus), X. Pauli parts that indicate the former existence of such a con-
Jensen (Copenhagen), H. Paulsen (Schleswig), F. Rieck tainer. Extraordinary circumstances, eg glacier finds,
(Copenhagen) and F. Westphal (Schleswig) for support, such as the bark quiver belonging to the Iceman from
additional data and discussion, and especially K. Gbel the Tisenjoch, South Tyrol, Italy (Egg 1992, p.255,
(Schleswig) for creating and operating Nydam GIS. Pl. 1.3, p.256, Pl. 2), or more recent discoveries at the
141
R e m a r k s o n F i n d s o f Wo o d e n
Quivers from Nydam Mose,
Southern Jutland, Denmark ANDREAS RAU
Fig. 1. Nydam mose in southeast Jutland and the boat field. Length of the boat field: 43 metres.
Schnidejoch glacier at Bern, Switzerland (Suter 2006, wards the bottom to allow more space for the fletching.
p.56), have thrown casual spotlights on the material Additionally, these cultures made use of special quiver
and constructions of the oldest known examples. Some constructions to contain both the bow and the arrows,
remains of quivers from the Neolithic, the Bronze Age the so-called goryt, which has been studied on the basis
and the Hallstatt and La Tne periods have recently of archaeological as well as pictorial sources (cf Rtzel
been listed and discussed by H. Echardt (1996, pp.79- 1978; Eckhardt 1991, p.143, Fig.1, 1996, pp.90-93;
93), Ch. Clausing (1998) and D. Kraue-Steinberger Lindbom 1997, p.249, Fig.6; Steuer 2000, pp.82-83;
(1990). In most cases in the metal periods, the bronze Lebedynsky 2001, pp.179-180; Beilharz 2005, pp.24-
or iron fittings are used to determine and typologize the 25).
presence and appearance of a quiver, while the organ-
ic material has mostly disintegrated (Eckhardt 1996,
p.79; cf Wegner 1978).
Some remarks on Germanic quivers
from the first millennium AD
The East European and Asian nomad cultures, eg the
Scythians, Sarmatians, Huns and Avars, with an in- Apart from the examples in the war booty sacrifices,
tensified use of the bow and arrow for both hunting organic parts of archery equipment, such as the arrow
and especially fighting, deserve a more intense discus- shafts, the bows or the quivers, are very rarely repre-
sion of the material, which of course cannot be given sented in burial or settlement contexts from the Roman
here. One characteristic trace of steppe nomad archery Iron Age and Migration Period. This fact has already
is that the arrows were usually carried in quivers with been stated by Ebert (1915, p.69), and it has not changed
their points up. Consequently, the quivers widened to- very much since then. A few examples shall be given
142
in the following, certainly not being a complete list of as made from long strips of birch bark, sewn together
BALTICA 8
quiver finds from these particular periods. and supported by horizontal bands of birch bark (Ram-
qvist 1992, pp.60-63, Pl. 10-11). P.Ramqvist (1962,
It is quite obvious that organic remains of quivers are
pp.62-63) hesitatingly interprets this object as a quiver,
absent in cremation burials, which occur in regionally
although it was found without arrows in it and he was
differing intensity in the Germanic cultures. Further-
not able to give parallels.
more, the rite of furnishing the deceased with weapons
or hunting gear has been exercised in changing inten- A wooden object from Engelhardts Nydam finds has
ARCHAEOLOGIA
sity and spatial distribution and, additionally, archery repeatedly been discussed as a quiver (Engelhardt
equipment is underrepresented in weapon graves. The 1865, Pl. 13.63). H. Paulsen (1998, p.422) has stated
sparse evidence for archery equipment in the graves that the object is much too short (39.4cm) and the di-
of the Early Roman Iron Age (Eggers phase B) mainly ameter (varying between 5.1 and 6.3cm) too small to
consists of finds of iron arrowheads in very few cre- consider it a quiver, while P.Lindbom (1997, p.243,
mation burials (Weski 1982, pp.38-39; 246 Fundl. 39; Fig.1c), without any signs of doubt, has classified it
Karte 33; Droberjar and Peka 2002, pp.114-115). as a quiver to which a leather top has to be added. The
piece indeed has a similar round bottom plate just like
There are some more finds to be discussed for the Early
one of the quivers discussed in the following. On the
Roman Iron Age and the Migration Period. Remains
drawings in Engelhardts volume (1865, Pl. 13.63; cf
of leathery material have been detected in connection
Bemmann and Bemmann 1998b, Pl. 221, 2193a) a hole
with arrowheads from graves at Hven, Mecklenburg-
for a rivet to hold the plug in place is clearly visible.
Vorpommern, Germany. Two graves (grave 2/1967 and
Unfortunately, the lower part of the wooden object has
grave 1/1968) from the second half of the third cen-
in some places broken off afterwards (cf Bemmann
tury AD (Eggers phase C2) each included three bronze
and Bemmann 1998b, Pl. 221, 2193). P.Lindbom
arrowheads with remains of ash wood in the sockets,
(1997, p.243, Fig.1, pp.246-248) suggested that the
which originally were contained in organic quivers
drawing of the bottom plug made by Magnus Petersen
(Hollnagel 1968, p.267, Fig.181b, pp.269-270 and
p.275 with Fig.188a-c; Schuldt 1969, p.187, Fig.1;
for the Nydam publication is a misinterpretation of III
an original round and loose bottom disc. But there is
p.189, Fig.2.g-i). Bronze and silver arrowheads, often BOG FINDS
no reason to mistrust M. Petersens excellent illustra- AND THE
in threes, occur as symbolic weaponry in some of the PREHISTORIC
tions. H. Engelhardt (1863, Pl. 13, 64), and following
richest male graves of the Haleben-Leuna group of LANDSCAPE
authors (cf Ebert 1915, p.69; Steuer 2000, p.79) have
burials (cf Werner 1955; Dlle 1977).
also misinterpreted parts of a drinking horn as fittings
Some definite warrior graves in Central and Western of a quiver (cf Lindbom 1997, pp.243-244).
Europe from the fourth and fifth centuries contained a
A fragmentary wooden object from the war booty sac-
number of iron arrowheads, on which traces of leath-
rifice of Vimose, Funen, Denmark, has already been
er were observed and which may consequently indi-
identified by H. Engelhardt (1869, p.23) as a quiver.
cate a quiver. H.W. Bhme (1974, p.111 inc. footnote
This item, which was originally approximately 65
460) has given a number of find spots with so-called
centimetres long and has two incarved strap segments
quiver-graves from Germanic contexts dated to the
46.5 centimetres apart from each other, has a diameter
late Roman Iron Age and Migration Period. In a later
of approximately ten centimetres (Mackeprang 1935,
publication on indications for quivers of the Migration
pp.85-86, Fig.1213; Lindbom 1997, pp.249-251). It
Period and Merovingian times, D. Beilharz (2005) has
is entirely carved. Since most of the Vimose material
published an extensive find list with more than 100 en-
can be dated to the second or third century, the quiver
tries. But, with the exception of the Altdorf grave (see
is likely to belong to this period of time.
below), none of the graves have produced larger parts
of actual quivers which might help in judging their Quite surprisingly, no remains of quivers have been
former appearance. discovered among the vast amount of war booty found
at Illerup sites A-C, dating from the first half of the
The inhumation burial at Hgom, Medelpad, Sweden,
third century AD and the second half of the fourth cen-
from the northern end of the Germanic world, deserves
tury AD. Whether this is due to the fact that they have
a special mention in this context. In the chamber grave,
been made from disintegrated materials such as leath-
dated to the late fifth century AD, 36 arrows with red
er, or whether they simply were not sacrificed remains
paint on their shafts were found lying closely packed
unanswered. The first option may be supported by the
on the left side of the deceased. On the right side of
fact that several of the arrows were found in bundles
the body an originally 60 to 70-centimetre-long tube-
and may have originally been deposited in quivers.
like object was found, of which only the lower third is
preserved today (Fig.2). The object could be identified
Personal communication X.
Pauli Jensen, Copenhagen.
143
R e m a r k s o n F i n d s o f Wo o d e n
Quivers from Nydam Mose,
Southern Jutland, Denmark ANDREAS RAU
Fig. 2. A section from the chamber grave at Hgom, Medelpad, Sweden (left), and the lower remains of the tube-shaped
birch-bark object (right) (after Ramqvist 1992). Not to scale. Length of the remaining part: 28 centimetres.
The at least 201 arrows and six bows that can be as- an approximately 70-centimetre-long quiver contain-
signed to Illerup site A or B show that a certain amount ing eight arrows (Fig.3) (Marti 1995, p.86, Fig.5,
of archers formed part of military groups (Ilkjr 1994, pp.96-98, Fig.14-18). The nicely ornamented quiver
p.236, Tab. 1). made of lime wood (tilia sp.) was covered with a thin
leather coating and broadens towards its bottom. It
The Merovingian Period and the Vendel Period also
could be closed at the top by using a movable lid made
produced densely packed arrows in graves as evi-
of leather (Marti 1995, p.97, Fig.16). The arrows were
dence for the former existence of a container (Steuer
put into the quiver with the heads pointing upwards,
2000, pp.79-81; Lindbom 1997, pp.244-246). Rather
a position which can be observed in other Meroving-
exceptional is the beautifully ornamented piece from
ian archer-graves, too (cf Beilharz 2005, p.12, Fig.2;
660/680 AD from Altdorf, Canton Uri, Switzerland,
Moosbrugger-Leu 1971, pp.99-102 with Figs.33-35).
where a richly equipped horseman was furnished with
This way of putting the arrows into the quiver repre-
a long sword, a short sword, a shield, a bow and with
sents influences of steppe-nomad weaponry, which in
144
BALTICA 8
ARCHAEOLOGIA
III
BOG FINDS
AND THE
PREHISTORIC
LANDSCAPE
Fig. 3. The grave from Altdorf, Canton Uri, Switzerland (left), and the reconstructed quiver with the movable lid made of
leather (right) (after Marti 1995). Not to scale. Length of the reconstructed quiver:70 centimetres.
the case of Blach grave 18 is confirmed by the exist- the upper half to carry the quiver at the waist, and re-
ence of a composite reflex bow (Beilharz 2005, p.25). sembles quivers depicted on the Bayeux tapestry.
The equipment of archers in the Central and Western
European Carolingian Period, which is short of well- The Nydam objects
equipped grave finds, is to a certain extent compen-
sated for by literal and pictorial sources, such as the There is evidence of different kinds and parts of quiv-
so-called diptychon from Halberstadt, the psalterium ers of various materials and appearance in the new ma-
aureum from StGallen (Ebert 1915, p.69), or the psal- terial from Nydam. On the basis of their vertical and
terium from Utrecht (Marti 1995, p.99, Fig.21; Beil- horizontal position in relation to other characteristic
harz 2005, p.19, Fig.7). finds, the three categories of quivers, which are under
discussion here, can be assigned to two different offer-
Especially noteworthy are finds from the Viking Age
ings in the fourth century AD.
settlement of Haithabu, Schleswig-Holstein, Germany.
Here, larger fragments of leather were convincingly
interpreted as pieces of at least two different quivers The solid wooden quiver
(Groenman-van Waateringe 1984, pp.38-40, Pl. 25-27).
The reconstruction (Groenman-van Waateringe 1984, The first quiver from Nydam to be dealt with was
p.39, Fig.22.1; Paulsen 1999, p.121, Fig.16.1) gives found during the campaign of 1997. It was excavated
a 62-centimetre-long quiver with two arrangements in in four larger and a few smaller fragments, some of
145
R e m a r k s o n F i n d s o f Wo o d e n
Quivers from Nydam Mose,
Southern Jutland, Denmark ANDREAS RAU
Fig. 4. The partly assembled fragments of the solid wooden quiver (left), and the single fragments immediately after the
discovery in 1997 (right).
which were found lying more than three metres apart ken-off upper part has deformed during the centuries
from each other. Thus, it seems quite probable that the and cannot be reassembled with the rest of the quiver,
quiver was intentionally shattered before the deposi- although small sections fit each other (Fig.4).
tion of the different pieces. Fortunately, the larger piec-
The length of the quiver is 77 centimetres, the formerly
es could firmly be reassembled, while other parts can
round diameter at the upper rim can be reconstructed
be attached. These are not glued together, in order to
with nine centimetres (inner diameter 8.4cm). At 14
prevent a reduction of the stability. Especially the bro-
146
centimetres below the upper rim, the tube narrows to In almost all cases the arrows were found without
BALTICA 8
a diameter of seven centimetres (inner diameter 6cm), points attached to them. Some complete arrow shafts
which is largely the same at the very bottom (6.5cm/ without points, which can likely be assigned by their
5.3cm). The general thickness of the wood is about horizontal and vertical position to the same offering as
four millimetres. the quiver, have lengths of between 70 and 85 centime-
tres. Adding five to 12 centimetres as the length of the
The outer surface of the object was shaped by turn-
point blade, the entire lengths in most cases must have
ery. An approximately 80-
centimetre-
long piece of
been between 75 and 97 centimetres long, averaging
ARCHAEOLOGIA
wood from a log of a maple tree (acer sp.) was finely
between 80 and 90 centimetres. The arrows that were
turned and incised. Afterwards, the piece was split into
carried in the wooden quiver had to exceed the quiver
two halves by the longitudinal axis and hollowed out
by at least two to three centimetres in length, making
by carving. Then the disc-shaped bottom plate made
it easy for the archer to grab them at the nock. Thus,
from elder (alnus sp.) was inserted and fixed with four
with its length of 77 centimetres the Nydam quiver fits
small oak rivets (quercus sp.). Finally, the two halves
absolutely perfect with most of the Nydam arrows.
may have been glued together. Very thin organic wire-
shaped fragments in the incised grooves are likely to There are smaller and very fragmented turned pieces
represent the remains of sinew bands to firmly hold the of poplar (populus sp.), maple wood (acer sp.) and
two halves in place. pomaceous fruit wood (pomaceae) indicating at least
three more solid wooden quivers, but the pieces are
A thin additional cover from leather or raw hide could
too small and cannot be reassembled. The existence of
be imagined, as it is preserved in very small parts on
three more round wooden discs, which might be inter-
some sword scabbards and some shield boards in Ny-
preted as bottom plates of quivers, fits very well with
dam, but no actual traces of such a coating could be
this observation. They are made from poplar (populus
observed.
sp.), elder (alnus sp.) and from a pomaceous fruit spe-
There are two deepened horizontal bands on the quiver. cies (pomaceae). Two of them also have rivets of oak
One has a small width of 1.15cm, approximately nine wood. One of the pieces bears a half-circular iron crank III
centimetres
from the top rim, and a second broader one on the small side, probably for fastening a strap.
BOG FINDS
(2.2cm) is a distance of 17 centimetres
from the top. AND THE
The find material from the votive site at Kragehul,
The upper and thinner furrow might have been used for PREHISTORIC
Funen, Denmark, contains a very similar disc-shaped LANDSCAPE
attaching a strap with a lid made of organic material to
object of poplar (populus sp.), with a diameter of 3.5
protect the feather fletching from humidity or mechani-
to 3.7
centimetres
and a thickness of 0.4 to 0.6 cen-
cal harm. However, a possible lid could not be identi-
timetres
, which has eight small iron rivets regularly
fied among the new finds, but it may very well have
placed on the sides (NM Copenhagen Inv.-Nr. 22440).
consisted of leather. The broader furrow still shows
Considering the pieces from Nydam, the Kragehul disc
very slight discolorations where an organic strap with a
may very well belong to a cylindrical wooden quiver
width of approximately 17 to 20 millimetres has origi-
similar to the Nydam one. But it has to be mentioned
nally been in contact with the wood.
that slightly smaller wooden discs with diameters of
The schematic reconstruction helps to give a more between 25 and 30 millimetres have also been found in
complete impression of the former appearance of the the offering of Illerup site A, functioning as repair discs
quiver (Fig.5). By looking at the cross-section, it be- for shield boards (cf Ilkjr 2001, pp.46-47, Figs.41-42,
comes obvious that the widened part fits very well with p.49, Figs.45-46, p.51, Fig.59).
the fletching sections of the arrows. In this regard, it has
The usage of turnery for the shaping of the object is
to be mentioned that the length of the arrows varies in
a bit surprising at first, because a larger lathe for ob-
accordance with the height of the archer. A tall archer
jects longer than 80
centimetres
was needed. But the
with rather long arms must have preferred a rather long
general usage of the lathe for the shaping of wooden
bow, and consequently longer arrows (Beckhoff 1972).
objects is probably very much underestimated. There
Most of the arrow shafts in the old finds from Nydam
are some finds of turned bowls from settlement sites
show lengths between 75 and 80 centimetres without
in the Germanic area (Capelle 1976, pp.31-32; 1983),
the points (Paulsen 1998, p.407), and this can be con-
which demonstrate that this craft was widely known
firmed by the new finds. Since the large group of arrow
and probably performed locally (cf Haarnagel 1979,
shafts has not been examined closely as yet, it remains
pp.289, 294-295). The well-furnished graves from the
possible to a certain degree to find differences in the
fourth and fifth century AD discovered in the marsh
lengths, construction details etc, of the arrows in the
different offerings from the third to the fifth century.
I kindly thank R. Birch Iversen (Aarhus) for the informa-
tion on this object.
147
R e m a r k s o n F i n d s o f Wo o d e n
Quivers from Nydam Mose,
Southern Jutland, Denmark ANDREAS RAU
Fig. 5. Schematic reconstructions of the solid wooden quiver (left and middle), and a suggested suspension using a shoulder
strap (right).
at Wremen, Niedersachsen, Germany, have shown a quiver. A bundle of arrows was already excavated by
how elaborated Germanic woodworking techniques in J. Brndsted and C.J. Becker in 1939 (cf Bemmann
carving and turnery actually were (Schn 2000). The and Bemmann 1998a, pp.96-107, esp. pp.99-102 with
wooden vessels found in Nydam clearly support this Fig.56) and has been discussed by H.Paulsen (1998,
impression. An estimate from the different fragments pp.419-421). C. Engelhardt mentions finds of at least
leads us to the conclusion that at least 13 of the more four arrow bundles in his excavation diary (Bemmann,
than 20 wooden bowls without handles were not carved and Bemmann 1998a, pp.48-49, 58). The fact that al-
but produced by turnery. most all the arrows lie very close together with the
points all in the same direction has to indicate that they
were originally deposited in an organic container. It
The birch-bark quiver
has already been mentioned that leather, hide and tex-
Some of the arrows in Nydam were found together in a tiles generally did not survive the chemical processes
position which indicates that they must have been de- in the watery context in Nydam, and they can only be
posited while tied together or in a container, probably observed as imprints on rusty iron objects, eg shield
bosses or when they were in close contact with bronze
148
BALTICA 8
ARCHAEOLOGIA
III
BOG FINDS
Fig. 6. Left: the buckle and the strap end from the bundle of arrows. Middle: the bundle of arrows with the remains of birch- AND THE
bark rolls (dark grey) and the buckle and the strap end (light grey). Right: a suggested suspension using a shoulder strap. PREHISTORIC
LANDSCAPE
objects, eg shield board fittings or scabbard mount- ed 60 centimetres, while the best-preserved pieces, as
ings. well as the measurements taken from the excavation
plan, might indicate a diameter of the bark tube of ap-
There are some more bundled arrow shafts from the
proximately ten centimetres.
new excavation campaign, among them a slightly dis-
turbed bundle of approximately 25 arrows, which was By comparing the position of the birch-bark rolls from
also found in the western part of the boat field (Fig.6). Nydam with the remaining parts of the object from
The observation on this bundle supports the aforemen- Hgom (Ramqvist 1992, Pl.102) (Fig.2), the func-
tioned interpretation of the tube-shaped object of birch tion of the bark rolls as supportive tubes for a quiver
bark from the Hgom grave as a quiver. The Nydam may be the best explanation. It is likely that the rest of
arrows were lying very densely together, making it ob- the quiver was of disintegrated material. It should be
vious that they must have been deposited in some kind mentioned in this context that the hunnic grave from
of container. Unfortunately, post-depositional distur- Aktbe II, Tchimkent, Kazakhstan, contained a 77-
bances have broken some arrows and slightly changed centimetre-long, cylindrical quiver made from birch
their position. It is noteworthy that all the intact shafts bark (Bna 2002, p.120, Fig.102).
indicate that the southern direction of the nock end was
There is another noteworthy aspect to this bundle. On
identical to all pieces. Besides, under and on top of the
the top of it a small belt buckle with an oval frame
pile three larger and some tiny fragments of birch bark
was found lying approximately ten centimetres away
were discovered, unfortunately in a very disintegrated
from a small strap end with a polyedric knob at the end
state. Only a few fragments could be observed in situ
(Fig.6). The find position indicates that both objects
and were measured. The fragments are described in the
were originally still attached to a now vanished leather
documentation as circular rolls made from birch bark.
strap when deposited. It cannot be stated with certain-
The position of the three larger and better-preserved
ty, but it is very likely due to the positions of the items
rolled-up stripes and their similar widths indicates how
that the buckle and strap end belong to the leather strap
the outline of the birch-bark object once might have
that was carrying the quiver.
been. The length of the entire object must have exceed-
149
R e m a r k s o n F i n d s o f Wo o d e n The one-piece oval buckle with rhombic cross-section covered during the campaign in 1993 (Fig.7). They are
belongs to Type H 16 according to R. Madyda-Legutko all made from alder log wood and are carved out in one
Quivers from Nydam Mose,
Southern Jutland, Denmark
(1987, pp.6566, Pl. 19), who dates them to the very piece. A fragment of a probable fourth piece from birch
early phase of the Migration Period. In the Meroving- wood was found in 1993 as a stray find. The lengths of
ian Period grave 509 from Mnchen-Aubing, an iron the complete pieces are 13.3 centimetres, 15.8 centi-
buckle similar in shape and size to the Nydam piece metres and 20.8 centimetres, respectively. One piece
has convincingly been interpreted as part of a strap for has two incised furrows on its middle part, in which
the quiver (Beilharz 2005, p.12, Abb. 2. 6, p.13, Abb. parts of undetermined organic material have been ob-
3-4). There is no close parallel to the strap end with the served. There is no obvious connection with bundles of
knob, but a slightly broader piece from the fortified hill arrows as was recorded for the object found in the old
ANDREAS RAU
at Runder Berg near Urach, Baden-Wrttemberg, Ger- excavations. The original inner diameter of the slightly
many, shows a similar polyedric knob at the end (Koch deformed three complete pieces can be calculated at
1985, p.523, Fig.26.5). 6.5 to 8.5 centimetres, and thus, they very much re-
semble the find from 1862 as well as the solid wooden
quiver. A possible interpretation of these wooden cyl-
Wo o d e n s u p p o r t i v e t u b e s f o r l e a t h e r
inders may be as supporting pieces of leather quivers.
(?) quivers
These cylinders may have had the same function as the
birch-bark rolls.
Already in the old excavations, Engelhardt discovered
a hollowed-out cylindrical object. This piece has not
survived to today. But in Engelhardts inventory of the Datings
Flensburg museum collection, we find the following
entry for the object: 7301. A wooden cylinder; 6 1/2 By the horizontal and vertical position of the fragments,
Tommer (~17cm) in length; 2 8/12 Tommer (~7cm) in the solid wooden quiver from Nydam can be connect-
the lower diameter; 2 5/12
Tommer (~6,5cm) in the
upper diameter. The thick-
ness of the wood varies,
the largest part in the mid-
dle - 1/4 Tommer (~0.6cm)
It seems, that the object
is not complete (translated
by the author). Fortunately,
Engelhardt added a good
drawing to his descrip-
tion (Fig.7). Additionally,
it can also be taken from
Engelhardts excavation
diary that the object was
found in his excavation pit
no. I from 1862, in a posi-
tion right beside a bundle
of arrows. This bundle con-
sisted of approximately 20
arrows, all of them with the
arrowheads pointing in the
same direction. The entire
object has been published
with Engelhardts drawing
as a wooden cylinder by
Bemmann and Bemmann
(1998b, p.213, Pl.221 and
2194).
Fig. 7. Two probable supportive tubes from Nydam. Left: the cylinder found in connec-
Three very similar cylindri- tion with a bundle of approximately 20 arrows by Engelhardt in 1862. Right: one from
cal wooden objects were dis- three similar pieces found in 1993.
150
ed with a larger sacrifice of spoils-of-war, which were must have been much higher, taking into account that
BALTICA 8
deposited in the lake at the end of the fourth century they may belong to different sacrifices, though. It may
AD. Judged on the basis of the find context as well still not be overestimated to think of formations with
as the dating of the strap mountings, the bundle of ar- more than 50 archers for the two offerings in the fourth
rows can be assigned to the same offering as the solid century. It is, of course, the relation between the ar-
wooden quiver from the late fourth century AD. This chery unit and the total size of the warrior group that
offering contains a lot of weapons and also Late Ro- has to be focused on.
man belts with so-called Tierkopfschnallen (animal
ARCHAEOLOGIA
The solid wooden quiver from Nydam provided space
head buckles), as well as fibulas of the Nydam type
for 18 to 25 arrows with an average diameter of the
variants 24 according to J. Bemmann (1993), which
arrow shafts of nine millimetres. This number fits very
indicate a date for the deposition sometime between
well the average amount of arrows per quiver given by
370 and 410 AD.
H. Steuer (2000, p.81). P. Lindbom (1997, p.251) es-
The work on the personal equipment and the dress timated a number of 12 arrows to fit into the uncertain
items from these offerings as indications for the prove- quiver from the old Nydam material.
nance of the material is still in progress, but the general
C. Engelhardt mentions four bundles of arrows from his
composition of the material points to a region in north-
campaigns in 1862 and 1863: for three of them he has
ern Germany, especially to the areas of Schleswig-Hol-
counted approximately 20 arrows, for one he estimates
stein and Western Mecklenburg.
15 pieces (Bemmann and Bemmann 1998a, pp.48-49,
The find positions of all four cylindrical objects from 58). The bundle from Nydam which was excavated in
the new excavations allow a connection with an of- 1939 contained 24 arrows. During the new campaigns
fering from the first half of the fourth century, more a rather undamaged bundle with 18 arrows was exca-
precisely dated on the basis of dendrochronological vated, and another one with 24 arrows. The bundle in
dates to around 315 to 340 AD. This offering contains the Hgom find contained 36 arrows (Ramqvist 1992,
personal items and dress fittings that show strong con- p.60). The bundles in the war booty sacrifices certainly
nections to the Scandinavian Peninsula and the Baltic must not represent the contents of quivers in each case. III
islands of land and Gotland. It can of course very well be that the bundles contain BOG FINDS
AND THE
arrows collected from the battlefield by the victori- PREHISTORIC
ous party for the sacrifice. In any case, the repeating LANDSCAPE
Concluding remarks on the German-
numbers of 12, 18, 24 and 36, representing the concept
ic archers and their quivers
of the dozen and half-dozen, are striking. This obser-
vation has most recently been discussed by P. Ram-
The question if bow and arrow were used for hunting
qvist (1992, 64) and P. Lindbom (1997, pp.251-252)
or warfare naturally has to be answered individually
for the Iron Age, without including the new Nydam
for every single find. The bows, arrows and quivers of
finds. Since S.O. Jansson (1936, p.37) stated that in the
the war booty sacrifices in southern Scandinavia un-
Swedish Late Middle Ages the unit in which arrows
doubtedly were primarily used as weapons of war.
were counted was the dozen (Swedish tolfter), it be-
Although the assigning of the objects to the different comes more likely that this concept was already known
depositions in Nydam has not been carried out for the and used during the Roman Iron Age.
archery equipment, the large find numbers underline
On average, the quivers provided enough space for 20
the importance of bows and arrows in Late Roman Iron
to 25 arrows. A calculation considering seven to ten
Age warfare. The arrows in the new Nydam excava-
seconds for grabbing, aiming and shooting each arrow
tions occupy more than 3,300 entries in the database.
leads to a time span of two to four minutes until an
This also includes a lot of fragmented pieces, so that
archer had shot all the arrows in his quiver (cf Lind-
the actual number of complete arrows after the refit-
bom 1997, p.252). A trained and commanded forma-
ting will certainly be much less. This also applies to
tion of 50 archers was thus able to fire 1,000 to 1,250
the bows and bow fragments, which have been listed
arrows in a very short time.
with 153 find numbers. While the number of arrows is
not easy to estimate, approximately 35 bows should be In Ejsbl North, Jutland, Denmark, which has recently
represented in the new finds, about 20 of them belong- proven to be a separate place of a larger sacrificial area
ing to the same offering as the solid wooden quiver. with war booty (Andersen 2003), more than 675 ar-
Considering that the boat field is only a very limited rowheads were found and almost all of them can be
part of the area with votive material and that at least connected with an offering from the first half of the
30 bows are already among the old finds, the actual fourth century AD (Eggers Phase C3) (cf rsnes 1988,
number of bows, each representing a single archer, pp.72-83, Pl. 137-144). Considering 20 to 25 arrows
151
R e m a r k s o n F i n d s o f Wo o d e n as the average value for a single archer or his quiver arrow-shafts, the buckle might have belonged to a strap
respectively, around 30 archers might be represented fastened to the upper end of the quiver. The position of
Quivers from Nydam Mose,
Southern Jutland, Denmark
in the Ejsbl material. It can be calculated on the basis the quiver in relation to the body of the deceased does
of spearheads, that at least 210 individuals are repre- not give hints as to the question of how the quiver was
sented in the Ejsbl North deposition of phase C3. If carried.
the archers themselves did not use spears as projec-
It may be suggested that quivers for hunting game in
tiles, which is rather unlikely, the relation between the
the woods were rather carried on the archers back, be-
number of persons in archery units and infantry units
cause they might be obstructive while running or while
may have been around 1:7, which should indicate how
moving through brushwood. Recent and sub-recent
important the usage of the bow and arrow had become
ANDREAS RAU
BALTICA 8
Nydam bog has been known for its good preservation Archologisches Korrespondenzblatt, 28, 379-390.
DARMON, J.-P., 1978. Les restaurations modernes de la
of wood, mostly due to the well-known rowing ship the
grande mosaque de Lillebonne (Seine Maritime). Gallia,
Nydam boat, which was reassembled very shortly 36, 65-88.
after its discovery and has been a quite extraordinary DEMMIN, A., 1886. Die Kriegswaffen in ihrer historischen
example of the preservation conditions in this bog find Entwickelung von den ltesten Zeiten bis auf die Gegen-
ever since. wart. Leipzig.
DLLE, H.-J., 1977. Bemerkungen zu den sptkaiserzeitli-
ARCHAEOLOGIA
This article presents some remains of quivers and pos- chen Pfeilspitzen aus Bronze und Silber. In: F. HORST ed.
sible quivers from the fourth century AD as seldom Archologie als Geschichtswissenschaft [Festschrift K.H.
Otto]. Berlin, 291-297.
recorded parts of the military equipment of the Ger-
DROBERJAR, E. and PEKA, J., 2002. Die Waffen. In:
manic sphere in the younger Roman Iron Age and the J. PEKA and S. TEJRAL, eds. Das germanische Knigs-
Migration Period. Although a thorough analysis of the grab von Muov in Mhren. Teil 1. RGZM Monographien
comparative material from contemporary grave finds 55,1. Bonn, 97-125.
is still missing and could not be given here, the ex- EBERT, M., 1915. s.v. Kcher. Reallexikon der germanischen
Altertumskunde Bd. III. Straburg 1915/1916, 69.
ample of the Nydam quivers demonstrates how strong
ECKHARDT, H., 1991. Der schwirrende Tod die Bogen-
the impact is which the material from the war booty waffe der Skythen. In: R. ROLLE et al., eds. Gold der
sacrifices has on the archaeologists conception of the Steppe. Archologie der Ukraine. Neumnster, 143-149.
living culture of the military sphere. ECKHARDT, H., 1996. Pfeil und Bogen. Eine archolo-
gisch-technologische Untersuchung zu urnenfelder- und
Translated by the author hallstattzeitlichen Befunden. Espelkamp.
EGG, M., 1992. Zur Ausrstung des Toten vom Hauslabjoch,
Gem. Schnals (Sdtirol). In: F. HPFEL et al., eds. Der
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154
I nterpreting Taurapilis P rehistoric S ite :
BALTICA 8
A L a n dsca p e r e v e al i n g P o w e r ?
VYKINTAS VAITKEVIIUS
ARCHAEOLOGIA
Abstract
In this article, some new approaches to Taurapilis prehistoric site, situated in the Utena district in Lithuania, are proposed. As
a projection of a taurus horn on the ground in a water form, Lake Tauragnas was the principal factor shaping the particular
prehistoric space and determining its status. In this way also, the origins of the Taurapilis Central Place, dated to the fifth or
sixth centuries, are explained.
Key words: landscape archaeology, Iron Age, taurus (Bos primigenius), East Lithuanian Barrow Culture.
Each prehistoric site has a unique history, often little The relation between archaeological sites and bodies
known to modern society. Archaeologists have an op- of water (like lakes and rivers) in East Lithuania is so
portunity to identify reflections of this history during obvious that it does not require any proof. A number of
excavations. Unfortunately, even their results provide hill-forts of Striated Ware Culture (from the first millen-
answers to only some questions concerning the historic nium BC to the first centuries AD) and barrow groups
role of one or another site, or the motivation behind of East Lithuanian Barrow Culture (third to 12th cen-
such a role. This is the case with the Taurapilis pre- turies) are characteristic elements of lake shores. The
historic site, which in our textbooks is referred to as lakes, however, with their special toponymics and folk-
a burial site of a duke of the fifth to sixth centuries lore, still lack the attention of researchers. Even a brief
AD. glance at this field makes it obvious that it has a unique
III
logic of perception of the surroundings, based on an- BOG FINDS
In 1970 an exceptionally rich inhumation grave was AND THE
cient mythology and religion. There is a geographical PREHISTORIC
found in Taurapilis barrow 5: for the dead man of
vocabulary (the names of peninsulas, bays, straits and LANDSCAPE
4050 years of age, a two-edged sword with silver gilt
other parts of lakes) and a world of ancient mythology
scabbard mountings richly decorated with chip-carv-
rich in subjects (passed on in the form of legends, tales
ing, a drinking horn with silver mountings, a silver
and beliefs). In our case, it is important because Tau-
ring, some silver buckles, a silver gilt amulet, and a
rapilis stands on the shore of Lake Tauragnas, and most
number of other arms and jewellery made of iron and
of this article will be devoted to their interrelation.
bronze had been placed in the grave. The same grave,
along with the body of the man, contained the skeleton The name of Lake Tauragnas, along with the names
of a young horse (Fig.1, 2). This barrow, with a diam- of Tauragnai settlement and Taurapilis hill-fort located
eter of around 13 metres, was situated in the centre of by the lake, have been documented in written sources
the western part of Taurapilis burial mound group. since the 13th century in various forms: Thowraggen
(1261), Taurage (1375), Tauroginie (1387), Tarogin
The grave of Taurapilis barrow 5 stands out among
(1387), etc (according to Bga 1959, p.636; Vanagas
hundreds of other excavated barrows of East Lithua-
1981, p.341ff.). Thus, the authenticity of the lake name
nia as it holds an impressive set of burial items. In his
Taragnas is beyond any doubt.
community, this person was distinguished by the po-
sition of chief (and perhaps of priest), and his wealth The classic etymology of this place name is based on
(Tautaviius 1981, p.31). We are able to add that the the similarity of the lakes shape to a horn or horns of
Taurapilis Duke does represent one particular pop- a taurus (Bos primigenius) (Fig.3). The place name
ulation group of tall and thick set people, which is Taragnas derives from *Taurag-ina-s, which is obvi-
known in the East Baltic region at that time. ously related to tarag a taurus horn (cornu ri)
(Bga 1958, p.377; also cf taur a drinking vessel
During the last centuries, Taurapilis (along with neigh-
LK 1991, p.1018ff.). Attempts to consider Tauragnas
bouring Tauragnai) has not differed from other rural
as a name with a zoological meaning (cf Tauragnis
locations. Therefore, in this article I would like to look
Lake the lake on a cape where used to be Taurus
for an explanation of Taurapilis significance in pre-
Vanagas 1981, p.342) rather than the name of a con-
history, and focus on the surroundings of this particular
figurative meaning are flimsy to say the least. The cor-
place.
relation between the shape of the lake and taurus horns
155
is so obvious that (rewording the
Prehistoric Site: a Landscape
arguments of opponents) one does
not need to take to the air in a plane
I n t e r p r e t i n g Ta u r a p i l i s
156
BALTICA 8
ARCHAEOLOGIA
III
BOG FINDS
AND THE
PREHISTORIC
LANDSCAPE
Fig. 3. A taurus (Bos primigenius) skull in the Museum of Wrocaw University ( Muzeum Przyrodnicze Uniwersytetu
Wrocawskiego).
The grave of the Taurapilis Duke enables us to con- drinking horns made and used them for special occa-
sider the complex of Taurapilis archaeological sites sions (cf also the drinking horn found in the grave of
from the second half of the fifth and the sixth centuries the Taurapilis Duke); a priest of the goddess Diana
(the hill-fort and barrows; Fig.4) one of the Central in Rome attached the horns of a cow to the entrance to
Places of that period. I would like to note in this article the Temple of Diana, etc.
that it can hardly be perceived without first identify-
There is information suggesting that a taurus hide
ing the mythological meaning of its surroundings. It is
might have been used for making another item reflect-
difficult to describe the site the way it used to be in the
ing the status of a person, namely the belt. During a trip
prehistoric period, but we have every reason to sup-
to Lithuania at the beginning of the 16th century, the
pose that a taurus (bull) was the central mythological
Austrian writer and diplomat Sigismund Herberstein
figure of this site.
saw in the palace of Grand Duke Sigismund Augustus
This wild animal (which finally disappeared from our a hunted taurus with a piece of hide flayed on its fore-
lands in the 17th century), as well as its relatives the head (
!
). As a gift from Sigismund Augustus mother
ox and cow in Indo-European mythology, is directly Queen Bona, Herberstein received two belts made of
associated with sovereignty, ie the achievement of the taurus leather, which were said to relieve labour pains
highest authority (usually upon hunting down a tau- when worn on the waist (Herberstein 2001, p.394ff.).
rus) or its loss. The horns of a hunted bull become a
The establishment of the Central Place in Taurapilis,
symbol of recognised (divine and agreed by people)
on a bend in a lake shaped like a taurus horn, is a decla-
sovereignty, and usually it is emphasised declaratively:
ration of the power and sovereignty agreed by the peo-
eg Grand Duke Gediminas (13161341) had gilded
ple and, most importantly, recognised by the gods. In
157
this context, the discovery of the grave
Prehistoric Site: a Landscape
of the Duke in a seemingly ordinary
barrow of East Lithuania is quite under-
I n t e r p r e t i n g Ta u r a p i l i s
BALTICA 8
politins ir mokslins literatros leidykla.
HERBERSTEIN, S., 2001. Rervm Moscouiticarum Com-
mentarii. 1549 = Maskvos istorijos komentarai. In:
N.VLIUS, ed. Balt religijos ir mitologijos altiniai.
XVI amius, vol. 2. Vilnius: Mokslo ir enciklopedij leidy-
bos institutas, 391-396.
Tautaviius, A., 1981. Taurapilio Kunigaikio kapas.
Lietuvos archeologija, 2, 18-43.
ARCHAEOLOGIA
Vaitkeviius, V., 2006. Senosios Lietuvos ventviets.
Auktaitija. Vilnius: Diemedio leidykla.
Vanagas, A., 1981. Lietuvi hidronim etimologinis
odynas. Vilnius: Mokslas.
I n t e r p r e tu o j a n t Tau r a p i l :
k r at o va i z d i s ,
r e p r e z e n tu o j a n t i s g al i ?
Vykintas Vaitkeviius
Santrauka
159
Concerning the Astonishing
Find from the Cemetery at I V. WA R R I O R S A N D A R M A M E N T S
F R O M T H E V I S T U L A T O T H E D A U G U VA
A Wi e l b a r k C u l t u r e P i e c e
o f We a p o n r y ? R e m a r k s
Krosno (Crossen)
A W I E L B A R K C U LT U R E P I E C E O F W E A P O N RY ?
REMARKS CONCERNING THE ASTONISHING FIND
F R O M T H E C E M E T E RY AT K R O S N O ( C R O S S E N )
NATUNIEWICZ-
KONTNY AND
MAGDALENA
BARTOSZ
SEKUA
Abstract
The authors recall their reconstruction of the Wielbark Culture cemetery at Krosno grave 27 furnishing. One of the most inter-
esting elements in the grave is a boat-shaped fitting, probably the pommel of a sword typical of Scandinavia. The chronology
of the grave corresponds to the dating of such boat-shaped pommels.
Key words: the Roman Period, Wielbark Culture, weapon, sword-pommel.
BALTICA 8
after Raddatz (1957) (Fig. 1: c); length
4.8 cm (OPM 20844).
6. Glass goblet Type 216 after Eggers
(1951); missing (OPM 20845).
7. Boat-shaped fitting, bronze (Fig. 2:
a-c); a detailed description is presented
ARCHAEOLOGIA
below (OPM 20846).
8. Fragment of a bronze sheet, which
was probably part of a strap-end Type
JII3? after Raddatz (1957) (Fig. 1: d);
length 3.3 cm (OPM 20847).
9. Fragments of a bone or antler comb
Type I after Thomas (1960); missing
(OPM 20848).
10. Plate of a bronze buckle and bronze
belt hanger (?); missing (OPM 20849).
The assemblage of finds presented
above was most probably discovered
in an inhumation grave. The deceased,
probably a man, had two belts, which is
suggested by the elements of sets of the
Fig. 1. Part of the equipment of grave 27 at Krosno, found in the collection belt fittings. The presence of two belts
of the former Prussia Museum kept nowadays in the Museum fr Vor- und
seems to indicate the social role played
Frhgeschichte: ad bronze. Drawn by E. Pazyna, M. Rudnicki.
by the deceased: one of the belts was
probably on his hips, whereas the sec- IV
1987, p.77; Wogiewicz 1993, p.177). An attempt ond one might have served as a balteus, ie a belt worn WA R R I O R S
at collecting the scattered information about this and across the shoulder and used for suspending a sword. AND
ARMAMENTS
other graves from the cemetery at Krosno was made by FROM THE
Based on the dating of particular elements of the fur-
Andrzejowski and Bursche (1987, pp.233-277). Later VISTULA
nishing, we established the chronology of the grave TO THE
on, finds from grave 27 were mentioned several times, D A U G U VA
to Phase C2, perhaps in its earlier stage (for a detailed
often without the full data on the furnishing known
chronological analysis, see: Kontny, Natuniewicz-
from the literature (Stawiarska 1999, p.266).
Sekua 2006, p.311).
On the basis of the above mentioned data as well as the
surviving artefacts, we tried to reconstruct the furnish-
ings of the grave (Kontny, Natuniewicz-Sekua 2006).
Reconstruction of the sword-pommel
Altogether, the assemblage from grave 27 may be re-
Among the grave goods from grave 27, particular at-
constructed as follows:
tention should be devoted to the object described as a
1. Clay vessel bowl VIA after Wogiewicz (1993); bronze boat-shaped fitting (Fig. 2: a-c). This mysteri-
missing (OPM 20840). ous bronze object is lenticular in plan. It has an edge
2. Bronze spur, close to Subgroup G1 after Ginalski
This is indicated by the lack of traces of burning on the pre-
(1991) (Fig. 1: a); fragmentarily preserved; preserved served artefacts. Even though when describing the graves
length: 4.6 cm, maximum width of a bow 0.8 cm (OPM from Krosno, Blume occasionally mentions the burial rite
(only for graves 83, 121, 145 does he mention that these
20841).
were urn burials) we may assume that in the case of the
3. Bronze spur, close to Subgroup G1 after Ginalski other burial features he meant inhumation (Andrzejowski
(1991) (Fig. 1: b); fragmentarily preserved; preserved and Bursche 1987, p.234).
This interpretation was proposed by Madyda-Legutko for
length: 3.8 cm, maximum width of a bow 0.7 cm (OPM Przeworsk Culture in a slightly earlier period of time. She
20842). saw an evident correlation between the presence of pairs
of buckles (including one with a double tongue) and high-
4. Belt buckle, bronze Type D 29 after Madyda-Legutko
quality swords imported from Rome (Madyda-Legutko
(1987); missing (OPM 20843). 1990).
161
Concerning the Astonishing
Find from the Cemetery at
A Wi e l b a r k C u l t u r e P i e c e
o f We a p o n r y ? R e m a r k s
Krosno (Crossen)
NATUNIEWICZ-
KONTNY AND
MAGDALENA
BARTOSZ
SEKUA
Fig. 2. A bronze boat-shaped fitting, probably an element of a sword pommel from grave 27 at Krosno, from the collection
of the Prussia Museum: a drawn by M. Natuniewicz-Sekua, E. Pazyna; b photograph by M. Natuniewicz-Sekua.
and a protuberance also lenticular in plan. Its culmi- may have been done when the object was pulled off the
nation is clearly linearly distinguished (the broken surface to which it was fixed.
line follows the long axe of the object). The item is
The object has its closest analogies as to shape and
8.8 centimetres long, 1.4 centimetres high and origi-
proportions among so-called boat-shaped pommels
nally it was probably around 3.5 centimetres wide. The
(Fig. 3), which were elements of double-edged sword
width of the edge oscillates between 0.2 and 0.8 cen-
casing (Bemmann and Hahne 1994, pp.376-377).
timetres, reaching the greatest values in the top parts
Boat-shaped pommels were usually part of an hour-
of the object. No traces of fixing in the form of rivets
glass hilt and had two versions. The earlier one had
or nails can be seen on the surface of the artefact. It is
thicker proportions (the proportion of the length to the
worth noticing the pronounced top parts of the edge,
width was around 2:1) and was slightly shorter. They
which may have served to fasten the object in a casing.
appeared together with indicators of so-called Group
It should, however, be remarked that among the finds
By of weapon-graves from Norway dated to Phases
from the grave there are no elements of the supposed
C1bC2 (Bemmann and Hahne 1994, p.307), and Group
casing. Almost half of the artefact has not been pre-
Vien, dated to Phase C3 (Bemmann and Hahne 1994,
served, which, as the irregularities of the edge suggest,
p.312). The later version of boat-shaped pommels em-
was probably due to corrosion. In one place at a small
braced slimmer and longer items with proportions ap-
distance from the top, a deformation of the edge is vis-
ible: the bronze sheet is broken and slightly bent. This
German: bootsfrmige Knufe.
The issue of reconstruction of the hilts of the swords from
the Roman Period was taken up by Biborski (1978, p.135-
162
The find from Krosno resembles the first group.This
BALTICA 8
kind of pommel (both silver and bronze ones) were
discovered, besides Norway, in other areas of Scandi-
navia. We may mention here the finds from the bog
site Ejsbl Nord in East Jutland, dated to the late stage
of Phase C2 (rsnes 1988, pp.52-54, Plates 89: 3, 90:
2, 94: 1-12). A silver example was also found during
the new research concerning the area of deposit Ejs-
ARCHAEOLOGIA
blgrd D, contemporary to Ejsbl Nord (Andersen
2003, pp.251-252, Fig. 8: 739). Thicker boat-shaped
pommels are also known from bog sites at Thorsberg
(Behmer 1939, Plate III: 2; Raddatz 1987, Fig. 3, Plate
77: 4) and Nydam in Schleswig. In the last-mentioned
case, during the verification excavations of the 1990s,
an hour-glass hilt with silver fittings (including a boat-
shaped pommel) was uncovered in the context of a
pine boat (Horizon Nydam Ib) (Jrgensen and Petersen
2003, pp.269-270, Fig. 13). The boat was put in the
bog probably around 300 AD, which has been indicat-
ed by the dendrochronological analysis of a plank from
one of the shields originally deposited in the bottom
of the mentioned boat (the date obtained was 296 AD)
(Ilkjr 2003, p.55; Rieck 2003, p.301). Further items
come from the site at Vimose (Engelhardt 1869, Plate
6: 19; Behmer 1939, Plate XV: 1-3)10 and Kragehul
in Fyn (Boye 1860, p.51, Plate I: 1; Engelhardt 1867,
Fig. b, Plate I: 2; Behmer 1939, Plate XIX: 3). The
last mentioned ones, however, represent the later, slim
variant, and are dated to Phases C3-D1 together with
IV
swords with hour-glass hilts (Ilkjr 2003, p.57). Of WA R R I O R S
AND
the slim Scandinavian boat-shaped pommels, we may ARMAMENTS
FROM THE
also mention the items from a rich burial at Strang VISTULA
(Slomann 1959, p.48, Plate V) and from a mans grave TO THE
D A U G U VA
from Foss (Straume 1961, p.80, Fig. 6; Lund Hansen
1987, p.441), both from Norway; they are dated to
Phase C3 (Group 11 of weapon-graves) (Ilkjr 1990,
Fig. 3. Examples of boat-shaped pommels and ways of
fastening them: a according to Menghin (1983, Fig. 28), no
pp.353 and 387)11. Bronze, undecorated pommels of
scale; b according to rsnes (1988, plates 94: 1-2, 4-5, 7-8 that kind are also known from Finland, from Nokia
and 10-11). decorated at all (Menghin 1983, pp.63-64 and 306-307;
Fig. 29), matching the criteria for the boat-shaped pom-
proximately 3:1. They appeared with objects included mels adopted by Bemmann and Hahne (1994). The criteria
in Group Mollestad, placed in the second half of the put forward by the latter are used in this paper.
fourth century, ie in the developed and late part of
According to Behmer, it is not entirely clear if the pommel
Phase C3 and in Phase D1 (Bemmann and Hahne 1994, from Thorsberg belongs to the same sword as the remain-
ing part of the hilt (Behmer 1939, p.41).
p.316).
In the catalogue of the exhibition The Spoils of Victory
138); however, his conclusions can be used for the prob- two silver boat-shaped pommels from the same horizon
lems analyzed in this paper only to a very small extent. are presented: a more slender one and a thicker one (The
A different concept was presented by Menghin, who dis- Spoils of... p.420, Cat. 6.5). This seems to indicate that
tinguished two types of boat-shaped pommels according the borderline between the two versions of the two boat-
to different criteria. In his proposal the Snartemo-Bluina shaped pommels is not sharp.
Type is composed of pommels made of silver, gold or 10
One of them has small projections in the central part of the
gilded silver on which stylised animal figures are repre- sides of the pommel (Engelhardt 1869, Plate 6: 19; Meng-
sented; this kind of pommel was part of the most intricate hin 1983, p.307) similar to the ones noticeable on the pom-
swords of the period, ie Group A, dated after Menghin to mel from Krosno.
ca 450480 AD (Menghin 1983, pp.58 and 135, Fig. 25). 11
Bemmann and Hahne also noticed an identically dated,
Type Simris, grave 54-Krefeld-Gellep, grave from 1812, late variant of a boat-shaped pommel from the Danish wa-
in turn, was simpler in form and less decorative or not ter find at Nssund (1994, pp.376-377, Footnote 368).
163
(Kivikoski 1955, Fig. 5: 2; Menghin 1983, p.306) and were bent at the edge of the pommel at right angles to
Keho (Behmer 1939, Plate XXXI: 7a; Menghin 1983, it (Stjernquist 1955, pp.21-22, 115, Plates XXII: 1-4
Concerning the Astonishing
Find from the Cemetery at
A Wi e l b a r k C u l t u r e P i e c e
p.306)12. and 9-10). The item from Simris may not be treated as
o f We a p o n r y ? R e m a r k s
BALTICA 8
craftsmen, and only after some time was
it made more carefully, decorated and se-
curely fixed. The find from Krosno is per-
haps a trial item which was not tested,
and that is why it was also slightly larger
than the other examples of boat-shaped
pommels.
ARCHAEOLOGIA
Theoretically, it is also possible that the
analysed object is a mounting of the belt
Type Strang17. Ornamental mountings,
attached horizontally to the belt, had a
shape similar to a boat, being in agreement
with the decoration style of the epoch (fol-
lowing the shape of the fire stones carried
inside). The mountings were richly deco-
rated: they were made of bronze and cov-
ered with silver gilded foil and encrusted
with pieces of glass or with enamel. An
analysis of their form and context allows
us to assume that they may have been cov-
ers of wooden boxes for tinder attached
to the belt (Bemmann and Hahne 1994,
p.489; Christensen 2005, p.60). Mount-
ings of this kind were found at Strang
(Slomann 1959, p.55, Plates V-VI) and
Nydam (in a pine boat deposited in the
bog around 300 AD) (Jrgensen, Petersen IV
2003, pp.267-268, Fig. 8). The find from WA R R I O R S
Krosno, however, should not be interpreted AND
ARMAMENTS
as an ornamental belt mounting18. This is FROM THE
Fig. 4. Non-typical methods of fastening boat-shaped pommels: a Simris, due to the form (belt mountings are flatter VISTULA
grave 54, according to Stjernquist (1955, plate XXII:4); b Vimose, accord- TO THE
and have straighter sides than boat-shaped D A U G U VA
ing to Behmer (1939, plate XV: 3); c Wageningen, grave 144, according to
van Es (1964, Fig. 71: 2). pommels) and the method used to make it:
the mysterious object from Krosno can-
not in any way be treated as an element
shaped pommels. It may seem that this was a prototype of a parade belt indicating a very high standing in the
and less perfect method than the later (?) one, but to milieu of the north European Barbarians. The chrono-
confirm this hypothesis a greater set of artefacts than logical discrepancies are also important. The discussed
the one now available is necessary. belt mountings appeared in assemblages assigned to
Group Mollestad, and thus in the developed and late
In the light of the above, the lack of rivet holes in the
part of Phase C3 and in Phase D1 (Bemmann and Hahne
item from Krosno is not surprising and does not under-
1994, pp.316 and 489), whereas the late forms, charac-
mine the determined function of the artefact. What is,
terised by some special details, appeared in burials de-
however, remarkable is the similar chronology of the
termined as Group Kvamme, perhaps even until Group
finds from Simris and Krosno. The lack of rivet holes
Snartemo (Bemmann and Hahne 1994, p.497), ie from
on the pommel from Krosno may be in this case asso-
around 400 AD till the early sixth century (Bemmann,
ciated with its early chronology and justified by using
Hahne 1994, p.318 and 329). This differs considerably
a not very efficient (prototype) method of using a very
from the chronology established for the burial at Kros-
long rivet going inside the pommel or a pair of rivets
soldered inside the convexity of the boat-shaped pom- 17
We would like to express our gratitude for this suggestion
mel. The use of a relatively thin sheet of metal, unlike to Marcin Biborski PhD from the Institute of Archaeology
in the majority of later applications , was probably 18 at Jagiellonian University.
16
The same opinion was expressed by Prof. Jrgen Ilkjr
Nota bene the find from Simris was made from a very thin
16
from Moesgrd Museum, whom we consulted on this prob-
sheet of metal (Stjernquist 1955, Plate XXII: 4). lem, for which we would like to express our gratitude.
165
no19. Furthermore, the assemblage did not contain any zanowski and Zaborowski 1988, p.224). The brief list
other elements characteristic of belts of the Strang of Wielbark Culture swords from the Early Roman Pe-
Concerning the Astonishing
Find from the Cemetery at
A Wi e l b a r k C u l t u r e P i e c e
type, such as propeller-shaped pendants. riod should be completed with the stray find of a two-
o f We a p o n r y ? R e m a r k s
BALTICA 8
bard meant that the dead person owned the real sword. KI, ed. Studia Gothica, 1, Lublin: Uniwersytet Marii Cu-
rie-Skodowskiej, 19-72.
One cannot exclude the wish to keep a link with the
BEHMER, E., 1939. Das zweischneidige Schwert der ger-
dead, whose sword stood among the living, and a scab- manischen Vlkerwanderungszeit. Stockholm: without
bard was put into the burial with the corpse (Kontny publisher.
2003, p.120). Such explanations are good for Prze- BEMMANN, J. and HAHNE, G., 1994. Waffenfhrende
worsk Culture but not for Wielbark, characterised by Grabinventare der jngeren rmischen Kaiserzeit und Vl-
kerwanderungszeit in Skandinavien. Studie zur zeitlichen
excluding the weapon from the grave furnishings. Also,
ARCHAEOLOGIA
Ordnung anhand der norwegischen Funde. Bericht der R-
it seems improbable that we are dealing with an amu- misch-Germanischen Kommission, 75, 283-653.
let, as, what is confirmed by the character of the grave BIBORSKI, M., 1978. Miecze z okresu wpyww rzymskich
goods, in grave 27 at Krosno a man (warrior?), not a na obszarze kultury przeworskiej. Materiay Archeologicz-
child or female was buried26. The context is different ne, 28, 53-165.
BLUME, E., 1912. Die germanischen St
mme und die Kultu-
from the Opatw case also because of the absence of
ren zwischen Oder und Passarge zur r
mischen Kaiserzeit.
any solutions aimed at hanging the amulet. Taking into I, Mannus-Bibliothek, 8. Wrzburg: Curt Kabitzsch.
consideration the possible traces of tearing the pommel BLUME, E., 1915. Die germanischen St
mme und die Kultu-
off the surface, it seems that the act of destruction was ren zwischen Oder und Passarge zur r
mischen Kaiserzeit,
somehow connected with funeral ceremonies. Then the II, Mannus-Bibliothek, 14. Wrzburg: Curt Kabitzsch.
BOYE, V., 1860. Bidrag til kundskab om den ldre jernalder
pommel might have been put in intentionally as a grave
i Danmark. Annaler for Nordisk Oldkyndighed og Histo-
good. If the presumption was right, it would be proof rie, 1860, 26-61.
of the weapons application during the funeral: maybe BURSCHE, A. and CHOWANIEC R., 2001. Puzderko br-
the family of the dead wanted to underline his position zowe z cmentarzyska kultury wielbarskiej w Kronie, po-
by giving him just a bronze element of a sword, not the wiat pascki. In: W. NOWAKOWSKI AND A. SZELA,
eds. Officina Archaeologica Optima.
Studia dedykowane
whole iron (that means forbidden) sword itself. Never- Jerzemu Okuliczowi-Kozarynowi w siedemdziesit rocz-
theless, we are aware that this is the time to stop here, nic urodzin, Warszawa: Uniwersytet Warszawski, wia-
to avoid becoming fantasy writers towit Supplement Series P: Prehistory and Middle Ages,
7, 41-46.
CHOWANIEC, R., 2005. Kilka uwag na temat palenisk z bi-
Translated by S. Twardo, B. Kontny and rytualnego cmentarzyska w Kronie, gm. Pask. In: C.
M. Natuniewicz-Sekua
von CARNAP-BORNHEIM AND J. ILKJR AND A. IV
KOKOWSKI, eds. Europa Barbarica. wier wieku ar-
WA R R I O R S
cheologii w Masomczu, Lublin: Uniwersytet Marii Cu-
AND
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Concerning the Astonishing
Find from the Cemetery at
A Wi e l b a r k C u l t u r e P i e c e
170
THE ROMAN PERIOD SINGLE-EDGED SWORD
BALTICA 8
FROM THE SZURPIY SETTLEMENT
( S U WA K I R E G I O N , P O L A N D )
LUDWIKA SAWICKA
ARCHAEOLOGIA
Abstract
The find of a fragment of a single-edged sword at the Szurpiy settlement near Suwaki (northeastern Poland) is the main
subject of the paper. An attempt to establish the uncertain find circumstances is made, and its meaning for chronological and
cultural research of the Suwaki region in the Early Roman Period is considered.
Key words: Szurpiy, Suwalki region, single-edged sword, Early Roman Period.
Find circumstances irregular circular head. The head of the other rivet, four
millimetres in diameter, is placed under an iron plate
Recent research on the prehistory of Baltic peoples attached over it, and is invisible. The shoulder of the
has focused on studying archive data. Finds and ar- blade is clung by the locket of the scabbard, made of a
chives from the Prussia Museum discovered in Berlin rectangular four-centimetre-wide plate. At the level of
and Kaliningrad have opened up new possibilities to the base of the tang there is a typical semicircular in-
researchers (cf von Carnap-Bornheim, Ibsen, Valujew dentation in the locket. The locket was attached to the
2005; Nowakowski, Lemke 2003). New resources scabbard with three pairs of rivets approximately four
have also been enlarged by the records of archaeolo- to five millimetres in diameter, invisible from the out-
gists connected before the Second World War with the side. The width of the blade and the massiveness of the
Knigsberg centre. Most of the materials retrieved for hilt allow us to classify the find as the M.Biborski D/2
further analysis come from the research done before type, dated to phase B2 (Biborski 1978, pp.124128). IV
the war in the area of the former Ostpreuen; however, A few places on the blade, the forge and on the hilt bear WA R R I O R S
AND
as can be seen on the basis of a fibula from Suchodoy traces of some black tar-like substance. It is difficult to ARMAMENTS
(Bitner-Wrblewska 2001, pp.44-45), we may still determine when and why it appeared on the sword. FROM THE
VISTULA
encounter data referring to finds from the Suwaki re- TO THE
The vague circumstances of the discovery of the item
gion. It appears that not only the legacy of the Prussia D A U G U VA
make it very difficult to establish the exact context of
Museum can provide fascinating finds which have not
the sword. The register note attached to it informs us
been known so far. At the beginning of 2006, during
briefly that it is a fragment of an iron sword and that it
clean-up work in the storage rooms of the Institute of
was found during the field survey at Targowisko in
Archaeology at Warsaw University, a small collection
1965. Targowisko is now the name of the settlement
of finds was discovered. They came from the field re-
at site 4 in Szurpiy, a part of a bigger settlement com-
search conducted in the late 1950s and early 1960s by
plex (Okulicz-Kozaryn 1993) whose most important
Tadeusz urowski at various archaeological sites at
element is the settlement at Gra Zamkowa (Szurpiy,
Szurpiy, in the Suwaki region (Fig.1). Apart from a
site 3). Until recently Targowisko was the name of
few bags of bones from barrows at site 2 in Szurpiy,
the whole hamlet, consisting of a few farmhouses lo-
numerous items of pottery from Targowisko, located
cated within the aforementioned complex. The finds of
a few kilometres to the northeast of the cemetery, were
T. urowski at the place called Targowisko also in-
also found. Among these finds, there was also a frag-
clude some earthenware. It remains uncertain whether
ment of a single-edged iron sword (Fig.2).
it was collected at the same place as the sword in ques-
The find is very well preserved. It consists of the hilt, a tion because it is difficult to determine what urowski
part of the blade and the upper locket of the scabbard. interpreted as Targowisko. The ceramic assemblage
The blade is not embellished, it is six centimetres wide, constitutes quite a big collection of fragments of wheel-
and the length of the preserved part reaches 13 centime- thrown vessels, so-called grey pottery. There were no
tres. The tang curves from the blade one-sidedly, and
The possibility of dating it to the beginning of phase C1a
is ten centimetres long. At the end there are two rivets, was also considered, but new research shows that there is
one of which is six millimetres in diameter and has an no reason to keep this presumption. I am very grateful to
Dr Bartosz Kontny for this information.
171
Single-Edged Sword from the
LUDWIKA
SAWICKA
finds of this kind at the site 4 settlement, presently found. Still, as far as the settlement structure is con-
called Targowisko, which is dated to the Early Mid- cerned, the applied fortification system corresponds
dle Ages. Thus, whatever urowski called Targow- well to similar arrangements known from the areas of
isko does not comply with the present terminology. Stroked Ware Culture (Grigalaviien 1995, pp.40-64).
Undoubtedly, the pottery corpus dating from the same
phase of the settlement also indicates connections to
Chronology
this culture, poorly examined in contemporary Poland
(cf Bitner-Wrblewska 1994, p.227; Nowakowski
Thus we can only conjecture the context of the find-
1995, pp.75-76). Despite the fact that the fortifications
ing of the single-edged sword from the Szurpiy set-
and houses in the interior of the hill-fort of Gra Zam-
tlement. Dating it to the younger phase of the Early
kowa had been destroyed twice, settlement continued
Roman Period allows us to classify it into an older
there until the end of the Early Roman Period, ie until
settlement horizon connected to Stroked Ware Culture
the second century AD, flourishing at the end of this
(Strichkeramikkultur). The beginning of this horizon is
period (Okulicz-Kozaryn 1993, p.140). A number of
dated to the turn of the third and second century BC,
finds can be linked to this phase. Firstly, an iron spur
its end falls at the end of the second century AD, which
with big knobs corresponding to Ginalski group A,
means that in Szurpiy this one undisturbed phase cov-
which should be dated to the end of the Late Pre-Ro-
ers the Early Iron Age and Early Roman Period. During
man Period (Ginalski 1991, p.55). An earlier find is a
this horizon there was a complex of sites at Szurpiy
profiled belt-end fitting, characteristic of the Early Ro-
(Fig.3). Its centre was located at the hill-fort at Gra
man Period (Madyda 1977, p.381). Further, fragments
Zamkowa (Okulicz-Kozaryn 1993, p.140). At that time
of three pins originate in the same settlement phase: two
it was inhabited and surrounded by a double palisade
of them are of B.Beckmann type A (Beckmann 1969,
fence, strengthened by stones. In the hearth of one of
p.108, Fig.1:A). One of the type A pins is made of iron
the dwelling-houses, traces of craftsmans activities,
and has a well-preserved head and part of a shaft, the
casting moulds and pieces of bronze decorations, were
172
BALTICA 8
ARCHAEOLOGIA
Fig. 2. The single-edged sword from Szurpiy (iron; drawing and photograph by Sawicka). IV
second one, cast in bronze, has a well-retained shaft Szurpiy: cultural dependence and WA R R I O R S
AND
but its head is missing, so it can be evaluated as A type interactions ARMAMENTS
only by looking at its base. A-type pins should be dated FROM THE
VISTULA
to an older phase of the Early Roman Period or the No matter where exactly the sword was found, it al- TO THE
beginning of the Late Roman Period (Juga 2003, p.70). lows us to consider the cultural connections of this area D A U G U VA
The third pin has an ornamented biconical head with a in the time in question. As was already mentioned, the
hole, and belongs to B.Beckmann type L, character- older settlement horizon in Szurpiy, connected with
istic of the end of the Early Roman Period and of the the Early Iron Age and Early Roman Period, seems to
Late Roman Period (Beckmann 1969, p.111, Fig.1:L). be one undisturbed phase, while in the other regions
At the same time, there were a few settlements in the of West Balt lands we can easily distinguish the Early
nearby area. In addition to the fortified settlement at Iron Age and the time after Christ (cf Okulicz 1973).
Gra Zamkowa, there were three settlements dated to At Szurpiy the rhythmus of cultural development ap-
the Early Iron Age (Szurpiy sites 10 and 13, Wodziki pears to be quite different and rather similars to proc-
site 1) within the Szurpiy complex known from the ess known from Stroked Ware Culture (cf Luchtanas
field-walking survey. 1992, pp.74-79; 2001; Grigalaviien 1995, p.239).
The Suwaki region is very difficult to determine in the
It is difficult to determine the exact place of finding
period we are interested in (Bitner-Wrblewska 1994,
of the sword in question. It can only be evaluated as
p.227). West Balt Barrow Culture, covering Early Iron
a find coming from Szurpiy, and linked to an older
Age Mazury and Samland, never reached so far to the
horizon of its settlement embracing the Early Iron Age
east. Only single sites are located between the Ek and
and the Early Roman Period. We can only suppose that
Lega rivers (. Okulicz 1970, map). The subsequent
it was found on one of the open settlements, because if
Bogaczewo Culture, at the end of the Early Roman Pe-
urowski had found it on the hill-fort he would have
riod, also did not cross the Godapa and Lega rivers
mentioned this fact.
(Engel et al. 2006, Fig.2). Next, Stroked Ware Culture,
173
Single-Edged Sword from the
LUDWIKA
SAWICKA
Fig. 3. The Early Iron Age and Early Roman Period settlement horizon at Szurpiy: 1 Gra Zamkowa hill-fort; 24 open
settlements (drawing by Sawicka).
covering the Early Iron Age and partly the Early Ro- The finding of the sword at Szurpiy is quite unusual
man Period area of a significant part of modern Lithua- for several reasons. There are no other finds of weap-
nia and north Belarus, in principle reached up to the ons from the Suwaki region dated to the time in ques-
River Nemunas. To the west of this river are located tion. Also, for other West Balt areas, the sword is quite
single sites referring to this culture but characterized an untypical kind of artefact (cf W. Nowakowskis pa-
by local distinctions (Grigalaviien 1995, Fig.143). per in this volume). But the most important thing is
that it is another proof of the existence of settlements
The most rudimentary indicator which should be taken
in the Suwaki region during the Early Roman Period.
into consideration when one tries to define the cultural
It also seems that one can quite precisely observe here
character of Szurpiy complex in its older horizon re-
the moment of cultural transformation of this area. At
mains the finds. The ornaments known from the bronze
the instant when the population of Szurpiy for several
craftsmans dwelling-house resemble finds from Maz-
centuries died out, representatives of an utterly differ-
ury and Samland dated to the third and second century
ent culture, connected with Bogaczewo Cultures ex-
BC (Okulicz-Kozaryn 1993, p.140). The structure of
pansion, appear at a distance of several kilometres. If it
the built-up area and the fortification system corre-
was a chronologically linear change, or if both popula-
spond with similar sites of Stroked Ware Culture. Also,
tions interacted with each other for some time, and if
the pottery found on the hill-fort undoubtedly indicates
we have evidence of the seizure of the Suwaki region
connections with this culture, but this is not reason
at the turn of Early and Late Roman Period with fire
enough to automatically identify the Szurpiy complex
and nomen omen the sword, we can say only after
with it. An additional component making the issue
further investigations.
more complicated is the fact that some kinds of arte-
facts, including potsherds of pottery with imitations of
faceted rims, and, first of all, the presented fragment of
Translated by Beata Maria Furga and the author, and
a sword, confirm long-term connections with distant
revised by Anna Bitner-Wrblewska
Przeworsk Culture.
174
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bada nad pradziejami batyjskiego ludu z Pojezierza Ma- Tai pirmas ankstyvojo romnikojo laikotarpio kala-
zurskiego. Barbaricum, 4, Warszawa. vijas, inomas i Suvalk regiono. Ankstyvuoju ro-
NOWAKOWSKI, W. and LEMKE, M. (eds). 2003. Auf der mnikuoju laikotarpiu vakar balt gentims, kaip ir
suche nach der verlonen archologie. Warszawa. brkniuotosios keramikos kultros atstovams, kala-
OKULICZ, J., 1973. Pradzieje ziem pruskich od pnego
vijai nebuvo bdingi. Vis dlto svarbiausia, kad apta-
paleolitu do VII w.n.e. Wrocaw-Warszawa-Krakw-
Gdask. riamasis vienamenis kalavijas leidia svarstyti apie
OKULICZ, ., 1970. Kultura kurhanw zachodniobatyjskich ankstyvojo romnikojo laikotarpio Suvalk regiono
we wczesnej epoce elaza. Wrocaw-Warszawa-Krakw. kultrin priklausomyb ir jo ryius su brkniuoto-
OKULICZ-KOZARYN, J., 1993. Szurpiy zesp ladw sios keramikos kultros, Bogaevo ir Pevorsko kul-
osadnictwa z czasw od III w. p.n.e. do XIII w. n.e. In:
tr monmis.
Przewodnik LXIV zjazdu Polskiego Towarzystwa Geo-
logicznego na Ziemi Suwalskiej, 9-12 wrzenia 1993.
Warszawa, 139-146.
Lietuvikai para Liudwika Sawicka
Received: 20 January 2007; Revised: 7 June 2007
175
I S T H E R E R E L I A B L E A R C H I VA L D ATA ?
Interpretation of an Unusual
T H E P R O B L E M O F I N T E R P R E TAT I O N
Is there Reliable Archival
( F o r m e r l y Tr a u s i t t e n )
BARTOSZ KONTNY
BARTOSZ
KONTNY
Abstract
The article concerns the fork-like artefact found in grave 22 at Gurjevsk (formerly Trausitten). Based on Herbert Jankuhns
files, it had seemed to be a part of a Roman helmet, but after finding it in the Prussia Collection (nowadays in Berlin) it seems
to be of quite modern origin (a musket rest?).
Key words: helmet, crest-holder, weapon, Dollkeim-Kovrovo Culture, musket.
176
Function and
BALTICA 8
interpretation of
the mysterious
specimen
ARCHAEOLOGIA
My first impression was
that we may have the
crest holder of a Roman
helmet (Fig. 2). The hel-
met-crest was an impor-
tant element of Roman
military attire, signifying
status, enabling to dis-
tinguish a unit during an
engagement in the field,
as well as playing a psy-
chological role (Bishop
1990, pp.161-162). The
general shape of the item
in question strengthens
the above hypothesis.
Forked crest holders had
proportionally longer
or shorter arms (Bishop
and Coulston 1993, Fig.
58: 1, 4). Apparently,
IV
their length was not the WA R R I O R S
AND
crucial factor. Also, the ARMAMENTS
FROM THE
terminals differed from VISTULA
one another: they were TO THE
D A U G U VA
shaped as simple bars,
eg Vindonissa (Waurick
1988, Fig. 4: 1-2), knobs,
eg Aislingen (Bishop and
Fig. 1. The furnishings of the grave 22 from Gurjevsk (formerly Trausitten) according to Coulston 1993, Fig. 58:
Herbert Jankuhns files. 1), and quite frequently
they were outcurved, as
well as the conical prick are clearly visible. Therefore, in the case of Gurjevsk grave 22, see Kalkriese (men-
we may attribute it as an example close to subgroup C2 tioned above) or Rheingnheim (Bishop and Coulston
(more probable) or D after J. Ginalski (1991, pp.58- 1993, Fig. 58: 4). Such crest holders were made of
59). On this premise it may be cautiously stated that bronze as well as iron, eg Kalkriese (Franzius 1993,
the grave comes from phase B2, which means the first Fig. 1). The cross-section of arms and the lower part
phase of Dollkeim-Kovrovo Culture (Nowakowski was rectangular (see example from Aislingen, men-
1996, pp.48-50), maybe even the earliest stage of it, tioned above). Such holders were characteristic of Gal-
as spurs C2 after J. Ginalski appeared during phase B1 lic-Roman helmets (Weisenau type). They appeared
in Przeworsk Culture (Ginalski 1991, p.59); examples during the times of the early principate, mostly from
of subgroup D are dated to phase B2 (Ginalski 1991, the first half of the first century AD up to the start of the
p.59). It should be noted that spurs and horse harnesses third century AD, although we know earlier specimens
appeared in Dollkeim-Kovrovo Culture in its whole of that type from the times of Augustus reign (Wau-
chronological range (Nowakowski 1996, pp.56-58). rick 1988, p.255), eg Kalkriese (Franzius 1993, p.112;
177
made of wood, with pro-
Interpretation of an Unusual
( F o r m e r l y Tr a u s i t t e n )
178
It occurred that equip-
BALTICA 8
ment of grave 22 from
former Trausitten sur-
vived, which gave me
the possibility to com-
pare it with archival
data. Besides the con-
firmation of the general
ARCHAEOLOGIA
shape and dimensions
of specimens drawn by
Jankuhn, one should un-
derline the appearance
of the second iron spur
of the same type as the
first one (both strongly
corroded, lacking one
of its arms), but also the
striking difference in
the construction of the
forked artefact. Actually,
its lower part consists of
a socket not a rod (Fig.
5), as one should assume
taking into considera-
tion Jankuhns sketch.
The oval outline drawn
by Jankuhn aimed prob-
ably to show this fact in
IV
an obvious way to him
WA R R I O R S
but not clear to us. The AND
socket is 1.8 centimetres ARMAMENTS
FROM THE
in diameter, and there VISTULA
are no fastening nails TO THE
Fig. 4. Different methods for fastening a crest: ab use of a crest-holder; c use of a knob (after or rivets visible on it. D A U G U VA
Anon, 2006).
The corrosion process
noticeable in the upper
57: 1-6) and probably the Celtic helmet from Malaja part of the socket resulted in its destruction (the patch
Kopanja (Przeworsk Culture) dated to phase B1 (Kac- that Jankuhn drew is actually an irregular hole). The
zanowski 1992, p.53; Kobal 1997, p.41, Figs. 10-11). lower part is in a better state of preservation than was
Nevertheless, the overwhelming majority of Roman suggested by Jankuhns drawing. The most important
helmets come from a Roman military context, which conclusion is that the item from Gurjevsk can not be
means military camps, Hadrians Wall, etc (eg type treated as a crest holder, because of the socket construc-
Weisenau: see Waurick 1988, p.337). Therefore, it is a tion, unknown so far for Roman helmets. Of course,
tempting idea to interpret the item from Gurjevsk as a it cannot be denied that we are dealing with a local
crest holder, and as a result I presented such a proposi- solution, but such a presumption is less plausible, be-
tion at the conference Weapons, Weaponry and Man. cause, as far as we know, Barbarians generally did not
In Memoriam of Vytautas Kazakeviius. use helmets, neither Roman nor local, during the Ro-
man Period. We should notice here that the object from
Investigations conducted by me in the collection of the
Gurjevsk is slightly bigger than the majority of forked
former Prussia Museum in Knigsberg, kept nowadays
crest holders, although the difference is rather small (it
in the Museum fr Vor- und Frhgeschichte in Berlin
might be assumed that the owner of a helmet used a
(Prussia Collection), changed the situation definitely.
wider, roughly seven-centimetre-wide, crest box).
I would like to thank Christine Reich PhD and Horst Wie- It is easier to reject the explanation presented above
der PhD from the Museum fr Vor- und Frhgeschichte in than to propose a new one. There are no direct analo-
Berlin for help and access to the collection and archives.
179
Interpretation of an Unusual
Is there Reliable Archival
( F o r m e r l y Tr a u s i t t e n )
BARTOSZ
KONTNY
BALTICA 8
ment of the support of a musket (we should not neglect Kaiserzeit und seine Verbindungen mit dem rmischen Re-
ich und der barbarischen Welt. Marburg-Warszawa.
the possibility that this is the case with the item from
PAULI JENSEN, X., 2003. The Vimose find. In: L. JR-
Grave 454 at Grudzidz-Rzdz). Heavy muskets had GENSEN et al., eds. The Spoils of Victory. The North in
to balance on a rest (the Italian term for a musket rest the shadow of the Roman Empire. Copenhagen, 224-238.
is forchetta). Musket rests were popular from the mid- RADDATZ, K., 1987. Der Thorsberger Moorfund. Katalog.
dle of the 16th century till the end of the 17th century. Neumnster.
ROBERTS, K., 2002. Matchlock Musketeer: 15881688.
The upper part was made of brass or iron, shaped in
ARCHAEOLOGIA
Osprey Warrior. 43. Oxford.
the form of a fork, sometimes widening slightly, fre- ROBINSON, H.R., 1975. The Armour of Imperial Rome.
quently with outcurved terminals (eg Roberts 2002, London.
pp.4 and 68; Kwaniewicz 2004, pp.81-82) (Fig. 6). It VO, H.-U. et al., 1998. Corpus der rmischen Funde im eu-
could also be used for other purposes, but so far they ropischen Barbaricum. Deutschland. vol. 3: Bundesland
Mecklenburg-Vorpommern. Bonn.
are not clear to us.
WAURICK, G., 1988. Rmische Helme. In: W.-D.
Nevertheless, there is one firm statement to be made: HEILMEYER AND U. SCHAAFF, eds. Antike Helme.
Mainz, 327-364.
we should be very cautious in interpreting archival
WILHELMI, K., 1992. Isa pantae tois prosophois. Die
data, even that treated as reliable, especially when we bronzeeisenversilberte Helmmaske aus der frhen Kai-
are dealing with untypical artefacts serzeit am Kalkrieser Berg. Germanische Beute aus r-
mischer Paradeausrstung haerentia corpori tegmina?
Translated by the author Ein status quaestionis. Journal of Roman Military Equip-
ment Studies, 3, 1-36.
References RSNES, M., 1993. Zaumzeugfunde des 1.-8. Jahrh. nach
Chr. in Mittel- und Nordeuropa. Acta Archaeologica, 64,
183-292.
ANGER, S., 1890. Das Grberfeld zu Rondsen im Kreise
Graudenz. Graudenz.
ANON, 2006. Legio X Online Handbook. Helmet crests [on- Received: 20 January 2007; Revised: 19 May 2007
line]. Available from: http://www.larp.com/legioxx/crests.
html [accessed 27 October 2006]. A r archyviniai duomenys
BISHOP, M.C., 1990. Legio V Alaudae and the crested lark.
Journal of Roman Military Equipment Studies. 1, 161
yra patikimi ? N e prasto
164. dirbinio i G urjevsko IV
BISHOP, M.C. and COULSTON, J.C.N., 1993. Roman ( buv. T rausitten ) , WA R R I O R S
Military Equipment. London. AND
ENGELHARDT, C., 1863. Thorsbjerg Mosefund. Kjben-
S ambijos pusiasalyje , ARMAMENTS
FROM THE
havn. interpretacijos problema VISTULA
ENGELHARDT, C., 1869. Vimose Fundet. Kjbenhavn. TO THE
FRANZIUS, G., 1991. Die Maske eines Gesichthelms. In: D A U G U VA
W. SCHLTER, ed. Rmer im Osnabrcker Land. Die Bartosz Kontny
Ausgrabungen in Kalkriese. Osnabrck, 53-59.
FRANZIUS, G., 1993. Die rmischen Funde aus Kalkriese.
In: W. SCHLTER, ed. Kalkriese Rmer im Osnabrck- Santrauka
er Land. Osnabrck, 107-182.
GINALSKI, J., 1991. Ostrogi kabkowe kultury przeworsk- is straipsnis skirtas neprastos dviakio formos dir-
iej. Klasyfikacja typologiczna. Przegld Archeologiczny, binio, rasto Gurjevske (buv. Trausitten), degintiniame
38, 53-84.
kape 22, analizei. Informacija apie dirbin buvo rasta
HOLLACK, E., 1908. Erluterungen zur vorgeschichtlichen
bersichtskarte von Ostpreuen. Glogau-Berlin. Herberto Jankuhno archyve, kur jo (H. J.) pieiniuose
KACZANOWSKI, P., 1992. Importy broni rzymskiej na ob- buvo paymta dirbini matmenys ir formos (1 pav.).
szarze europejskiego Barbaricum. Krakw. Gurjevsko kape 22 buvo rasta: urna, dar vienas molinis
KOBAL, I.V., 1997. Kultura przeworska na Ukrainie Zakar- indas, geleini sl fragmentas su metaliniais kama-
packiej. Wiadomoci Archeologiczne, 53/2, 31-62.
KOLENDO, J. AND NOWAKOWSKI, W., 2000. Antiqui-
n apkalais, du geleiniai pentinai ir mintas geleinis
tates Prussiae. Wprowadzenie w problematyk bada nad dviakio formos dirbinys. is paslaptingas dviakio ar
staroytnociami krajowymi. In: J. KOLENDO AND Y raids formos dirbinys yra 9,4 cm ilgio, su 8,4 cm
W. NOWAKOWSKI, eds. Antiquitates Prussiae. Studia z ploio ior atlenktais galais (1; 5 pav.). io dirbinio
archeologii dawnych ziem pruskich. Warszawa, 5-8. chronologija nra tiksliai nustatyta, nes kape 22, be
KOSTRZEWSKI, J., 1919. Die ostgermanische Kultur der
Sptlatnezeit. Mannus-Bibliothek. 18. Leipzig-Wrz-
geleini pentin (ar pentino, priklausanio C2 grups
burg. pogrupiui arba, labiau tiktina, D grupei, pagal J. Gi-
KWANIEWICZ, W., 2004. Leksykon dawnej broni palnej. nalskio klasifikacij; j pieinys nelabai tikslus), nra
Warszawa. daugiau precizikai nustatytos chronologijos dirbini.
Atsargi prielaida gali bti tokia, kad Gurjevsko kapas
181
22 priklauso B2 periodui, tai reikia pirmajai Doll-
Interpretation of an Unusual
( F o r m e r l y Tr a u s i t t e n )
182
A R O M A N I R O N A G E WA R R I O R F R O M W E S T E R N
BALTICA 8
L I T H U A N I A N C E M E T E RY B A I TA I G R AV E 2 3
RASA BANYT-ROWELL
ARCHAEOLOGIA
Abstract
A warrior from Baitai grave 23 was equipped with a spear, socketed axe, scythe, fragment of knife and a belt. Such a set of
grave goods was typical but not entirely standard in west Lithuanian graves. The author discusses how, through many possible
variations of male grave goods, we could recognize the personal position of the dead in a group of other armed men.
Key words: West Lithuanian Stone Circle Grave Culture area, Late Roman Iron Age, warriors, martial values.
selected a unified central and northern barbaricum the cemetery has not been excavated in full, but it is
style of ornamentation. It was adopted in accordance possible to offer preliminary comparisons. Secondly,
with local capability and local taste. Similar features of if the standard of grave goods in Baitai 23 was not
male attire are not only evidence of kinship links with applied to all dead males, can we determine the social
the western Balts but also reflect the same forms that position and significance of the dead who are equipped
were common throughout the Central European bar-
baricum and the northern Germanic areas (on the com-
mon barbarian features of ornamentation found in the
Lithuanian coastland, see Tempelmann-Mczyska
1985, pp.68-80; 1989, pp. 84-93, Nowakowski 1999;
Banyt-Rowell 2000a; 2004; von Carnap-Bornheim
2000; Michelbertas 2000; Bliujien 2005).
Fig. 3. Finds from Baitai grave 23: 1 spearhead (lance head); 2 socketed axe; 3 scythe; 4 fragment of iron item covered with
remains of leather; 5 buckle; 6 rivet ? probably a part of belt fittings; 7a-f remains of belt fragments of leather fastened
with rivets-studs; 8a-b rivets and studs of the decoration for the belt; 9a-9b fragments of semi-circle fitting probably
remains of the belt loops; 10a-b, 11, 12 fragments of iron items of uncertain type. 16, 8a, 10ab, 11, 12 iron; 7a7f leather,
bronze, iron; 8b, 9ab bronze. Drawings by J.Maeikait (in the custody of the History Museum of Lithuania Minor in
Klaipda, inv. No. 3938039386).
185
in the southwest region, which at that
time was related culturally with the
A R o m a n I r o n A g e Wa r r i o r
to Type 31 of R.Madyda-Legutkos
D Group, which is not numerous,
ROWELL
187
in between the human burials or in the same grave pit 61. The latter grave contained a spur, the remains of a
occurred more frequently than did random horse teeth. leather strap with studs, and an iron buckle. It is hard
A R o m a n I r o n A g e Wa r r i o r
The scale of the horses offerings here suggests that to say whether the ornaments with the remaining frag-
the meaning of these rituals bears a significance which ments of the deceaseds bones that were found 80 to
is more communal than personal. Random horse teeth 100 centimetres to the south of these finds belonged
found in the different stratigraphical levels of ernai to the same weapon owner (Bezzenberger 1892pp.158-
cemetery do not allow us to link the horse sacrifices 159). The neck-ring found here along with a crossbow
forthright with a strictly personal, martial or even brooch with a bent foot decorated with ringlets and
entirely male symbolic context of burial customs. Jan blue glass eyes, two bracelets, two spiral rings and am-
Jaskanis, summarising his analyses of the burial rites ber and glass beads are quite prestigious decorations
RASA BANYT-
of the Western Balts in the first to the fifth centuries, for an armed horseman. Grave 3, belonging to an adult
ROWELL
concluded that the fact of offering a horse for the dead male, is quite rich; it contains a scythe and an axe. Here
does not necessarily indicate the social position of the the remains of a particularly decorative belt with rivet-
latter or his warlike needs. In the case of the Western stud ornamentation and an end-mounting tongue with a
Balts, the cult of horses known in the system of beliefs glass eye were found along with two crossbow brooches
of various pastoral societies is revealed to us through with a bent foot, and two spiral rings (one of which was
their burial rites and was left for us as archaeological twisted) (Bezzenberger 1892, plate VIII right side:1;
evidence, as probably the adoration of horses for simi- Gaerte 1929, Fig.176b). The belt from ernai grave
lar needs was expressed in Scandinavian offering sites 3 is a possible example of what effect was sought by
such as Skedemosse (Jaskanis 1966, pp.61-65; 1974, the person who made the belt found at Baitai grave 23.
pp.248-252; Hagberg 1967, pp.60-62). Horse graves/ In one male grave from ernai, which Bezzenberger
sacrifices from the seventh to the 11th centuries in called Fundstelle 50, a similarly rich set of grave goods
central Lithuania, as was represented in the study of was found along with a full collection of supplemen-
MindaugasBertaius (2002, pp.169-205), in some de- tary male grave goods, which contained a spearhead,
gree were a continuation of the way of fulfilling the re- battle knife, axe, shield boss, scythe, gouge, whetstone
quirements of the community of the dead as a whole, and two bronze belt buckles which evidently belonged
not only those of a warrior class as we could expect to two belts decorated with studs and end-mounts
when dealing with phenomena of the Late Migrations (Bezzenberger 1892, pp.155-157). To the northwest of
or Viking Period. When analysing the data from West the male was a female grave, and to his northeast was
Lithuanian cemeteries of the Late Roman Period, it a horse sacrifice with iron bridle bits. Coins found next
is worth remembering J. Jaskanis conclusion, which to the brooches of the male dead were from the reigns
was made from his analysis of finds from neighbouring of Hadrian and Alexander Severus, which allows us
West Baltic areas, that a horse offering for a particular to date the grave to the C1b period (Fig.7). The silver
dead person could be one of the ways to emphasize neck-ring and silver ring belonging to the deceased and
his upper social position, but this ritual was not an ex- other bronze ornaments (two bronze crossbow brooch-
ceptional privilege for the prince class. The diversity es with ringlets, two smaller crossbow brooches with a
of the burials with horses of the Late Roman Period bent foot, and two spiral rings) leave us in no doubt that
in West Lithuania is shown by AudronBliujien and there was a strong desire to stress the deceaseds status.
Donatas Butkus in this volume. The next plan of ernai The weapons and implements placed in the grave ap-
presented here, which shows weapons and implements pear to tell of this mans all-round skills or his diverse
along with buckles and belt parts, reveals that the con- needs, but they give few hints as to his priorities in
tents were quite diverse, but they all come from the life. When he was alive did he really spend as much
same categories (Fig.6). The blend of items reminis- time in the workshop as fighting? Most probably this
cent of Baitai grave goods, namely spearhead, axe and variety of grave goods reflects the maximum provision
scythe, are present in ernai in only one grave (76). of goods to meet the dead mans needs according to the
Apart from these goods, only a small potshard has been standards of burial ritual then practised.
found. In two graves only a spearhead was found (75
Let us go back to Baitai 23. What is the milieu of this
and 85). Three spearheads, one of which is bent, were
grave? Next to this grave were two richly equipped
found in grave/Fundstelle 104 in the supposed D phase
female graves 18 and 24 (for finds of grave 18, see
part of the cemetery. A ring and two amber beads were
Banyt 1999, Fig.2), horse sacrifice/grave 22 which
found along with these. The most common set of kit
was connected with a human grave, and what we guess
in ernai male graves comprises an axe and a scythe,
to have been a childs grave without grave goods (grave
which were both the only goods found in grave 84 and
27) (Fig.4). A silver ornament or parts of silver gar-
were placed along with an iron shield boss in grave
ment decoration were found in the female and equine
188
BALTICA 8
ARCHAEOLOGIA
IV
WA R R I O R S
Fig. 6. The distribution of weapons, male work tools, metal details of belt or bridle fittings, the remains of equine and AND
equestrian equipment (prepared on the basis of data from Bezzenbergers publication). ARMAMENTS
FROM THE
graves. It is interesting that grave 22 with its human Denmark and southern Scandinavia as chronological VISTULA
TO THE
and equine remains does not stand out for military at- indicators of the C1bC2 periods (Lund Hansen 1995, D A U G U VA
tributes (for drawing of finds from Baitai grave 22, see pp.212-216; Banyt-Rowell 2000a, pp.37-39, Fig.7;
Banyt-Rowell 2000a, p.35, Fig.6). Here, what look Banyt-Rowell 2007c, forthcoming). In both Baitai
like fragments of an iron bridle bit were found along graves (22 and 31) where we found horses sacrificed
with ornaments and rings and a broken buckle. A silver to the dead, silver rings would denote the exceptional
spiral ring of Baitai burial with horse grave 22 similar status of the deceased.
in form to Beckmann Type 38 (aus spiralig gekerbtem
The bronze and silver decorations found in female
und teils glattem Draht) and its ornamentation is remi-
grave 24 near male grave 23 at Baitai belong to the
niscent of the gold ring from Zakrzw (formerly Sack-
same style and chronological phase as those found at
rau) in Silesia, which dates to C2 (Beckmann 1969,
Baitai 31. The same filigree-style, glass-eye decora-
pp.45-46, Fig.17, cat. No. 551).
tions were used on the belts and brooch found in the
Thus this grave is similar to Baitai 31 (containing a grave of a rich armed man in ernai 50. The belt be-
man with two horses), where only fragments of a sick- longing to the warrior from Baitai 23 fits the same con-
le and battle-knife were found, while the exceptional text, namely ascetic but functional dress.
character of the deceased is reflected by the sacrifice
Let us take a look at what sets of grave goods mark
of two horses, the special-quality cloth decorated with
the grave of a wealthy man which contains weapons
silver, clothing, the bridles decorated with bronze
and a horse sacrifice (probably only the horses head
and silver and a belt, silver ring (the Baltic version of
was sacrificed) which was found in another cemetery
Beckmann types 3940 Schlangenkopfringe), a silver
not far from Baitai and ernai at Stragnai (formerly
rosette decoration, similar to the ornamentation details
Stragna, Skren) (Fig.1). Stragnai grave 13 (excava-
of Almgren 216217 rosette brooches and of Alm-
tions in 1985, see Varnas 1986) is dated according to
gren 234235 brooches (Hakenkreuzfibeln) known in
189
A R o m a n I r o n A g e Wa r r i o r
Fig. 7. A reconstruction of the layout of items and of remains of human and horse bones in Fundstelle 50. The sketch was
drawn by the author of this article on the basis of data about the distances between finds recorded in Bezzenbergers publi-
cation (1892).
a coin of Alexander Severus to no earlier than the sec- aged and was not preserved as an item in the museum
ond half of C1b, that is, like the wealthy mans grave at (Varnas 1986, p.82). The set of ornaments belonging to
ernai (50). The weaponry of the man from Stragnai is the Stragnai warrior is quite wealthy but it is within the
almost the same as that of the ernai corpse, except that limits of reason (for drawings of all grave goods from
it lacks the shield boss, but he has one more spearhead Stragnai grave 13, with the exception of a Roman coin,
and two spurs. The man from Stragnai grave 13 also one bronze bracelet, the same type as that shown in the
had a one-edged sword, which was found badly dam- drawings, and a one-edged sword, see Banyt-Rowell
190
2007a, p.82, Fig.26; 2007b,p p.328-329, Fig.s3 and we should ask to what class of armed man the deceased
BALTICA 8
4). The brooch decorated with silver wires and the ap- from Baitai 23 could belong. This is not so easy, since
parent horse pendant with a blue glass eye were created so far no such Baltic princeps grave has been found in
by a skilful local craftsman, but they do not equal the Western Lithuania to equal the grave found at Szwa-
diversity of ornamentation owned by the wealthy man jcaria Barrow 2 grave 1 in the Suwaki region of Po-
of ernai. The belt and bridle belonging to this man land (Antoniewicz et al. 1958, pp.25-31, plates I-IX).
were not decorated as richly as those found in Baitai 31 It is not clear whether we should class the wealthiest
even though the collection of finds from Stragnai cem- ernai and Baitai graves in the highest social stratum.
ARCHAEOLOGIA
etery discovered at the end of the 19th century has the The man from Baitai 23 was armed with a particular
most diverse ornaments for belts and bridles from the type of spear, he had a more decorative belt and was
Late Roman Period (Banyt-Rowell 2004). There is a buried next to a wealthy man. It is probable that he
possibility that some signs of disturbance in the grave was at least of the middling class of warrior. In this
pit of Stragnai 13 could be the consequence of robbery scheme of things, the man from Joguiai-Spirkiai cem-
in ancient times. On the other hand, a remarkable per- etery (Tamulynas 2005), in whose grave an omega
centage of graves in the West Lithuanian Stone Circle buckle was discovered, would appear to be a member
Grave Culture area are distinguished by the arrange- of the warrior elite, but perhaps he must not necessarily
ment of some grave goods in an unusual way. have been a member of the princeps class. This warrior
was buried with a particularly expensive buckle, and a
Stragnai grave 13 contains not only a set of spear, axe
spear that was modern for the time according to local
and scythe that is typical of Baitai 23, but also a similar
tradition, and the contacts he and those who buried him
large iron buckle (Banyt-Rowell 2007b, Fig.4:10).
had (most likely military contacts) went beyond the
Such a set of buckle, gouge, whetstone and scythe,
borders of their homeland. Perhaps the belt belonging
similar to that in Stragnai grave 13, was also found
to the man in Baitai 23 reflects the aim of its owner to
in the weaponless grave 30 at Baitai (Banyt 2000b,
demonstrate, in so far as his means allowed, his belong-
Fig.3). The Stragnai and Baitai gouges are remarkably
ing to the group of warriors, which was represented by
similar, as though they were made by the same crafts-
the man from Joguiai-Spirkiai with the foreign belt
man. It is very probable that the communities at Baitai,
or by men buried in ernai or Auktkiemiai (formerly
ernai and Stragnai were connected to the same cen-
Oberhof), who wore local versions of ornamental riv-
tral place during the C2 period. Thus the significance IV
eted belts with fittings (Bezzenberger 1892, plate VIII
of this centre as everyone could suppose was much WA R R I O R S
right:1; plate XIV below right; Gaerte 1929, Fig.176:
more local compared with the proper central places AND
a, b, d). Could this group be counted in the context of ARMAMENTS
in southern Scandinavia at that time (Lund Hansen FROM THE
finds from the West Lithuanian cemeteries as level 2
2001). Nevertheless, the inhabitants of the Lithuanian VISTULA
warrior representatives comites (optimates)? Could TO THE
coastland had a knowledge about the richness of cen- D A U G U VA
we suggest that a personal belt, more than a particular
tres with an outstanding role in the Baltic area and had
type of weapon, was the instrument to demonstrate the
contacts with them in some way or degree.
common martial values of soldiers of different rank?
This would be most credible in a way. The belt itself
Concluding remarks: the social and its ornamentation could be a soldiers epaulette of
attribution of warriors graves that time as it is known thanks to the Illerup find (Pauli
Jensen et al. 2003, p.319). Joguiai-Spirkiai grave 1,
Who was at the top of these communities which buried ernai grave 50, Stragnai grave 13, despite the pres-
their former members in the cemeteries we have dis- ence of some peasant-type tools there, look too rich for
cussed here? Were they like the men buried at Baitai 31 the conscript class in the context of other male graves.
and ernai 50? Did they belong to the princeps class? Most probably, tribal warriors of a higher class were
If we consider the sacrifice of a horse to the deceased buried in these graves and their grave goods reflected
to mark horseman status, then the man from Stragnai the mix of martial and rural values of the community
13 should be regarded as a noble. But why is the horse which buried its former members. If Scandinavian war
owner in Baitai 22 so anonymous? Are his insignia, booty offerings provide an impressive view of well-
the silver ring, much more clear a sign of status than organized armies, West Lithuanian cemeteries give
all the standard scythe plus spear plus axe and whet- us not too much evidence to deny that the inhabitants
stone collections? What place and role did the Baitai of the Lithuanian coastland at the same time had a
23 man hold in this structure? On the basis of stud- spontaneously mobilized, haphazardly equipped peas-
ies of Scandinavian weapon sacrificial sites (von Car- ant army, as it can be outlined using the words of B.
nap-Bornheim and Ilkjr 1996, pp.483-484; Jrgensen Storgaard (2001, p.100). Tribal class social communi-
2001, pp.9-12; Pauli Jensen et al. 2003, pp.310-314),
191
ties interlinked warlike occupations with rural ones in BANYT, R., 2000b. Jra ir mons. Keletas pastebjim
a natural way, as every young man had to go through apie pajrio balt gyvensen ir paproius senajame
A R o m a n I r o n A g e Wa r r i o r
his everyday responsibility for the rural community BANYT-ROWELL, R., 2005. Bait kapinynas. Arche-
ologiniai tyrinjimai Lietuvoje 2003 metais, 109-112.
ROWELL
192
JRGENSEN, L., 2001. The Warriors, Soldiers and Con- ods. Papers from an International Research Seminar at the
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scripts of the Anthropology in Late Roman and Migration Danish National Museum, 10-11 December 1999, Copen-
Period Archaeology. Military Aspects of the Aristocracy in hagen, 95-111.
Barbaricum in the Roman and Early Migration Periods. TAMULYNAS, L., 2005. Apie du iskirtinius romnikojo
Papers from an International Research Seminar at the laikotarpio radinius i Jogui kapinyno. Archaeologia
Danish National Museum, 10-11 December 1999. Copen- Lituana, 6, 83-93.
hagen, 9-19. TEMPELMANN-MCZYSKA, M., 1985. Czci stroju
JOVAIA, E., 1997. Senojo geleies amiaus visuomens kobiecego w okresie rzymskim na obszarze rodkowo- i
struktros atspindiai balt laidojimo paminkluose. Is- wschodnioeuropiejskiego Barbaricum. Krakw.
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torija, XXXV, 15-47. TEMPELMANN-MCZYSKA, M., 1989. Das Frauen-
KAZAKIAVICHIUS, V., 1988. Oruzhie baltskikh plemen II- trachtzubehr des mittel- und Osteuropischen Barbari-
VII vekov na territorii Litvy. Vilnius: Mokslas. cums in der rmischen Kaiserzeit. Krakw.
KAZAKEVIIUS, V., 1998. Military aspects of Baltic tribes VARNAS, A., 1986. Stragn ploktinis kapinynas. In: Ar-
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Beziehungen. Kbenhavn. R omnikojo L A I K O TA R P I O
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tional Research Seminar at the Danish National Museum,
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MADYDA-LEGUTKO, R., 1986. Die Grtelschnallen der Rasa Banyt-Rowell
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MALONAITIS, A., 1997. Siauraameniai pentiniai kirviai
Lietuvoje (tyrinjim metmenys). Istorija, XXXV, 4877. Straipsnyje pateikiama dar nepublikuota Bait kapiny-
MALONAITIS, A., 2002. Schmalxte mit Nacken in Litau- no kapo 23 mediaga, kuri aptariama kit iki iol itirt
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MALONAITIS, A., 2003. moviniai kirviai Lietuvoje: klasi- duomenimis i ern ir kit dviej netolim Vakar IV
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MICHELBERTAS, M., 2000. Zu den Handels- und Kultur- ir C3 fazi sandrai, t. y. madaug III a. antrajai pu- FROM THE
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TO THE
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aus universiteto leidykla. vien dl to, kad jam kap buvo dta ietis negin-
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Ch., II, Tartu. duobje: geleinis movinis kirvis, geleinis dalgelis,
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peilio dalis, diro sagtis bei diro puoybos detals
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der sptrmischen Kaiserzeit und Vlkerwanderungszeit ginale I] variantui. Pastaruoju metu L. Tamulynas
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laidotas gausiausiai ginkluotas mirusysis. ioje ka-
A R o m a n I r o n A g e Wa r r i o r
194
R E M A R K S O N M A L E B U R I A L S I N T H E C E M E T E RY
BALTICA 8
OF OBERHOF (AUKTKIEMIAI)
CHRISTINE REICH
ARCHAEOLOGIA
Abstract
In Oberhof (Auktkiemiai, western Lithuania) cemetery, several groups of weapon furnishings can be distinguished. Sword
graves occupy the central positions when charted on a reconstructed plan of the burial site. Graves are located further away
from these centres as the number of weapons contained decreases. Weapon equipment is a key to deciphering the spatial
structure of the cemetery.
Key words: male burials, weapon equipment, cemetery structure, Migration Period.
The cemetery of Oberhof (nowadays Auktkiemiai, Before entering into the main discussion of this paper,
in the Klaipda district) is situated today in western it is worthwhile giving a short overview of the sources
Lithuania, northeast of Klaipda. It was excavated and their quality, since these factors naturally affect the
from 1886 to 1888 by Otto Tischler, and in 1894 by derivation of subsequent conclusions.
Alfred Jentzsch, Heinrich Kemke and Kretschmann. Originally 3,073 inventory numbers existed, 1,553 of
They investigated more than 4,225 square metres and them are kept in Berlin today. In addition, 31 ceramic
452 graves. The cemetery was used from the Roman vessels are in the Museum Warmii i Mazur in Olsz-
Iron Age up to the Early Medieval Period, from the tyn. Every item originally carried a small label with
third to the 12th century respectively. Oberhof has al- a consecutive number. The objects were fixed on a IV
ways been perceived as one of the reference cemeteries cardboard sheet organized by graves (Plate II. 2). Oc- WA R R I O R S
which provide the basis for the chronological phasing AND
casionally, inventory numbers are also written directly ARMAMENTS
of Eastern Prussia by O. Tischler. Nevertheless, apart on the carrier cardboard using a pencil. Only a part FROM THE
VISTULA
from short reports by Tischler, some illustrations, of these cardboards have survived, and many objects TO THE
mentions and references in the literature, the material have fallen off (Plate II. 2). Sometimes the tags were D A U G U VA
remained unpublished. Until the Second World War the also lost. In the process of reconstruction and re-identi-
material and documentation were housed in the Prussia fication, such objects could be successfully reassigned
Museum in Knigsberg. During and after the war the to the appropriate grave.
archaeological collection of the Prussia Museum in the
custody of the Landesamt fr Vorgeschichte was torn Most importantly, the preserved archive material in-
apart and badly damaged. For more than 40 years the cludes descriptions of the graves written by O. Tisch-
whereabouts of the whole collection were unknown. ler. These were complemented by typed copies made
Today, a part of the collection is kept in the Museum in 1943. Sometimes they are accompanied by little
fr Vor- und Frhgeschichte, Staatliche Museen zu sketches or plans of the graves on graph paper. Such
Berlin Preuischer Kulturbesitz. descriptions are provided for 230 graves respectively,
313 graves and findings. In some cases, the original
As no inventory books, especially no catalogue of descriptions as well as the typewritten copies are very
Oberhof, have survived, the grave units have to be re- badly preserved. In addition, the typed copies contain
constructed. This is possible by means of the preserved frequent mistakes caused by misinterpretation of the
objects and the archive material in Berlin, combined original; in particular the coordinate system Tischler
with references in literature, old photographs and used for his excavation was not understood any more
sketches in other archives. (see below). There are no descriptions for the graves
discovered in 1894.
Other important sources which connect inventory num-
bers with grave numbers are a list of the Roman coins
Tischler 1887, 1888a; 1888b, 1889,1891.
Reich 2003, 2004/05. found in Oberhof and small inventory cards, which
195
were possibly made for storage purposes. Photographs, Naturally, this method does not lead to exact results for
illustrations in the literature and sketches in archives every grave, since not all file cards of the Zettelkatalog
in the Cemetery of Oberhof
Remarks on Male Burials
give further hints. All this information provides a rough are preserved, and other available sources are similar-
framework of association between inventory numbers ly more or less incomplete. Additional information on
and graves. objects from Oberhof can be found in the archives of
(Auktkiemiai)
that it reflects the state of the former inventory. Prob- On this plan a coordinate system can be recognized
ably, it was used in order to check the collection. Every with Arabic numbers on the x- and Roman numbers
REICH
card lists the contents of a grave, albeit without inven- on the y-axis. Negative numbers are marked by a short
tory numbers. The Zettelkatalog hence allows us to de- horizontal bar above the figure. This corresponds to the
termine the range of inventory numbers for one grave method which Tischler described in his preliminary re-
by comparison with preserved objects, other sources port. Tischler excavated in 10 by 10 metre squares.
and counting. The lists, in which the corresponding quadrant is re-
corded for every grave, are completely preserved in the
The data given in Tischlers descriptions and those
archive of the Prussia Museum.
of the Zettelkatalog sometimes deviate. The descrip-
tions seem to have been written during the excavations. Often precise coordinates are given in the descriptions
Some objects were saved en bloc and shown later in of the burials. The position within a quadrant is marked
the museum. Also, some items were only properly rec- by subscript figures. Sometimes it is possible to de-
ognized after conservation, as later additions to the de- termine the coordinates using the detailed plan of a
scriptions show. Hence, the Zettelkatalog is the more grave, but occasionally they are missing entirely. This
reliable source concerning the grave contents, as com- is especially the case for all burials excavated in 1894,
pared to the original descriptions. where only the quadrants are known. For around 170
graves and 80 findings, exact coordinates are available
In the following, the procedure used in the reconstruc-
or can be reconstructed. By transferring them into a
tion of the contents of a burial will be explained, using
metric system, it was possible to reconstruct a plan of
the example of grave 75 (Pl. II. 2): two inventory num-
the cemetery (Fig. 1). On this plan, different types as
bers, 18285 and 18286, are written on the cardboard.
well as equipment patterns can be mapped. If the exact
Concluding from the shadows, a sickle and a spear-
coordinates of a grave are unknown, it is very impor-
head were mounted on it. A wooden sub-construction
tant to chart the corresponding quadrant nevertheless.
for a neck-ring (18277) and the fragment of a snaffle-
Otherwise, the use of this data could result in distorted
bit (18281) were still fixed on the cardboard. The fil-
distribution patterns.
ing card from the Zettelkatalog for grave 75 records
a sword, a socketed axe, a sickle, a whetstone, two
spearheads, a snaffle-bit with horsehead-shaped end- Presents of weapons in the graves and
ings, one bracelet, two spiral rings, three amber beads, grave categories
two bronze fibulae, a silver neck-ring and a small
whetstone. The sources, damaged and incomplete as they are, nev-
ertheless offer a sound basis for looking at the com-
Based on this information, the fragments of two fibulae
binations of weapons and other grave goods in the
(18275 and 18276), the bracelet with club-shaped ter-
male burials of Oberhof. As bones are not preserved,
minals (18278), the flint stone (18287) and the second
and some of them were already disintegrated when the
fragment of the snaffle-bit existing in Berlin could be
excavation took place, we can only rely on the gen-
assigned to this burial. These items are preserved, but
der as determinable by the associated archaeological
had come undone from the cardboard.
finds. In the following table (Fig. 2), which shows the
As the arm-ring with club-shaped ends was published
by Nils berg in 1919, a sketch of one of the fibulae
There is, besides occasionally missing cards, a particularly
big gap between grave 304 and 358. Distinctively fewer
is available in his archive. Sketches and descriptions of
cards are preserved for graves with higher numbers than
the neck-ring and of one spearhead can be found in the that. However, for the burials excavated in 1894, the Tis-
archive of Marta Schmiedehelm. chlersche Zettelkatalog is often the only source of infor-
mation.
berg 1919, Fig. 187.
Tischler 1888, p.14 f.
196
BALTICA 8
ARCHAEOLOGIA
IV
WA R R I O R S
AND
ARMAMENTS
FROM THE
VISTULA
TO THE
D A U G U VA
Fig. 1. A reconstructed plan of the cemetery with the digitized version of Otto Tischlers plan mounted underneath.
combinations of grave items, only graves which can be Burials of the first group are characterized by contain-
addressed clearly as male burials are taken into consid- ing a sword or a large knife. As none of these swords
eration. The table includes 156 graves. The graves are or knives is preserved completely, we can only rely
arranged independent of their chronological classifica- on the descriptions. It is not sure if a so called large
tion. Instead, the number and combination of weapons, knife really had a size to make it suitable to be a bat-
swords or battle-knives, spearheads, axes, and tools, tle-knife. Only the length of the knives from graves
that is sickles and whetstones, were used as clustering 132, 399 and 406 can be reconstructed. They are 30 to
factors. 37 centimetres long, which makes them, according to
Kazakeviius, proper fighting knives. In his descrip-
tions of graves 132, 75, 77, 141, 111 and 68, Tischler
Graves without weapons or tools are not included in this
table. Graves with knives or drinking horn mounts are talks of swords, only in the Zettelkatalog they are called
also missing, if there are no other items to indicate a male grosses Messer (large knife). So it seems that they are
burial, although the latter are often regarded to be mens at least long enough to be suitable battle-knives. This
graves. The same applies for graves with horse bones or group also includes graves with two knives, assuming
teeth, snaffle-bits or spurs.
that one of them is significantly larger than a normal
In the Zettelkatalog as well as in the descriptions the term
Sichel (sickle) is used. Obviously some of those that sur- knife, even though this is only mentioned explicitly in
vived look rather like scythes. But because these are few, I
will stick for this study to the term originally used. Kazakeviius 1988, p.145 f.
197
in the Cemetery of Oberhof
Remarks on Male Burials
(Auktkiemiai)
CHRISTINE
REICH
199
the case of grave 68. Only for grave 75 is a Schwert As far as these burials can be dated, they all belong to
(sword) recorded in the Zettelkatalog. M. Schmiede- the Early Medieval Period. It is striking that only three
in the Cemetery of Oberhof
Remarks on Male Burials
helm describes the big knife from grave 399 as a Sk- graves of this period are equipped with more weap-
ramasax. ons: grave 435 with two spearheads, grave 449 with
one spearhead and a miniature axe, and grave 419 with
The group of graves with swords or battle-knives is
(Auktkiemiai)
As the Zettelkatalog was the main source for this table, (inv. no. 7994 and 8108). One is a stray find, the other one
grave 15 was put into the second group. is from a feature which was probably a disturbed grave.
10
The suspicion that some of them might be disturbed or in- Both were situated in areas which are at the edge of the
complete cannot be confirmed, eg the description of grave distribution of Early Medieval Period burials with mini-
174 says clearly that it is ungestrt (undisturbed). Also, ature axes. So another explanation may be that warriors
the description of grave 45 shows that it is undoubtedly a with swords were buried in other places, perhaps also with
closed find. different burial rites.
200
BALTICA 8
ARCHAEOLOGIA
Fig. 3. Southwestern grave group.Quadrants with detailed coordinates for all graves are shaded grey.
essarily a military rank, but his position in society as the Migration Period. Further, this zone of the cemetery
a man allowed and able to carry arms. This surely was is large enough to allow more extensive conclusions to
also co-dependent on his age and wealth. be drawn. Finally, this area is quite well documented.
It includes nine 10 by 10 metre squares. In five of them
So far, it is not quite clear how big the influence of
(-6 III, -8 III, -6 II, -8 II and -9 II14) the detailed coordi- IV
time on the different groups of weapon assemblies is.
nates for all graves are known. We can be certain that WA R R I O R S
As previously stated, most of the graves with swords
areas indicated to be without graves are really vacant AND
are from the Migration Period, and male burials of the ARMAMENTS
of findings. In quadrants -7 III and -5 III detailed coor- FROM THE
Early Medieval Period mainly contain only a miniature VISTULA
dinates are only known for at most half of the graves,
axe as the only weapon. In other grave groups the TO THE
the remaining graves are strewn somewhere within the D A U G U VA
Roman Iron Age and the Migration Period mixed, even
corresponding square, so that gaps in these quadrants
if in some groups the burials from the Roman Iron Age
maps cannot be reliably interpreted as an absence of
seem to predominate. But we have to keep in mind that
graves, but must be viewed as a lack of cartographic
not all graves are datable.
information.
At least three subgroups can be distinguished in the
Distribution of weapon furnishings
southwestern part of the cemetery: one in the south-
west from grave 78 to grave 66, a second in the east
The determined groups of male burials can be mapped
with graves 113, 109, 104, 103 and 63 at the border, to
on a reconstructed plan of the cemetery. The remainder
the big third group in the middle. The middle concen-
of this discussion will focus on the southwestern part
tration of burials may originally have consisted of at
of the cemetery12 (Fig. 3), which recommends itself for
least two or three groups, but this cannot be verified,
several reasons. To begin with, this area can be viewed
due to the lack of data. At least there is an empty space
as temporally homogeneous, as the spectrum of fibulae
between graves 145 and 144 and the eastern border
found in this area indicates13 that it was mainly used in
of quadrant -8III. Therefore, the western part may be
12
The following results are also valid for other parts of the separated from the middle group.
cemetery, though they can be pointed out best at this area. 14
It is not entirely
clear
if the southern part of quadrant -7 II
13
Especially star-footed brooches, Armbrustfibeln mit festem was really vacant of finds. Tischler had, according to his
Nadelhalter (crossbow brooches with full catch-plate), plan of excavated areas and his descriptions, investigated
Schlusskreuzfibenl, the younger form of Armbrustfibeln only the upper half of the quadrant. It does not seem that
mit umgeschlagenem Fu und Ringgarnitur (crossbow A. Jentzsch, H. Kemke and Kretschman excavated here
brooches with wire decoration) and the only bow fibula (cf again; at least there are no graves known from this part of
Reich, forthcoming). the quadrant.
201
in the Cemetery of Oberhof
Remarks on Male Burials
(Auktkiemiai)
CHRISTINE
REICH
Fig. 4. The distribution of weapon furnishings in the southwestern grave group: burials with a sword or a large knife (),
with two spearheads and an axe (), with two spearheads (), with one spearhead and an axe (), with a single spearhead
(), and with only an axe ().
The observation that the descriptions of the graves as with swords or battle-knives seem to take a central po-
well as of the excavated quadrants are full of gaps ap- sition, especially within the proposed subgroups. They
plies to the whole cemetery as well as to the grave group are surrounded by graves with one or two spearheads.
under discussion. Stone circles or cells are mentioned As the number of weapons diminishes, graves are lo-
for the eastern part of quadrant -5 III, where graves cated further away from the sword grave17. Burials
92, 93, 98 and 99 might be connected with them, and containing only an axe are found on the periphery.
for the southern part of -9 II. Graves 78 and 77 were Mens graves without weapons, that is with a sickle
situated within a stone circle. Remains of stone circles or a whetstone, are also located on the border18. Which
were found near graves 76 and 68. Apart from negative and how many weapons a man possessed in his life-
influences on the information due to missing descrip- time determined the place in which he was buried, as
tions, Tischler reports that parts of the cemetery were it may have determined his position within the com-
disturbed and that stones had been taken from the stone munity of Oberhof.
cells15. So even if Tischler mentioned, for example, for
Looking at the proposed subgroups, one sword grave
the northern half of -6 III only wenige Steine (few
is located in the eastern group, two in the southwest-
stones), we cannot be sure if this represents the original
ern group, four in the middle group and another one
or is due to the preservation conditions.
in its western part, which may itself form a separate
Concerning the weapon equipment, the graves con- group.In the southwestern group grave 77, which con-
nected with stone circles belong to various groups: tains a fibula which is described as Bronzefibel m.[it]
with a sword or battle knife (graves 68 and 77), with Nadelscheide (a crossbow brooch with full catch-
two (grave 99) or one spearhead (graves 78, 92 and
98). Grave 76 is a very well-furnished female burial. 17
In order to keep the map readable, graves of which only
There is no observable connection between weapon the quadrant is known are not charted. There are two
more graves with battle knives and one with two spear-
equipment and grave architecture. heads and an axe in Quadrant -7III and one burial with two
If the weapon equipment of burials as determined from spearheads in -7IV. Additional graves furnished with one
spearhead are situated in -7III, -7IV, -6IV and -5III. This
the data is charted on the site plan (Fig. 4)16, the graves
distribution confirms the general result.
18
Graves 187, 71 and 64. Grave 106, situated within the mid-
Tischler 1888, p.15.
15
dle group, might be disturbed, as Tischler suggested in his
For graves 75 and 93, only a part of the coordinates are
16
description. The only exception is grave 109, in which,
known. Therefore, they appear as rectangles in the site among other things, two spurs and the remains of a horse
plan. were found.
202
plate)19, might be dated to phase D, whereas grave 68 ums im Berliner Museum fr Vor- und Frhgeschichte.
BALTICA 8
with a fibula which shows a little rung at the end of the Archologisches Nachrichtenblatt, 8, 14-23.
REICH, CH., 2004/05. Die Prussia-Sammlung im Museum
bow is younger and may be set in phase E20. Grave 104,
fr Vor- und Frhgeschichte. Das Berliner Museum fr
in the eastern group, is clearly older than grave 75, in Vor- und Frhgeschichte. Festschrift zum 175-jhrigen
the western group, as the first contained a bracelet with Bestehen. Acta Praehistorica et Archaeologica, 36/37,
thin club-shaped ends, while the second held a brace- 343-354.
let with thick club-shaped ends and a Schlusskreuz- REICH, CH., 2006. Das Grberfeld von Oberhof Kulturel-
le Beziehungen und Kontakte. Archaeologia Lituana, 7,
fibel, which can be dated to phase E. Grave 132, in the
ARCHAEOLOGIA
85-97.
middle group, dates from the same period with a late REICH, CH., forthcoming. Das Grberfeld von Oberhof
star-footed brooch and a younger variation of a Arm- (Auktkiemiai) Chronologische Gliederung. Archolo-
brustfibel mit umgeschlagenem Fu und Ringgarnitur gisches Nachrichtenblatt, 12.
(crossbow brooch with wire decoration) as well as a TISCHLER, O., 1887. Eine Emailscheibe von Oberhof.
Schriften der physikalisch-konomischen Gesellschaft K-
bracelet with thick club-shaped ends. The other three
nigsberg, 17, 38-59.
sword graves of the middle group (111, 133 and TISCHLER, O., 1888a. ber das Grberfeld von Oberhof.
141) are unfortunately not precisely datable. It is very Korrespondenzblatt der Deutschen Gesellschaft fr An-
tempting to assume that only one man with a sword or thropologie, 29, 118-122.
battle knife existed in every subgroup at a time, but this TISCHLER, O., 1888b. Das Grberfeld von Oberhof, Kr.
Memel. Schriften der physikalisch-konomischen Gesell-
cannot be proven due to the situation of the sources.
schaft Knigsberg, 29, 14-23.
TISCHLER, O., 1889. ber den Zuwachs der archologi-
schen Sammlung des Provinzial-Museums im Jahre 1888.
Conclusion Schriften der physikalisch-konomischen Gesellschaft K-
nigsberg, 30, 27-31.
What do the subgroups represent? One interpreta- TISCHLER, O., 1891. Bericht ber die Archologisch-An-
tion is families. There are female burials amongst the thropologische Abteilung des Provinzial-Museums der
male graves, especially in the southwestern and mid- Physikalisch-konomischen Gesellschaft. Schriften der
physikalisch-konomischen Gesellschaft Knigsberg, 31,
dle group, which are comparable with co-located male
99-103.
graves in the richness of their furnishings and which
might be connected to them. On the other hand, there Received: 22 January 2007; Revised: 21 May 2007
are areas where female graves are concentrated, eg IV
in the northwest (graves 72, 76, 144 and 145) and in Pastabos apie O berhof WA R R I O R S
the southeast (graves 61, 62 and perhaps 63)21. Due to AND
( A uktkiemiai ) kapinyno ARMAMENTS
these conflicting indicators, it is difficult to find a com-
prehensive answer at the current stage of research.
v y r kap u s FROM THE
VISTULA
TO THE
The weapon equipment surely is a key to deciphering D A U G U VA
the spatial structure of the cemetery, but it is not the Christine Reich
only one. Certainly age, gender and lineage, as well as
the wealth and prestige of the deceased, also influenced Santrauka
the choice of the burial site. However, the investigation
of these factors, as well as a detailed analysis of the 18861888 m. Oberhof (Auktkiemiai, Klaipdos r.)
ornamental equipment of male and female burials, will kapinyn tyrinjo Otto Tischler, 1894 m. laidojimo
need to be the subject of further studies. paminkl tyrinjo Alfred Jentzsch, Heinrich Kemke
ir Kretschmann. Minti tyrintojai ityr 452 kapus,
pradedant romnikuoju laikotarpiu ir baigiant anksty-
Translated by the author vaisiais viduramiais (IIIXII a.). Iki Antrojo pasau-
linio karo pabaigos Oberhofo kapinyno mediaga ir
References dokumentacija buvo laikoma Prussia muziejuje Ko-
enigsberge (dabar Kaliningradas). Per kar ir tuoj po jo
BERG, N., 1919. Ostpreuen in der Vlkerwanderungs- labai nukentjusi Prussia muziejaus kolekcijos dalis
zeit. UppsalaLeipzig. pateko Landesamt fr Vorgeschichte. iandien Prus-
REICH, CH., 2003. Archologie einer vorgeschichtlichen sia muziejaus mediagos dalis yra saugoma Berlyno
Sammlung. Die Bestnde des ehemaligen Prussia-Muse-
Proistors muziejuje (Museum fr Vor- und Frhges-
19
Zettelkatalo
g. chichte, Staatliche Museen zu Berlin Preuischer
20
Cf. berg 1919, p.58 f. Figs. 57 and 61. Kulturbesitz). Inventorins Oberhof kapinyno knygos
21
Even considering that the two subgroups (the western part
of the middle group and the eastern group) are quite small, ir dirbini katalogas neiliko, todl kap inventoriai
it seems that men and women were buried separately. rekonstruojami remiantis paiais vairiausiais duome-
203
nimis: ilikusiais kartono laktais su pritvirtintais dir- vienu kirviu yra rasti vyr kap su ginklais periferinje
biniais ir be j, senosiomis etiketmis, O. Tischlerio srityje, o beginkli vyr kapai taip pat yra grups pa-
in the Cemetery of Oberhof
Remarks on Male Burials
kap apraais, vairiausiais alutiniais archyviniais kratyje. Vyro realiame gyvenime turtas ginkl skai-
raais ir vadinamuoju Tischlerscher Zettelkatalog ius ir kokyb lm jo viet kapinyne, o galbt ginklai
(saugomas Varmijos ir mozr muziejuje Oltyne) lm ir individo viet Oberhofo bendruomenje. Be
(Auktkiemiai)
(II: 2 iliustr.). Pagrindinis altinis kap inventoriams abejo, ginklai ir ginkluot yra raktas deifruoti erdvin
atkurti yra ilik 1533 dirbiniai, iandien saugomi kapinyno struktr, bet ne tik.
Berlyno Proistors muziejuje. Rekonstruojant kap
Neabejotina, kad mirusiojo padt kapinyne lm am-
kompleksus buvo panaudotos visos manomos litera-
ius, lytis, turtingumas ir prestias. Taiau i veiksni
tros nuorodos, senosios nuotraukos ir pieiniai, sau-
tyrinjimas, taip pat detali ginkl ir papuoal derini,
gomi net keli ali muziejuose ir kitose institucijose
CHRISTINE
BALTICA 8
ARMAMENTS, ON THE BASIS
O F I N V E S T I G AT I O N S I N V I E V I L C E M E T E RY
UGNIUS BUDVYDAS
ARCHAEOLOGIA
Abstract
Vievil cemetery, situated in the Jurbarkas district (the lower Nemunas region in Lithuania), belongs to the Scalvian Baltic
ethnocultural group and has been investigated for the last six years. The site contains archaeological material characteristic of
ninth to 11th-century Scalvians. The research material gathered during the excavations would allow us to state that those who
were buried in the cemetery were related to a dominant part of Scalvian society of that time.
Key words: Western Balts, Scalvians, Vievil cemetery, spearheads, swords.
Vi e v i l C e m e t e r y
BUDVYDAS
UGNIUS
Fig. 2. The location of Vievil cemetery (Jurbarkas district) in the lower Nemunas region.
206
about the weapons used by the
BALTICA 8
Scalvians during the Viking
Period.
ARCHAEOLOGIA
in the cremation burials in es-
pecially large numbers, they
are not diverse. Several spear-
heads and a sword are usually
found in a burial. It is impos-
sible to compare this material
with other Scalvian cemeteries
investigated because the mate-
rial has not been systematised.
Almost all the weapons found
have been ritually bent or
otherwise destroyed. Conse-
quently, there is no possibility
of determining precisely their
measurements. Spearheads de-
finitely comprise the largest
group of weapons found. It was
the most effective and cheapest
weapon of the time. A spear
was best suited for fighting both
close up and at a distance, and
IV
made it possible to keep an en- WA R R I O R S
AND
emy at a safe distance. But the ARMAMENTS
spearhead forms are probably FROM THE
VISTULA
some of the most conservative. TO THE
There was no great functional D A U G U VA
BALTICA 8
and other grave goods, which
allow the spearhead to be dated
to the 11th century.
Two surviving spearheads
(graves 1 and 14) belong to type
IV. These spearheads have an
ARCHAEOLOGIA
elongated triangular blade (Fig.
6) and are large with a length
of 32.8 to 42.5 centimetres. A
spearhead socket covered with
a copper alloy plate was found
in burial 14. The spearhead,
with its gold-coloured socket,
must have appeared very im-
pressive at that time. The upper
part of the socket is decorated
with four grooves. An X-ray
of the blade showed two sym-
metrical wavy bands running
along the blade. These bands
are usually characteristic of ar-
ticles made of Damascus steel.
In addition, many spearheads
of this type have a blade forged
from this metal (Kulakov, Tol-
macheva 1987, p.96).
This type of spearhead is gen-
IV
erally found in Lithuania in WA R R I O R S
AND
the western districts. They date ARMAMENTS
Fig. 5. Spearheads with broad leaf-shaped blades: 1 grave 1 (spearhead with silver from the 11th century (Volkait- FROM THE
inlay); 2 grave 21 (photograph and drawing by Budvydas). VISTULA
Kulikauskien 1970, p.232). TO THE
D A U G U VA
Those found at Vievil, judg-
found on the Sambian peninsula (Kazakeviius 2002, ing from the sets of grave goods, can also be ascribed
p.112, Fig. 7). Many spearheads decorated with similar to this period.
designs have been found at the KlincovkaIrzekapi-
Swords belong to the second group of weapons found
nis cemetery (former Wikiau, Zelenogradsky district,
at the cemetery. Fragments of 19 of them were discov-
Kaliningradskaja oblast, Russia; graves 10, 15, 36, 41,
ered and another two are preserved at the VGWM (810:
etc; Kulakov 1995, pp.218, 221, 229 and 232; Figs. 78,
43, 894). In addition, fragments of at least ten blades
11, 20 and 24). In addition, six pairs of holes for secur-
were discovered during research. The swords that have
ing the spearhead to the shaft survive on the sides of
survived in better condition have been ritually bent or
the socket. These are arranged symmetrically length-
otherwise destroyed, but very few of them have been
ways along the socket. This manner of fastening had a
touched by the flames of a pyre. They can be divided
more decorative than practical value. Similarly deco-
into three types, according to the typology adopted by
rated spearheads have been found in Norway (Petersen
J. Petersen.
1919, p.30f and, 163, Figs. 16, 20 and 128). The origin
of the spearhead found at Vievil should definitely be The largest group consists of type X swords, nine of
sought in present-day Scandinavia. which were discovered (graves 1, 10 [2], 13, 15, 21
[2], 22, VDKM 810: 43): ie they were found in more
The spearhead was found in the grave together with a
than half of the burials with swords (Fig. 7: 1-3). Ac-
group IV ladder brooch, a miniature penannular brooch
cording to data from 1996, 32 swords of this type were
with upturned terminals, a group II penannular brooch
known to exist on the eastern shore of the Baltic Sea
with poppyseed-shaped terminals, a type X sword
(in Lithuania, the Kaliningrad Oblast and Latvia). One
pommel, a J. Petersen type E spearhead, type III stir-
was found in the neighbouring Linknai cemetery
209
Scalvian Armaments, on the A three-section pommel, which has a large central sec-
tion and belongs to type T swords, was a chance find
Basis of Investigations in
BALTICA 8
dominant social or economic
status would be buried with
rich grave goods.
It is precisely the totality of the
research material from Vievil
cemetery that allows us to state
ARCHAEOLOGIA
that the individuals buried in
the cemetery should be linked
to a certain dominant part of
the Scalvian community. First,
a small number of burials have
been found on the hill. Second,
all the cremation burials belong
to males. The similarity of the
funeral rites and grave goods
in the burials shows that peo-
ple who identified themselves
in life with a certain socially
dominant group were buried
on the hill, which was a domi-
nant feature of the landscape
near the settlement. This has
also been indirectly confirmed
by anthropological research on
the cremated bones found in
the burials (conducted by Pro-
fessor Rimantas Jankauskas IV
of Vilnius University), during WA R R I O R S
which it was determined that a AND
ARMAMENTS
child (37% of all the burials), an FROM THE
adult female (12%), or an indi- VISTULA
TO THE
vidual of undetermined gender D A U G U VA
(6%) was buried together with
an adult male in 14 of the 16
burials he researched (87%).
The custom whereby a warrior
is accompanied into the afterlife
by an adult female or a child is
already known to have existed
in the area of former Prussia in
the seventh century and to have
survived until the 13th century.
The appearance of this custom
is connected with the begin-
ning of the formation of a war-
Fig. 7. X and Z type swords: 1 grave 13; 2 grave 10; 3 grave 22; 4 grave 16 (photo- rior elite (military community)
graph by Budvydas). (Kulakov 1994, p.148). I think
that this small group of crema-
groups, which expressed the status they occupied in tion burials found in Vievil cemetery is connected
the community of the time through the funeral rites, with precisely this social aspect. A full set of weap-
thus stressing their specialness in the afterlife. Anoth- ons, ie a spear, a sword and equestrian artefacts, have
er question is with which social groups these burials been found in more than half of the burials. It would
should be linked. It is very unlikely that an individual even be possible to envisage a certain standardisation
211
Scalvian Armaments, on the remains unanswered, but it was
probably in the cemetery that
Basis of Investigations in
Conclusions
BUDVYDAS
UGNIUS
1. A total of 17 cremation
burials ascribed to males, who
were buried not only with an
abundance of ornaments but
also a full set of weapons, were
discovered in Vievil cem-
etery during archaeological
research.
2. The weapons found in
Vievil cemetery belong to
types that are widespread in
Europe. The majority of these
weapons were manufactured
in the vicinity of Vievil cem-
etery, but some arrived as the
result of trade or as the spoils
of war.
3. Spears with narrow leaf-
shaped or J. Petersen type E
spearheads, as well as type X
swords, clearly predominate
Fig. 8. Type T and Y swords: 1, 1a VDKM inv. No. 894; 2 grave 5 (Kulikauskien, among the weapons. It is possi-
Rimantien 1966, Figs. 52 and 53, photograph by Budvydas). ble to envisage a certain stand-
ardisation of the weaponry.
of the weaponry. Several J. Petersen type E or narrow 4. The abundance of grave goods and the burial of
leaf-shaped spearheads and a type X sword are usually males together with a child or an adult female allow
found in the burials. On the other hand, these burials us to draw the conclusion that some of the individuals
belong to the period (tenth to 11th centuries) when the buried in Vievil cemetery belonged to the Scalvian
process of forming the warrior elite of the Baltic tribes warrior elite.
living on the eastern shore of the Baltic Sea reached the
high point of its development (Bertaius 2002, pp.200-
202 and 215-216; Kulakov 1994, pp.152-154 and 160). Translated by Jeffrey Arthur Bakanauskas
This is very clearly reflected in the archaeological ma-
terial from Vievil cemetery. The appearance of this
Abbreviation
social process was also influenced by the fact that the
Scalvian community which lived at Vievil estab- VDKM Vytautas the Great War Museum, Kaunas
lished themselves beside one of the main trade routes
of the time, the River Nemunas, which was used to car- References
ry prestigious wares and the majority of Scandinavian
imports deep into Lithuania. In addition, this river was ANTANAVIIUS, J., 1976. Balno kilpos Lietuvoje XXIV
also a constant source of tension. The question of where a. Lietuvos TSR Moksl akademijos darbai, serija A, 1, 69-
81.
the remaining members of the community were buried
212
BERTAIUS, M., 2002. Vidurio Lietuva VIIIXII a. Kaunas: Atuoniuose kapuose kartu su mirusiaisiais buvo sude-
BALTICA 8
Vytauto Didiojo leidykla. ginti irgo ar stambaus induolio palaikai.
KAZAKEVIIUS, V., 1996. IXXIII a. balt kalavijai. Vil-
nius: Alma littera. Laidosenos ir kapi panaumas rodo, kad kalvoje, kuri
KAZAKEVIIUS, V., 1998. I vlyvojo geleies amiaus alia to meto gyvenviets buvo kratovaizdio akcen-
balt ginkl istorijos (kalavij makt gal apkalai). tas, laidoti mons, priklaus socialiai dominuojaniai
Lietuvos archeologija, 15, 287-332.
KAZAKEVIIUS, V., 1999. Dl E tipo ietigali ornamen- bendruomens daliai. Daugiau nei pusje kap aptik-
tuotomis movomis chronologijos ir kilms. Archaeologia tas pilnas ginkluots komplektas ietis, kalavijas bei
ARCHAEOLOGIA
Lituana, 1, 179-196. su irgu ir raiteliu susij dirbiniai. Galima velgti net
KAZAKEVIIUS, V., 2002. Ietigalis sidabru inkrustuota tam tikr ginkluots standartizacij. Vyrikosios lyties
mova i Vilkijos. Archaeologia Lituana, 3, 104-121.
individai paprastai laidoti su keliais juostiniais ar kar-
KULIKAUSKIEN, R., RIMANTIEN, R., 1966. Lietuvi
liaudies menas, II knyga. Vilnius: Vaga. klo lapo formos ietigaliais bei X tipo kalaviju. Antra
MICHELBERTAS, M., 1986. Senasis geleies amius Lietu- vertus, ie kapai priklauso laikotarpiui (XXI a.), ku-
voje IIV a. Vilnius: Mokslas. rio metu Baltijos jros rytinje pakrantje gyvenusi
MHLEN, B., 1975. Die Kultur der Wikinger in Ostpreus- balt geni kariaunos formavimosi procesas pasiekia
sen. Bonner Hefte zur Vorgeschichte. Bonn, 9.
aukiausi savo raidos tak. Tai labai aikiai atsispin-
PEIRCE, I., 2004. Swords of the Viking Age. Rochester, NY:
The Boydell Press. di archeologinje mediagoje, kuri leidia daryti prie-
PETERSEN, J., 1919. De norske vikingesverd. Ein typologisk laid, kad dalis Vievils kapinyne palaidot mirusij
kronologisk studie over vikingetidens vaaben. Kristiana. galjo priklausyti net to meto skalvi kariniam elitui.
SCHWARZIEN, O., 1930. Der Altertumsfund in Wischwil. iam procesui nema tak dar ir tai, kad Vievil-
Memeler Dampfboot, Memel, 6/184.
je gyvenusi skalvi bendruomen buvo sikrusi alia
VOLKAIT-KULIKAUSKIEN, R., 1970. Lietuviai IXXII
amiais. Vilnius: Mintis. vieno i pagrindini to meto prekybos keli Nemuno
KULAKOV, V.I., TOLMACHEVA, .., 1987. Tekhno- ups, kuria Lietuvos gilum keliaudavo didioji dalis
logia izgotovlenia kopii prussov (po danym mogilnika skandinavikojo importo.
Irzekapinis). Kratkie soobshchenia, 190, 94-101.
KULAKOV, V.I., 1994. Prussy (VXIII vv.). Moskva.
S kalvi ginkluot s
IV
aspektai V ie vil s WA R R I O R S
AND
kapinyno tyrim ARMAMENTS
FROM THE
duomenimis VISTULA
TO THE
D A U G U VA
Ugnius Budvydas
Santrumpa
ILONA VAKEVIIT
VAKEVIIT
Abstracts
ILONA
Weapons and warfare played an important role in Baltic society. The aim of this article is to examine the weapons and
weaponry of the Semigallians, to look at what weapons-related burial customs existed in Semigallia, and to compare them
with those of the other Baltic tribes. The geopolitical situation of the Semigallians determined that weapons had a special
importance. Certainly not all weapons were placed in graves. We do not find any arrowheads. Although we have found many
weapons, nevertheless the weaponry itself was not very diverse. Only spears and close combat weapons, battle-knives, were
placed in graves. Spearheads of several types were used. The battle-knives used in Semigallia had a very unique form, and,
most importantly, they were placed in a grave in an order characteristic only of Semigallians.
Key words: Semigallia, burial rites, spears, battle knives, broad battle-knives-swords.
Introduction comprise 23% of all the finds, and tools 20%; at Stung-
iai 18% and 16%; and at ukioniai 23% and 12% re-
Weapons and warfare played an important role in Bal- spectively. Similar numbers also exist at other burial
tic society. According to Vytautas Kazakeviius, We grounds (Vakeviit 2004, pp.40 and 48). Certainly
find few tribes and nations in Europe which would not all weapons were placed in graves. For example,
have been as militarised as the Balts. Over a thousand we do not find any arrowheads. There are also none
years ago, the tribes of our ancestors fought furiously in the burial sites of the other Baltic tribes. Although
for their survival and freedom (Kazakeviius 1998, we have found many weapons, nevertheless the weap-
p.62). After the formation of separate tribes in the fifth onry itself was not very diverse. Only spears and close
and sixth centuries, this role was presumably even combat weapons, battle-knives, were placed in graves.
further strengthened, since wars, armed conflicts, or The weaponry, and especially the weapons themselves
just plain marauding became companions of everyday (their form), definitely changed over the centuries.
life. The possibility of a greater threat from elsewhere Some of the customs for the placement of weapons in
also grew at that time. The role of the hill-fort, which a grave also changed together with them. Weapons are
changed during this period and became necessary not exclusively male burial items. Only several instances
just for everyday life but also for the protection of the are known in Semigallia where females were buried
community and the preservation of property, and espe- with weapons. But the weapons placed in the grave for
cially the food stocks, allows us to draw these conclu- them were placed in a different order, and presumably
sions. Some customs, especially burial customs, also these burial items also played a different role. Inciden-
speak about the importance of weapons in life at that tally, we first encounter a weapon placed in a female
time. Weapons were one of the most frequent burial grave only in the Late Iron Age.
items in almost all the Baltic tribes.
The aim of this article is to examine the weapons and Spears
weaponry possessed by the Semigallians, to look at
what weapons-related burial customs existed in Semi- The Semigallians buried individuals supine with their
gallia, and to compare them with those of the other feet extended and their hands folded on the chest. One
Baltic tribes. or two spears were placed to one or the other side of
The geopolitical situation of the Semigallians (Semi- a male. From the eighth century, the number of spears
gallia is in the northern part of the Baltic lands) deter- in graves increased. We have found three, four, even
mined that weapons had a special importance. More five or six spears placed in them. They were placed in
weapons than tools are often found in Semigallian the grave so that their blade lay beside the head and
cemeteries. At the Jauneikiai burial ground, weapons the wooden shaft must have reached the feet. It has
been established that the majority, 70%, of the spears
214
were placed to the right of the head. It is difficult to say
BALTICA 8
whether such a custom should be connected to some-
thing. Some archaeologists treat it as the handedness
of the individual (Atgzis, 1974, p.163), others deny
this (Kazakeviius, 1988, p.20) and consider it pure
chance. Knowing the strict burial customs, it is hard to
suspect that anything was done accidentally. The great
majority of the spearheads that have been found are
ARCHAEOLOGIA
socketed. Socketed spearheads comprise 93% of all the
spearheads found at the Jauneikiai burial ground, 90%
at Pavirvyt, 88% at Pamikiai, 84% at Stungiai, and
98.5% at ukioniai. Thus we see clearly that socketed
spearheads were the most popular spearhead form in
Semigallian weaponry. Spearheads of several types
were used: narrow leaf-shaped blades, broad leaf-
shaped blades, diamond-shaped blades with a short
socket and a long blade as well as with a long socket
and a short blade, blades with pronounced shoulders,
long, narrow blades, and Petersen type E blades. Tan-
ged spears with narrow or broad leaf-shaped blades
have also been found.
All the spearheads found in Semigallian territory, re-
gardless of the blade shape, had one common feature:
Fig. 1. Spearheads with narrow leaf-shaped blades belong-
their blades are very flat (with an elongated rhomboid- ing to a warrior from ukoniai (Pakruojis district), grave
shaped cross section) and there is no clear transition 69 (length from 20.5cm to 29.1cm; after The Semigallians
from the blade to the socket. In this way, Semigallian 2005, nos. 599-602).
spearheads differed from those used by other tribes.
Spearheads with a narrow leaf-shaped blade, accord-
IV
ing to Kazakeviius type IV (Kazakeviius 1979, p.61) WA R R I O R S
AND
were overall the most frequently used spearheads ARMAMENTS
(Fig. 1). Their numbers range from 33% (Jauneikiai) FROM THE
VISTULA
to 48% (ukioniai) at individual sites. This is a purely TO THE
D A U G U VA
Baltic spearhead form. It was common from the upper
reaches of the Dnieper to the Baltic Sea, but was most
frequently used by the ancestors of the Lithuanians and
Latvians in the seventh to the 12th centuries.
Spearheads with a broad leaf-shaped blade of
Kazakeviius type VI (1979, p.60) were the second
most frequent at Semigallian sites (Fig. 2). They com-
prise from 27% to 44% of all the spearheads. Besides
the Semigallians, the Samogitians, Curonians and Let-
tigallians also used such weapons. Such spearheads
are found at their sites from the seventh to eighth cen-
turies. In Semigallia, these spearheads were used as
late as the 11th century. For example, at the Jauneikiai
burial ground they are found together with crossbow
brooches with poppyseed-shaped terminals, pins with
ring heads, and massive and spiral bracelets. These
graves date from the eighth to the 11th centuries. But
later examples differ somewhat from the earlier clas-
sic ones, their blades being narrower and their sockets Fig. 2. Spearheads with broad leaf-shaped blades from
Jauneikiai, Vaidinai and Lieporai (Jonikis and Pasvalys
longer. districts) cemeteries (length from 20.5cm to 29.1cm; after
The Semigallians 2005, nos. 599-602).
215
We a p o n r y a n d i t s R e f l e c t i o n We find only two subtypes of diamond-shaped blade
spearheads in Semigallia, ie spearheads with a short
In Burial Rites in the Fifth
216
riors, probably professionals, who even lived by their
BALTICA 8
profession in peace time. As a point of interest, we
could recall when warrior guards first appeared in the
Baltic regions and what in general it is accepted to call
a warrior guard. In this respect, we will find no single
answer. For example, E. Jovaia speaks of the exist-
ence of warrior guards in the first and second centuries
(Jovaia 2003, p.183), or in Samogitian lands as early
ARCHAEOLOGIA
as the fifth or sixth century (Vaitkunskien 1987). Oth-
ers put the existence of warrior guards at the turn of the
eighth century (Kulakov 1987), and V. ulkus speaks of
the existence of warrior guards only from the 11th cen-
tury (ulkus, Urbanaviius 1995, p.5). A. Tautaviius
envisages this process from the turn of the 11th cen-
tury (Tautaviius 1996, p.284) and believes that it is
not possible to identify male warriors who were buried
with weapons as members of a warrior guard, since not
only the warriors of a warrior guard but also the com-
munitys free farmers, only one of whose duties was
defending the family, property and land from enemies,
could both be buried with weapons. But there prob-
ably were warrior guards, even guards composed of
professionals, ie male warriors of more than one ethnic
origin, who were maintained by and subject to a duke.
The duty of a warrior guard is not just the defence of a
family or some property but the entire land. Thus, even
in the same tribe, one community, where the head of the
tribe lived, was established at the centre of the lands,
IV
while other communities were more remote from the
WA R R I O R S
political centre. The wealthy males we have named AND
perhaps occupied a higher position in the community, ARMAMENTS
FROM THE
and could even have been professional warriors, but it VISTULA
is unlikely that they can be linked to a warrior guard. TO THE
D A U G U VA
Spearheads found in female graves are a rarity. As
has already been mentioned, their placement in a fe-
male grave had a completely different meaning than
in male graves. In fact, such burials are encountered
only in the Pavirvyt cemetery. In grave 6, a large 36-
centimetre-long tanged spearhead, the blade pointing
towards her feet, was placed to the left of the female
near her pelvic bone, the femur (Fig. 4). In the Baltic
world such graves are rare, but such a custom is known
in other lands, for example among the Ugro-Finns
(Golubeva 1984, pp.75
-
89). Such graves are ascribed
there to the category of especially wealthy females, Fig. 4. A female buried with a spear. Pavirvyt (Akmen
and the weapons in them speak of the females excep- district) cemetery, grave 6 (drawing by S. Mikait).
tional status in the community. The Pavirvyt female
In speaking about spearheads found in Semigallian
was also distinguished by her wealth. She was buried
graves, those graves where spears are found stuck into
with a neck-ring, which itself speaks of belonging to a
the grave pit should also be mentioned. Three such
higher stratum, two cruciform pins, two spiral brace-
graves were discovered at the Pavirvyt cemetery
lets, an amber bead (amulet), an awl, and a drinking
(graves 63, 65 and 117). In all fairness, it should be
horn. Fragments of a bronze-decorated head covering
mentioned that two of them, 63 and 65, were cremations
survive on her head.
and should be attributed to Curonians who were buried
there rather than to Semigallians. In the third, grave
217
We a p o n r y a n d i t s R e f l e c t i o n 117, a male was bur-
ied in accordance
In Burial Rites in the Fifth
with Semigallian
to the 12th Century AD
the northeast side of and 431 (length from 16.7cm to 46.5cm; after The Semigallians 2005, nos. 640-642).
the pit, and another
ILONA
scabbards, and were always placed in graves alongside century, pushing out all other battle knives (Fig. 7). As
the individuals skeleton. the use of swords had not been established, they were
not affected. The Semigallians had a custom, charac-
The most common battle knives were broad battle
teristic only of them, of placing these weapons in a
knives. Such broad battle knives-swords were 27 to 53
grave. They were always placed diagonally across the
centimetres long, had a wide blade, up to eight centi-
hip bones (Fig. 8). The Samogitians and Lettigallians
metres wide at the widest point, with a straight back, a
also used the same battle knives-swords. In Samogi-
strong reverse profile taper and a chisel point (Fig. 6).
tia the broad battle knives-swords that they used were
Sometimes battle knives-swords of the same form but
somewhat shorter, and were replaced by swords with
smaller, being barely 13 to 24 centimetres in length,
guards in the ninth century. In addition, the Samogi-
are found in the graves of children (boys). There are
tians placed such battle knives-swords in the grave by
cases where we even find two such weapons in a grave
the individuals head, shoulder, or, more rarely, side,
(Jauneikiai grave 218). There is also a reasoning that
but always alongside the individual. The Lettigallians
miniature broad battle knives-swords are symbolic
used such battle knives-swords for a longer period, but
burial items (Kazakeviius 1988, p.114). These broad
placed them in the grave alongside the skeleton, usu-
battle knives-swords began to be used in the sixth cen-
ally on top of it, but never diagonally across it.
tury. At Jauneikiai they have been found together with
a spearhead with pronounced shoulders on the blade. Although swords, both single-edged and double-edged,
But from the eighth century, they became predomi- were not very popular in Semigallia, nevertheless indi-
nant in Semigallia and were used until the 11th or 12th vidual examples are known. The earliest were single-
219
We a p o n r y a n d i t s R e f l e c t i o n Semigallia we also
know of only indi-
In Burial Rites in the Fifth
Meotne, Vjstri,
apni, unkni-
Dreeri and Podii.
Other
VAKEVIIT
attributes
of a warrior
ILONA
BALTICA 8
tribes, for example, the absence of arrows, bows, and iemgala, 1, 2-4.
KAZAKEVIIUS, V., MALONAITIS, A., 2004. Vertikaliai
quivers in graves, etc.
smeigti ginklai Lietuvos geleies amiaus paminkluose.
Istorija, LIX-LX, 3-12.
KULAKOV, V.I., 1987. Prusy na poroge srednevekovia. Za-
Conclusions dachi sovetskoi archeologii v svete reshenii XXVII sezda
KPSS. Tezisy dokladov (Suzdal 1987). Moskva,
139-
After surveying the weapons found, we see that the 140.
ARCHAEOLOGIA
weaponry itself changed little throughout the period PETERSEN, J., 1919. De norske vikingesverd. Ein typolo-
of the fifth to the 12th centuries: the very same weap- gisk-kronologisk studie orer vikingetidens vaaben. Kristia-
ons were used, ie broad battle-knives and spears. In na, 26-28.
LATVIJAS, 1974. Latvijas PSR arheoloija. Rga.
the eighth century the number of spears placed in the TAUTAVIIUS, A., 1996. Vidurinis geleies amius Lietu-
graves increased, new spearhead forms appeared, and voje (VIX).
Vilnius: Lietuvos pilys.
broad battle knives-swords became more pervasive. VAKEVIIT, I., 1985. Jauneiki (Jonikio r.) VXI a.
kapinynas. (1. Laidosena, darbo rankiai). Lietuvos TSR
Semigallian weaponry shared many common features Moksl akademijos darbai, A serija, 2(91), 48-57.
with Samogitian and Lettigallian weaponry, although VAKEVIIT, I., 2000. ukioni kapinynas (Pakruojo r.,
it differed from the latter. During the ninth to the 12th Lygum apylink). Lietuvos archeologija, 20, 159-224.
centuries the Lettigallians also frequently placed battle- VAKEVIIT, I., 2004. iemgaliai VXII amiuje. Vil-
nius: Vilniaus pedagoginio universiteto leidykla.
axes in graves and used more tanged spearheads, while VAITKUNSKIEN, L., 1987. K voprosu o nachale druzhi-
the Samogitians no longer used broad battle knives- ny v Litve. Zadachi sovetskoi archeologii v svete reshe-
swords after the eighth century. Semigallian warriors nii XXVII sezda KPSS. Tezisy dokladov (Suzdal 1987).
also differed from their Curonian counterparts: swords Moskva, 56-57.
were very rarely placed in a Semigallian grave, and VOLKAIT-KULIKAUSKIEN, R., 1981. Ginklai. In:
Lietuvi materialin kultra IX-XIII a., 2, 6-48.
there were no barbed tanged spearheads. iemgaliai Balt archeologijos paroda. Katalogas. The Sem-
The unique Semigallian weaponry allows us to more igallians Baltic Archaeological Exhibition. Catalogue.
Lietuvos nacionalinis muziejus. Latvijas vstuves muzejs,
accurately establish ethnic Semigallian territory and to
2005
follow the changes in its borders and the influence of ULKUS, V., URBANAVIIUS, V., 1995. Baltai
ir skandi-
its neighbours. This can be said especially of the broad navai. Balt archeologija, 4(7), 9-13. IV
battle knives-swords. The map of their range almost
WA R R I O R S
precisely corresponds to Semigallian territory (Fig. 9). Received: 22 December 2006; Revised: 18 May 2007 AND
ARMAMENTS
FROM THE
iemgali ginkluot ir VISTULA
Translated by Jeffrey Arthur Bakanauskas jos atspindiai laidojimo TO THE
D A U G U VA
paproiuose
References
se didja. Randame dtas 34 ar net 56 ietis. Didioji naudoti kur kas trumpiau, juos nuo IX a. pakeiia ka-
to the 12th Century AD
dauguma rastj ietigali moviniai. Tokie sudaro lavijai. Be to, emaiiai tokius peilius ddavo kap
S e m i g a l l i a n Wa r r i o r
nuo 80% (Stungiai) iki 98,5% (ukioniai). Naudoti prie mirusiojo galvos, peties, reiau ono, bet visada
iei antgaliai yra keli form. Visi iemgalos terito- iilgai mirusiojo. Latgaliai ios formos peilius naudojo
rijoje rasti ietigaliai, neatsivelgiant plunksnos for- ilgesn laik, taiau kap ddavo irgi iilgai griaui,
m, turi vien bendr bruo j plunksnos yra labai daniausiai ant j, bet niekada skersai.
plokios (pjvyje itsto rombo formos) ir neaikiai
Kalavijai, tiek vienameniai, tiek ir dviameniai, ne-
pereina i plunksnos mov. Tuo iemgaliki ietigaliai
VAKEVIIT
lapo formos plunksna. Jie sudaro nuo 33 iki 48%, nau- kape 5, rasti tik mediniai kalavijo maki likuiai su
doti VIIXII amiuje (1 pav.). Ietigaliai su lauro lapo puoniu galo apkaustu.
plunksna sudaro nuo 27 iki 44% vis iei antgali.
Apvelg rastuosius ginklus matome, jog pati ginkluo-
iemgaloje jie naudoti kiek ilgiau nei kitose gentyse,
t per VXII a. maai kito: naudoti tie patys ginklai,
iki pat XI a. Vlyvesni kiek skiriasi nuo ankstyvj
keiiasi tik j formos ir skaiius. iemgalio vyro gin-
klasikini j plunksnos siauresns, movos ilgesns
kluot turi daug bendr bruo su emaii bei latgali
(2 pav.). Ietigali su rombine plunksna ia randame tik
ginkluote, nors ir skiriasi nuo pastarj (8 pav.).
du potipius su trumpa plunksna ir ilga mova (VI
VIIa.) su ilga plunksna ir trumpa mova (iki IX a.)
(III. 1 iliustr.). VIVII a. iemgaloje buvo naudojami
ietigaliai profiliuota plunksna, taiau ia randami tik
V potipio (3 pav.). Ietigali siaura ilga plunksna rasta
tik Jauneiki kapinyne X amiumi datuotuose kapuo-
se. Juostiniai ietigaliai ne balt ginklakali iradimas.
Jie bdingesni Vakar Europai, ypa Skandinavijai.
tveriamieji iei antgaliai karklo ar lauro lapo formos
plunksnomis datuojami VI/VIIX/XI amiais.
Su ietimis palaidota dauguma, t. y. apie 80%, vis mi-
rusi vyr. Ietigalius turjo visi bendruomens vyrai,
taip pat ir vaikai. Matyt, ne ietys, o tik iei skaiius
galina kalbti apie socialin vyro status. Palaidoti su
daugiau iei turi daugiau ir kit kapi. Tokie kapai
galt bti traktuojami kaip kari profesional.
Moter kapuose rasti ietigal retenyb. Pavirvyts
kapinyno kape 6 buvo padtas tveriamasis ietigalis
(4 pav.). Balt pasaulyje toki kap reta, taiau toks
paprotys inomas kitose emse, pvz., finougr. Yra
kap, kur rasta iei, smeigt kapo duob.
iemgali naudoti kovos peiliai visais poiriais yra
ikalbingesni. ia egzistavo labai savitos formos gin-
klai, kurie kap bdavo dedami tik jiems bdinga
tvarka. VVII a. iemgali kapuose randame siaur
ilg kovos peili, kuri dalis dar turi geleinius iedus
ant kots (5 pav.). Siauri ilgi peiliai be ied ant ko-
ts paplit platesnje teritorijoje ir buvo naudoti kiek
ilgesn laik: nuo VIVII a. iki X a. Patys gausiausi
kovos peiliai platieji kovos peiliai-kalavijai (6 pav.).
J rasta kartu su VI a. ietigaliais, o nuo VIII a. iemga-
loje ie peiliai pradeda vyrauti (7 pav.). Naudoti iki pat
XI ar XII a. iemgaliai turjo tik jiems bding paprot
dti iuos ginklus kap jie dti striai dubens kau-
222
V. T H E R O L E O F W E A P O N S A N D
BALTICA 8
W E A P O N RY I N P O L I T I C A L A N D
M I L I TA RY L E A D E R S H I P
ARCHAEOLOGIA
F I T F O R A K I N G ? R E G A L I A A N D W E A P O N RY I N
E A R LY A N G L O - S A X O N R O YA L G R AV E S
JOHN HINES
Abstract
The excavation of a princely grave of the early seventh century at Prittlewell, Essex, in 2003, is the starting point for a review
of the development of kingship in early Anglo-Saxon England. Emphasis is placed upon the equally important contributions
of history and archaeology. It is also argued that it is essential to balance the attention given to the immediate contexts in
England with the long-term development of kingship amongst the Germanic peoples. Valuable supplementary evidence is
found in the terminology of kingship and lordship in Germanic philology, as well as the comparative study of Continental
Frstengrber of the Roman Iron Age.
Key words: Anglo-Saxon, archaeology, burial, kingship, Prittlewell, Sutton Hoo.
223
in Britain by telling the civitates there, the local au- thus implicitly sub-kingdoms, into one (Yorke 1990;
Anglo-Saxon Royal Graves thorities, to organize their own defence, not to look for Kirby 1991). In the case of the very early anglicized ar-
the protection of the Imperial army (Salway 1981, esp. eas around the east and south coasts, however, it is not
Fit For A King? Regalia
n d We a p o n r y i n E a r l y
pp.415-445). Britain then plunges into a very obscure so clear that Sussex, Essex, Surrey and Lindsey had to
period, although we do know that there were raids, and be constructed in this way. In Kent, the annexation of
apparently the conquest and settlement of some areas, the area west of the River Medway is likely to represent
by Scotti from Ireland, Picti from the north, and Ger- the same process, but it is by no means certain that the
manic peoples, mostly Saxones (Saxons) over the sea North-folk and South-folk of Norfolk and Suffolk
from the east. Archaeologically, there is a complete in East Anglia were component parts that preceded the
demise of Roman towns, villas and military camps by definition of that kingdom itself (Fig.1).
the early fifth century; and by the mid-fifth century a
JOHN HINES
Fig. 1. Early Anglo-Saxon England, indicating the location and extent of the political territories of the mid- to late seventh
century mentioned in the text. Mx = Middlesex.
Jutish material is concentrated mostly in Kent; dis- we should expect, itself one of constant selective re-
tinctly Saxon material is found predominantly in the structuring and redefinition.
south; the Anglian cruciform brooch, by contrast, is
A persistent and important idea attaching to early Ger-
found mostly in the Midlands and northeast. But there
manic kings is that of sacral kingship: the idea that
are broad border zones of great overlap, interchange
kings mediated between the people and the gods. It was
and hybridization. The process of the transmission and
obviously a matter of practical politics for Christian
inheritance of the ethnic identities concerned was, as
missionaries to target kings and their courts in Eng-
225
land, but it was an uncontested fact of deep historical the distinctly religious and juridical role of kingship,
Anglo-Saxon Royal Graves origins that the religion of the king was the religion of he tends to use the catch-all term principes, leading
the people. We must not underestimate the significance men, to accommodate the inevitably close connexion
Fit For A King? Regalia
n d We a p o n r y i n E a r l y
of the fact that all known Anglo-Saxon royal families of these two aspects of leadership. Such a change may
claimed descent from Germanic gods: often Woden, have made particular sense in the practical circum-
but also less well-recorded figures such as Bldg stances of the establishment of the first English king-
and Seaxneat. As is so widely the case with Germanic doms following the colonization of Britain, although
cultures, we are frustratingly dependent upon Christian those circumstances, and the development itself, were
sources for accounts of and references to detail of the certainly not unique to Anglo-Saxon England. What
traditional pre-Christian, pagan practices of these remains much harder for us to determine is whether we
peoples; but in the case of seventh-century England should therefore talk of a persistent and strong tradi-
JOHN HINES
there is at least sufficient here to allow us to conclude tion of Germanic kingship continuing in England, or if
that there was a close connection between those kings that kingship was largely re-invented, or re-introduced,
and the rites and priesthood of a communal religion primarily because of the immediate conditions that de-
(Bede, HE, II.5 and II.13; Clanchy 1970). The most veloped in England in the fifth and sixth centuries.
convincing example of a pre-Christian cult building
from England is the temple, Building D2 at the royal
The Anglo-Saxon princely graves
palace site of Yeavering, Northumberland (Hope-Tay-
lor 1977, pp.154-169; Hines 1997, pp.388-389).
Representing the English royal graves, there are really
But what most historians regard as the one factor above just four sites to consider: the famous Sutton Hoo in
all others that made a man a successful king was mili- Suffolk, Broomfield in Essex and Taplow in Buck-
tary leadership (eg Wolfram 1988; James 1989; Yorke ingshamshire, both excavated in the 19th century, and
1990, p.16). Interestingly, and as is widely recognized, now Prittlewell in Essex, found quite unexpectedly just
of course, this is quite at variance with what Tacitus four years ago (Bruce-Mitford 197583; Read 1895;
wrote in his ethnographic account of Germania at the MoLAS 2004). Early Anglo-Saxon custom was to bury
end of the first century AD, where he identified the the dead with grave goods, but these graves stand out
rex as a man of noble birth with predominantly reli- both because of the exceptional quality, quantity and
gious and juridical functions as systematically distinct range of the material buried within them, and for the
from the dux of the army who was elected for his mili- special structure of the burials, as chamber burials, in
tary prowess: Reges ex nobilitate, duces ex virtute one case with a ship. In terms of wealth, they stand
sumunt (They accept kings for nobility, leaders for quite apart; not merely at the top of a scale of increas-
prowess) (Tacitus, Germania, 7). ing opulence. There are other burials we may suspect
were of this kind but of which too little survives: for
Alongside their role in the conversion of England to
instance at Asthall Leigh and Cuddesdon in Oxford-
Christianity, we have surviving seventh-century law-
shire; at Caenby in Lincolnshire; and at Coombe in
codes, three from Kent and one from Wessex, which
Kent (Dickinson, and Speake 1992; Dickinson 1974;
show us that early Anglo-Saxon kings were well aware
Jarvis 1850; Davidson, Webster 1969). In fact, apart
of their juridical role and very keen to assert it (Lieber-
from the miraculously intact burial under Mound 1 at
mann 190316; Wormald 1999). They were, however,
Sutton Hoo, all but one of the other graves in this royal
very much military leaders too. Our historical records
necropolis had been robbed, and this site too would
of Anglo-Saxon kingship right through to the reign of
remain in that doubtful category. We are, therefore,
Alfred the Great at the end of the ninth century are
undertaking the risky business of drawing inferences
dominated by records of their battles. Succession to the
from only a fraction of the original evidence.
kingship commonly took the form of one king being
killed in battle to be replaced by his victor. The main The exceptional quantity of skilfully crafted artefacts
issue for future research identified by this short review of course attracts attention to these burials. However,
starts from the point that, if we compare the contents the most significant common factor between them is
and distribution of what are known as the Frsten- the special provision for hospitality amongst the grave
grber of the first to fourth centuries AD in Germany goods (Plate III: 2). All four burials have great caul-
and Denmark with the kingly and princely burials of drons for feeding a large assembly, and all contained
seventh-century England, we may indeed be able to see the symbolically laden drinking-horns too. Accessory
a subtle shift in the nature of kingship in this direction: vessels include iron-bound wooden buckets, some-
a closer association of kingship itself with the distinct- times great tubs, bronze bowls of various forms, turned
ly military role, as Tacitus called it, of dux. It should be wooden cups or glass vessels. Sutton Hoo, Taplow and
stressed, though, that while Tacitus was very clear on Prittlewell all had both a lyre and gaming pieces rep-
226
resenting entertainment; Sutton Hoo, Broomfield and century revealed a perfectly intact chamber grave that
BALTICA 8
Prittlewell also a lamp to light the chamber. Relatively had barely even collapsed. A fact of particular interest
little of this particular range of material appears to have in the present context is that the man who was buried in
been imported rather than to be locally made. Overall, the chamber grave of Prittlewell was not armed in any
this is clear evidence that the social role of the dead way different from the occupants of at least six of the
man was the most fundamental element to be com- 19 other weapon-graves known here: not only in being
memorated in his burial: his ability to provide for a equipped with a sword, shield and two spears, but even
very privileged household indeed. in the very types of the weaponry (Tyler 1988).
ARCHAEOLOGIA
All of the dead men also had fittings from a costume The princely graves of Taplow, Broomfield, Prittlewell
they may have worn that would have displayed their and Sutton Hoo apparently date from the span of a sin-
special rank. Only at Sutton Hoo and Taplow, however, gle generation: the period c. AD 600 to 630. The buri-
does this really amount to more than one conspicuous- als at Tranmer House/Sutton Hoo and the other graves
ly expensive and well-crafted buckle: the only dress at Prittlewell bring us face to face with the proxim-
accessory Anglo-Saxon men usually wore. Taplow and ity between the kings or princes in these graves and
Sutton Hoo had special sets of clasps. We can infer a population that supported them. Similarly, when we
from this that the buckle was a central item of display look back in time across the sixth century, we can find
for a man. This makes it extremely significant that the significant predecessors of this type of elite burial. At
famous Sutton Hoo great gold buckle comprised an Spong Hill, Norfolk, for instance, a large cremation
amount of gold equal to 300 contemporary coins, the cemetery serving several surrounding village commu-
tremissis apparently the 300-shilling wergild or life- nities was established around the middle of the fifth
price of an Anglo-Saxon nobleman. A man who could century. For three or four generations from the begin-
display, in a noble assembly, the price of the life of ning of the sixth century, however, a small population
any nobleman there on his belt, can surely only have was inhuming its dead on the northeast corner of the
been a king. The attention paid to equipment in terms cremation burial zone. The inhumation graves include
of weaponry and armour is at much the same level. a few barrows, and two chamber graves (31 and 40).
The men buried at Prittlewell and Broomfield went We have an interesting archaeological sequence here in
into the grave with the quite standard noble warriors that the shield-boss from grave 40 is of a later type that
equipment of a shield, a sword, and one or two spears. those in graves 31 and 41, so graves 31 and 41 may be
Heinrich Hrkes overview of weapon-assemblages in the earliest, one in a chamber, the other under a small
Anglo-Saxon graves shows even this full weapon-set barrow, followed by grave 40 with a large barrow and
to be relatively rare, but it is at the top end of a com- then grave 32 alongside grave 31 and perhaps, then, V
mon range of weapons in graves, not beyond it (Hrke the raising of a second large barrow over them both. THE ROLE
OF WEAPONS
1992, pp.97-124). Taplow has extra in the provision of This seems to be an unusually dramatic and dynamic AND
a second, possibly a third shield, and three spears. Sut- illustration of a small elite emerging alongside a larger, W E A P O N RY
IN POLITICAL
ton Hoo too had just one sword and shield, although undifferentiated population, expressing at least its am- AND
they were very specially crafted. However, Sutton Hoo bitions to be of a special, higher status through burial M I L I TA RY
LEADERSHIP
also had a helmet and a mailcoat, and no less than nine practice (Hills et al. 1984: unfortunately the published
spears, three of them barbed throwing-spears (Bruce- stratigraphical data do not show conclusive evidence
Mitford 197583, Vol.2). for the order of the barrows around graves 31, 32 and
40 respectively, although that is confidently stated in
Further excavations were carried out at Sutton Hoo
the text).
from 1986 to 1992 under the direction of Martin
Carver (Carver 2005). No one then really expected an- Another important site for tracing hierarchy back
other treasure hoard like the Mound 1 ship-burial to across the sixth century is also newly excavated, and
be found, but it could be assumed that whatever did as yet unpublished: on the Royal Air Force base at
emerge would be appropriate to a royal cemetery. One Lakenheath, Suffolk. Here, as in Sutton Hoo Mound
undisturbed grave was discovered, in Mound 17: the 17, we have two men with horse graves, one of them
grave of a richly equipped man, buried with a horse. fully equipped with sword, shield and spear, and rich
The real surprise here came when a larger, slightly ear- horse-harness. A new chronology of weaponry pro-
lier cemetery was found as a new visitor centre was duced primarily by Karen Hilund Nielsen together
being built at Tranmer House, about half a kilometre with myself dates this grave to the early sixth century,
north of the barrowfield. Quite the inverse was the maybe even the late fifth (Hines ed. forthcoming). It is
complete surprise in Prittlewell Park, Southend-on- as yet too early to draw firm conclusions, but again this
Sea, Essex, late in 2003, when roadworks close to the conspicuously rich weapon-burial is at least amongst
site of a known, not unusual cemetery of the seventh the very earliest in this burial zone: it could therefore
227
be a founder grave. The one point I would emphasize of the archaeology of Early Anglo-Saxon kinghips
Anglo-Saxon Royal Graves as a result of this, is that we need to be very careful in implies the achievement of power and status by indi-
looking at these burials in a diachronic perspective and viduals who succeeded in essentially the same role as
Fit For A King? Regalia
n d We a p o n r y i n E a r l y
jumping to conclusions about a process of evolution, the great Frankish and Gothic Heerknige: effective,
by which hierarchical social structures, and particular- practical, leaders and protectors.
ly aristocracy and kingship, grew increasingly strong,
It is equally reasonable, in the most general terms, to
rich and apart from the rest of the population over time.
draw attention to the contrast in respect of the inclu-
There were indeed changes, but hierarchy and power
sion of weapons in the graves of the high social elite
were, in significant measure, always there. Kingship
of relevant Germanic communities, between the Lb-
cannot be studied as a subject on its own; it can only
sow-type Frstengrber of the first to fourth centuries,
be understood as a phenomenon within a relationship
JOHN HINES
BALTICA 8
Germanic cultures of northern Germany and southern London, 1989, 123-40.
DUMVILLE, D.N., 1989b. The Tribal Hidage: an introduc-
Scandinavia at this time (Hines 1996). No such insist-
tion to its texts and their history. In: S. BASSETT, ed. The
ence on the antiquity and durability of the Germanic Origins of Anglo-Saxon Kingdoms. London, 1989, 225-
concept of kingship and folk will deny that those same 30.
traditional elements then had actively to be manipu- EGGERS, H.J., 1950. Lbsow, ein germanischer Frstensitz
lated in Early Anglo-Saxon cultural history, as king- der lteren Kaiserzeit. Praehistorische Zeitschrift, 34/35,
58-111.
ship and kingdoms were absolutely reconstructed (as
ARCHAEOLOGIA
GEBHR, M., 1974. Zur Definition lterkaiserzeitli-
noted); nor that, as the foreign objects in the Prittlewell cher Frstengrber vom Lbsow-Typ. Praehistorische
and Sutton Hoo Mound 1 graves show us particularly Zeitschrift, 49, 82-128.
clearly, such a reconstruction of kingship was directly GENRICH, A., 1954. Formenkreise und Stammesgruppen in
influenced at the key stage of its history by connec- Schleswig-Holstein.
Neumnster: Karl Wachholtz.
GREENE, D.H., 1998. Language and History in the Early
tions with overseas powers and models. But the con-
Germanic World. Cambridge: University Press.
gruency of the development of Anglo-Saxon kingship HRKE, H., 1992. Angelschsische Waffengrber des 5. bis.
with the cultural features of Germanic kingship in such 7. Jahrhunderts. Cologne: Rheinland-Verlag.
a long-term, comparative perspective as that outlined HILLS, C., PENN, K. and RICKETT, R., 1984. The An-
here may further help us to grasp how ready the Anglo- glo-Saxon Cemetery at Spong Hill, North Elmham. Part
III: Catalogue of Inhumations. Gressenhall: East Anglian
Saxon kings eventually were to reclaim that version
Archaeology 21.
of the sacral aura of kingship that Christianity offered HINES, J., 1990. Philology, archaeology and the adventus
them. Most importantly of all, though, we can appreci- Saxonum vel Anglorum. In: A. BAMMESBERGER AND
ate the principle that the inheritance of a determinative A. WOLLMANN, eds. Britain 400600: Language and
tradition of this kind need not result in sheer inertia History. Heidelberg: Carl Winter, 17-36.
HINES, J., 1994. The becoming of the English: language,
in cultural practice. Rather, it can be a rich source of material culture and identity in Early Anglo-Saxon Eng-
material and motivation for creative and adaptive de- land. Anglo-Saxon Studies in Archaeology and History, 7,
velopment. 49-59.
HINES, J., 1996. Britain after Rome: between monocultur-
alism and multiculturalism. In: C. GAMBLE et al., eds.
References Cultural Identity and Archaeology: The Construction of
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nach der Zeitenwandel. Neumnster: Karl Wachholtz. gration Period to the Eighth Century: An Ethnographic V
BASSETT, S., 1989. In search of the origins of Anglo-Saxon Perspective. Woodbridge: Boydell & Brewer, 375-410.
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OF WEAPONS
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M I L I TA RY
ford: Clarendon Press. HINES, J., (ed.) forthcoming. Monograph report of the col- LEADERSHIP
BHNER, K., 1981. Childeric von Tournai. Reallexikon der laborative research project: Anglo-Saxon England c.570
Germanischen Altertumskunde 4. Berlin: de Gruyter, 441- 720: The Chronological Basis.
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CARVER, M., 2005. Sutton Hoo: A Seventh-century Princely Social Analysis of Archaeological Burial Data. Aarhus:
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land: The Transition from Paganism to Christianity. Man- Centre of Early Northumbria. London: HMSO.
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DAVIDSON, H.R.E., WEBSTER, L., 1967. The Anglo-Sax- Continental evidence. In: S. BASSETT, ed. The Origins of
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Archaeology, 11, 1-41. JARVIS, E., 1850. Account of the discovery of ornaments
DICKINSON, T.M., 1974. Cuddesdon and Dorchester-on- and remains, supposed to be of Danish origin, in the par-
Thames. Oxford: British Archaeological Reports 1. ish of Caenby, Lincolnshire. The Archaeological Journal,
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DUMVILLE, D.N., 1989a. Essex, Middle Anglia and the Ireland c. AD 4001200. Cambridge: University Press.
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Period Studies. Stockholm: Statens Historiska Museum.
229
LIEBERMANN, FR., 190316. Die Gesetze der Angelsach- D era karaliui ?
sen. 3 vols. Halle: Max Niemeyer.
Anglo-Saxon Royal Graves
MoLAS 2004. The Prittlewell Prince: The Discovery of a
A nkst y v j ang l o saks
Fit For A King? Regalia
230
T H E S U B J E C T O F B AT T L E - K N I F E O R I G I N
BALTICA 8
IN CENTRAL LITHUANIA
MINDAUGAS BERTAIUS
ARCHAEOLOGIA
Abstract
The battle-knife is quite a familiar weapon in Lithuanian archaeological material. The functional characteristics are more
important than the length of knife for making decisions about the battle-knife. By appreciating the archaeological material
from Marvel cemetery (central Lithuania), we can observe the process of change in the form of the battle-knife during the
Late Roman Period.
Key words: battle-knife, function, weapon, Marvel.
riod: a weapon of 25 to 50 centimetres length is called of the deceased. But the big variety of weapon sets in LEADERSHIP
a battle-knife, and a longer weapon is regarded as a the graves and the changes in the variety of a weapons
sword (Kazakeviius 1988). Accepting that scheme, composition over time and geographical scale reveal a
Lithuanian archaeologists also look to other authori- more cultic cause of weaponry sets than a social one
ties (Salmo 1938, describes the battle-knife as longer (cf Steuer 1982, p.193).
than 20 centimetres; Mandel describes it more as a 25-
centimetre-long knife, cf Mandel 1977). But not eve- The chronology and distribution of
rybody agrees with this description. Tautaviius notes battle-knives
that any longer knife could be used as a battle-knife
anyway (Tautaviius 1996, p.137). Moreover, some Thereby, the functional characteristics are more impor-
of them have quite heavy blades, and were not fit for tant than the length of a knife for making a decision
everyday work. A knife with a blade and a thick back whether it is a battle-knife or not a battle-knife. But
was more fitted for stabbing or hitting, it was helpful then the next question emerges: what features could be
in a case when the usual way was impossible (Wag- applied for a battle weapon? As other archaeologists
ner 1969, p.91). The discussion is not finished yet. have noticed, a special blade form made to stab is char-
Discussing the metric system right here, the situation acteristic of the battle-knife. This is the main feature
from the Middle Ages could be recalled. Considering of battle-knives with so-called blood grooves. These
the measurements used in the Middle Ages, Antanas specialized weapons are with quite a short tang, along
231
The Subject of Battle-Knife
Origin in Central Lithuania
MINDAUGAS
BERTAIUS
Fig. 1. Specialized
battle-knife from Marvel grave 337 (iron, bronze and stone; in the custody of VDKM 2479:318; after
Bertaius 2005, drawings by V.Lauadien).
the dull side of the blade run two or three grooves Analyzing the material from Marvel, we are dealing
(Fig.1). They are dated to phase E of the Migration with rich archaeological material dated to the Roman
Period. According to imnas, the distribution of sites Period, and we can observe some types of knife with a
with that type of battle-knife extends along a costal zone hooked tang. In certain times this knife becomes longer
from Elblg to the north as far as Liepja (Grobia in and takes the shape of a standardized 19.5 to 20.5 cen-
the Viking Age) and along the bank of the River Nemu- timetre length (Fig.2; grave 1119 from Marvel cem-
nas up to Kaunas and in the central Lithuanian region etery; other similar graves 94, 186). Most findings are
(imnas 1996, Table 1). The appearance of these bat- associated with other weapons in the grave (spearhead,
tle-knife daggers coincides with social changes in the axe). It could be regarded as an attempt to find a new
region and reflects the same socio-cultural pattern of weapon using an older form of ordinary knife with a
life. But before the appearance of these daggers, we hooked tang. These artefacts are dated to the C1bC2
are noticing some introductory processes of usage of phase of the Roman Period (it could be referenced to
battle-knives. other findings for dating, like neck-rings, pins, or to be
specific, features of grave arrangements, like clay walls
Considering the functional characteristics of the bat-
near the human remains: cf Bertaius 2005). Of course,
tle-knife, it is worth pointing out the full complement
it must be emphasized that the number of cases are too
of weaponry in the grave. Some coincidence of several
few to make reliable inferences. It can be appreciated
weapons in the grave of phases DE (Migration Peri-
only as a remark, and needs more detailed investiga-
od) is quite understandable, at this time some uniform-
tion. One more point: if the length of the blade usually
ity in warrior worship could be identified (Bertaius
represents the time, and older specimens are shorter
2002, pp.37-39). But could it be noticed by analyzing
and younger ones are longer (presumably a reference
material of the Late Roman Period?
to the study of the Merovingian sax by W. Hbener,
Two types of knives are known in Lithuanian archaeo- 1988), we can assume that some shorter knives could
logical material since the Roman Period. Knives with
a straight tang are more familiar amongst grave goods,
Currently the biggest excavated cemetery in Lithuania.
knives with a hooked tang are less known, but not rare Situated in Kaunas, near the confluence of the two big-
in the archaeological material (Michelbertas 1986). gest Lithuanian rivers, about 200km from the Baltic Sea;
investigated during 19912006, excavations continuing,
total grave number about 1,500, ca 700 burials dated to
Roman period.
232
BALTICA 8
ARCHAEOLOGIA
V
THE ROLE
OF WEAPONS
AND
W E A P O N RY
IN POLITICAL
AND
M I L I TA RY
LEADERSHIP
233
The Subject of Battle-Knife
Origin in Central Lithuania
MINDAUGAS
BERTAIUS
Fig. 4. Grave goods from Marvel grave 1324 (iron; in the custody of VDKM; after Bertaius 2006; drawings by
V.Lauadien).
234
BALTICA 8
ARCHAEOLOGIA
V
THE ROLE
OF WEAPONS
AND
W E A P O N RY
IN POLITICAL
AND
M I L I TA RY
LEADERSHIP
Fig. 5. Grave goods from Marvel grave 1212 (iron; in the custody of VDKM; after Bertaius 2001; drawings by
V.Lauadien).
be battle-knives as well, and dated to the Roman Pe- 1324, or the similar grave 1218). According to mate-
riod. rial from other similar graves in Marvel cemetery, the
tradition to make a small narrow stone circle could be
But there is more material of this type. Let us pay at-
dated to the C2C3 phase of the Late Roman Period.
tention to quite specific knives, by the shape it seems
Thus, these graves are preliminarily dated to the C2C3
they are knives used for stabbing (Fig.3: grave 1302
phase of the Late Roman Period. In all listed cases,
from Marvel cemetery, or the similar grave 1298).
we can see a quite well-formed weapon with a strong
Some of them are graves in a stone circle (Fig.
4:
grave
blade and a thick back. The full complement of differ-
235
ent types of weapons in the graves attracts our atten- The next stage in introducing the battle-knife could be
The Subject of Battle-Knife
Origin in Central Lithuania tion, too. Usually in these graves we find an axe and associated with the appearance of the dagger battle-
a spearhead with knife, hence the more complete war- knife with blood grooves on the blade. These spe-
rior equipment characteristic of that time. But the next cial weapons well suited to stabbing are very common
question emerges: practically nobody in Lithuania has for old Prussian graves in the Samland Peninsula and
completely analyzed the set of warrior equipment com- extend along a coastal zone from Elblg to Liepaja,
mon to that time. The battle-knife as part of the war- sporadically they appear in central Lithuania at Plinkai-
rior equipment of a bit earlier (phase B2/C1C1a, or the galis, Marvel and Pauvys. Usually they are dated to
second half of the second and the beginning of the third D/E E phase. Their not very high popularity in cen-
century) was used by the Bogaczewo peoples, who tral Lithuania could be explainable by the higher status
MINDAUGAS
lived in the Salt Lake region in Poland. One of their of these weapons, possibly they were used by members
BERTAIUS
characteristics is the use of battle-knives and spears as of a high social status in society.
a warriors symbol (Nowakowski 1995; Karczewski
1999). There is some data about connections between
Discussion
Bogaczewo and central Lithuanian regions (Bertaius,
forthcoming). Depending on this data, we can perceive
Thus, discussing the question of weaponry with special
some possible influence from the south (probably
regard to the battle-knife and its origin, in my opin-
Bogaczewo Culture) introducing the battle-knife in
ion we must look at other characteristics than formal
the everyday life of the central Lithuanian population.
ones, like the length of the blade. For example, the
But there is no direct evidentiary material about pos-
complex of warrior equipment, warrior symbolic, in
sible newcomers: usually the graves with a battle-knife
other words, the function of a certain thing, must be
consist of ordinary central Lithuanian artefacts (fibulae
appreciated. Hence, earlier Kazakeviius was right in
and neck-rings, or pins). A new tradition could be com-
suggesting the uite early and local provenance of the
prehensible as partly arisen inside central Lithuanian
attle-knife (1981, 1988).
culture, and partly imitated from its southern neigh-
bours. Translated by the author
236
wej Litwy na podstawie materiaw z cmentarzyska w K ovos peili kilms
BALTICA 8
Marvel. In: A. BITNER-WRBLEWSKA, ed. Kultura
bogaczewska 20 lat pniej. Materiay z konferencji, War-
V idurio L ietuvoje
szawa, 26-27 marca 2003 Seminarium Batyjskie, volume klausimas
I, Warszawa.
GUREVIIUS, A., 1989. Vidurami kultros kategorijos.
Vilnius: Mintis. Mindaugas Bertaius
HBENER, W., 1988. Materialen zur Geschichte des me-
rowingerzeitlichen Saxes. Ein Beitrag zu seiner Chrono-
Santrauka
ARCHAEOLOGIA
logie, Produktion und Distribution. In: B. HRDH, L.
LARSSON, D. OLAUSSON, R. PETR, eds. Trade and
Exchange in Prehistory (=Acta Archaeologica Lundensia, Kovos peili kilms klausimas lietuvikoje archeologi-
series in 8, N 16). Lund, 225-236. nje literatroje buvo aptarinjamas epizodikai. Api-
KARCZEWSKI, M., 1999. Chronologia grobw z broni
bdinant kovos peilius gana danai argumentuojama
odkrytych na cmentarzysku kultury bogaczewskiej z okre-
su wpyww rzymskich i wdrwek ludw w Paprotkach formaliais kriterijais (pvz., kovos peilis, jei ginklo ilgis
Kolonii, stan.1, w Krainie Wielkich Jezior Mazurskich. virija 20 cm, ar pan.), pamirtant, kad prieistoriniais
Archaeologia Lituana, I, 72-109. laikais tokia mat sistema neegzistavo. Iekant atsa-
KAZAKEVIIUS, V., 1981. Vienameni kalavij atsi- kymo pasitelkta gausi Marvels kapinyno mediaga
radimas ir raida Lietuvoje. In: Lietuvos archeologija,
(kapinynas yra Kauno miesto teritorijoje). Aikja, kad
pirmykts bendruomens irimas, 2. Vilnius: Mokslas, 43-
56. svarbiomis charakteristikomis tampa ginklo funkcins
ZKIAVICHIUS, V., 1988. Oruzhyje baltskikh plemen ypatybs bei ginkluots kompleksikumo klausimas.
II-VIII v.v. na territotii Litvy. Vilnius: Mokslas. Remiantis tyrim mediaga galima pagrsti, kad jau
KAZAKEVIIUS, V., 1993. Plinkaigalio kapinynas. Lietu- romnikojo laikotarpio C1bC2 fazje (arba periode)
vos archeologija, 10, 3-181.
kai kurie peiliai gyja kovos peiliui bding bruo.
MANDEL, M., 1977. Vitlusnuga muinaseestlaste relvastu-
ses. Eesti NSV Teaduste Akadecmia Toimetised, 26, no 3. Kiek vliau ie peiliai gauna form, gerai tinkan-
Tallinn: Eesti raamat. i driui ar smgiui atlikti (romnikojo laikotarpio
MICHELBERTAS, M., 1986. Senasis geleies amius Lietu- C2C3 faz). Galutinai kovos peiliai sitvirtina Vidu-
voje (I-IV amius). Vilnius: Mokslas. rio Lietuvos ginkluotje, pereinant i romnikojo
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taut kraustymosi laikotarp, DD/E fazje. Remiantis
schen Waffengrbern 250/30 bis 900 n.Chr, (=Nordiske Marvels ir Plinkaigalio kapinyn duomenimis, tuo
Fortidsminder, Serie B, Vol. 17). Kbenhavn: Det kongeli- laikotarpiu jau galime velgti susiformavusi stipri
ge Nordiske Oldskriftselskab. socialin grup. Jos militaristines aspiracijas atskleid
NOWAKOWSKI, W., 1995. Od Galindai do Galinditae. Z iraikingas ginkluots kompleksas kape. V
bada nad pradziejami batyjskiego ludu z Pojezierza Ma-
zurskiego. Barbaricum
4. Warszawa: Instytut Archeologii THE ROLE
OF WEAPONS
UW. AND
SALMO, H., 1938. Die Waffen der Merowingerzeit in Fin- W E A P O N RY
land. Helsinki. IN POLITICAL
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M I L I TA RY
Mitteleuropa. Eine Analyse der Auswertungsmethoden des LEADERSHIP
archologischen Quellenmaterials (=Abhandlungen des
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Vidurio Lietu-
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237
Gear of Long Barrow Culture T H E A R M A M E N T, H O R S E M E N S
(Fifth to Seventh Centuries)
T h e A r m a m e n t , H o r s e m e n s
Accoutrements, and Riding
MICHEL KAZANSKI
KAZANSKI
MICHEL
Abstract
Several different cultural traditions stand out in Long Barrow Culture. Some of them are characteristic of the Baltic Finno-
Ugrians, others of the Balts and Slavs. The aim of this work is to distinguish all these mentioned traditions that are manifested
in warrior horsemans accoutrements and riding gear of the fifth to seventh centuries. From the armament point of view, both
Slavic tribes and the inhabitants of the Byelorussian and west Russian forest belt, whose ethnocultural affiliation remains
disputed (Balts, Slavs, Balto-Slavs, Finno-Balts, Finno-Ugrians?), comprise an integral continuum from the River Danube
to Lake Ladoga. The work also discusses the migrational processes that affected the people in the forest belt in the fifth and
sixth centuries.
Key words: long barrows, forest belt, weapons, riding gear, Balts, Slavs, migration.
The main characteristics of time (Lopatin, Furasev 1995; Lopatin 2006; Shchukin
Long Barrow Culture et al. 2006, pp.55-60).
Researchers distinguish several different cultural tra-
Long Barrow Culture encompasses a huge territory in
ditions in Long Barrow Culture: Baltic Finno-Ugric,
Eastern Europes forest belt, starting from southeastern
especially distinct in southeastern Estonia (Aun 1980,
Estonia and ending with the upper River Volga basin
1992; Kazanski 1999c, p.135), Baltic (Sedov 1995, p.
(Fig. 1) (Sedov 1995, Fig. 60). Its formation is associ-
216; Kazanski 1999b; Kazanski 1999c, p.133ff.), and
ated with the end of the fourth and the beginning of
Slavic (Sedov 1980; Kazanski 1999c, p.133). The aim
the fifth centuries. The chronological Lindora-Polibino
of this work is to distinguish all these Long Barrow
horizon (Kargopoltsev 1994, 1996), with its charac-
Culture traditions that are manifested in the warrior
teristic non-fortified settlements, barrows and flat bur-
horsemans accoutrements and riding gear in the fifth
ial grounds, is distinguished during this time period.
to seventh centuries.
Long Barrow Culture sites comprise several territorial
groups: 1 southwestern Estonia, west of Lake Pskov/
Peipus (Fig. 2A); 2 east of Lake Chudskoe/Pskov/Pei- Armaments of Long Barrow Culture
pus, up to the River Luga basin (Fig. 2B); 3 the upper
reaches of the Velikaya, Western Dvina/Daugava and Weapons are rarely found in long barrows (Fig. 3; Ap-
Lovat Rivers (Fig. 2C); 4 from the Lovat to the Msta pendix) and we cannot be certain that the artefacts we
and Mologa river basins (Fig. 2D) (Sedov 1974, Ta- have at this time objectively reflect this cultures true
ble1, 1995, Fig. 60). armaments. Usually large armament counts find their
way into the hands of archaeologists when the weap-
It is generally acknowledged that Long Barrow Culture,
with its essentially heterogeneous origin, is a synthe-
Unfortunately, the available research does not allow us to
sis of local and foreign elements (Sedov 1995, p.216; establish the chronology of certain finds. Because of the
Beletskii 1996, pp.37-43; Burov 1996; 1996; Konet- general chronology, it is not possible to accurately date the
skii 1997; Kazanski 1999c, p.130; Lopatin 2006). It is horse bridles from the Ust-Smolka barrow fields barrow 3
and Grishin-2 barrow fields barrow 2 (Lopatin 2004, Figs.
possible that the local inhabitants of the Roman Pe- 3.1, 4), nor the narrow-bladed, blunt-ended or so-called
riod who left the Zaozere type sites (Verkhnee Pod- Central Russian-type axes (Kazakeviius 1988, pp.78-81)
neprovie 2002) were the main shaping component of found in the Long Barrow Culture zone, the Ust-Belaya,
Long Barrow Culture. South of Long Barrow Culture Koloda and Kriukov settlements, as well as the Pleso and
territory, in the upper reaches of the Dnieper and the Stepanov barrows (Elena Mikhailova, personal commu-
nication). I take this opportunity to thank my colleagues
Western Dvina/Daugava basin, the very similar Tush- Elena Mikhailova, Sergej Kargopoltsev, and Yuri Lesman
emlya-Bantserovshchina Culture appeared at the same for their information and the opportunity to get acquainted
with their yet unpublished works.
238
BALTICA 8
ARCHAEOLOGIA
Fig. 1. Long Barrow Culture territory, fifth to seventh centuries (after Sedov 1995).
V
THE ROLE
OF WEAPONS
AND
W E A P O N RY
IN POLITICAL
AND
M I L I TA RY
LEADERSHIP
Fig. 2. Diffusion of early sites of Long Barrow Culture (Lindora-Polibino horizon) (after Kargopotsev 1994,
supplemented by the author).
239
Gear of Long Barrow Culture
(Fifth to Seventh Centuries)
T h e A r m a m e n t , H o r s e m e n s
Accoutrements, and Riding
KAZANSKI
MICHEL
Fig. 3. Diffusion of elements of weapons, horsemans accoutrements, and riding girths from the fifth to seventh centuries
found in Long Barrow Culture territory (site list noted in the Appendix): 1 attack weapons; 2 defence weapons; + 3 ele-
ments of horsemens accoutrements and riding gear.
ons are widely distributed as a grave good or sacrifi- Unlike their western neighbours, ie, the East and
cial element (ie the Scandinavian bog finds, the mighty West Balts, as well as the Baltic areas and Finlands
shrines of the La Tne epoch). However, neither one Finno-Ugrians, the forest belt tribes in Russia and
nor the other element occurs in Long Barrow Culture. Byelorussia did not have swords, shields with metal
Moreover, published material on Long Barrow Culture shield bosses, or battle daggers (seax). At the same
is very fragmentary, since the main focus in Russian time, Long Barrow Culture armament is distinguished
archaeology during Soviet times was placed on syn- from that of the Finno-Ugrians and from the world of
thesis-based publications, on works that generalized the Volga and Urals further east in that it had spurs, but
research results, and not the publication of the actual did not have socketed axes. Essentially, from the view-
research material. point of armaments, both the Slavic tribes and the in-
habitants of Byelorussias and western Russias forest
Nonetheless, we can now draw several general con-
belt, whose ethnocultural affiliation is disputed (Balts,
clusions concerning Long Barrow Culture. The main
Slavs, Balto-Slavs, Finno-Balts, Finno-Ugrians?),
armament complex of this culture was comprised of a
comprised an integral area between the River Danube
spear, a javelin, arrows, and axes. The horsemans ac-
and Lake Ladoga in the fifth to seventh centuries.
coutrements consisted of spurs, and the horses gear of
girth buckles, bridle bits and bridle mountings. Shields In speaking of Long Barrow Culture, it can be asserted
with metal shield bosses and maille (chainmail) frag- that in the armaments and horse riding gear of its mem-
ments are infrequently encountered. Such a collection bers, as in other elements of its culture, several het-
of armaments is very reminiscent of the neighbouring erogeneous components stand out. The first of these is
forest belt cultures such as Tushemlya-Bantserovsh- characteristic of all of Eastern Europes forest belt cul-
china, Diakovo, and Moshchinskaya, as well as of tures. These are the characteristic socketed spearheads
the Slavic Prague, Kolochin, and Penkovka cultures with barbs (Fig. 4), found in the flat burial ground of
armaments of the fifth to seventh centuries (Kazanski Iurevskaya Gorka (Fig. 4.2; Appendix, 4) and barrow
1999). 9 of the Suure-Rysna barrow field (Fig. 4.1; Appendix,
240
Latvia and in the territories in which the West Balts
BALTICA 8
lived (Kazakeviius 1988, p.55ff). This weapon is
well known in Scandinavia in the period of Ro-
man influence, where it held out at least until the D
period, ie, until the Migration period. This provi-
sion is confirmed by the Eveb or Kvassheim finds
(Ilkjaer 1990, pp.183-255, 308, Abb. 195). Such
spears also occur in Tushemlya Culture, related
ARCHAEOLOGIA
to Long Barrow Culture, in the upper reaches of
the Dnieper River basin (Shmidt 1995, Fig. 1.3).
Occasionally, socketed spearheads with barbs are
found in the Slavic Prague and Kolochin cultures
(Kazanski 1999, Fig. 1.7, 8). Still, these javelins
with socketed, barbed spearheads are more charac-
teristic of the northern part of Europe.
Another type of armament very characteris-
tic of the forest belt is the socketed spearhead
with a pronounced midrib (type 1G according to
Kazakeviius). One such spearhead was found in
the Long Barrow Culture zone in the River Luga
basin near Lake Samro in the Dolozhskii pogost
barrow field, in barrow 45 (Fig. 5.1; Appendix,
1). Kazakeviius noted that such spearheads were
widespread in East Prussia, Lithuania, Latvia and
Finland, as well as among the middle Volga Finno-
Ugrians (Kazakeviius 1988, p.29ff.). Socketed
spearheads with pronounced midribs are also en-
countered in northeast Estonia, as well as in the
Oka river basin (Kazanski 2000a, p.204), and in
the region between the Oka and the Volga, where
Fig. 4. Socketed spearheads with barbs found in Long Bar- they are found in the fortified Sarskoe settlement V
row Culture sites (1, 2) and their parallels in Eastern Europes (Leontev 1996, Fig. 34.8). It should be noted that THE ROLE
OF WEAPONS
Finno-Ugric sites (38): 1 Suure-Rysna, barrow 9 (Appendix, similar spearheads with pronounced midribs are AND
9); 2 Iurevskaya Gorka, grave 5 (Appendix, 4); 3, 4 Bezvodnoe; not found among the Slavic site material of the W E A P O N RY
5Troitskoe; 6, 7 Shatrishchi; 8 Kurman (38 after Rozenfeld IN POLITICAL
1982). fifth to seventh centuries, where lanceolate spear- AND
heads dominate. M I L I TA RY
LEADERSHIP
9). Javelins with this type of spearhead spread among Hafted lanceolate arrowheads similar to the one found
the Finno-Ugrians living in the forest belt, and in a at the Iurevskaya Gorka settlement (Fig. 6.8; Appen-
rather broad territory extending from the middle of the dix, 5) are known practically throughout all of Europe
Volga up to Finland and Estonia in the period of Ro- in the fifth to seventh centuries, including among the
man influence and the beginning of the Middle Ages Balts (Kazakeviius 2004, p.51ff.) and the Slavs (Ka-
(ie, in the fifth to seventh centuries) (Rozenfeld 1982, zanski 1999, p.201).
pp.128-134; Kargopoltsev 1999, Fig. 1). Javelins with
Rectangular iron girth buckles comprise yet another
socketed and barbed spearheads are found in Diakovo
type of gear that is widespread throughout the entire
Culture sites (Fig. 4.5), known in Finno-Ugric sites of
forest belt. Judging from the inventory of the grave
the Volga and Oka basin (Fig. 4.3, 4, 6-8), and found
found in Puiga, rectangular buckles in the Long Bar-
in the stone grave cemeteries in Estonia (tarand type
row Culture context are encountered in the fifth to
sites), for example in Lihula (Mandel 1976), and in
seventh centuries (Fig. 6.6; Appendix, 7). Numerous
the stone-covered barrows in Finland (Kivikoski 1973,
Abb. 304, 548).
The same kind of buckles were encountered in the follow-
ing Long Barrow Culture cemeteries: Vargany barrow 2
Socketed spearheards with barbs are found in Lithua- (Shtykhau 1992, Fig. 23.3), Gurki barrow 2 (Sedov 1974,
nia, especially in East Lithuania, at the beginning of Table 24.25), Pagadzitsa barrow 2 (Shtykhau 1992, Fig.
the Middle Ages, but are found much less frequently in 24.3), Lipetsy barrow 7 (Aleksandrov 1982, Fig. 3.3), Ust-
Belaya barrow 1 (Kargolopoltsev 1994, Figs. 9.5, 12, 14).
241
This type of bridle bit spread every-
Gear of Long Barrow Culture
(Fifth to Seventh Centuries) where in Europe, including among
T h e A r m a m e n t , H o r s e m e n s
Accoutrements, and Riding
BALTICA 8
the Msta river basin (Islanova 1997,
pp.21-55). This rather short-lived set-
tlement (there are no traces of layered
structures, the functioning time period
of the middle semisubterranean dwell-
ing does not exceed 20 years: see Ber-
ezovets 1963, p.187) is dated to the first
ARCHAEOLOGIA
half of the sixth and the middle of the
sixth century according to the spotted
beads discovered here, attributed to the
second quarter of the fifth century to the
middle of the sixth century (Ivanievi
et al. 2006, p.76), and the clasp from
Western or Central Europe attributed to
the second quarter of the sixth century
(Kazanski 2000b, p.24; Koch 2001,
pp.85, 86, 296 and 297, Abb. 23: M54;
Tejral 2005, Abb. 13.D1, Tabelle 3).
The Iurevskaya Gorka settlement is
distinguished for its abundant modelled
pottery (31%), very reminiscent of the
Prague type, and its semisubterranean
dwellings with an oven (Islanovas
Type 4 dwellings, Islanova 1997, p.42),
and that is also a characteristic feature
of Slavic cultures. A flat burial ground
with cremation graves alongside the
settlement was also investigated, and
these, too, were characteristic of the
Slavs (Islanova 1997, pp.21-55). It V
Fig. 6. Bridle bits, girth buckles, axe fragments, arrow, and maille frag- must be stressed that purely Slavic THE ROLE
ment from Long Barrow Culture (13, 69), their parallels (4, 5 and 10): OF WEAPONS
finds in forest belt sites have not been AND
1, 9Zalakhtove, barrow 154/10 (Appendix, 10); 2Zherebiatino, barrow 1
encountered; they are found in sites W E A P O N RY
(Appendix, 11); 3Dorohi-1, barrow 1 (Appendix, 2); 4, 5 Kuntsevo (after IN POLITICAL
Rozenfeld 1982); 6 Puiga, barrow 20 (Appendix, 7); 7, 8, 12, 13 Iurevskaya where local forest belt culture artefacts AND
Gorka settlement (Appendix, 5); 10Zdvizhenskoe (after Zasetskaya 1994); are encountered in abundance. Ceramics M I L I TA RY
LEADERSHIP
11Nikitino (after Voronina et al. 2005). characteristic of Long Barrow Culture
dominate in the mentioned Iurevskaya
A southern component is clearly distinguished in Gorka settlement, while things typical of Finno-Ugri-
the Long Barrow Culture warriors accoutrements and ans and Balts occur among the ornaments. In general,
horsemans riding gear. Its appearance is most likely the site reflects both autochthonic local forest belt in-
associated with the movement of some kind of Slavic habitant features (Long Barrow Culture) as well as the
groups into Eastern Europes forest belt. Actually, the heritage of some kind of foreign groups, most likely of
Slavs are the only East European forest belt ethnic Slavs (Islanova 1997, p.55; Kazanski 2000b, p.24).
group that undoubtedly actively participated in the mil-
Aside from the modelled ceramics resembling the
itary operations of the late Migration Period in south-
Prague type in the Iurevskaya Gorka settlement, pot-
ern Europe, in the lower Danube region, the Balkans,
tery was also found in the Mikhailovskoe, Volodi,
and Italy. They were also the only forest belt people
Zherebiatino long barrows (Sedov 1980, p.7). Moreo-
whose contacts with nomads of the steppes were re-
ver, researchers treat the cremation tradition of cleaning
corded in sixth-century written sources. These contacts
out the cremated bones from the burial fires remnants
were reflected, for example, in Slavic armaments (Ka-
as typical of the Slavs (Sedov 1980, p.6f.). Finally,
zanski 1999).
certain female Long Barrow Culture ornaments could
The existence of Slavs in the sites of the Long Bar- also be of Slavic origin. For example, triangular metal
row Culture belt is clearly shown in the material of plates (appliqu), known by the small stone moulds
243
used in their production, have been found in southeast-
Gear of Long Barrow Culture
(Fifth to Seventh Centuries) ern Estonia, one such mould being from the Loosi bar-
T h e A r m a m e n t , H o r s e m e n s
Accoutrements, and Riding
BALTICA 8
found in the material of the East and West Balts. most likely these spurs spread as a consequence of
contact with West and East Balts. I know of two in-
The spurs discovered in Long Barrow Culture belt sites
disputable metal shield bosses belonging to the Migra-
are clearly of Baltic origin. I remind the reader that in
tion Period in the forest belt east of the Baltic. One of
the Early Middle Ages, spurs are characteristic of West-
them was found in the Dolozhskii pogost barrow field
ern and Eastern Europe. In Eastern Europe, the Baltic
in barrow 45, in Long Barrow Culture territory (Fig.
and Slavic cultures comprised the eastern diffusion
5.2; Appendix, 1), the other near the River Moskva in
ARCHAEOLOGIA
territorys periphery of this element of a horsemans
the Djakovo-type Lukovnia hill-fort (Akhmedov, Ka-
accoutrements. There are barely any spurs among the
zanski 2004, Fig. 5.8).
Central Russian Finno-Ugric peoples and the steppe
nomads. The most widespread spurs with two fastener The shield boss from Dolozhskii pogost has narrow
hooks are characteristic of the world of the Balts and edges and a cylindrical rise ending in a conical top with
Slavs (Perkhavko 1978). Spurs are also well known an expressive protuberance. By these features, it can
in the Roman-Germanic West (Rettner 1997; Schlem- be ascribed to the Liebenau-type (Zieling E2) (Kazan-
mer 2004). Spurs with hooks in the eastern part of the ski 1994, pp.445, 446). In the Migration Period, this
barbaricum already existed in Roman times. At that shield boss type was widely used both by Germanic
time they were known both in Eastern Europes for- and the Roman armies. The Liebenau-type shield boss
est belt and more to the south, in Chernyakhov Culture is found along the southern and eastern shores of the
(Perkhavko 1978, p.122; Kazanski 1994, pp.434 and Baltic rather rarely (Kazanski 1987, Annexe 4). The
435). finds from Glowiss/Glowczyce in Pomerania (Mach-
aewski 1992, Fig. 3.8), Stragnus in West Lithuania
A spur with a flat cross-section base and the ends bent
(Kazakeviius 1988, Fig. 48.4), and Lne-Nigula Kir-
outward was discovered in the Dorohi barrow field,
ime in West Estonia (Tallgren 1925, Abb. 20; 21) can
in barrow 4, grave 1 (Fig. 7.1; Appendix, 3). This
be mentioned. Slightly more shield bosses are in south-
spur belongs to the Perkhavo V-a type with a slight-
west Finland, where they appeared in the fifth century
ly curved base. Parallels with this type are known in
(Pihlman 1990, pp.296 and 297, Bild. 21.6, 25; Kazan-
Baltic cultures, of which can be mentioned Minghen
ski 1987, Annexe 4, n, 32-40). Several Liebenau-type
grave 1 (Gaerte 1929, Abb. 243:d), the isolated spur
shield bosses ascribed to the Migration Period were
found in Sauginiai (Fig. 7.3) (Merkeviius 1984, p.21,
recently discovered in the central Danube (Ivanievi
Fig. 2), and the spur found in the Saukas muia cem-
et al. 2006, p.42).
etery (Fig. 7.2) (Moora 1929, Taf. 32.6; Latvijas PSR V
Arheoloija 1974, Plate 31.3). The kind of spur found As previously mentioned (Kazanski 1991), the pearl
THE ROLE
in the Kentskalns fortified settlement (Stubavs 1976, decor on the edge of the Dolozhskii pogost shield OF WEAPONS
Table 11.11) also speaks of their diffusion among cer- boss (Fig. 5.2) has analogues with almost exclusively AND
W E A P O N RY
tain Baltic Finno-Ugrian groups. On the other hand, Baltic shield bosses from Lithuania and Byelorussia. IN POLITICAL
AND
similar spurs are found further east in Tushmelya cul- The shield bosses from Tchernaya Luzha, Grigiks, M I L I TA RY
ture sites, for example Nikodimovo (Sedin 1992, Fig. Kriktonys, Taurapilis, Pamis, Versekl, Vyiai bar- LEADERSHIP
2.3, 4), Nekasetsk (Perkhavko 1978, p.122), and Goro- row cemetries (Kazanski 1991, Figs.4-6; 1999, p.409;
dishche (Mitrofanov 1978, Fig. 54.6; Zviaruga 2005, 2000a, p.204; Kargopoltsev, Shchukin 2002, Fig. 6;
Fig. 61.18). 2006, Fig. 8), Zasvir, and Karobki (Zviaruga 2005,
Figs. 30.2 and 44.2) can be mentioned as examples.
Among the Slavs, spurs with ends bent outward spread
Thus, the mentioned shield boss from Dolozhskii pog-
in Kolochin Culture, ie, in the northern Slavic diffu-
ost has long been ascribed as Baltic (Kazanski 1991).
sion periphery: Taimanova, Chaplin (Perkhavko 1978,
The decor mentioned is of visibly Germanic origin,
p.122; Kazanski 1999, II.14). Among representatives
since its prototypes from the period of Roman influ-
of both the Slavs and Tushmelya Culture, whose eth-
ence are affixed on shield bosses of Scandinavian bog
nic affiliation is unclear (Balts? Slavs? Balto-Slavs?)
finds (Raddatz 1987, Taf. 22.5, 79). Nonetheless, this
decor did not visibly become established in Scandina-
This site is ascribed to the Lyvs. All the same, the popular
association among colleagues of archaeological sites dated via, at least I know nothing of them during the Migra-
to the period of Roman influence and Early Middle Ages tion Period.
with historical Baltic and Finno-Ugric tribes like the Lyvs,
Lettigalians, Semigallians, Samogitians, Upland Lithu-
In speaking of western riding horse bridle elements, it
anians, Prussians, and others, known only from tenth-elev- is imperative to mention riding bits with a three-jointed
enth century sources, I think, is unsubstantiated. That is mouthpiece. They were discovered in the Iurevskaya
equivalent to reasoning about Middle Age ethnic groups as Gorka settlement (Appendix 5) and Dolozhskii pogost
French, Polish or Russian in the first-seventh centuries.
245
hill-fort 45 (Fig. 5.3; Appendix 1). Similar bridle bits
Gear of Long Barrow Culture
(Fifth to Seventh Centuries) were also discovered in the Tushemlya-type hill-forts in
T h e A r m a m e n t , H o r s e m e n s
Accoutrements, and Riding
BALTICA 8
mament reached the Russian forest belt together with Figs. 1.14, 2.1, 7). These ornaments are of eastern Ger-
migrs from western and Eastern Baltic territory (Ka- manic origin, since temple ornaments dated to the pe-
zanski 1999). The artefacts from the Dolozhskii pog- riod of Roman influence were discovered in abundance
ost (Fig. 5.1-3) and Shikhino (Fig. 8.4, 7) burials are in Wielbark and Chernyakhov Culture sites (Kazanski,
informative in this regard. The armament collection Mastykova 2003, p.166). Such temple ornaments could
from Dolozhskii pogosts barrow 45 a spearhead, have reached Long Barrow Culture representatives
shield boss with characteristic Baltic decor (a pearl while making contact with the Western Balts, since
ARCHAEOLOGIA
decor on the umbos border), and a bridle bit is iden- such finds also occur in the Suwaki groups Netta
tical to the ones found in Suwaki group barrows in cemetery barrow 7 (Okulicz 1955, Table 38.1).
the period of Roman influence (Osowas barrows 41
Baltic neck-rings with a saddle-shaped clasp were found
and 71, Szwajcarias barrow 2). Such burial complexes
in the Iurevskaya Gorka settlement (Islanova 1997,
are also rarely found beyond the borders of the Baltic
Fig. 76.22) and in the Shikhino barrow field, in barrow
world (Kazanski 1999, p.411; 2000a, p.205).
30 (Malm, Fekhner 1969, Fig. 4.2; Islanova 2006, fig.
The riding horse gear found in barrow 25 in the Shikhi- 101.B.3). Such neck-rings are rarely discovered in ter-
no barrow field is characteristic of the western Balts ritories east of the Baltic. The neck-ring from Viazov-
from the Sambian peninsula and Suwaki region. It enka, Tushemlya Culture (Shmidt 1994, Fig. 5.5), and
could be said that these two burials are most likely the cache from Uzmina-Gorka, Gdov district, could
associated with migrs from a Western Baltic envi- be mentioned (Tallgren 1938, p.12, Abb. 15; Korzuhi-
ronment. It should be noted that warrior elite burials na 1954, Table 3). However, neck-rings with a saddle-
clearly begin to distinguish themselves in the Western shaped clasp are well known in territories inhabited
and Eastern Baltic burial traditions precisely during the by the Balts and Baltic Finno-Ugrians. This type of
Migration Period (Vaitkunskien 1995; 2003; Kulakov neck-ring, as evidenced by the one found in Plinkaiga-
2003, p.204f.; 2005, p.54, 63 and 64). lis cemetery grave 45 in Lithuania (Kazakevius 1993,
pp.97 and 145; Figs. 1, 3), just as the Dollkeim-Kov-
rovo type Lithuanian variant pair of fibulae [in Lithua-
The relationship of Long Barrow
nian historiography, these fibulae are called crossbow
Culture with the Baltic circle cultures
fibulae with a cruciform foot editors note], already
existed in the sixth century (Kazakeviius 1993,
Long Barrow Cultures relation with Baltic material,
p.111ff., Fig. 179; Bitner-Wrblewska 2001, p.48ff.).
ie, with the East Lithuanian Barrow Culture, has been
In the southeastern Baltic, these fibulae are dated to the V
accented more than once. In both cases, a lengthened
E period, ie, the sixth and seventh centuries. However, THE ROLE
form of the barrows mound is seen, and remains from OF WEAPONS
in Alt-Kossewen/Kosewo, in a cemetery of the Olsz-
the cremations fire at the base of the barrow are ob- AND
tyn group, such a fibula was discovered in burial 308 W E A P O N RY
served (Tautaviius 1959, pp.144 and 145; 1980; IN POLITICAL
together with a buckle in the shape of an eagles head, AND
Konetskii 1997, p.221). Sedov also drew attention to
characteristic of the second quarter of the sixth century M I L I TA RY
the similarity of certain long barrows to the burials of LEADERSHIP
and typical of the Gepids (Kulakov 1989, Fig. 20.3).
the Suwaki group. Stone constructions have been dis-
Other similar neck-rings found are usually dated to the
covered in the long barrows of Severik, Lositsy, Loozi,
seventh or eighth centuries, although a substantiated
Verepkovo and Vybuty (Sedov 1995, p.216). Similar
argumentation is lacking for such dating, as, for ex-
stone constructions have also been discovered in bar-
ample, for the neck-ring from Seredius (Urbanaviius
rows with cremations in Suwaki Culture (Jaskanis,
1987) or the caches in Latvian territory (Urtns 1977,
Okulicz 1981, p.241; Sedov 1987, p.415). Finally, Se-
N 30, Fig. 62.3; N 33, Fig. 65.1; N 34, Fig. 66.3; N
dov discovered the remains of cremated humans and
35, att. 67.1,2,4,5). The neck-ring with a saddle-shaped
riding horse bones in the Lindora, Zherebiatino and
clasp found in the Sudata-1 barrow field, in barrow 5
Shikhino barrows. In his opinion, the burial of the rid-
(Kaczyski 1963, Fig. 9), belonging to the Suwaki
ing horse is also a Baltic custom, well known in Lithua-
This site is currently in Polish territory. In Polish and
nia and the Suwaki region (Sedov 1974, p.25).
Russian archaeology, two names are used for sites from
There are also Baltic elements in Long Barrow Cul- Prussian territory that fell into Russias composition: the
tures womens apparel. The spiral temple ornaments old German name and the new Russian name, since this
greatly eases work with prewar publications. However, for
found in the Kazikha, Lezgi and Repi barrows are reasons I cannot understand, in some Polish works only
traced to East Lithuania (Sedov 1995, pp.218-229). Polish names are used for Prussian sites in Polish territory.
Beads strung into spiral temple ornaments were dis- In this work, when it is possible, I shall try to present both
covered in the Berezno, Rysna-Saare II and Bereztsy the German and the Polish names of sites in Polish terri-
tory.
247
Culture group (Sudovian Culture variant), also needs (Hackman 1905, N 29. Abb. 5, 9; Kivikoski 1973, Taf.
Gear of Long Barrow Culture
(Fifth to Seventh Centuries) to be mentioned; a shield boss from a rather early pe- 36.249; Perny-Prvis: Kivikoski 1973, Taf. 47.439).
T h e A r m a m e n t , H o r s e m e n s
Accoutrements, and Riding
riod was also discovered here. However, such pins there are considered East Baltic
finds, or, more precisely, a type of ornament that ar-
Small bells [bells from a bronze sheet, a decorative el-
rived from Latvia (Kivikoski 1973, p.66).
ement of east Baltic women, usually terminated with
variously ornamented chains editors Note] with
broad edges were found in the Arniko barrow (Sedov Several remarks on the formation of
1974, Table 23.35) and in the Rysna-Saare barrow Long Barrow Culture
fields barrow 1 (Aun 1992, Fig. 51.1-6), as well as
in Zapole-1 (Platonova 1996, p.11). Such little bells Thus, alongside the Slavs and Finno-Ugrians, Baltic
are well known in the Baltic Early Middle Ages con- input in the formation of Long Barrow Culture is, to
KAZANSKI
MICHEL
text (Zasvir: Zviaruga 2005, Fig. 31.11; Laiznu: my mind, obvious. Apparently, Western armament
Latvijas PSR Arheoloija 1974, 84Fig.; Sedov 1987, reached Russias forest belt with some Western or East-
Table 106.20; Kivti: Latvijas PSR Arheoloija 1974, ern Baltic groups. In my opinion, the material analyzed
Plate 42.22; Grigiks barrow 4: Kuncien 1983, Fig. verifies the assumption made earlier that in the Migra-
10; Sudata first
barrowfield
barrow 10: Kaciski 1963, tion Period, in the fifth to seventh centuries, some kind
Fig.18). Little bells are more rarely found among of militarized groups of people from the Germanic sur-
the Finno-Ugrians (Kentskalns: Stubavs 1976, tab. roundings of the central Danube, as well as Slavic and
4.9; Diakovo: Krenke 1983; Uskela-Palomki: Ki- Baltic groups penetrated Eastern Europes forest belt
vikoski 1973, Taf. 33.273) and in Tushemlya Culture (Kazanski 1999b; 2000, 2000; Akhmedov, Kazanski
(Mikoltsy: Zviaruga 2005, Fig. 69.3). 2004). This movement was summoned by the desta-
bilization of the military-political situation in the cen-
Headbands characteristic of East Baltic womens head
tral Danube, during the establishment, and, somewhat
ornaments, comprised of metal plates and spirals, are
later, the fall, of the Hun state, as well as the eastern
well known in Long Barrow Culture burials: in Volodi,
Germanic kingdoms formation in this region.
Gorodnia, Berezno, Repi, Polibino, Kvasilnikovo,
Liubakhin, Podol-1, Iurevskaya Gorka. Metal head- The comparatively not numerous, but strictly very mil-
bands have analogues with East Lithuania and the itarily organized groups of various tribes left the region
nearby Byelorussian regions (Volkait-Kulikauskien of the central Danube and began migrating in various
1986, p.158; eg, the Pamis barrows: Kuncien 1973, directions to the very southern part of Scandinavia,
Fig. 5.4, 5; Lyntupy: Pokrovskii 1897, Table 9.5, 6). as is evidenced by the famous reference of Procopius
At the same time, we need to remember that the dif- of Caesarea about the Heruls and their migration into
fusion territory of headbands is wider than the Baltic southwest Sweden, the Gautoi
/Gauthigothi (Procope,
geographical range and also includes sites in the Fin- Bel.Got., II.15; Gauthigothi localization: Svennung
no-Ugric forest belt (Tallgren 1925, Abb. 16; Tamla, 1967, pp.65-78, Figs. 4; 5) tribes territory. Other
Janits 1977, Abb. 1.12; Rozenfeld 1982, Fig. 1.7; Vo- groups probably advanced northeast, since the Dan-
ronina et al. 2005, Fig. 33.9; Myts et al. 2006, pp.156 ubean elements in Prussias and Lithuanias archaeo-
and 157). logical material are accented in the works of various
researchers more than once (Werner 1977; Kulakov
Baltic pins with similar terminals as neck-rings with
1989, p.174; Kazakeviius 1993, pp.113 and 114;
a saddle-shaped clasp also are known in Long Barrow
Nowakowski 2000). From here, along the rivers of the
Culture. Such pins were discovered in Laossina, in bar-
East Baltic basin, Central Europes warriors, together
row 11 (Aun 1992, Fig. 51.16) and in the Koloda set-
with Baltic groups going in the same direction, could
tlement (Elena Michailova, personal communication).
have reached Russias and Byelorrussias forest belt.
The same kind of pins are known from the Velikuks
hill-fort in Lithuania (Sedov 1987, Table 125.2) and The beginning of the Slavic expansion from along the
from the Skrstaini cemetery in Latvia (Latvijas PSR Dnieper and along the Dniester to the south towards
Arheoloija 1974, Plate 41.26). Such pins also reached the Danube is recorded at practically the same time,
the Baltic Finno-Ugrians, for example, Kentskalns (Stu- but not later than the boundary of the fifth and sixth
bavs 1976, Table 5.37-43), Ojaveski (Shmidekhelm centuries. The culmination of the early period of this
1955, Fig. 36.3), and Kokemki-Kniknumki expansion was the horrible assaults of the Sclaveni in
Currently such headbands have even been found very far
the Balkans in 540550 (Kazanski 1999c, p.67). It is
from the forest belt sites, in the Late Period of Roman in- logical to assume that Slavic migration could have af-
fluence in the Germanic barrow field Chatyr-Dag, along fected not only the Balkans and central Danube, but
the southern Crimean shore (Myts et al 2006, Fig.13.1, 2, also the more northern territories inhabited by related
6, 7, 11, 12).
248
Slavic and Balto-Slavic tribes. By the way, fifth-cen- 9. Suure-Rysna, barrow 9: socketed spearhead with
BALTICA 8
tury crossbow fibulae found in Lithuania are similar barbs (Fig. 4.1).
to Slavic fibulae from Prague Culture (east of the Car-
Reference: Aun 1992, Fig. 53.
pathians) (Gavritukhin 1989, pp.78-85). The appear-
ance of militarized southern and western groups 10. Zalakhtove, barrow 154/10: snaffle with looped
of people aggravated the military situation in Eastern terminals (Fig. 6.1); jointed girth buckle (Fig. 6.9).
Europes forest belt sites, but in the end, due to rather Reference: Khvoshchinskaya 2004, Table 3.1, 3.
few migrants, their influence is insignificantly reflected
ARCHAEOLOGIA
in the forest inhabitants ethnocultural history. 11. Zherebiatino, barrow 1: bridle bit segment (Fig.
6.2).
Translated by Indr Antanaitis-Jacobs
Reference: Sedov 1974, Table 28.4.
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Michel Kazanski skiriami pentinai su uriestomis ienelmis, antskydiai
ARCHAEOLOGIA
perliniu dekoru puotais pakraiais, trinariai slai,
Santrauka kryiniai kaman apkalai ir arkliams ukuoti skirtos
ukos (?).
is darbas skirtas VVII a. ginkluotei, raitelio ekipuo-
Tiktina, kad didel dalis vakarietikos ginkluo-
tei ir irgo aprangai ilgj pilkapi kultroje aptarti.
ts Rusijos mik juost pateko kartu su ieiviais i
Pagrindin kovini priemoni kompleks ioje kult-
vakarini ir rytini balt teritorij. ia prasme domi
roje sudaro ietys, moviniai ietigaliai su ubarzdomis
radini i Dolozhskii pogost ir Shchikhino pilkapi su-
(svaidomosios ietys), strls ir kirviai. Raitelio eki-
dtis. Kario ir raitelio ginkluots bei ekipuots ir irgo
puots elementas yra pentinai, o irgo aprang sudaro:
aprangos element rinkinys, aptiktas iuose pilkapiuo-
pakinkt sagtys, kamanos (slai ir kaman apkalai).
se, turi analog su balt i Suvalk regiono ir Sembos
Taip pat randama pavieni ginkluots element: skyd
pusiasalio mediaga. Be to, baltiki elementai yra aki-
su metaliniu antskydiu, apsaugini arvini dirbini
vaizdiai pastebimi ilgj pilkapi kultros laidojimo
fragment. Toks ginkluots rinkinys labai primena
paproiuose bei moter aprangoje.
tiek gretim mik juostos, Tuemlios-Bantcerovo,
Djakovo ir Moino kultr ginkluot, tiek slavikj Itirta mediaga patvirtina prielaid, kad taut kraus-
VVIIa. kultr, toki kaip Praha, Koloino ir Pen- tymosi laikotarpiu, VVI a., kakokios militarizuo-
kovka, ginkluot. Nuo vakarini kaimyn, t. y. nuo tos Dunojaus german, taip pat slav ir balt kilms
rytini ir vakarini balt bei nuo Pabaltijo finougr moni grups pasiek Ryt Europos mik juost.
Estijoje bei Suomijoje, mik juostos gentis skiria ka- is judjimas buvo slygotas karins-politins pad-
lavij, skyd su metaliniais antskydiais, kovos pei- ties destabilizacijos Dunojaus vidurupyje, kuriantis
li-durkl () nenaudojimas. Skirtingai ir netrukus sulugus hun valstybei bei formuojantis
nuo finougr ar dar labiau rytus nutolusio pasaulio, ryt german karalystms Dunojaus vidurupio regio-
ilguosius pilkapius palik mons turjo pentinus, bet ne. Praktikai vienu metu, VVI a. sandroje, yra fik-
nenaudojo movini kirvi. Ginkluots poiriu, tiek suojama slav ekspansijos i Padneprs ir Padnestrs V
slav gentys, tiek Baltarusijos ir vakarins Rusijos pietus, link Dunojaus, pradia. Logika manyti, kad THE ROLE
mik juostos gyventojai, kuri etnokultrin priklau- OF WEAPONS
slav iplitimas galjo kliudyti ne tik Balkan ir Duno- AND
somyb tebra ginytina (baltai, slavai, baltai-slavai, jaus emes, bet ir iauresnes teritorijas, apgyvendintas W E A P O N RY
IN POLITICAL
finai-baltai, finougrai), VVII a. sudaro vientis erdv gimining slav ir balt-slav geni. Karing pieti- AND
nuo Dunojaus iki Ladogos. ni ir vakarini grupi atsiradimas paatrino karin M I L I TA RY
LEADERSHIP
padt visoje Ryt Europos mik juostoje, bet vis dl-
Kalbant apie ilgj pilkapi kultr, galima teigti, kad
to dl gana negausi migrant dar tik nereikming
jos ginkluotje ir irgo aprangoje, kaip ir kituose kul-
tak mik juostos geni etnokultrinei istorijai.
tros elementuose, isiskiria keletas komponent. Pir-
masis yra tipikas visoms Ryt Europos mik juostos
kultroms (balt, balt-slav, finougr). Pirmiausia tai
moviniai ietigaliai su ubarzdomis, tveriamieji ieti-
galiai su rombo formos plunksnomis, siauraameniai
kirviai, strli antgaliai su lapo formos plunksna, sta-
iakamps pakinkt sagtys, dvinariai slai.
Ilgj pilkapi kultros kario ir raitelio ginkluotje
bei ekipuotje ir irgo aprangoje gana rykiai isiskiria
pietinis komponentas. Tai stepi tipo dvinars pa-
kinkt sagtys ir vairios paskirties apsauginiai arviniai
dirbiniai. J atsiradimas mik juostos paminkluose
tikriausiai yra susijs su kakoki slav geni grupi
pasirodymu. Slav kultros bruo pastebima ir lai-
253
Te r r i t o r y o f L a t v i a ( Te n t h t o
Prehistoric Societies in the
WA R FA R E A N D P O W E R I N L AT E
Wa r f a r e a n d P o w e r i n L a t e
P R E H I S T O R I C S O C I E T I E S I N T H E T E R R I T O RY
O F L AT V I A ( T E N T H T O 1 2 T H C E N T U R I E S )
12th Centuries)
ANDRIS N
ANDRIS N
Abstract
The article is devoted to the role of military activities in socio-political developments in Latvia during the Late Iron Age (tenth
to 12th centuries). The topics of weapons as prestige items, warrior burials and their relation to the retinue, as well as military
symbolism and warfare as the source of power, are discussed on the basis of archaeological material of the Livs, Curonians*,
Semigallians and Latgallians.
Key words: social archaeology, warfare, power, Late Iron Age, Latvia.
surviving only in the tenth century (Radi 1999, p.107 gallian gravefields (Radi 1999, p.107). Although
and 132). However, there is no reason to consider that axes are usually found with mens burials, sometimes
in the Late Iron Age the tradition of placing a spear they do occur in womens graves as well. At Nuki
in male graves disappeared, although in certain cem- cemetery, only three mens burials out of 73 had not
eteries the number of spear finds in mens graves from been provided with an axe, but only one boys grave
the second half of the Late Iron Age is conspicuously contained an axe (Shnore 1957, p.28f.). At Kivti cem-
small. At Nuki cemetery, used in the ninth to 11th etery, a narrow-bladed axe had been provided among
centuries, single spears were found in only two graves the grave-goods of 78 burials, or 95% of undisturbed
(one ninth and one 11th-century grave), but pairs of graves (nore 1987, p.26). Seventy-four undisturbed V
spears were found in five symbolic and mens graves at mens graves at Kristapii cemetery contained axes THE ROLE
Nuki cemetery, dating from around 800 and from the (out of a total of 93; Kuniga 2000, pp.69-71). OF WEAPONS
AND
ninth century (Shnore 1957, p.28). At Kivti cemetery, W E A P O N RY
It is not possible to unequivocally separate axes used
spears were found with 24 burials of men, but did not IN POLITICAL
only for work from those serving military needs. For AND
occur with any of the burials of boys during the eighth M I L I TA RY
example, the Estonian archaeologist Marika Mgi LEADERSHIP
and ninth centuries (nore 1987, p.27). The widely
(2002, p.89f.) discusses late prehistoric axes from
excavated Sraji cemetery of the Curonians showed a
Saaremaa in a chapter on tools, rather than weapons,
similar situation, for 25 burials (out of 53) contained
emphasising that axes do not have a symbolic signifi-
a spear and even three or four spears per grave were
cance as weapons. In Latvian archaeological research
found in some burials (n 2002a, p.140). It was com-
small, highly decorated and light axes, such as, for
mon practice among the Semigallians, too, to put
example, the narrow-bladed axes with a bronze band
several spears (up to six) in the grave of a dead man
wound around the haft typical of Latgallian burials, are
(Griciuvien 2005, p.119). The proportion of burials
regarded as battle-axes. Such axes occur in the Latgal-
with more than two spears is the highest in the lands of
lian and Selonian area from the eighth century till the
the Semigallians; so there were three graves with five
turn of the 11th century, and there are 30 such finds
spears in Dreeri-unkni cemetery (Atgzis 1994).
in this area (Mugurvis, Vasks 2001, p.272). Perhaps
A widely occurring item of grave furniture is the axe. also used in battle were small broad-bladed axes of a
Narrow-bladed axes were used in the Middle Iron Age. lighter weight, with a smaller diameter shaft-hole and
The earliest broad-bladed axes date from the tenth a thinner blade. In some cases broad-bladed axes have
century, and from the 11th century these became the a hole in the blade, evidently used to hang the axe in
predominant form. Usually, a single axe was placed in a sheath. Sometimes these are regarded as axes for
each grave. It was calculated that only in 2% of cases horsemen. Ten such horsemens axes, one of which
was more than one axe placed in a grave in the Lat- was inlaid with silver, have been found at Gauja Liv
255
cemeteries (Tnisson 1974, p.110). The largest number graves. After the 11th century, double-bladed swords
Te r r i t o r y o f L a t v i a ( Te n t h t o
of battle-axes of all has been found at Odukalns cem- in Latgallian cemeteries occur only as stray finds. Also,
Prehistoric Societies in the
Wa r f a r e a n d P o w e r i n L a t e
etery (12 pieces; Atgzis 1964, p.122). only occasional examples of swords are known in the
lands of the Semigallians (Griciuvien 2005, p.119).
A total of 250 broad-axes have been found in Latvia,
Three double-bladed swords have been found at eri
12th Centuries)
256
armband is an instance of the wider spread in society Wa r f a r e a n d s o c i a l o r g a n i z a t i o n :
BALTICA 8
of what was originally a prestige item (a process that chiefs, commoners and retinues
could have taken place in the tenth century), remaining
a century later only as a relict of prestige and a status The anthropologists, archaeologists and sociologists
indicator. involved in research into prehistoric chiefdoms and
early states have often remarked that warriors and
The mace is regarded as the insignia of a chief, or ba-
other military factors might have a primary importance
ton, evidence of the users high social status. Maces
in the emergence of complex social organisations (like
ARCHAEOLOGIA
have only been found in eastern Latvia, and this may
chiefdoms and early states). Warfare forms both ter-
be explained in terms of the influence of ancient Rus
ritorial structures and the power base; it is a means for
in this region. Tenth to 11th-century metal maces have
assimilation and/or integration of territories, but most-
not been found in Latvia, so it may be that during
ly for people subjected to new forms of domination
these centuries wooden clubs were used as weapons. It
and governance (Earle 1997, pp.105-110). The basis
should be added that wooden clubs are unlikely to have
of military power lies in the need to organise physical
fulfilled the sociopolitical function of the mace. Mac-
defence and its utility for realising aggression. Mili-
es with a metal head came into use in Latvia around
tary organisation mobilises violence, which becomes
the turn of the 12th century, and a total of 12 maces
particularly important and even decisive in times of
have been found, dating from the 12th to 14th century
warfare. The potential of military power is also limited
(Atgzis 1999).
by the spatial factor, since violent coercion on every-
Thus, even this very brief overview of the weaponry day issues requires a presence, and the further away the
used in Latvia during the Late Iron Age shows that military force, the weaker its influence and the more
weapons were an important and meaningful part of life negative the result (Mann 1986, p.25f.). Warfare is an
and death; often the weaponry influenced the possibili- attempt control by force the raw material/subsistence
ties to realize different (including social and political) bases and the surplus production on which the political
aims. But, at the same time, weapons were not cheap economy of chiefdoms is based (but at the same time
products, and therefore the possession of these items military power is limited in the spatial aspect). One of
was closely linked with the material positions of the the chiefs functions and main tasks is to ensure the
individual, although weaponry was among the most defence of followers, receiving from them payment of
widespread gifts in the lands of northern Europe, too. dues in return. Researchers almost show a conformity
In Viking Age Scandinavia, to possess power meant of opinions that warfare was an essential characteris-
the ability to attach and maintain some group of war- tic of chiefdoms, although there is a remark about the V
riors with the help of gifts and raids. Exchange and differences between simple (weak institutional power) THE ROLE
plunder were the ways to get prestige items, that might and complex (structured and institutionalized power) OF WEAPONS
include rare and imported items, as well as cattle, jew- AND
chiefdoms. So if the first involves chaotic military ac- W E A P O N RY
elery and also weapons, so these items served both tivities and it allows a strong power base for the mili- IN POLITICAL
AND
military and social functions. Several groups of weap- tary leaders, then the latter is connected with warfare M I L I TA RY
ons, probably, might be considered prestige goods and as a mean of conquest and subjection of neighbour- LEADERSHIP
indicators of social rank, like imported silver and gold- ing lands (Earle 1997, p.108ff.; Mann 1986, p.25f.).
plated weapons, and rarely found artefacts, for exam- Although military forces can create a broad and inte-
ple, double-bladed swords, maces and battle-axes. The grated polity, they can just as well disrupt it, directly
manifestation of weapons in burials is a feature char- or indirectly turning against the chief. Thus, the sig-
acteristic of societies either with recently established nificance and role of a warrior stratum in the course of
social and political structures or with structures in social evolution can differ radically. Secondly, warfare
transformation. So, we have to recognize the different does not necessarily ensure the institutionalization of
cultural, social and political impulses, traditions and the power hierarchy; it only creates real threats, and
meanings of the weapons found nowadays in burials. acts as a stimulus for particular social and political ac-
So the widespread tradition of putting spears and axes tivities.
in burials might reflect the Iron Age tradition of burial
Studies of military archaeology use different kinds of
rites, but at the same time signifying that everybody
evidence, but mostly these are weapon burials, hoards
was very close to warfare and even involved in military
and fortifications (see, for example, Harke 1997). It
activities (so it was the ordinary way of life encounter-
is not an easy task to determine the character of mili-
ing war raids).
tary organisation or military tactics on the basis of ar-
chaeological evidence. It would be too simplified an
approach to consider every weapon as an indication
257
of professional soldiers, and therefore it looks useful to Lombard Italy (Jrgensen et al 1997). However, this
Te r r i t o r y o f L a t v i a ( Te n t h t o
to distinguish warriors and soldiers. If the latter are by no means indicates that a stratum of warriors had
Prehistoric Societies in the
Wa r f a r e a n d P o w e r i n L a t e
professional, the first have a potential function to be formed in these areas by this time under the influence
involved in military activities; it was a necessity or op- of the unstable social circumstances.
portunity that let a man become a warrior.
12th Centuries)
hibit both chronological and spatial differences. In the regarding them as the graves of people who had died
second half of the Middle Iron Age, weapons occur as far away. Most likely, these are graves for individuals
regular grave-goods in Latgallian mens graves. Signif- who had died under circumstances that made the bur-
icantly fewer weapons occur in Latgallian burials of the ial of the body an impossibility, for example cases of
Late Iron Age. At Koknese cemetery a set of weapons drowning. The simple burial practices also suggest the
consisting of a broad-bladed axe and a socketed spear possibility that death was accidental, rather than taking
was found in 14 graves, while a set comprising a broad- place under socially important conditions. Symbolic
bladed axe, a socketed spear and a knife occurred in 13 burials are often explained as those of warriors killed
graves. By contrast, at the contemporaneous Jaunni in foreign lands, as additional graves or as means of
cemetery, a set consisting of a broad-bladed axe and redemption from guilt or death (Radi 1999, p.33). It
a socketed spear was observed in only seven graves has also been suggested that they fulfilled a legal ob-
(n 2002b). All in all, the number of weapons in Lat- ligation of burial with honour, so that the soul of the
gallian graves fell during the Late Iron Age, although deceased should find peace (Zemtis 2002, p.28). Of
the overall proportion of burials remains similar. In Liv course, it should be borne in mind that soil conditions
cemeteries, weapon finds in graves continue right up may cause the bones to disappear without leaving any
to the time of the Crusades, and their amount does not trace. At none of the cemeteries do symbolic burials
decrease sharply at the end of the Iron Age. So items occupy a particular area; rather, they are distributed
of weaponry (swords, axes, spears) were found in 70% throughout the cemetery. As a rule, symbolic burials
of burials in Laukskola cemetery. Similarly, the graves exhibit a grave inventory that is traditionally charac-
of Curonians contain an impressive quantity of weap- teristic of male burials: a spear, an axe, sometimes also
onry: every male was buried with at least some weapon a sword. Interestingly, such graves at Kristapii cem-
in Sraji cemetery. etery date from the late eighth and the turn of the ninth
century, the time of the formation of the community.
Weapons also frequently occur as grave-goods with
child burials. Often the weapons found in the graves of The number of burials with weapons at the cemeter-
boys are smaller, and, it seems, made specially for im- ies of Late Iron Age Latvia is sufficiently great overall
mature users. The amount of weaponry in child graves to permit the idea that military activities were of ma-
decreased significantly in the course of the Late Iron jor significance in the late prehistoric societies of the
Age. So weapons were found among the grave goods study period. As we have seen above, different kinds of
in 19 boys burials in Vampeniei I cemetery, and in 17 weapons were accessible to all the members of society,
boys burials in Kivti cemetery, while in the cemeter- while some weapons (in limited numbers) reflected
ies of the late tenth to 12th centuries there are only a either the wealth or the power of their owners. So in
few such burials (for example, four in Koknese cem- particular communities we may expect to find also mil-
etery, two in Nuki cemetery). In the Latgallian area, itary formations, retinues constituted by relatives and
widespread warriors armbands (a total of around 300) followers of the chief. Ornate belts with metal mounts
have also been found in about 30 boys and ten juvenile often served to distinguish members of the military
graves. There are even some cases of such armbands retinue. These were introduced into ancient Rus along
provided for infants (Radi 1999). Although often with the development of a professional military stra-
considered an axiomatic truth, the presence of child tum (Radi 1996, p.37). Belt mounts are a character-
burials with adult artefacts does not indicate inherited istic feature at cemeteries in Kurzeme. The belt mounts
social status. Finds of weapons in child graves show appearing in the tenth century include rectangular
that children and youths were introduced at an early plaques, and in the 11th and 12th century mounts in the
age to (at least) the basics of military activity. It should form of hollow buttons and crosses also occur. More
be noted that such a picture emerges over a large area common among the Livs than among the other peoples
of Europe in the Merovingian Age, from Scandinavia inhabiting Latvia are mounts with zoomorphic designs
258
of Scandinavian origin, as well as eastern floral motifs may have separated from the rest, connected with the
BALTICA 8
(Zaria 1988, p.52f.). At certain Latgallian cemeteries chief through military activity. However, it seems un-
(Odukalns and Kristapii) belts have been obtained likely that warfare would have been the only activity of
with tinned bronze mounts that have parallels with mo- this social and quasi-professional group. To meet sub-
tifs found in the Eurasian steppe, and could have been sistence needs, it also had to engage in economic activ-
imported from ancient Rus (Radi 1999, p.86). ity. Possibly, the military retinue as a military support
group for the chief consisted of the chiefs relatives
At Koknese cemetery belts with metal mounts were
and friends, as well as debtors and individual support-
ARCHAEOLOGIA
found on more than 50% of mens burials, while at
ers, who formed the societys military elite and in case
Jaunni cemetery the number of burials with belts
of need was a rapidly mobilised force. And it may be
with metal mounts does not even reach 20% of mens
that this military stratum was, in terms of membership,
burials. Leather belts, belt buckles and metal mounts
at least partly separate from the economic and spiritual
found in boys graves are similar to those found in
leadership of society and represented a different ideol-
mens graves. At Laukskola cemetery leather belts
ogy with the means of military symbolism.
occurred in 30 out of 86 boys burials, and two thirds
of these were decorated with bronze mounts (Zaria
1988, p.53). Thus it looks as if these belts were rather Wa r f a r e a n d i d e o l o g y :
an element of clothing and there is no reason to relate tracing emerging military symbolism
the ornate belts to the retinue warriors (although some
social and material values might be ascribed to these Already in the Bronze Age (see Kristiansen 1989),
items). chiefs demonstrated their power and superiority in
novel ritual spheres which were under their control,
Similarly, the question regarding the existence of a
and by acting as military leaders, utilising their ac-
mounted retinue remains open. Although armed rid-
cess to the weapons and military technology that they
ers had held an important social status from around the
also controlled. Thus, military activity is closely con-
time of Christ, they became particularly important in
nected and interwoven with the ideological sphere. In
the fifth and sixth centuries, when, with the develop-
the Late Iron Age horses occupied an important place
ment of professional, full-time fighters, ordinary infan-
in the ideological world-view of the inhabitants of the
try soldiers began to lose their role (see Vaitkunskien
Baltic, too (Zemtis 2004, pp.86-102). Horse burials
1995). But in the Late Iron Age only a small proportion
rarely occur together with human burials in Latvia. An
of graves contain horse-trappings (a different situation
example was found near burial 28 (a cremation grave)
might be in the western part of Latvia, as these items
at Jersika cemetery (which has, however, been inter- V
were found in half of male burials at Sraji cemetery).
preted in terms of the influence from the inhabitants THE ROLE
At Kristapii, horse-trappings occurred with nine buri- OF WEAPONS
of Lithuania). Thus, the horse burial cannot be directly AND
als dating from the tenth or early 11th century (Ku-
connected with members of the military retinue (al- W E A P O N RY
niga 2000, p.72). Few finds of horse-trappings come IN POLITICAL
though horse burials in Merovingian Central Europe AND
from the cemeteries of the Gauja Livs, but certain such M I L I TA RY
are explicit indicators of rank, namely, the aristocracy;
finds are quite elaborate, for example the silver-plated LEADERSHIP
Jrgensen et al 1997, p.107). However, in the Late Iron
bridle-bit with a floral design from Ptei cemetery
Age, figurines of riders used as pendants appear as a
(Tnisson 1974, p.117). At the same time, the symbol-
new form of artefact. For example, four armed rider
ism and importance of the horse are reflected in other
pendants have been obtained at Daugmale and in the
artefacts, too. So, it is rather this small amount of the
surrounding area (Radi 1992, p.123). The role of the
horse-trappings that might be related to the formation
horse is also attested to by metal belt mounts with a
of a new social group of professional warriors that used
representation of a horse (for example, burial 24 at Jer-
different military provisions.
sika cemetery; Kaljs 1940, p.28).
In view of the proportion of burials with weapons in the
It might be suggested that miniature weapons found in
cemeteries of Latvia, we may assume that some form
burials contained a military meaning, too. They are not
of military retinue was in existence in the societies of
usual grave goods, although in Viking Age Scandina-
this region. It is doubtful whether military retinues had
via miniature weapons occurred quite seldom (Zeiten
developed already in the Middle Iron Age: at this time
1997). Such weapons, mainly axes, may have been
fighting was probably a universal duty and a right, and
symbols of social rank, although they could equally
a precondition for the continued existence of society
have served as amulets. From Daugmale hill-fort there
when its members entered new territories. However, in
are also 13 miniature amber axes, all except one of
the Late Iron Age, in any but mostly in the Couronian
which were made according to the form of local metal
and Liv communities, a particular section of society
axes (Radi 1992, p.122).
259
Thus, a new ideology was developing in late prehis- palisade was erected on the inside, with a distance of
Te r r i t o r y o f L a t v i a ( Te n t h t o
tory (or else the pre-existing perception of the warri- one metre between the two fences (Vilcne 2004). Pos-
Prehistoric Societies in the
Wa r f a r e a n d P o w e r i n L a t e
ors place in the world was being modified), with new sibly, the rise of Jersika is linked to the decline in im-
rituals and symbols connected with warfare. It may be portance of Dignja hill-fort (which is located just on
that to some extent it was the influence of Scandinavia the opposite bank of the river) and the assumption of
12th Centuries)
and the consequences of the Viking Age that caused the latters functions.
ideas to change and raised the warriors position in
Overall, the hill-forts of Latvia that were in use in the
society (although such features relate more to Couro-
second half of the Middle Iron Age and during the Late
nian and Liv societies, the Latgallians tending to retain
Iron Age are characterised by major building work,
the previous views). Just as individual Finns took part
with the establishment of new hill-forts and the ad-
in Swedish expeditions to the east (Masonens 1996,
ANDRIS N
BALTICA 8
etnogrfija, VI, 105-124. izzint latgau sabiedrbas socilo struktru vlaj dzelzs
Atgzis, M., 1994. Dreeruunknu 241. kaps un laikmet. Latvijas Vstures Institta urnls, 3, 25-43.
pu ldzdoanas tradcija 8.-9. gs. zemgau apbedjumos. Radi, A., 1999. 10.-13.gadsimta senkapi latgau
Arheoloija un etnogrfija, XVII, 29-40. apdzvotaj teritorij un Austrumlatvijas etnisks, socils
Atgzis, M., 1997. vas cirvji Latvij. Arheoloija un un politisks vstures jautjumi. Rga: N.I.M.S.
etnogrfija, XIX, 53-63. Shnore, E.D., 1957. Nukshinskii mogilnik. Riga:
Atgzis, M., 1998. Tuvcas ieroi senaj Latvij 10.- Izdatelstvo Akademii Nauk Latviiskoi SSR.
13.gadsimt. Promocijas darba kopsavilkums. Rga: Latv- n, A., 2002a. Kdas sabiedrbas portrets: Sraju senkapi
ARCHAEOLOGIA
ijas Universitte. un socilpolitisks attiecbas Kurzem aizvstures beigs.
Atgzis, M., 1999. Kaujas vles Latvij 10. 14. gadsimt. Ventspils muzeja Raksti, II, 128-155.
LVI. 1999. 2: 16-33. n, A., 2002b. Sabiedrba un vara: socils atttiecbas
Earle, T.K., 1997. How Chiefs Come to Power: the Politi- Austrumlatvij aizvstures beigs. Rga: Intelekts.
cal Economy in Prehistory. Stanford University Press. nore, E., 1987. Kivtu kapulauks. Rga: Zintne.
Griciuvien, E., 2005. iemgaliai. The Semigallians. nore, E., 1996. Daugavas lbiei Doles sal. Arheoloija
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Harke, H., 1997. Early Anglo-Saxon military organisa- Tnisson, E., 1974. Die Gauja-Liven und ihre materielle
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JRGENSON AND B. L. CLAUSEN, eds. Military As- Vaitkunskien, L., 1995. The formation of a warrior
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Jrgensen, L., Alt, K.W. AND Vach, W., 1997. Zeiten, M.K., 1997. Amulets and amulet use in Viking Age
Families at Kircheim am Ries. Analysis of Merovingian Denmark. Acta Archaeologica, 68, 1-74.
aristocratic and warrior families. In: A. NRGRD JR- Zemtis, G., 1996. Daugmales pilskalna valnis. Arheoloija
GENSON AND B. L. CLAUSEN, eds. Military Aspects un etnogrfija, XVIII, 212-223.
of Scandinavian Society in a European Perspective, AD Zemtis, G., 2002. Simbols un simbolikas problma Latvi-
1-1300. Copenhagen: National Museum of Denmark, 103- jas arheoloij. Latvijas Vstures Institta urnls, 1, 23-
112. 44.
KALJS, O., 1940. Jersikas senkapi. Senatne un mksla, 2, Zemtis, G., 2004. Ornaments un simbols Latvijas V
11-29. aizvstur. Rga: Latvijas vstures institta apgds.
Kristiansen, K., 1989. Value, ranking and consumption eiere, I., 2002. 1986.-1989. gada izrakumi Kokneses THE ROLE
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in the European Bronze Age. In: D. MILLER, M. ROW- senkapos. In: I. VIRSE, ed. Latvijas arheoloija: ptjumi AND
LANDS AND C. TILLEY, eds. Domination and Resist- un problmas. Rga: N.I.M.S., 201-236. W E A P O N RY
ance. London and New York: Routledge, 211-214. IN POLITICAL
AND
Kuniga, I., 2000. Kristapiu kapulauks. Rga: RaKa. Received: 26 March 2007; Revised: 26 May 2007 M I L I TA RY
Lehtosalo-Hilander, P.L., 1982. Luistari III. A Buri- LEADERSHIP
al-Ground Reflecting the Finnish Viking Age Society. Hel-
sinki: Soumen Muinaismuistoyhdistyksen Aikakauskirja. K aras ir valdia
Mgi, M., 2002. At the crossroads of space and time. vly vosios pri e istors
Graves, changing society and ideology on Saaremaa ( X X I I amiai )
(sel), 9th -13th centuries AD (CCC papers: 6). Tallinn:
Institute of History. b e ndruom e ns e L atvijos
Mann, M., 1986. The sources of social power. Vol. 1: A his- teritorijoje
tory of power from the beginning to A.D. 1760. Cambridge
University Press.
Masonens, J., 1996. Infrastruktra un transports Somij
un Baltijas jras reion no vikingu laikmeta ldz vid-
Andris n
uslaikiem. 800.-1500.gads. Latvijas Vstures Institta
urnls, 1, 20-41. Santrauka
Mugurvis, ., Vasks, A. (eds.), 2001. Latvijas
senk vsture. 9.g.t.pr.Kr.-1200.g. Rga: Latvijas vstures XXII a. bendruomense tuo paiu metu egzistavo
institta apgds.
keletas skirtingos socialins svarbos altini, pagrst
Radi, A., 1992. The Daugmale Antiquities Complex. In:
B. HRDH AND B. WYSZOMIRSKA-WERBART, eds. skirtingais ryiais, kurie buvo atpastami kaip ideolo-
Contacts across the Baltic Sea during the Late Iron Age gini, ekonomini, politini ir karini santyki ryiai.
(5th-12th centuries). University of Lund, 115-124. ie ryiai pasiymjo socialiniu aktyvumu, kuris taip
pat buvo orientuotas siekti politini tiksl. Prieindus-
261
trins bendruomens, kur politiniai ryiai nra institu- lies prarado ekonomin bei dvasin tak visuomenei ir
Te r r i t o r y o f L a t v i a ( Te n t h t o
cionalizuoti, yra grindiamos asmeniniais tarpusavio gavo kitoki karin paskirt.
Prehistoric Societies in the
Wa r f a r e a n d P o w e r i n L a t e
puoliai buvo vos ne kasdienio gyvenimo dalis. Vlyva- m visuomeniniame ir privaiame gyvenime vyrauja
jame geleies amiuje naudotos ginkluots (randamos karo ir ginkl simboliai; lovinamos karins vertybs
Latvijos teritorijoje esaniuose kapuose) nagrinjimas ir herojai; principin karo reikm: tai yra bdas val-
rodo, kad ginklai buvo svarbi ir reikminga gyvenimo daniajam sluoksniui gyti ekonomini vertybi. Ne
bei mirties dalis; ginkluot danai turjo takos gali- visi ie bruoai buvo bdingi aptariamoms bendruo-
mybms realizuoti vairius (skaitant socialinius ir po- menms vlyvajame geleies amiuje (XXIIa.), bet
litinius) tikslus. Turima ginkluot jos savininkus rod nekyla abejoni, kad karas kasdieniame gyvenime u-
buvus geros materialins padties, net jei ji buvo gauta m svarbi viet, ypa socialinje ir politinje srityje.
kaip dovana, kas tuo metu buvo labai populiaru iaurs Karinis aktyvumas negali bti aikinamas vien konku-
Europoje. Kelios ginkl grups, matyt, buvo prestii- rencija dl socialinio statuso, karas greiiau buvo ins-
niai kapus dedami daiktai, rodantys asmens socialin trumentas kelyje valdi, naudojamas ir vad, ir t,
padt, panaiai kaip ir importiniai ar sidabruoti bei kurie labiausiai troko valdios.
auksuoti ginklai ir retai randami dirbiniai, pavyzdiui,
dviameniai kalavijai, buos ir kovos kirviai. Aki-
vaizdu, kad kapuose randami ginklai yra arba neseniai
nusistovjusi socialini ir politini struktr, arba
pasikeitimus igyvenani bendruomeni struktr
bdingas bruoas. Taigi mes turime suprasti skirtingus
iandien kapuose randam ginkl kultrinius, sociali-
nius ir politinius postmius, tradicijas bei j reikmes.
Plaiai paplitusi tradicija kapus dti ietis ir kirvius
gali bti laikoma geleies amiaus laidojimo papro-
iu, bet kartu gali reikti, kad mirusysis buvo labai arti
karo vyki ar net dalyvavo kariniuose veiksmuose.
Kai kurie poymiai rodo, kad i aptariamojo regiono
bendruomens nari bdavo formuojamos kakokios
valdovo ar vado karins palydos. Abejotina, ar karins
palydos formavosi viduriniame geleies amiuje. Gali
bti, kad tuo metu dalyvavimas kovose buvo pareiga
bei teis ir prielaida bendruomenms, gyvenusioms
aptariamajame regione, ilikti. Vlyvajame geleies
amiuje tam tikra kuri ir lyvi bendruomeni nors
ne tik j dalis gyveno atsiskyrusi, taiau dalyvavimu
kariniuose veiksmuose palaik ryius su vadu. Tikti-
na, kad karas iai socialinei lyg ir profesionali kari
grupei buvo vienintel veiklos sritis, kurioje ji daly-
vaudavo.
Pragyvenimui reikia usiimti tam tikra ekonomine
veikla. Gali bti, kad karin palyda, kaip karin vado
paspirtis, susidedanti i jo giminaii ir draug, taip
pat skolinink ar alinink, formavo visuomens karin
elit, kuris prireikus tapdavo mobilia karine jga. Gali
bti ir taip, kad is karinis sluoksnis laikui bgant i da-
262
C O L L E C T I V I T Y V E R S U S I N D I V I D U A L I T Y:
BALTICA 8
T H E WA R R I O R I D E O L O G Y O F I R O N A G E
BURIAL RITES ON SAAREMAA
MARIKA MGI
ARCHAEOLOGIA
Abstract
The article presents an overview of burial customs on the Estonian island of Saaremaa from 1000BC up to Christianisation,
discussing the social organisation behind the archaeological material. Special attention is paid to collective attitudes displayed
in cemeteries where bones of different burials were completely mixed, and on transformation periods, which at times brought
individual burials or the custom to deposit weapons in graves.
Key words: social organisation, burial customs, segmentary society, warrior aristocracy.
The culture on Saaremaa, the biggest island in Estonia, rest of Estonia, is a phenomenon that has been pointed
frequently considered together with the island of Muhu out by several archaeologists, leaving alone medieval
and other smaller islands and islets around it, differs historians. This article tries to analyse the origin and
from that of the Estonian mainland in several respects. development of Saaremaa warrior society in a broader
From an archaeological perspective, it is essential to context.
observe coastal Estonia, that is the Estonian islands and
most of the coastal districts on the mainland, separately
Social organisation on Saaremaa from
from the inland parts of the country. The peculiarity
1000BC to 400AD
of Saaremaa is, however, obvious, even in the coastal
Estonian context.
Stone Age burials on Saaremaa were individual in-
The topographical situation on islands near a mainland humations (eg Jaanits et al. 1982, p.83ff. and p.99f.).
is inevitably a considerable factor in defining the local Stone graves appeared in the Bronze Age, about
cultural development. Saaremaa has often been com- 1000BC, contained the inhumed bones of several in- V
pared with Gotland, of which the area is approximately dividuals deposited without any anatomical order, THE ROLE
the same as that of Saaremaa, Muhu and surround- and few grave goods, at least during the first thousand OF WEAPONS
AND
ing smaller islands together, and where environmen- years. The number of artefacts in graves increased, W E A P O N RY
tal conditions can easily be compared with those on starting from the last century BC, but burials remained IN POLITICAL
AND
the Estonian islands. Prehistoric remains on Gotland undistinguishable up to the middle of the first millen- M I L I TA RY
demonstrate cultural influences from all directions, and nium AD. LEADERSHIP
Rites on Saaremaa
BALTICA 8
segmentary system in Scandinavia was replaced by ily system or mythology.
chiefdom structures from approximately 1600BC as a
Grave goods in burial grounds of Saaremaa in the first
result of settlement expansion and increased exploita-
half of the Metal Age, as well as in Estonia in general,
tion of the landscape. The transformation to chiefdoms
also demonstrate some peculiarities compared with
was advanced along with the distribution of bronze.
neighbouring areas. With a short exceptional period
The custom to mix human bones or to bury only parts around the beginning of our era, the first half of the
ARCHAEOLOGIA
of skeletons continued sporadically also together with Metal Age in Estonia was characterised by a lack of
individual burials, particularly in connection with weapons, while in the Roman Period, especially the
probable sacrifices. The custom of excarnation by ex- second half, there was a great variety of ornaments
posure lasted on the British Isles until the year zero, in graves. In the areas around the Baltic Sea, a lack
and in Poland and Sweden, graves with mixed burials of weapons also defined Wielbark Culture in Poland
are known even in rare cases as late as the Roman Iron (Kaliff 2001, pp.26-41; Pawleta 2003), while burial
Age (Kokowski 1992; Rasch 1994; Carr, Knsel 1997; customs in these areas still manifested individuality.
Bradley 1998, p.159ff.; Guilaine, Zammit 2005). Ex- On Saaremaa, as well as in mainland Estonia, orna-
ceptional were the areas inhabited by Baltic Finns, ments, as the only grave goods, seem only to support
where collective graves stayed in use much longer. the vision of society that was reflected by communal
burial grounds with mixed bones, a segmentary society
The physical anthropologist Jonathan Kalman, who
in which clan membership prevailed over any kind of
has analysed mixed burials in different stone graves,
warrior occupation. Although ornaments in Estonian
has pointed out that the dental caries prevalence rate
graves cannot be connected with individuals, due to
on teeth from Estonian graves dated to the first half of
the mixed character of the burials, most of them are
the Metal Age was considerably lower than was typi-
believed to have been nongendered artefacts, ie used
cal of populations in communities which intensively
by both men and women. The same is presumably true
practised agriculture, eg in Denmark during the same
for belt fittings and tools (predominantly knives) that
period. Since caries have been positively correlated
have been found in graves from these periods.
with subsistence farming, which caused more sugar-
containing plant material to become a larger source of Some types of ornaments might have been prestigious
food, the evidence suggests, according to Kalman, that artefacts that were available only to the members of a
even though farming played a substantial role in early ruling clan. The lack of weapons both in graves and
Metal Age Estonia, the community was only in part deposits indicates that social status was not expressed V
relying on the consumption of cultivated crops (2000a, through them, at least not in ritual behaviour. At the
THE ROLE
2000b). same time, it would be difficult to believe that weapons OF WEAPONS
were not used, nor that they may have functioned as AND
A similar correlation has been proposed by Deborah W E A P O N RY
some sort of rank or clan membership tokens in real IN POLITICAL
Shepherd, who has studied collective burial grounds in AND
life. In the areas neighbouring Estonia, Roman Iron
Finland in the second half of the Iron Age, stone ceme- M I L I TA RY
Age burial customs were characterised by clearly in- LEADERSHIP
teries with cremations (Shepherd 1999, pp.33-47). She
dividual graves, and tended to be abundantly equipped
sees a connection between collective burial customs
with weapons contrary to the collective graves and
and slash-and-burn cultivation that was widespread
their strong bias towards ornaments as nearly the only
in some areas of Finland until the 20th century. The
group of artefacts deposited there. The phenomenon
slash-and-burn cultivation was supported by a system
can be interpreted as a reflection of a society in which
of expanded families. Shepherd points to the conserva-
warriors did not form an independent stratum as seems
tive character of burial rites, and to the possibility that
to have happened in the neighbouring areas, and where
collective traits in burial customs could survive much
social prestige kept within a clan community was ex-
longer than both the form of subsistence and the social
pressed through soft attributes, ornaments, and prob-
organisation from which they had originated.
ably also the burial monument itself.
The Estonian archaeologist Tnno Jonuks, who deals
The rest of the archaeological evidence on Saaremaa
with Estonian prehistoric beliefs, has explained the
is in a good correlation with the burial material: the
collective burial customs by the concept of collective
first half of the Metal Ages was characterised here by
soul, which was accompanied by the idea of indi-
only single fortifications and by a complete absence of
vidual soul since the fifth century AD (2005). The ex-
weapon deposits. Data on dwelling sites of this time
planation is acceptable, still it is hard to believe that the
is scarce, but the settlement pattern presumably stayed
concept of collective soul could emerge and develop
quite egalitarian throughout most of the period. Late
265
Bronze Age fortified settlements, two of them known where exchange played an important role in the local
Ideology of Iron Age Burial
from southern Saaremaa, form the only exception. economy. In burial customs, it was primarily mirrored
I n d i v i d u a l i t y : t h e Wa r r i o r
These sites have been treated as centres of settlement in an abundance of weapons, placed in the burials, al-
and political power in Estonian archaeological lit- though with the number of ornaments at the same high
C o l l e c t i v i t y Ve r s u s
Rites on Saaremaa
erature (Ligi 1995; Lang 1996, pp.337-455), although level as before. As a new phenomenon, the custom of
their location on the sea shore, at the border of arable damaging grave goods intentionally began to spread:
fields, might better suggest a role within international thus about half of all the artefacts found in the mortu-
trade routes. ary houses of that period on Saaremaa are represented
only by fragments (Mgi 2006). In Finland, where the
The Late Bronze Age was a period of changes every-
custom of damaging grave goods took off during the
MARIKA MGI
266
Social changes that characterised northern Europe in on Saaremaa in this period which could be defined
BALTICA 8
the fifth to the seventh century also shook the society as abundantly equipped with weapons. On the other
of Saaremaa, but were not able to change the local type hand, single-weapon deposits emerge now on Saare-
of organisation dramatically. Society, as it emerged in maa as well, and the first hill-forts were erected in the
the course of these centuries, can still hardly be de- eighth century (Lugas, Mgi-Lugas 1994). The ar-
fined as a chiefdom with a clearly manifested warrior chaeological evidence thus implies times of unrest and
aristocracy, as is known from the same period in Scan- strengthening social relations: these are developments
dinavia, or, for instance, from Beowulf. On the other that could improve the position of warriors.
ARCHAEOLOGIA
hand, the archaeological evidence on Saaremaa in the
In the areas inhabited by Finnic peoples, collective
following periods, especially at the end of the Iron
stone cemeteries with mixed cremations remained in
Age, leaves no doubt that social relations had strained
use on the Estonian mainland, in Finland and Karelia
and stratification increased.
(Selirand 1974, pp.178-210; Shepherd 1999, pp.21-32;
Uino 2003, pp.324-348), as well as in northern Curo-
S a a r e m a a Vi k i n g s ? nia, down to the River Venta in the south, where col-
lective burials in stone graves had been widespread
Starting from the eighth century AD, the dead on already since the Pre-Roman Iron Age (Vasks 2006).
Saaremaa were buried in individual stone circle graves. Communal stone graves with mixed cremations can
These were entirely cremations, where burnt bones thus be defined as a burial custom dominantly char-
and remains of artefacts were in most cases brought acteristic of areas inhabited by Finnic ethnic groups
to stone graves from a pyre somewhere else. Only few in the eighth to the tenth century. Individual stone cist
fragments of artefacts, as well as just a small part of the graves were rather exceptional in the Finnic cultural
human bones, ended up in the graves, thus following sphere, and were widespread only in coastal areas that
the old tradition of partial burials. These remains were altogether indicated intensive mutual communication
often surrounded with circular stone kerbs, and can be between each other and with eastern Scandinavia. In
clearly considered as individual burials. The stone cir- addition to Saaremaa, where stone cist graves became
cle graves formed big cemeteries, which can presum- a dominant grave form from the eighth to the tenth
ably be interpreted as family burial grounds. Similar century, individual graves surrounded by circular stone
graves surrounded by stone circles were, during the kerbs occurred together with other kind of cemeteries
same period of time, put into use on Gotland (eg Nyln also in northern Couronia (turms 1936, p.34ff.), in
1958), and mutual connections between these two big the areas of Votes and Isorians (Sedov 1987, p.39ff.),
islands in the Baltic Sea seem to have intensified in all and in Karelia (Kochkurkina 1981, p.13ff.; Uino 2003, V
spheres. p.335f.). THE ROLE
OF WEAPONS
The stone circle graves that prevailed in Saaremaa In the neighbouring areas of Estonia, which were in- AND
W E A P O N RY
burial customs up to the end of the tenth century were habited by ethnic Balts, the prevailing burial custom IN POLITICAL
characterised merely by scarce finds. Weapon graves AND
was the continuously individual grave, normally inhu- M I L I TA RY
known from the Migration Period and the seventh mation, often supplied with numerous grave goods, in- LEADERSHIP
century disappeared, although single weapons oc- cluding weapons (eg Atgzis 1992; Vakeviit 1992;
curred sporadically in graves. Contrary to earlier burial Radi 1999; n 2002). In these areas, archaeologists
grounds, the pre-Viking and Viking Age graves now have found sufficient grounds to talk of a developed
contained rather few ornaments, or any other items warrior aristocracy, whose status was manifested by
for that matter, thus referring to an abrupt ideological weapons. The same has been assumed for southern
change: it was apparently not considered important any Couronia, where the earlier prevailing custom of inhu-
more to supply the dead with artefacts for the other mations was gradually replaced by cremations in the
world. Even the few items that have been uncovered course of the tenth and 11th centuries. As a tradition
from graves of this period were only represented by since the Roman Period, these individual graves con-
small badly burnt fragments. tained great numbers of weapons, riding equipment
and ornaments, both in male and female graves up to
Trying to interpret the society behind these burial
the 12th or 13th century (see eg Stankus 1995; ulkus
customs, the importance of clan membership seems
1991, p.11; 2000).
to have diminished: at least, it was not found as rel-
evant any more to manifest the clan community with Exceptionally in the Baltic cultural sphere, crema-
intentionally mixed bones. On the other hand, there is tions in large burial pits have been recorded starting
not enough proof to talk about a triumphant warrior from the tenth century in Couronia south of the River
society either. No individual burial has been recorded Venta. These pits were probably filled with several lay-
267
ers of cremations, thus presenting collective attitudes The 11th-century cemeteries on Saaremaa seem to have
Ideology of Iron Age Burial
otherwise unfamiliar to Baltic burial rites (eg Balodis been characterised by a sudden increase in weapon
I n d i v i d u a l i t y : t h e Wa r r i o r
1940). Artefact material, as well as in certain periods burials. Up to 60% of all distinguishable burials now
burial forms in Couronia, has demonstrated some sort included weapons, and 25% of them included a sword
C o l l e c t i v i t y Ve r s u s
Rites on Saaremaa
of unity among Finnic peoples inhabiting other eastern as the primary token of high status (Mgi 2002, p.140).
coasts of the Baltic Sea throughout the whole of pre- The situation was thus similar to Gotland, where the
history, a phenomenon that undoubtedly indicates very proportion of weapon burials reached 58% in the 11th
intensive communication between close neighbours. century (Jakobsson 1992, p.139). The percentage
Can the large pits with several layers of cremations of weapon burials among all distinguishable graves
perhaps be considered as a reflection of the ideological stayed approximately the same during the 12th century
MARIKA MGI
impact from the north, adjusted to the local custom of as well, but fragments of swords were now recorded
individual cremation burials in pits? in more than half of them. Particularly the 12th-cen-
tury individual burials in such cemeteries were often
Collective burial grounds with mixed cremations, as
conspicuous by abundant and often luxurious grave
they were widespread among the ethnic Finnic groups
goods, which could hardly have been available for
in the second half of the Iron Age, were clearly a cul-
every person, or the family burying him or her (Mgi
tural phenomenon, reflecting an ideology different
2002, p.142). In those cases where the richly equipped
from neighbouring areas. These collective attitudes
individual burials were weapon graves, they frequently
in the ritual sphere were presumably rooted in a more
contained fragments of swords, pattern-welded spear-
egalitarian social organisation. To use terms of politi-
heads, silver-plated spurs, silver ornaments, and other
cal anthropology, we may probably still talk of a clan
items that could be interpreted as status symbols. The
or perhaps a lineage-based segmentary society, where
evidence thus suggests a clear link between the empha-
the position of chieftains was now remarkably strength-
sizing of individuality and that of high social status.
ened. In Estonia, the process had probably reached the
furthest on Saaremaa, where the burial custom of indi- The rest of the archaeological material also implies
vidual graves succeeded at manifesting itself and then strengthening tendencies towards more developed so-
to dominate the subsequent 400 to 600 years, at least cial stratification. On 11th and 12th-century Saaremaa,
as regards burials among the elite. Still, even on Saare- quite a number of new hill-forts were built, most of
maa, social status was not presented posthumously them functioning as political centres or trading centres.
through weapons, at least not through several weapons Archaeological evidence correlates with the data from
in graves. The situation changed dramatically in the written documents, telling us about the supremacy of
11th century. Saaremaa warships on sea, and about the plundering
raids of Saaremaa pirates to overseas areas. Everything
indicates that the society on 11th and 12th-century
Saaremaa before conversion
Saaremaa was warlike and stratified.
The 11th and 12th century was a period witnessing The sudden increase in richly equipped weapon burials
lots of weapons in graves. On Saaremaa, the 11th cen- presumably points to a transformation period. There is
tury brought along, in addition to abundant weapon no doubt that 11th and 12th-century society held war-
graves, changes in burial customs that literally contra- riors in high regard, and weapons had a significance
dicted former developments towards individuality: the as status symbols, both ritually and in real life. Social
stone circle graves were gradually replaced by stone organisation had developed towards increased stratifi-
cemeteries without formal structures, similar to those cation, and society was ruled by a warrior aristocracy.
widespread on mainland Estonia. Careful study of the In political-anthropological terms, 11th and 12th-cen-
documentation from earlier excavations at these sites tury society on Saaremaa can be described as a chief-
on Saaremaa has anyhow pointed to several individual dom, with all the characteristics belonging to it. In the
cremation burials inside these cemeteries, existing side new social organisation, the affiliation to the chieftain
by side with burial areas, where bones and artefacts started to prevail over other relationships; former clan
had been completely mixed (Mgi 2002, pp.75-124). It communities, or at least part of them, were probably
is possible that these burials, normally surrounded by replaced by lineage systems; power was consolidated
zones without finds, were somehow also marked above and was now held by single chieftains. Stratification
the surface, thus avoiding overlapping burials. In any processes brought along an increase in the frequency
case, the meanwhile lost or considerably diminished of armed conflict, which again led to an increase of
custom of collective burials reappeared on Saaremaa the importance of armed retainers and a need to erect
with the 11th century, while individuality was still re- fortifications (eg Fried 1967, pp.185-226; Earle 1997,
served for some persons. pp.1-16).
268
The former, clan-based organisation nevertheless did groups, and surprisingly long, right until Christianisa-
BALTICA 8
not disappear overnight, as it is, for instance, indicated tion. Behind this phenomenon can be seen a cultural
in the return of collective burial customs. A transfor- sphere, ideology, and mythology that are different
mation period in social organisation, especially when from the western and southern neighbours, which was
it is connected with the emergence of a new type of probably also reflected in a more egalitarian social or-
elite, may provoke the consolidation of former elite ganisation and perhaps different family patterns.
structures, whose reaction can be expressed through
Among other areas that were inhabited by Finnic
an intensified manifestation of power. Ian Hodder has
ARCHAEOLOGIA
groups, Saaremaa had a special position as a big island
demonstrated that ideology can also be used in a way
or even archipelago, where overseas communication
that denies the presence of conflict within society, ob-
had a stronger than average impact on local culture.
scuring the real locus of social contradictions (1982,
Pan-European social changes also shook the society of
p.152). The continuity in using collective burial grounds
Saaremaa, though for a long time without leaving per-
probably reflects an ideological need to emphasize the
manent traces. Only the fifth to seventh-century trans-
unity inside the clan, although the social organisation
formation period brought along weapons in graves,
had become more hierarchical and eventually grown
and the custom of individual burials, which started to
out of the frames of the old systems. The pre-Chris-
prevail on Saaremaa since the eighth century.
tian society of Saaremaa, with its long-surviving biases
towards more egalitarian social relations, which were Weapons however re-disappeared from graves nearly
obvious even as late as the 12th century, can probably completely at about the same time. Burial customs, as
best be compared with the society on Gotland before well as other archaeological evidence, suggest the rise
it was subordinated to the Swedish kings (Hyenstrand of a warrior aristocracy only in the 11th century, when
1989; Carlsson 1990). people began to deposit great numbers of weapons in
cemeteries, particularly in individual cremation buri-
The lasting traditions of a segmentary society can also
als. At the same time, collective burials re-appeared
be seen in the use of weapons as posthumous status
on the island, perhaps indicating a reaction against the
symbols. In the 11th and 12th century, when weap-
strengthening stratification in society. In 1227, when
ons only started to play an essential role in grave fur-
Saaremaa was officially Christianised, the society of
nishings, some were deposited also in female graves,
the island was probably hierarchical and dominated
a phenomenon that characterises all areas inhabited
by a warrior aristocracy, although biased by attitudes
by Baltic-Finnic groups (Mgi 2002, p.77ff.). Such
based on more egalitarian rank organisation among
weapons have been recorded only in graves that were
otherwise abundantly equipped with items typical of
powerful clans. V
women, predominantly ornaments, and can therefore THE ROLE
OF WEAPONS
be interpreted as symbols of social status, indicating Translated by the author AND
that some women could achieve a leading position in W E A P O N RY
IN POLITICAL
their society. More egalitarian relations between gen- AND
ders are normally attributed to societies where social References M I L I TA RY
LEADERSHIP
stratification is comparatively egalitarian, too (eg Kent
ANDERSEN, N.H., 2000. Kult og ritualer i den ldre bonde-
1999), which can fit the interpretation of Saaremaa stenalder. Kuml 2000. rbog for Jysk Arkologisk Selkab,
before the 11th century. After the rise of the warrior 13
-
57.
aristocracy, weapons became symbols of power that, ATGZIS, M., 1992. First finds of three-armed (trefoil)
at least during the first centuries, were used for both brooches in Latvia. In: A. LOIT, .MUGURVIS AND
A.CAUNE, eds. Die Kontakte zwischen Ostbaltikum und
genders.
Skandinavien im frhen Mittelalter. Studia
Baltica
Stock
holmiensia 9. Acta Universitatis Stockholmiensis. Stock-
holm, 19-32.
Conclusions BALODIS, A., 1940. Det ldsta Lettland. Uppsala.
BITNER-WRBLEWSKA, A., 2001. From Samland to Ro
Burial customs that emphasize collective attitudes are, galand. East-West Connections in the Baltic Basin During
as demonstrated above, particularly characteristic of the early Migration Period. Warsaw.
clan-based segmentary societies with low-level strati- BRADLEY, R., 1998. The Passage of Arms. An archaeologi
fication. Being one of the most conservative parts of cal analysis of prehistoric hoard and votive deposits. Sec-
ond edition. Oxford: Oxbow Books.
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changed long after the alteration of social organisation. och medeltid - ett debattinlgg. Meta. Medeltidsarkeolo
In the northern part of Europe, collective cemeteries gisk tidskrift, 3, 4
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15.
with mixed burials stayed in use after the Neolithic CARR, G. & KNSEL, C., 1997. The ritual framework of
predominantly in the areas inhabited by Finnic ethnic excarnation by exposure as the mortuary practice of the
269
early and middle Iron Ages of central southern Britain. In: Exchange, and Complex Societies. Cambridge: University
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407. http://archaeology.stanford.edu/journal/newdraft/2003_
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436. dzivotaja teritorija un Austrumlatvijas etniskas, socialas
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analysis of the graves of un politiskas vestures jautajumi. Latvijas Vestures Muzeja
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17
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40. RASCH, M., 1994. Burial practices - grave furniture and
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48. srednevekovia. Arheologia SSSR. Moskva.
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Problem der Wiederffnung SHEPHERD, D.J., 1999. Funerary Ritual and Symbolism.
der Grber in den Friedhfen der Maslomecz-Gruppe (aus An Interdisciplinary Interpretation of Burial Practices
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132. Austrumlatvij aizvstures beigs. Rga.
KRISTIANSEN, K., 1987. From
stone to bronze - the evolu- Lietuvos Archeo
STANKUS, J., 1995. Bandui kapinynas.
tion of social complexity in Northern Europe, 2300-1200 logija, 12.
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UINO, P., 2003. Viikinki leido pasukti vadysts (angl. chiefdom) link. Straips-
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(Viipurin lnin historia I). Jyvskyl, 313-382. nyje argumentuotai teigiama prieingai, kad visuome-
VAKEVIIT, I., 1992. Burial practices in one of the
ns organizacija buvo labiau egalitarin, daugiausia
Baltic tribes - Semigallians. In: B. HRDN AND B.
WYSZOMIRSKA-WERBART, eds. Contacts across the slygota gimini skaidymosi proceso, ypa pirmojoje
Baltic Sea during the Late Iron Age (5th-12th centuries). metalo amiaus pusje. Tokia nuostata, be kolektyvi-
Baltic Sea Conference, Lund October 25-27, 1991. Lund, ni laidojimo paproi, yra paremta ir kita archeologi-
91-98. ne mediaga, pirmiausia tuo, kad kapuose nerandama
VASKS, A., 2006. Stone grave cemeteries in western Latvia.
ginkl. Toks reikinys gali bti interpretuojamas kaip
ARCHAEOLOGIA
In: H. Valk, ed. Ethnicity and culture: studies in honour
of Silvia Laul (Muinasaja teadus, 18). Tartu: Greif, 99- visuomens, kurioje kariai nesudar atskiro sluoksnio,
110. atspindys. Kitaip atsitiko kaimyninse srityse, kur so-
ULKUS, V., 1991. Die Prussen und ihre Nachbarn im 1. cialinis prestias buvo ilaikomas gimins viduje ir
Jahrtausend nach Christi Geburt. In:
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Masuren. Drei Beitrge zur Landeskunde Ostpreussens.
matyt, per paius laidojimo paminklus.
Weissenburg, 4
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14.
ULKUS, V., 2000. Die Vlkerwanderung und die Westbal- Taiau reikia iskirti tam tikrus transformacij pe-
ten die Entstehung der Kuren. Archaeologia Baltica, 4,
riodus, kuomet socialiniai ryiai Saremos saloje buvo
89
-
108.
intensyvesni ir visuomens stratifikacija iaugdavo.
Received: 24 February 2007; Revised: 26 May 2007 Tokie tarpsniai sutampa su visoje Europoje vykusiais
procesais, kurie gerokai rykesni Saremos saloje nei
kolektyvikumas prie likusioje Estijos teritorijoje. Toks lemiamas laikotar-
pis buvo VVII amiai, kada pradedama mirusiuosius
individualum : karin
laidoti su ginklais, nors kapai kaip ir anksiau lieka i-
ideologija S aremos salos maiyti (turima omenyje specialiai imaiyti mirusij
geleies amiaus laidojimo kaulai vert. past.). Taiau laidojimo su ginklais pa-
paproiuose protys nesitsia ilgai, VII a. pabaigoje kapuose kapi
vl sumaja. Mirusiojo su ginklais laidojimas inter-
pretuojamas kaip visuomens stratifikacijos proceso
Marika Mgi dalis. Stipresnis pasiprieinimas naujoms socialinms
struktroms, lyginant su kaimyninmis pietinmis te-
ritorijomis, iaip ar taip buvo paymtas ilikusiu ko-
Santrauka
lektyviniu laidojimo paproiu. Visuomen, kuri tuo
metu susiformavo Saremos saloje, vargiai ar gali bti V
Straipsnyje nagrinjama prieistors laik Saremos
salos visuomens kolektyvinio poirio individua- prilyginta vadystei su aikiai apibrtu karins aristo- THE ROLE
OF WEAPONS
lizm problema. is poiris atskleidiamas laidojimo kratijos sluoksniu, kok inome buvus Skandinavijoje, AND
paproi ir kitame archeologiniame kontekste. Pagrin- pagal plg. Beovulf, senovs german ep. Stipri W E A P O N RY
IN POLITICAL
din straipsnyje diskutuojama idja tai prielaida apie vad ar (karo) lyderi gali atsirasti ir segmentinse AND
prieistors laikais egzistavusius artimus kari ir indi- bendruomense, net ir neturint tvirto pagrindo savo M I L I TA RY
LEADERSHIP
vido abipusius ideologinius ryius. valdiai institucionalizuoti. Individuals degintiniai
kapai akmen vainikuose, kurie vyravo Saremos salo-
Pasibaigus akmens amiui Saremos salos gyventoj je VIIIX a., taip pat gali bti vertinami kaip pokyi,
laidosenai buvo bdingi i akmen sukrauti kapai su vykusi VVII a., rezultatas. J atsiradimas sutampa
keli mirusij kaulais, palaidotais be jokios anato- su pradia intensyvesnio salos gyventoj bendradar-
mins tvarkos. Daugiau ar maiau panas laidojimo biavimo su Ryt Skandinavija, ypa Gotlandu, kur
paproiai tssi iki pat I tkstantmeio vidurio, per buvo praktikuojami panas laidojimo paproiai. Ta-
laikotarp kap formoms pasikeitus kelis kartus. Taigi iau individuals kapai akmen vainikuose yra iimti-
osteologin kap mediaga yra pagrindinis duomuo, nai reti fin kultr rate, kuriame vyravo kolektyviniai
leidiantis apibdinti antrinio palaidojimo paprot ir i akmen krauti kapinynai su degintiniais sumaiytais
iekoti paraleli kultrins antropologijos tyrinjimuo- mirusij kaulais. Bandant interpretuoti visuomen,
se, vis pirma segmentinei visuomenei, besiverianiai palikusi Saremos saloje i akmen sukrautus kapus,
ipltota emdirbyste, aptarti. Saremos visuomenje atrodo, kad gimini nari skaiius majo, kol paga-
tokie laidojimo paproiai buvo praktikuojami net iki liau paprotys tyia maiyti mirusij kaulus, taip ro-
vlyvojo geleies amiaus, o gimins solidarumas juo- dant gimins svarb, tapo nebesvarbus. Kita vertus,
se vaidino svarbiausi vaidmen. nra pakankamai duomen kari visuomens triumfui
Anksiau buvo manyta, kad Estijoje socialin visuo- pagrsti.
mens organizacija jau vlyvajame bronzos amiuje
271
Nors ginkl retkariais pasirodo kapuose su akmen
Ideology of Iron Age Burial
vainikais, taiau Saremoje to meto individuali kap
I n d i v i d u a l i t y : t h e Wa r r i o r
Rites on Saaremaa
272
T E N T H T O 11 T H C E N T U RY WA R R I O R B U R I A L S
BALTICA 8
W I T H H O R S E - T R A P P I N G S I N T H E L AT G A L L I A N
AREA
ANTONIJA VILCNE
ARCHAEOLOGIA
Abstract
During the Late Iron Age, the southeastern part of Latvia, particularly the upper and middle course of the River Dubna, was
one of the most densely populated areas of Latgallian habitation. In the course of archaeological research at Late Iron Age
cemetery sites, various burial practices have been observed that have not been encountered at Latgallian burial sites outside
this area. Here, in addition to evidence of the familiar Latgallian burial practices, horse-trappings have been found in several
tenth to 11th-century male grave inventories.
Key words: burial practices, horse-trappings, warrior burials, Latgallians, Late Iron Age.
273
Wa r r i o r B u r i a l s Wi t h H o r s e -
Tr a p p i n g s i n t h e L a t g a l l i a n
Te n t h t o 11 t h C e n t u r y
Area
ANTONIJA
VILCNE
Fig. 1. Cemeteries with horse-trappings in the southwestern part of the Latgallian area: 1 Aglonas Kristapii; 2 Aizkalnes
Ludvigova; 3 Viu Maskevicii; 4 Viu Maskava; 5 eltovas Brveri; 6 Sauleskalns hoard.
A 12007:95) (see Table). It should be added that the Iron whip stocks are among the rarest forms of horse-
term full set of horse-trappings is a conditional one, trappings. Whip stocks are represented by only five ex-
reflecting the range of horse-trappings found in grave amples at these cemeteries. The best preserved is the
inventories. Spurs and stirrups may also be included iron whip stock from grave 211 at Aglonas Kristapii.
among horse-trappings or accoutrements, but there are This was about 25 cm long, with a broadened, socketed
no such finds from the above graves. lower section (diameter 2.2cm), a thickened, round mid-
section and a flattened upper section, through which an
Horse-trappings were generally placed at the foot of
iron loop, about 4.6 centimetres in diameter, had been
the grave. In graves with a full set of horse-trappings
passed, with a pincer-shaped iron fitting for attaching
or two objects of this kind, they are usually placed to-
the leather lash and two lyre-shaped pendants (Kuniga
gether. Horse-trappings were found at the tips of the
2000, Fig.XXVIII:8). An iron whip stock of similar
toes (Aglonas Kristapii, burial 141) (Fig.2:3), next to
form was also found in grave 5 at the cemetery of Aiz-
the left foot (Aglonas Kristapii, grave 174, keltovas
kalnes Maskevicii, and another at eltovas Brveri.
Brveri graves 36 and 40) (Fig.2:1, 2) or the right
These belong to Type I in A.Kirpichnikovs classifica-
foot (Aglonas Kristapii, graves 130, 280 and 284)
tion (Kirpichnikov 1973, p.72, Fig.41:1). These whip
(Fig.2:4), or on the right side next to the knee (Aglo-
stocks have a metal handle with a loop, on to which
nas Kristapii, grave 91). Only grave 38 at eltovas
was threaded the metal strap-end of the leather lash,
Brveri had a set of horse-trappings placed at the head
along with lyre-shaped pendants. Such whip stocks are
of the grave, to the left of the head.
known as sounding whips: when the whip was bran-
274
BALTICA 8
ARCHAEOLOGIA
1 3
2
V
THE ROLE
OF WEAPONS
AND
W E A P O N RY
IN POLITICAL
AND
M I L I TA RY
LEADERSHIP
4 5 6
Fig. 2. The position of horse-trappings in the grave: 1 keltovas Brveri grave 36; 2 keltovas Brveri grave 40; 3 Aglonas
Kristapii grave 141; 4 Aglonas Kristapii grave 294; 5 Aglonas Kristapii grave 211; 6 Aglonas Kristapii grave 280.
275
Te n t h t o 11 t h C e n t u r y
Wa r r i o r B u r i a l s Wi t h H o r s e -
ANTONIJA Tr a p p i n g s i n t h e L a t g a l l i a n
276
VILCNE Area
Ta b l e . G r a v e i n v e n t o r i e s o f b u r i a l s w i t h h o r s e - t r a p p i n g s
Bells
nazis
Rings
fittings
brooches
Iron axes
figurines)
Burial No.
snaffle bits
Arm-cloths
Iron knives
Whip stocks
Chronology
Arm-windings
Pendants (duck
Solid armbands
Iron spearheads
Solid penannular
narrower daggers
Warriors armbands
Penannular brooches
dished, the lyre-shaped pendants made a noise, help- The bells in the grave inventories were made from a
ing to goad on the horse. In the area populated by the piece of iron sheet. They are cylindrical, narrowing at
Latgallians, Type I iron whip stocks also occur in the the top. The height of the body of the bell (excluding
Sauleskalns III hoard and at raii Lake Fortress (two the loop) varies between 37 and 82 millimetres, with
pieces) (Urtns1977, p.48, Fig. 85:7; Apals 1977, Fig. a diameter of 27 to 59 millimetres at the top and 32 to
1:10). The whip stock in the Sauleskalns Hoard (length 60 millimetres in the lower part. The bells had a sepa-
23cm) has a broadened, hollow lower section (diam- rately made covering part, either convex or flat. They V
eter 3.1cm) and a rhombic upper section, while one of have an attached loop, made of three to five- millimetre THE ROLE
the pieces from raii (length 24cm) has a broadened, diameter iron wire, passing through the cover of the OF WEAPONS
AND
socketed lower section (2.5cm), tapering evenly to- bell. The clapper of the bell consisted of an iron bar, W E A P O N RY
IN POLITICAL
wards the top and ending with a rhombic flattened part, broadened and rounded at the base. The body of some AND
with a ring with pendants passing through it. Similar of the bells has been covered in bronze (Kuniga 2000, M I L I TA RY
LEADERSHIP
whip stocks in Russia are dated to the tenth or 11th p.73).
century, and only a small number have been found
Bells have not been found with burials elsewhere in
there, about 20 (Kirpichnikov 1973, p.73). In the area
the territory of Latvia. Bells found at residential sites
of present-day Lithuania, nine pieces have been found
(Koknese, Daugmale) are of a different form and are
at seven sites, dated to the end of the tenth and the first
regarded as cow-bells (Latvijas1974, Table68:4).
quarter of the 11th century (Butnas 2001, p.227). In
Bells constitute a characteristic element of the grave
Latvia, iron whip stocks also occur in burials of the
inventory at Old Prussian burial sites (for example,
Semigallians (unkni-Dreeri, grave 63) and in the
they have been found on almost every horse burial at
Liv-populated area along the Lower Daugava: at the
Irzekapinis), where they were attached to the bridle un-
cemeteries of Salaspils Laukskola (three burials) and
der the neck (Kulakov 1990, p.37, Fig.21). Bells are
Lielvrdes prceltuve (grave 25) (Atgzis, Bebre 1986,
also represented in horse graves at sites in central and
p.23, Fig. 4:1; Zaria 1977, Fig. 19:60; 2006, p.197)
eastern Lithuania (Kuncien 1969, p.65, Fig.3; Bliu-
(Fig. 3). In contrast to the examples described above,
jiene 1992, p.123; Jukaitis 2005, p.147).
these whip stocks had a wooden handle, with a loop
that passed through a metal fitting or tang. Suspended Snaffle and gag bridle bits for leading and restraining
from the loop were pendants, along with the metal horses have been found in 11 grave inventories at Aglo-
strap-end of the leather lash. nas Kristapii and eltovas Brveri, and there are
another three stray finds from the cemeteries of Viu
277
Wa r r i o r B u r i a l s Wi t h H o r s e - Maskava, Aglonas Kristapii and Aizkalnes Ludvigo- The battle-knives were in sheaths: the remains of a
va. A gag bridle bit has been found in only grave 141 at decorated sheath were found with grave 91.
Tr a p p i n g s i n t h e L a t g a l l i a n
cemeteries are snaffle bits, with joints that are square had only small iron knives in the region of the pelvis
in cross-section or twisted, and with rings about five to (Fig.2:1, Fig.4:7). At Aizkalnes Maskevicii, a knife
eight centimetres in diameter at the sides (Fig.4:10). was likewise provided as part of the inventory of a
ANTONIJA
VILCNE
More widespread are triple-jointed snaffle bits (12 male grave with horse-trappings.
pieces), double-jointed examples being less frequent The cemeteries of Aglonas Kristapii (grave 280) and
(Aglonas Kristapii, grave 284). In the Late Iron Age at eltovas Brveri (grave 40) have each produced a
in the area of present-day Latvia, both snaffle and gag find of a double-bladed sword in a grave with horse-
bits more commonly occur at residential sites, and are trappings. Both swords had been placed in scabbards
present in burials in the areas populated by the Seloni- with bronze mounts. One of these had an openwork
ans and Couronians (Latvijas 1974, pp.187 and 245). scabbard chape, while the other had a chape with a
stylised bird representation, a so-called hawk sign.
The composition of grave inventories The piece from Aglonas Kristapii is particularly or-
of burials with horse-trappings nate: the pommel and the straight guard are inlaid
with pieces of silver and bronze sheet, and the grip
Apart from the horse-trappings, the grave inventories is wound with a strip of bronze sheet (Kuniga 2000,
also included weapons and ornaments. An essential el- p.69, Fig.XX: 1). The sword had been placed by the
ement of the inventory of these burials was the sock- right leg, with the grip towards the head of the grave
eted spearhead (Fig.4:6). Generally, a single socketed (Fig.2:2, 6). Only a small proportion of the excavated
spearhead was found in a grave inventory, two spear- Latgallian cemeteries have produced finds of swords,
heads occurring rarely (grave 40 at eltovas Brveri). which generally occur in only one burial, or rarely in
The spearhead was usually placed by the lower right two (Kazakeviius 1996, Fig.1). Thus, at Aglonas
leg or ankle, with the point towards the foot of the Kristapii, a sword was found only in this one grave
grave (Fig.2). Only burial 76 at Aglonas Kristapii out of a total of 126 male burials.
had a spearhead by the right side of the pelvis, with the The set of ornaments in graves with horse-trappings in-
point towards the head of the grave. A tanged spear- cluded armbands, brooches and finger-rings. The most
head was found in only one grave, 37 at eltovas characteristic ornament form in these burials was the
Brveri, where it was placed by the left ankle, with the warriors armband, worn on the left arm (found with
point towards the foot of the grave. nine graves) (Fig.4:1). Worn on the right arm was a
All the burials with horse-trappings also had a narrow- solid armband with plane-convex terminals (graves 76
bladed or broad-bladed iron axe (Fig.4:8). This might and 284 at Aglonas Kristapii) or a ribbon-like arm-
be placed by the right elbow, with the blade downwards band (grave 36 at eltovas Brveri; graves 174, 211
and the handle towards the head of the grave (grave 76 and 280 at Aglonas Kristapii). Found on burials with
at Aglonas Kristapii), by the right knee (graves 91, warriors armbands were arm-windings: the sleeve-end
130, 141 and 211 at Aglonas Kristapii), by the lower of the shirt had been wound with bronze spirals thread-
leg (grave 37 at eltovas Brveri) or by the ankle ed on to a leather strap (Fig.4:4, 5). These were found
(graves 11 and 40 at eltovas Brveri; burials 174 and on nine burials, generally on the left arm under the
284 at Aglonas Kristapii) (Fig.2). The axe in grave warriors armband, although in some cases there were
38 at Brveri was by the right side of the head, with the windings on both arms (graves 11 and 36 at eltovas
handle towards the foot of the grave. Brveri). Three of the burials at Aglonas Kristapii had
an arm-cloth on the left arm, decorated with bronze
Other weapons in the burials include broad iron bat-
bars (graves 91, 280 and 284), and an arm-winding on
tle-knives (scramasaxes), long, narrow daggers, dou-
the right arm.
ble-bladed swords and knives. Broad battle-knives
have been found in burials with horse-trappings only A characteristic ornament form in burials with horse-
at Aglonas Kristapii. They were placed by the pelvis, trappings is the solid penannular brooch with polyhe-
obliquely across the upper legs (graves 76 and 211). dral or square terminals (Fig.4:3), occurring in nine
278
BALTICA 8
ARCHAEOLOGIA
V
THE ROLE
OF WEAPONS
AND
W E A P O N RY
IN POLITICAL
AND
M I L I TA RY
LEADERSHIP
Fig. 4. The inventory of grave 11 at eltovas Brveri: 1 a bronze warriors armband; 2 a bronze penannular brooch; 3 a
bronze solid penannular brooch; 45 arm-windings; 6 an iron spearhead; 7 an iron knife; 8 an iron axe; 9 an iron bell; 10
iron snaffle bits (drawing by S.Vtola).
279
Wa r r i o r B u r i a l s Wi t h H o r s e - burials, usually found on the chest and used to fasten pings occur in male burials already in the first centuries
the coat or cape. Used in addition to these brooches AD, and in the mid-first millennium AD there was the
Tr a p p i n g s i n t h e L a t g a l l i a n
were smaller penannular brooches with rolled-back ter- practice of burying the horse together with the rider
Te n t h t o 11 t h C e n t u r y
minals (Fig.4:2). Sometimes, several examples were (Kulikauskien 1953, p.211, Volkait-Kulikauskien
found in a grave: two brooches in graves 91 and 174 1999).
at Aglonas Kristapii, and four in grave 11 at Brveri.
It is possible that this unusual feature of the burial
There were between one and eight rings on the fingers,
practices in the upper course of the Dubna basin was
most commonly spiral rings, less commonly rings with
Area
BALTICA 8
were occurring not only in Latgallian society, but in a verkhovogo konia na Rusi IX-XIII vv. Arheologia SSSR.
Svod arheologicheskih istochnikov, Vypusk E 1-36, Len-
much wider region.
ingrad.
In this period, a new social and professional group be- KULAKOV, V.I., 1990. Drevnosti prussov VI-XIII vv. Svod
gan to emerge: the military retinue, which used arma- arheologicheskikh istochnikov, Vypusk G 1-9. Moskva.
KULIKAUSKIEN, R., 1953. Pogrebenia s koniami u
ments of a different kind. These were people of a high drevnih litocev. Sovetskaia arheologiia, XVII, 211-222.
rank who possessed military power. The provision of KUNCIEN, O., 1969. Pabari (Eiiki pilkapi 1966 m.
ARCHAEOLOGIA
horse-trappings as grave goods reflects only a minor Tyrinjimai). Lietuvos TSR Moksl akademijos darbai, A
difference in the character of this power, pointing to serija, 1(29), 57-67.
KUNIGA, I., 2000. Kristapiu kapulauks. 8.gs.b.12.gs.
an increase in the role of cavalry and cavalry leaders in
Rga: RaKa.
warfare. Likewise, finds of riding gear (spurs, stirrups Latvijas PSR Arheoloija. 1974. Rga: Zintne.
and bridle-bits) at Late Iron Age settlement sites testify RADI, A., 1999. 10.-13.gadsimta senkapi latgau
to the growing role of cavalry in the early medieval apdzvotaj teritorij un Austrumlatvijas etnisks, socils
military retinue. un politisks vstures jautjumi. In: Latvijas vstures muz-
eja raksti, 5. Arheoloija. Rga: N.I.M.S.
Translated by Valdis Brzi VILCNE, A., 2006. Arheoloiskie izrakumi Brveru
kapulauk. In: Arheologu ptjumi Latvij 2004.un 2005.
gad. Rga, 76-82.
Abbreviations VOLKAIT-KULIKAUSKIEN, R., 1999. irgu kapai ir
j simboliai senovs lietuvi laidosenoje. Senovs Balt
LVM A, AA Latvian National History Museum, Riga kultra, 5, Vilnius, 306-333.
LA Lietuvos archeologija, Vilnius URTNS, V., 1977. Senkie depozti Latvij (ldz 1200.g.).
LVI LU Latvian Institute of History, Riga Rga: Zintne.
ZASM par gadu. Zintnisks atskaites sesijas materili ZARIA, A., 1978. Izrakumi Lielvrd 1977 gad. In: ZASM
par arheologu un etnogrfu 1971.-1989.gada ptjumu par 1977 gadu. Rga, 9498.
rezulttiem. Rga, 19721990. ZARIA, A., 2006. Salaspils Laukskolas kapulauks 10.
13.gadsimts. Rga: Latvijas Vstures Institta Apgds.
References
Received: 10 February 2007; Revised: 22 May 2007
281
Wa r r i o r B u r i a l s Wi t h H o r s e - irgo atribut buvo rasta penkiuose tyrintuose Du-
bnos ups auktupio kapinynuose (Aglonas Kristapii,
Tr a p p i n g s i n t h e L a t g a l l i a n
282
VI. WEAPONS: THEIR SIGNIFICANCE
BALTICA 8
AND SYMBOLISM
W E A P O N S I N I R O N A G E W O M E N S G R AV E S
ARCHAEOLOGIA
ANDRA SIMNIKYT
Abstract
Female graves, which contain a wholly unfeminine or male-related grave inventory, and not only a single item, are discussed
in this paper. The main intention is not to describe in great detail these graves, but rather, by removing them from the context,
to approach them as possible archaeological evidence of cross-dressing. Drawing on different historical parallels, a tentative
explanation is suggested following two supposed inspirations for cross-dressing: cross-dressing by military consideration,
and cross-dressing by cultural consideration.
Key words: women warriors, cross-dressing, Iron Age, Lithuania.
Fig. 1. Grave 3 in situ from Vaineikiai barrow 2. Anthropologically female, age 2025 (photograph by Simnikyt).
284
As a result of this research, about
BALTICA 8
30 graves of females furnished in a
not-feminine way were established.
Skeletal material is sometimes well
preserved, sometimes not. Conse-
quently, we must admit some rate of
anthropological sexing error for some
of them
, given that they were deter-
ARCHAEOLOGIA
mined to a different level of certainty.
However, if at least one of these in-
dividuals is really a female, this phe-
nomenon is worth discussing in more
depth.
The majority of graves were from
the Roman Iron Age and Migration
Period, when inhumation prevailed
throughout Lithuania. Among them,
one grave from Kalnikiai cem-
etery was excavated by Vytautas
Kazakeviius (Figs. 4 and 5). Half of
the graves were found in the biggest
excavated cemetery in central Lithua-
nia, Marvel cemetery. Some graves
were from later periods and could be
dated to the eighth to 12th centuries.
Cross-dressing by mili-
tary consideration
Earlier, only skulls were arbitrarily selected, and this, one should not forget that, historically, women who
along with the lack of other well-preserved bone mate- have participated in combat usually did so disguised
rial, is one of the main shortcomings of anthropologi- as men. Openly female warriors were very rare (Gold-
cal sexing. Nonetheless, methods have become more stein 2001). Cross-dressing into a military appearance
accurate, since investigations have been carried out occurred under various circumstances and motives.
on the sex of the deceased not only by the skulls, but This was necessary, while serving as a soldier in other-
also by pelvis characteristics, as well as the remain- wise all-male armies, for protecting or disguising their
ing bone material. Besides, some of the graves were identity in dangerous circumstances, for seeking more
looked through thoroughly several times. Sex polari- rights and liberties, or for other purposes. Some wom-
zation, based on labour division and biological sexing, en believed in the military cause, being more or less
is not perfect when considering the socio-cultural con- adventuresses, others joined only to remain close to
text. Discussions about a third gender or transgender their husbands or boyfriends, or because of filial love
started not very long ago, but evidence of it is very or motherly devotion.
long established. All these are reasons not to dismiss
Cross-dressing might also have been a result of ap-
the reliability of anthropological sex determination.
proaching danger. It was recorded in the oldest chroni-
cles by Duisburg:
285
We a p o n s i n I r o n A g e
Wo m e n s G r a v e s
SIMNIKYT
ANDRA
Fig. 3. Grave inventory from Vaineikiai barrow 1, grave 1 (iron axes, iron sickle, fragment of iron pin?). Anthropologically
female (?), age 3050 (drawn by I.Maciukait).
Seeing this, the women [of Elbling] laying aside femi- This tale by Peter Duisburg might be accepted as an-
nine adornment, put on a male frame of mind, girded ecdotal and inventional for the sake of showing the
swords upon the thigh and ascended the battlements, superiority of Christianity over paganism (Christian
comporting themselves so manfully for their defence, women were stronger than pagan men!). However,
that nowhere was the weakness of their sex apparent the elements of cross-dressing should be approached
(Dusburgietis 1985, p.119, quoted in Maeika 1998). as not purely fictional. In small frontier towns pro-
tected by garrisons of a few Teutonic Knights there is
286
during combat, but also to mislead and
BALTICA 8
frighten the assaulters, in this case dis-
guising themselves as men during the ab-
sence of real men. Henry of Livonia also
recorded the role of women in the defence
of a town (LK 1991, p.67; Maeika 1998,
p.235). Though he did not mention cross-
dressing, it might have been performed as
ARCHAEOLOGIA
well. Village defence by women alone is
well known from ethnographic examples
as well (Hollimon 2001, p.187).
The name of Amazons has survived
through the ages as a generic term for
women with some sense of virility. So-
called Scythian Amazonian burials on the
Russian and Ukraine steppes contained
arrowheads of various types, iron points
of spears, darts and sometimes swords;
further, the female skeletons exhibit phys-
ical evidence of violence (Gilchrist 1999,
p.67; Guliaev 2003, p.115). However,
apart from the above-mentioned, the skel-
etons were furnished with purely female
objects (bronze mirror, iron awl, some or-
naments).
Though womens burials containing weap-
ons were rare, they are sporadically known
from different countries (Lehtosalo-Hilan-
der 1982, p.36
f.
; Mgi 2002, p.77ff. and
131
f.
; Kastholm Hansen, Lauritsen 2003;
Vakeviit 2006), while archaeological
evidence of total cross-dressing is insig-
nificant since it can be established only VI
under certain circumstances. WEAPONS:
THEIR
Two burials at the Roman military cem- SIGNIFI-
CANCE AND
etery at Brougham (Great Britain) were SYMBOLISM
burned on a pyre with horses and fittings
from sword scabbards. Both were provid-
ed with other goods, such as a silver bowl,
ivory object, glass vessel, etc, which indi-
cated that the individuals were cavalry of-
ficers. After anthropological examination,
they appeared to be probably females in
Fig. 4. Grave 13 from Kalnikiai cemetery. Anthropologically female their 20s and 30s (Cool 2005).
(?), age 3540 (after V.Kazakeviius; Archive of the Lithuanian History
Institute, 11688). In Dover-Buckland burials from around
400 to 600 AD containing grave goods not
no reason not to believe that they were not protected corresponding to the osteological sex determination
by the remaining people, including women, when the were excavated. Three females among them were bur-
knights made raids into surrounding territory, taking ied with spears, and one with a shield boss (Gilchrist
the townsmen with them as auxiliaries and leaving the 1999, Fig. 4.1). The same was true in West Heslerton,
castle town undefended (Maeika 1998, p.234). Re- where osteology determined that three weapon burials
dressing was necessary, not only to feel comfortable with spears were female (Lucy 1997, p.159).
287
We a p o n s i n I r o n A g e
Wo m e n s G r a v e s
SIMNIKYT
ANDRA
Fig. 5. Grave inventory from Kalnikiai cemetery grave 13: 1 spearhead; 2 knife; 3 neck-ring; 4 pin; 5 buckle; 6, 7 beads; 8
axe (1, 2, 4, 5 and 8 iron; 3 bronze; 6, 7 amber) (after V. Kazakeviius; Archive of the Lithuanian History Institute, 11739).
Masculine items in female graves are explained as A functional attitude is also proposed, eg woman-
evidence of gifts (nore 1996, p.123, see also Langdon trader (Stalsberg 1991), woman-moulder (Gol-
2005, p.11), secondary utilization of objects which lost ubeva 1984; Vakeviit 2000), woman-hunter
their primary function (eg Hrke 1990; Halsall 1996, (Dommasnes 1982, p.77). The subsequent question is
p.7
f.
; Gilchrist 1999, p 69), double graves with female whether these archaeological examples indicate war-
and male burials mixed together, or even transvestite fare activity. The explanation of woman-warrior is
(the princess of Vix is the famous example) (Gilchrist more credible when we look at female graves which
1999, p.70). contain a wholly unfeminine or male-related grave in-
ventory, not only a single item. However, some scholars
have suggested that there is no necessary connection
288
between the weapon-burial rite and the actual experi- mask a gap within a patrimonial line. The principle of
BALTICA 8
ence of fighting. Obviously, weapons are associated male inheritance was so powerful that when it neces-
with warfare, but they might bring a slightly different sarily passed through the female, she had to become a
connotation and symbolize other things as well: legal functional son (Clover 1986, p.39). This concerns not
status, social status, etc (Hrke 1990; Stoodley 2000, only valuables and land, but also ancestral spirit and
p.467; Kastholm Hansen, Lauritsen 2003; Langdon emphatically male qualities. A female can inherit all
2005, p.5). In Estonia, for example, a spear or javelin in these qualities, which have to be passed down from
female graves is explained as a sign that marks the bor- dead ancestors (fathers) to unborn sons, only disguised
ARCHAEOLOGIA
derline between this world and the Beyond (Mgi 2002, as a man.
p.78 and p.131f.). The custom of fastening coffins with
Stories about cross-dressers, maiden warriors, have
spearheads has been recorded in Finnish archaeological
been classified as fantasy because they were for the
material (Wickholm 2006). Military activity sometimes
most part found in fictional sources, such as the Old
tends to be doubted even for the Amazons or other
Icelandic sagas. However, a collective fantasy has much
mythical female heroines-warriors when considering
to tell us about the society that produced it. Moreover,
their appearance and behaviour. It is proposed that both
the above-mentioned interpretation concerning wom-
their weaponry (bow and arrows) and fighting style are
ans inheritance role finds confirmation in more reli-
more common to hunters than to warriors.
able sources, such as the earliest Icelandic legal codex
Thus, the military and manlike appearance of females is (Grgs) or Norwegian Gulaqing Law. Drawing on
hard to explain unambiguously. As we are talking about them and other historical parallels, it becomes clear that
burials, we should not forget the ideological filter. Mili- the main prerequisite for a female in order to become a
tary activity could be one, but not the only, interpreta- surrogate son and be involved in the line of inheritance
tion. was to be the only child of a dead man. Thus, when a
male inheritor was absent the law institutionalised the
female exceptions and guaranteed a son status to a
Cross-dressing by cultural
certain woman (Clover 1986, p.45
ff.;
1993, p.369 and
consideration
370).
Sometimes these unusual items are explained as a In the Balkans, when a family lacks a male heir, it is
husbands symbol (Randsborg 1984, p.152), which not uncommon for a daughter to dress in mens clothes,
declares the family position (ie the status of the male) take on his duties and be treated as a male by her family
rather than indicating evidence of powerful women (Clover 1986, p.43ff.; Gilchrist 1999, p.58).
with autonomy and property (Czarnecka 1990, p.109;
Another leading point is the duration of cross-dressing,
Edwards 1995; Halsall 1996; Strmberg 1998).
which was only temporary. After some time, a woman
However, the special status of a deceased is also as- usually returned to her womanly lifestyle: ceases to
VI
sumed (Halsall 1996; Langdon 2005, p.4f.; Carol 1993, fight after having grown weary of being out with a band WEAPONS:
THEIR
p.368). It is acquired under certain circumstances, eg of Vikings, and she returns home to do fine work with SIGNIFI-
during the absence of a virtual agent (in this case a male her hands (Hervarar saga ok Heireks in Norr-man CANCE AND
SYMBOLISM
individual) (Dommasnes 1982, p.83; Pawleta 2003). 2000, p.381).
There is a big group of stories from different countries The majority of narrative memory and historical docu-
describing women-warriors, named maiden warriors, ments guarantee son status to a young woman who
shield maidens etc: There were once women in is unmarried and has no children. When she finally
Denmark who dressed themselves to look like men and marries, however, her special status ceases and she be-
spent almost every minute cultivating soldiers skills comes, in the eye of the law and the eye of the public
(Saxo Grammaticus, History of the Danes, seventh a woman like other women (Clover 1993, p.369
f.
). In
book, quoted in Clover 1986, p.35). Baltic territory, according to the Christburg Treaty, be-
ing single is an important precondition to be on a list of
Being a woman-warrior means a woman who repudi-
land inheritors (Gudaviius 2002, p.104f.).
ates marriage, dresses and arms at least for a time as
a man, and enrols in martial life, ie she repudiates her It is assumed that cross-dressing into a military appear-
femaleness by taking on the appearance, behaviour and ance is more common to young women virgin in the
name of a male (Clover 1986, p.36f.). liminal period between adolescence and womanhood
(Edwards 1995, p.252f.; Norrman 2000, p.381). The
In explaining the woman-warrior, however, the military
lack of awareness of their own sexuality contributes to
perspective is of secondary importance. The primary
their not having found their gender-identity and being
and the central message is that cross-dressing helps to
289
decisions made by a woman, but as a necessity implied
by society. The woman did not herself choose the male
role, but she is, by custom and circumstance, chosen for
We a p o n s i n I r o n A g e
it. This is not the female volition but the power of the
patrilineal principle in a male-dominated society.
Wo m e n s G r a v e s
logical evidence is not always possible. None of these Sex Ratios in Early Scandinavia. Scandinavian Studies, 60,
147
-
188.
buried females were young enough to put them into the CLOVER, C., 1993. Regardless of Sex: Men, Women, and
15 to 20 age group. The majority of the women were 25 Power in Early Northern Europe. Speculum, 68 (2), 363-
to 40 years old (see diagram). Previously, it was main- 387.
tained that Scythian Amazons in southern Russia and COOL, H., 2005. Rescuing an Old Dig. Archaeology, 58 (3),
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CZARNECKA, K., 1990. Struktura spoeczna ludnoci kultu-
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(Terenozkin, Iljinskaja 1983, p.179; Guliaev 2003, archeologicznych i analizy danych antropologicznych z
p.115). cmentarzyska. Warszawa.
DOMMASNES, L.H., 1982. Late Iron Age in Western Nor-
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DUSBURGIETIS, P., 1985. Prsijos ems kronika. (Petri de
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archaeology.stanford.edu/journal/newdraft/2003_Journal/
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154. santykinai danai. Taiau vargu ar ie vyriki atributai
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SIGNIFI-
VAKEVIIT, I., 2000. Moter liejiki kapai iemgali veldjimo sistemoje moteris eliminuota. Taiau nesant CANCE AND
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I
balt
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-
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207. rinti dukra. Jai itekjus, vertybs pereidavo jos vyrui
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Received: 15 January 2007; Revised: 5 September 2007
Moters vaidmens ikilimas ivykus vyrui archeolo-
G inklai geleies amiaus ginje literatroje seniai sitvirtins, nors praktikoje
sunkiai rodomas teiginys. Be to, Lietuvos amazons
moter kapuose
buvo subrendusios moterys. Todl straipsnyje patei-
kiamos vyro vaidmens ir ivaizdos permimo interpre-
Andra Simnikyt tacijos turt bti vertinamos ne tiesiogiai, o tik kaip
galimos gairs. Vis dlto kap mediagoje matomas
Santrauka lyties pakeitimas byloja, jog tam tikromis aplinkyb-
mis moteriai bdavo leista engti vyrikj sfer,
Straipsnyje nagrinjami galimi kultrins lyties pa- ir tai vykdavo ne jos paios noru, bet buvo tradicij ir
keitimo, arba persirengimo, atvejai Lietuvos kap visuomens suformuota pareiga.
mediagoje. Tyrimo objektu pasirinkti tie kapai, kuri
291
S y m b o l i c I r o n A g e Wa r r i o r G R AV E S O F T H E U N B U R I E D : S Y M B O L I C I R O N
Burials in East Lithuania
A G E WA R R I O R B U R I A L S I N E A S T L I T H U A N I A
Graves of the Unburied:
LAURYNAS KURILA
Abstract
LAURYNAS
The paper analyses symbolic warrior burials found in East Lithuanian barrows dated to the Iron Age. The discussed graves
KURILA
contain mainly weapons, without any human remains. Judging from the grave assemblages and the shapes of the weapons, it
is supposed that higher-status individuals used to be buried symbolically more frequently. Stressing the male gender and the
warrior status was the primary task when performing a symbolic burial.
Key words: East Lithuanian barrows, symbolic burial, warrior, weapon, status.
292
Material (Kliaugait 2002), and Riklikai (Tautaviius 1970,
BALTICA 8
p.55) barrow fields. Due to their doubtful interpreta-
Symbolic warrior burials are not a mass phenomenon tions, they have not been examined in this study.
in East Lithuanian Barrow Culture. Only 18 such
Symbolic warrior graves are known in ten barrow-cem-
graves have been found in the approximately 170 cem-
eteries in East Lithuania (Table 1, Fig.1). The barrow
eteries with over 1,400 barrows that have been exca-
1 at Eitulionys contained a cairn of stones on top of
vated. In fact, their actual number could be larger since
the primary surface with a rectangular stone construc-
many previous excavations are poorly documented or
ARCHAEOLOGIA
tion under the cairn (Fig.2). Uncharred burial items: a
totally undocumented and due to imperfect excavation
spearhead with a narrow leaf-shaped blade, a spur and
methods some of these graves could have remained
a buckle, had been placed inside the consumption in an
undiscovered or interpreted as chance finds. Although
area that had been strewn with charred wood particles
East Lithuanian barrows were intensively excavated
(Bliujus 1983, p.35f.).
in the second half of the 19th century and in the first
half of the 20th century, data about only three symbolic A similar grave was investigated at Nemaitonys barrow
burials, found at Smarhon, Sudota and Zasvir barrow 3. On the bottom of a large pit covered with stones and
cemeteries, are available from this period. The scale of strewn with charred wood particles, uncharred burial
the practice of symbolic funeral rites is more reliably items were found without any human remains: a large
reflected in the statistics for barrows excavated during fighting knife or single-bladed sword with a bronze-
the Soviet and post-Soviet eras. Out of the 770 barrows decorated hilt, the remains of a shield boss, a knife, a
excavated during this period, symbolic burials were crossbow brooch, a buckle, and a fragment of an uncer-
found in at least 14 (1.82%). This percentage could tain iron artefact (Butnien 1972).
be somewhat larger, considering that frequently there The most symbolic burials in one place (eight) were in-
are no objective criteria for distinguishing a symbolic vestigated at GrigiksNeravai barrow field (Figs. 3;
burial from chance finds arising from disturbed graves. 4). In these graves, the burial items were placed on the
Due to the latter reason, the distinct category of sym- primary surface of the ground, which had been burnt
bolic burials is restricted in this paper to warrior graves. or strewn with charred wood particles, or in shallow
Several finds, which should, with certain reservations, pits dug into it. In barrows 8, 10, 20, 25 and 28 weap-
be considered symbolic female graves, were found ons had been stuck into the ground before the barrow
at Jakikis (Michelbertas 2002, p.72), Kapitoniks was erected. Some of the burial items had been charred
(Tautaviius 1957, p.100), Vaininai-Mediukalnis (Kuncien 1980, p.50f.). The majority of the barrows
Ta b l e . A s s e m b l a g e s o f s y m b o l i c b u r i a l s : 1 s i n g l e - e d g e d s w o r d ( b a t t l e - k n i f e ) ;
2 spearhead; 3 axe; 4 shield boss; 5 knife; 6 spur; 7 awl; 8 firesteel; 9 buckle;
1 0 c r o s s b o w b r o o c h ; 11 p e n a n n u l a r b r o o c h ; 1 2 f i n g e r - r i n g ; 1 3 b r o n z e b e l l ; VI
14 uncertain iron artefact WEAPONS:
THEIR
SIGNIFI-
CANCE AND
Grave assemblages
Barrow-cemetery Barrow No. Grave No. SYMBOLISM
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
Eitulionys 1 1 1 1 1
8 unnumbered 1
10 unnumbered 1
13 2 1 1 1
18 3 1 1 1
GrigiksNeravai
20 2 1 1
1 1 1
25
4 1
28 4 1 1 1
GudeliaiLenkiks 11 1 1 1
13 unnumbered 1 1
Kretuonys
51 unnumbered 2 1
Nemaitonys 3 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
Pal 3 1 2 2 1
Smarhon 8 unnumbered 1 1 1
Sudota 2 1 1 2 1
Vanagiks 1 unnumbered 1
Zasvir 1 unnumbered 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
293
S y m b o l i c I r o n A g e Wa r r i o r
Burials in East Lithuania
Graves of the Unburied:
LAURYNAS
KURILA
Fig. 1. Symbolic warrior burials in the territory of East Lithuanian Barrow Culture: 1 Eitulionys (Trakai district); 2
GrigiksNeravai (Vilnius city); 3 GudeliaiLenkiks (Vilnius district); 4 Kretuonys (venionys district); 5 Nemai-
tonys (Kaiiadorys district); 6 Pal (Ignalina district); 7 Smarhon (Belarus); 8 Sudota (venionys district); 9 Vanagiks
(Jonava district); 10 Zasvir (Miadel district, Belarus) (drawn by the author).
with symbolic burials were surrounded by circles of tefact had been buried in a previously erected barrow,
stones. These barrows also contained from one to eight which contained another two cremation burials.
cremation burials, the majority of which had probably
Below the primary surface at the centre of Kretuonys
been placed in the barrow at a later time.
barrow 13, an uncharred narrow-bladed axe and a
A slightly charred, narrow-bladed axe and spearhead spearhead with a broad leaf-shaped blade were found
socket were found, without any other traces of a grave, (Butnien 1978, p.134). The mound contained another
below the primary surface of the ground at the centre eight cremation burials. One of them (a female burial?)
of GudeliaiLenkiks barrow 11. It had no circle of was probably created when the barrow was erected,
stones and at least two small pits had been dug at its while the rest were made in the mound at a later time.
edge (Kurila 2006, p.94f.). The barrow was surrounded by a circle of stones and
five pits. Barrow 51 contained a narrow-bladed axe and
On the edge of Vanagikiai barrow 1, a bent, uncharred,
two Petersen type E spearheads, one of which had been
single-edged sword was found in one of the pits sur-
broken in half and the other bent (E. Butniens 1980
rounding the barrow (Butnas 1998, p.139f.). The ar-
excavations, unpublished material). The mound, which
294
was surrounded by ditches, also
BALTICA 8
contained another cremation
burial.
On the edge of Pal barrow 3,
two spearheads, two knives and
an awl were found. Both spear-
heads and one knife were charred
ARCHAEOLOGIA
(Butnien 1982, p.69). The
mound also contained at least one
disturbed cremation burial. The
barrow lacked a circle of stones,
but it had four ditches around the
mound.
In Smarhon barrow 8, a cre-
mation burial was found with
an abundance of weapons and,
judging from the description, a
short distance away a spearhead
with a broad leaf-shaped blade, a
lugged, narrow-bladed axe, and
a knife (Rykov 1913, pp.11 and
16).
There had probably been a sym-
bolic burial in Sudota barrow
2. The excavation report men-
tions no bones (Kaczyski 1963,
p.148). Unfortunately, due to poor
documentation, we only know
about the finds: two narrow-blad-
ed axes, a tanged spearhead with
a barbed blade, and a knife.
Fig. 2. Eitulionys barrow 1 symbolic burial in situ (photograph byBliujus, 1980).
At Zasvir barrow 1, a wide-blad- VI
ed axe, spearhead, knife, firesteel,
WEAPONS:
and bronze ornaments: a penan- THEIR
SIGNIFI-
nular brooch, a ring, and a bell CANCE AND
were found at its base (Pokrovskii SYMBOLISM
1899, p.12f.). The author likewise
failed to mention any bones. It is
likely that a symbolic burial was
investigated in this barrow.
Burial construction,
furnishings and status
296
man remains have been found in barrows). The grave also connected with a set of male-warrior burial items
BALTICA 8
in Pal barrow 3, which contained burial items (eg a spur and knives). The graves contained from one
characteristic of both a male and a female, should be to three weapons (an average of 1.94). This number is
considered separately. The distinctive dualism of this insignificantly larger than the one of weapons in male
burial is also confirmed by the fact that only some of inhumation and cremation burials, ie an average of
the burial items are charred. Different rites were prob- 1.83 weapons in those graves which contained at least
ably performed in symbolically burying a man and a one weapon (but an average of only 0.53 weapons in
woman. all the graves which had been osteologically identified
ARCHAEOLOGIA
as male). Of course, separate communities could have
It is likely that the larger number of symbolic male
had distinctive burial rite traditions. In addition, they
burials reflects higher male mortality by violent death
probably had different amounts of wealth. The material
or other circumstances when the community cannot
from the GrigiksNeravai barrow field also allows
bury the body. Men, by engaging in warfare, hunting
us to envisage certain tendencies: 1.875 weapons were
or fishing, die far from home or drown more frequently
found on average in each symbolic burial in this bar-
than women. Osteological examinations of the traces
row field. Meanwhile, the average was smaller (1.75)
of trauma show that men more frequently became the
in male cremation burials.
victims of violence (Anderson 1996; Jankauskas 2001,
p.43; Larsen 1997, p.122; Walker 2001, p.587). On The total number of burial items is not the only meas-
the other hand, another explanation is also possible. ure for defining an individuals status. No less impor-
In communities which were located in sparsely inhab- tant are such criteria as the diversity of the set of burial
ited areas and which probably did not avoid clashes items or their rarity (Alekshin 1983, p.141f.). Of the
between themselves, women and children could also 35 weapons placed in symbolic burials, it is possible
have become the victims of violence, and died far from to consider that at least 15 (42.9%) have a rare form or
home or disappeared without a trace. On the basis of are prestigious. These are single-edged swords or fight-
the available archaeological data, it is impossible to an- ing knives, spearheads with a Petersen type E blade, a
swer the question how a community behaved in those sword-shaped blade, a blade with pronounced shoul-
instances: whether any rituals imitating a funeral were ders, a barbed blade, wide-bladed, ornate or lugged
performed. Perhaps some isolated artefacts, or pieces axes, and shield bosses. Such weapons on the whole
of them, which are discovered in barrows and not con- only comprise about 20% to 25% of all the weapons in
nected with graves are traces of similar rites. It would male cremation or inhumation burials in East Lithua-
seem, however, that when a person died elsewhere or nian barrows. The spur from the Eitulionys grave should
disappeared without a trace, the communitys reaction also be considered a rare find. By drawing the conclu-
differed, depending on the social group to which he or sion that weapons of rarer and more complex forms,
she belonged. as well as more specialised weapons (swords, lugged
VI
axes and shield bosses), reflect their owners higher
The majority of the graves in question were made on WEAPONS:
status, it is possible to state that, compared to those
top of the primary surface of the ground or under it. THEIR
who were buried in actual graves, a higher percentage SIGNIFI-
Their stratigraphy shows that they are the first burials CANCE AND
of the individuals who were buried symbolically be-
and not placed in already existing mounds. Only the SYMBOLISM
longed to the communitys social elite. This could be
Vanagikiai burial should be considered a later burial.
a consequence of the specific way of life of the higher
Funerary rites, which are more complex and require
stratum of society. These people, more than the com-
more labour and resources, reflect the individuals
munitys other males, participated in battles (this was
higher social status. A person for whose burial a new
also a prerequisite of the higher status) and failed to
mound is erected should be in a higher social position
return more frequently. On the other hand, whether a
than those whose graves are placed in already exist-
community organised symbolic funerary rites for a man
ing barrows (Tainter 1978, p.127f.; Mizoguchi 1993,
who had died elsewhere may have depended greatly on
p.227). In this case, the erection of new barrows and
his status and prestige. The tendency for various sym-
the performance of more complex and longer funerary
bolic and imitative forms of funerary rites to be more
rites used to occur exclusively (or almost exclusively)
characteristic of the social elite and warrior stratum is
when symbolically burying males.
also observable in other societies (Hope 2003, p.88ff.;
The majority of the burial items in the aforementioned Ionesov 1999; Richards et al. 1995).
graves consist of weapons: 35 of the 52 items (67.3%)
No differences, however, are visible in the construction
belong to this category (in cremation and inhumation
or size of the barrows erected for actual and symbol-
male burials, weapons comprise only 39.8% of all the
ic burials. The GrigiksNeravai barrows, in which
assemblage). Furthermore, many other artefacts are
the primary burials are cremation burials, are even
297
insignificantly larger than the barrows with symbolic Pal grave, which symbolises the burial of a male
burials. The GudeliaiLenkiks barrow with a sym- and a female, for which latter the awl is intended, the
S y m b o l i c I r o n A g e Wa r r i o r
Burials in East Lithuania
Graves of the Unburied:
bolic burial was even of a simpler construction than only non-weapon or warrior-related burial items are
the majority of the other mounds, as it lacked a circle the buckles and crossbow brooch from the Eitulionys
of stones. and Nemaitonys barrows and some of the Zasvir grave
items. In the rest of the symbolic burials, none of the
The fact that the majority of the burial items in symbol-
other frequent male burial items, buckles, crossbow
ic burials consist of weapons does not necessarily mean
brooches and spiral rings, were found. In performing a
that all the individuals for whom they are intended be-
symbolic burial, accenting the male gender and warrior
longed to the warrior estate in the true sense of this
status was the primary task. In such cases, the symbol-
term. A warrior class or a true social elite, which inher-
ic content of other burial items faded. It is likely that
LAURYNAS
BALTICA 8
Probably the semantics of sticking a weapon into a that time.
grave have and can have no single explanation. This
The consequences of these events are reflected in the
is part of the ideological structure that helps to fortify
social order and funerary customs. Beginning in the
status in society.
middle of the first millennium, the custom of cremat-
ing the dead became established and a typical set of
C h r o n o l o g y, h i s t o r i c a l b a c k g r o u n d warrior burial items began to be placed in male graves
ARCHAEOLOGIA
(Vaitkeviius 2005, p.78). A distinctly socially strati-
The dating of symbolic burials on the basis of weapon fied society, in which an effort was made to accent a
typology alone cannot be precise. It seems that this cus- warriors status, probably developed at that time in
tom was practised on a larger or smaller scale through- East Lithuania. An increase in the number of weapons
out the entire period of the existence of East Lithuanian in graves during a period of fighting seems to be logi-
Barrow Culture (third/fourth to 11/12th centuries AD). cal. The same should also be said about the number of
The Eitulionys grave should belong to the early stage. symbolic burials. In this context, the increase in their
It is difficult to date the burial items of a symbolic bur- number causes no surprise. The more warriors go off
ial, but according to the adjacent barrows with inhuma- to fight, the more they die or disappear. It is only pos-
tion burials, it should belong to the fourth or early fifth sible to guess how many of the symbolic burials are
century (Bliujus 1983, p.39). Several graves should directly connected with these struggles. It is very likely
have been created in the Late Iron Age. The latest one, that most of the GrigiksNeravai symbolic burials,
dated to the 11th or 12th centuries, most probably is and perhaps some of the cremation burials, are from
the Zasvir symbolic burial. The Petersen type E spear- the same time and reflect some event that shook up the
heads in Kretuonys barrow 51 date to the ninth/tenth community. It would otherwise be difficult to explain
centuries (Kazakeviius 1999, p.188). It is possible to the large number of these unusual graves at one site.
assign the graves of GrigiksNeravai barrows 8 and But it would not be appropriate to connect all the sym-
10 as well as the grave of Vanagikiai barrow 1 to a bolic burials from the middle of the first millennium
similar or earlier period (eighth/ninth centuries) on the with one big attack by an external enemy. External
basis of the construction of the mounds and the finds shocks were probably just a factor in increasing the
from later graves. importance of this custom. After the significance of the
male-warrior grew in society, the symbolic expression
The majority of the finds from the other symbolic buri-
of his status also correspondingly changed. A distinc-
als have been reliably dated to the second half of the
tive ideological basis appeared at that time for highly
fifth century or the sixth century. Judging by analogous
respectful behaviour by the community when a warrior
finds, the ornate axes (Malonaitis 1998, p.5), shield-
died.
bosses (Kontny 2004, p.254) and battle knife or short VI
sword (Kazakeviius 1981, p.45) belong to this pe- WEAPONS:
riod. The spearhead chronology is somewhat longer, Conclusions THEIR
SIGNIFI-
but it does not extend beyond the limits of the seventh CANCE AND
century (Kazakiavichius 1988, pp.29ff., 37-42 and 55- A brief study on symbolic burials in East Lithuanian SYMBOLISM
57). The increase in the number of symbolic burials in barrows reveals a connection between symbolic funer-
the middle of the first millennium is observable. This ary rites and higher status, which is expressed through
period is one of great transformations in East Lithua- both the grave construction and artefact types. Differ-
nian Barrow Culture. The contemporary events in ent circumstances could have occurred in past societies
Europe, which led to the fall of the Western Roman depriving the community of the possibility to bury a
Empire and the creation of new states, also touched body. However, a symbolic funeral was most likely to
the Baltic region. The spread of some new forms of be organized in the instances of the death of a male.
weapons, crossbow brooches, buckles and spurs in The evident dominance of weapons in the grave as-
East Lithuania shows the existence of inter-tribal con- semblages reflects the mourners aspiration to stress
tacts. Their nature is still fairly vague. The region was the male gender and the recognition of the status and
probably shaken up by the movement of neighbouring prestige the deceased had earned for the afterlife. The
tribes. The three-bladed arrowheads found in hill-forts subconscious necessity to emphasize warrior status
are witnesses to one or several direct attacks by wan- through mortuary symbolism shows the importance of
dering tribes. East Lithuania could have been reached this social attribute in East Lithuanian societies. The
by individual bands from the Hun Empire that had ex- increase in the number of symbolic warrior burials in
panded in the time of Attila (434453) (Lukhtan 1997). the middle of the first millennium should be considered
Beside Huns, these bands might also have included Os- a consequence of the growing warfare at that time. It
299
resulted in larger numbers of warrior deaths, as well KAZAKEVIIUS, V., 1981. Vienameni kalavij atsiradi-
S y m b o l i c I r o n A g e Wa r r i o r
as in the changing ideology and mortuary treatment of mas ir raida Lietuvoje. Lietuvos archeologija, 2, 43-58.
KAZAKEVIIUS, V., 1999. Dl E tipo ietigali ornamen-
Burials in East Lithuania
Graves of the Unburied:
the warrior.
tuotomis movomis chronologijos ir kilms. Archaeologia
Lituana, 1, 179-196.
KAZAKEVIIUS, V. and MALONAITIS, A., 2006. Sacri-
Translated by Jeffrey Arthur Bakanauskas fices of Weapons in Baltic Burials. Transformatio mundi:
The Transition from the Late Migration Period to the Early
Viking Age in the East Baltic. Kaunas University of Tech-
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LAURYNAS
BALTICA 8
and Ideology: An Ethnoarchaeological Study. In: J. THO- pilkapyn. Tikrasis j skaiius gali bti ir dar kiek di-
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PAWLETTA, M., 2003. Blurring genders: A case study from moter kap, taiau j skaiius yra gerokai maesnis.
Pruszcz Gdanski cemetery in Northern Poland. Stanford Tiktina, kad vyrai daniau davo svetur ar dingda-
Journal of Archaeology, 2 [online]. Available from: http://
archaeology.stanford.edu/journal/newdraft/2003_Journal/ vo be inios. Kita vertus, galbt simbolins laidojimo
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ARCHAEOLOGIA
POKROVSKII, F.V, 1899. K izsledovaniiu basseina Vilii statuso asmen, tarp kuri buvo daugiau vyr, ties
v arkheologicheskom otnoshenii (Iz Trudov X. Arkheol. atveju. rengiant simbolin kap daniausiai bdavo
sezda. . I.). Moskva.
pilamas naujas pilkapis. i aplinkyb taip pat reikt
RICHARDS, J.D., JECOCK, M., RICHMOND, L., TUCK,
C., 1995. The Viking Barrow Cemetery at Heath Wood, laikyti auktesnio statuso iraika.
Ingleby, Derbyshire. Medieval Archaeology, 39, 51-70. Absoliui daugum simbolini kap kapi sudaro
RYKOV, P.S., 1913. Mogilnik bliz stantsii Smorgon. Za-
piski Severo-zapadnago otdela Imperatorskago russkago
ginklai. I j nemaai daugiau nei degintiniuose ar
geograficheskago obshchestva, 4, 7-17. griautiniuose kapuose yra ret ar specifini form.
SEMNAS, V., 1994. Rkui-Paversmio I grups pilkapyno Reikia manyti, laidojant simbolikai ypa stengtasi
1993 tyrinjimai. In: Archeologiniai tyrinjimai Lietuvoje pabrti vyrikj lyt ir tam tikr socialinio statuso
1992 ir 1993 metais, 110-112. aspekt priklausym kari kategorijai. iuo atve-
TACITUS, 1980. Tacitus in Five Volumes. Harvard Univer-
sity Press, 1.
ju itin svarbus buvo kapi simbolinis turinys. Jomis
TAINTER, J.A., 1978. Mortuary Practices and the Study of bendruomen stengsi ireikti simbolikai laidojamo
Prehistoric Social Systems. In: M.B. SCHIFFER, ed. Ad- asmens status ar netgi j savotikai kilstelti.
vances in Archaeological Method and Theory. New York:
Academic Press, 1, 105-141. Dalis ginkl iuose kapuose rasti sulauyti ar sulanks-
TAUTAVIIUS, A., 1957. Kapitoniki pilkapiai. Lietuvos tyti, kai kuriais atvejais smeigti em. Tai savit
TSR Moksl akademijos darbai, serija A, 1, 95-109. laidojimo apeig pdsakai. Simboliniai kapai bdingi
TAUTAVIIUS, A., 1970. Riklik pilkapi kasinjimai 1969 i esms visam Ryt Lietuvos pilkapi kultros gy-
metais. In: Archeologiniai ir etnografiniai tyrinjimai 1968
vavimo laikotarpiui. Taiau daugiausia j priklauso
ir 1969 metais, 53-60.
VAITKEVIIUS, V., 2005. Interpreting the East Lithuanian Itkstantmeio viduriui. Tiktina, kad tai susij su to
Barrow Culture. In: V. LANG, ed. Interarchaeologia: Cul- meto Europ krtusiais vykiais, kurie galjo bti tiek
ture and Material Culture. Tallinn: Pakett Press, 1, 71-86. tiesiogin didesnio kari miri skaiiaus prieastis,
WALKER, P.L., 2001. A Bioarchaeological Perspective on tiek simbolin laidosen aktualizavs veiksnys.
the History of Violence. Annual Review of Anthropology,
30, 573-596.
WEGLIAN, E., 2001. Grave Goods Do Not a Gender Make:
A Case Study from Singen am Hohentwiel, Germany. In:
B. ARNOLD, N.L. WICKER, eds. Gender and the Archae- VI
ology of Death. Walnut Creek: AltaMira Press, 137-155. WEAPONS:
WILLIAMS, H., 2003. Material Culture as Memory: Combs THEIR
and Cremation in Early Medieval Britain. Early Medieval SIGNIFI-
CANCE AND
Europe,
12 (2), 89-128. SYMBOLISM
N epalaidot j kapai :
simboliniai geleies
amiaus kari kapai
Ryt L ietuvoje
Laurynas Kurila
Santrauka
SARI MNTYL C r u s a d e P e r i o d C e m e t e r i e s
EXAMPLES FROM TWO SOUTHWEST FINNISH
Tw o S o u t h w e s t F i n n i s h
SARI MNTYL
Abstract
The various ways of interpreting the meaning of battle-axes and swords as grave goods are discussed. Two Finnish Crusade
Period (10501200AD) inhumation cemeteries (Kirkkomki in Turku and Rikalanmki in Halikko) are presented as a case
study. Both swords and battle-axes in these cemeteries had several meanings: they were effective weapons, but also important
symbols of the wealth and status of their owners and community. They also had other symbolic and magical dimensions,
which were important in the burial ritual.
Key words: weapon, sword, battle-axe, Crusade Period, Late Iron Age, grave goods.
302
BALTICA 8
ARCHAEOLOGIA
Fig. 1. The locations of Turku/Kirkkomki and Halikko/Rikalanmki cemeteries in southwest Finland. Both cemeteries are
situated in river valleys of southwest Finland: Kirkkomki on the bank of the River Aurajoki, and Rikalanmki on the bank
of the River Halikonjoki.
of weapon burials. The various forms of weaponry, The unfurnished Christian burial custom was already
especially when used as grave goods, most probably partly in use in the surrounding areas of Kirkkomki
reflect a range of local values, traditions and symbol- and Rikalanmki. Christianization was a long process
ism. and the transition to the Christian burial custom took
place at a different rate (Purhonen 1998, p.135ff.). It
can be assumed that changes happened even farm by
Rikalanmki and Kirkkomki
farm. In the Crusade Period, the old beliefs and the
cemeteries
new Christian faith acted side by side, and old customs
and beliefs remained in use long after the adoption of
The Late Iron Age inhumation cemeteries of Kirk-
Christianity.
komki in Turku and Rikalanmki in Halikko (Fig. 1)
were chosen as a case study in analysing the meaning The main part of the Rikalanmki inhumation cemetery
VI
of weapons within a community using a certain cem- area was excavated by archaeologist Jorma Leppaho
WEAPONS:
etery. These cemeteries can both be dated, on the ba- in 19501951 and 1953 (Fig. 2). Unfortunately, part of THEIR
sis of artefacts (eg coins, see Talvio 2002, pp.168 and the cemetery had been severely damaged during con- SIGNIFI-
CANCE AND
174-176), to the 11th and 12th centuries. Most of the struction work before the excavation. The total number SYMBOLISM
graves belong to the last Iron Age period in Finland, of burials is not known exactly, but according to the
the Crusade Period. In southwest Finland this dates excavation report, 44 graves were observed. There are
from circa 1050 to around the year 1200. The Crusade 19 or 20 male burials in Rikalanmki, and no less than
Period was a period of transition, as Christianity start- 14 graves contained weapons. In ten graves there was
ed to strongly influence the burial customs. The first a sword, which is more than in any Finnish Crusade
step was the change from cremation to inhumation. Period cemetery. In addition, two swords have been
This happened in the area of Finland proper at the be- found as stray finds on the hill. Also nine spearheads
ginning of the 11th century. During the same time, the and three broad-bladed battle-axes occur in the graves
number of grave goods started to decline, and finally or as stray finds. Ten of the Rikalanmki swords have
they disappeared totally. Anyway, there are cemeter- a disk- or wheel-shaped pommel. In Finland approxi-
ies, such as Rikalanmki and Kirkkomki, with richly mately 40 examples of such swords have been found
furnished graves as late as the 12th century. Especially (Tomanter 1978, p.23). It is important to note that the
the quantity of weapons in these cemeteries is excep- swords with wheel pommels in the 11th and 12th centu-
tional for the Crusade Period, when weapons as grave ry burials in Halikko did alter the dating of this weapon
goods were becoming rarer as a result of Christian in- type. Generally, the popularity of this pommel type has
fluences. been associated with the 13th century and onwards, ie
303
Grave Goods: Examples from Fig. 2. Excavations
taking place at Rikalan-
T h e M e a n i n g o f We a p o n s a s
SARI MNTYL C r u s a d e P e r i o d C e m e t e r i e s
mki in 1950 (photo-
Tw o S o u t h w e s t F i n n i s h
BALTICA 8
were 16 male burials,
and altogether 13 graves
contained weapons. Al-
together, two swords
and nine spearheads oc-
cur in the graves, but the
cemetery of Kirkkomki
ARCHAEOLOGIA
is interesting from the
point of view of battle-
axes (Plate VI: 1). Seven
graves six adult male
and one boy child con-
tained a battle-axe. This
broad-bladed battle-axe
type is known as type
M in the classification
by the Norwegian ar-
chaeologist Jan Petersen
Fig. 4. Battle-axes and spearheads from Kirkkomki cemetery (photograph: M.Puhakka/ (1919, p.46), and dated
Turku Provincial Museum). to the Late Iron Age. All
the M-type axe-graves in
the later Middle Ages (Oakeshott 1960, p.224f.; 1991, Kirkkomki date from the Crusade Period. The shape
pp.6-7, 37 and 57; Peirce 2002, p.134). of the shaft of one M-type axe found in grave 37 was
clearly visible during the excavations (Plate VI: 1). The
All of the swords from Rikalanmki contain inlaid
find was exceptional, because the shafts are not usually
inscriptions and decorations, for example, letters,
preserved in the Finnish soil. The axe was on top of
groups of letters, plant motifs and cross-motifs (Fig.
the deceased, and the shaft reached over the shins of
3). One interesting feature is the hand symbols near the
the deceased. Its length was approximately 108 cen-
tip of the blade, which has been observed on three of
timetres.
the Rikalanmki swords. These Hand of God figures,
with two fingers raised in blessing, occur just in a few By the end of the Iron Age, Rikalanmki as well as
swords in the whole of Europe. Within the Christian Kirkkomki, together with their surrounding cemeter-
Church, hand-symbols have a symbolic protective ies and settlements, were wealthy local settlement ar-
VI
meaning, but they could also refer to some production eas, and probably some kind of power centres. Judging
WEAPONS:
centre. The same symbol can also be seen in art during from the finds, the individuals buried in these cemeter- THEIR
the period 10001200 (Tomanter 1978, p.42f.; Oake- ies were wealthy people, painstakingly equipped for SIGNIFI-
CANCE AND
shott 1991, pp.28 and 51). Also, the name of the smith their journey to the other side. The community had the SYMBOLISM
or some production centre occurs. The most interesting possibility of acquiring valuable imports, which indi-
sword, a so-called Gicelin-sword, was found in grave cates contacts far outside their own river valley, both
30. On one side of the blade is the text GICELIN ME with other communities on the Finnish coast as well
FECIT (Gicelin made me), and on the opposite side as abroad.
the text IN NOMINE DOMINI (In the name of God).
In Finland, Gicelin-swords have been found at just one
Swords and M-type axes as weapons
other site, Marikkovaara in Rovaniemi, in the northern
and status artefacts
part of the country (Leppaho 1964, p.58f.; Tomanter
1978, p.31f.; Peirce 2002, p.134f.). The Rikalanmki
Swords and M-type axes had, of course, a practical
sword is the only one with silver-inlaid inscriptions;
function; they were effective and specialized weap-
the others have iron inlays. Gicelin-swords are also rare
ons. Neither the swords from Rikalanmki nor the axes
in the whole of Europe (eg Oakeshott 1960, p.212ff.,
from Kirkkomki are luxury artefacts but weapons for
1991, p.57ff.; Tomanter 1978, p.31f. and references).
use (Fig. 5). The number of swords in Rikalanmki has
In the inhumation cemetery at Kirkkomki, several ex- in the previous research been explained as indicating
cavations have been carried out during the 20th century, specially restless and violent times in the Halikko area,
the largest in 19911992. The number of investigated and the swordsmen as forming an armed retinue of the
graves is 43, but the area was not totally excavated. chief (Hirviluoto 1992, pp.108 and 125-126). Where
305
Grave Goods: Examples from tion of society, when the old
T h e M e a n i n g o f We a p o n s a s
BALTICA 8
change in burial customs in some Crusade Period cem- fertility (Jankuhn, Beck 1973, p.567f.). It could be in-
eteries would not only be connected with Christianity, terpreted that the M-type axe was also connected with
but also with the busy trade relations around the turn this broader axe-related symbolism. As a generaliza-
of the 11th century (Koivisto 1991, p.176ff.; Mntyl tion, the axe is the weapon, and/or tool, which was the
2005a, p.124f.). Both of the cemeteries discussed in last to be given up in Finland in the transition to an
this article were situated in areas regarded as impor- unfurnished burial custom (Mntyl 2005a, p.121f.).
tant local centres of trade. The societies burying peo- Battle-axes would therefore not necessarily be in the
ARCHAEOLOGIA
ple in Rikalanmki and Kirkkomki grew wealthier grave simply in the function of a weapon, but also as
with trade, and with a new inhumation burial custom an object connected with magic features. Their impor-
it was maybe more possible to demonstrate the wealth tant role in the burial ritual was the reason why axes
and power of the individual and family. That could remained as grave goods for so long.
be one reason why the cremation burial custom and
The Crusade Period was a period of crisis for socie-
level-ground cemeteries with a more collective char-
ties based on old social structures and beliefs. Rich
acter were rejected. At Kirkkomki and Rikalanmki,
grave goods with weapons, amulets and other magi-
weapons gained an important symbolic value in the
cal features in Rikalanmki and Kirkkomki could, in
new burial custom.
the Crusade Period context, be interpreted as a survival
strategy and a way of expressing and strengthening the
Other symbolic dimensions group identity. Richly furnished burials may indicate
a social crisis, in which the position of old rulers was
Status artefacts symbolize social position and power, threatened (Pihlman 1990, p.267f. and references).
but that is not necessarily their only symbolic dimen- People resorted to magic, amulets and other symbols
sion. They could have been chosen as status artefacts in situations where they were uncertain of their ability
because of some other specific symbolic content. The to control their surroundings and its events, and when
Iron Age myths and beliefs probably did not form a they were worried and scared for their future and health
uniform religion, but cults were in large part related (cf Zeiten 1997, pp.1 and 45). People also wanted to
to individual farms or families (Salo 1997, p.122f.). protect individuals crucial to the welfare and success
Therefore, the swords or the M-type axes may also of the family, even after their deaths.
have had a special meaning for only some local group
To summarize, the swords and the M-type axes dis-
within society.
cussed in this article were weapons, possibly used in
Valuable imported swords in Rikalanmki expressed conflicts, but also important symbols of the wealth
the status of their owners, power and wealth. They also and status of their owners and community. In addi-
had an important role in the burial ritual. The swords, tion, they had specific symbolic and magic dimensions VI
especially old ones, had mystical powers, and even which were crucial in the burial ritual, and because of WEAPONS:
the appearance of a sword, with its sharp and shining that they remained as grave goods for so long, despite THEIR
SIGNIFI-
blade, may have been considered mystical (Siddorn Christian influences. CANCE AND
2003, p.69ff.). There are many sagas, legends and be- SYMBOLISM
SARI MNTYL C r u s a d e P e r i o d C e m e t e r i e s
Cambridge, 19.2, 41-55. PEIRCE, I.G., 2002. Swords of the Viking Age. Suffolk:
Tw o S o u t h w e s t F i n n i s h
BALTICA 8
laidojimo paproiuose pastebima daugyb skirtum.
Vietins vertybs, tradicijos ir simbolizmas turbt
daniausiai atsispindi vairiose ginkluots formose,
ypa jei ji buvo naudojama kaip kaps (35 pav.;
VI: 1 iliustr.). iame straipsnyje nagrinjami Suomijos
vlyvojo geleies amiaus Kirkkomki (Turku mieste)
ir Rikalanmki (Halikko vietovje) kapinynai su griau-
ARCHAEOLOGIA
tiniais kapais (1; 2 pav.). Abiejuose kapinynuose buvo
rasta iskirtinai daug ginkl. Tai yra iimtinis Suomijos
kryiuoi periodo (10501200 m.) bruoas, nes gin-
klai dl krikionybs takos tuo metu darsi reti. Ma-
noma, kad iuose kapinynuose rasti kalavijai ir kovos
kirviai gali turti kelet prasmi: jie gali bti efektyvs
ginklai, galbt naudoti sprendiant konfliktus. Taiau
prievarta nra vienintelis paaikinimas, kodl M tipo
kirvi ir kalavij yra randama tarp kit kapo radini.
Ginkl danumas kapuose ne visada yra tiesiogiai ir
tikrai susijs su karu. Be to, mes negalime manyti,
kad visi vyrai, palaidoti su kalavijais ar kitais ginklais,
buvo kariai. Ginklai taip pat buvo svarbus j turtoj
turtingumo ir socialinio statuso visuomenje simbolis.
Abu straipsnyje aptariami kapinynai yra srityse, kurios
buvo dideli vietins prekybos centrai. Ginklai, matyt,
turjo svarbi simbolin reikm laidojant mirusiuo-
sius, kad pademonstruot turtingum, nes Rikalanm-
ki ir Kirkkomki kapinynuose palaidoti bendruomens
mons buvo turtingi dl intensyvesns prekybos.
Kalavijai ir kovos kirviai taip pat turjo kit simbolin
ir magin bruo, kuris buvo svarbus laidojimo papro-
i atvilgiu. Kalavijai turjo mistins jgos, o kirviai
buvo galingas enklas, ginantis nuo blogio ir lig. ie
ginklai vietini bendruomeni buvo pasirinkti dl j
specifikumo kaip socialin status liudijantys dirbi-
VI
niai. ios simbolins reikms taip pat buvo prieastis, WEAPONS:
THEIR
kad kalavijai ir kovos peiliai, nepaisant krikioniko- SIGNIFI-
CANCE AND
sios kultros spaudimo, kapuose liko kaip kaps. SYMBOLISM
309
Tr a d e r s a n d t h e i r Wa y s i n V I I . V I K I N G S : WA R FA R E A N D T R A D E
F R O M T H E B A LT I C T O T H E D A N U B E
rmed and Expected.
Vi k i n g Ti m e s
VLADAS ULKUS
Abstract
The Baltic traders stimulation for trading with foreign countries was caused by the shortage of iron, the necessity to obtain
good arms, salt, metals for bronze manufacturing, and silver. Apart from traditional goods, like slaves, furs and honey, traders
from Scandinavian and west Slavic centres were interested in rye, horses of local breeds, and Baltic ornaments.
Aquatic routes up and down rivers were convenient and fast in winter. In Viking times, traders could reach the neighbourhood
of Kaunas, trading there for several days, and get back to the Baltic Sea in about 20 days. Navigation away from Kaunas
upstream included dugouts, primitive flat-bottomed boats and even rafts. Sailing up and down the river can be proved by
information about sailing in Crusaders times (13th and 14th centuries).
Travelling in foreign territories was dangerous, so traders were usually armed. Arms were discovered in about 60% of the
so-called traders graves of Lithuanian coastal cemeteries.
Key words: Baltic tribes, Viking times, trading manner, aquatic routes, Nemunas (Memel) river.
In the second half of the tenth century graves with bal- a traders attributes was rich. Some of them contained
ances and weights for weighing silver are traced in no weaponry, even no spearheads! All these graves of
Baltic territories. Most of them are discovered in the armless traders, with only one exception, were poor
southern territories of the Curonians (Kuncien 1977, in burial items. Therefore, it is possible to conclude
p.133, map 73). Their appearance coincided with the that wealth and social differences among this thin layer
advent of silver bullion in Lithuania. Balances, with of traders in the tenth to 12th centuries were evident.
the help of which the weight and value of articles was Graves without weaponry probably belonged to repre-
defined, are treated as a hallmark of traders graves. sentatives of a lower social class involved in trading.
The fact that balances are abundant in the graves, set- They had to be reliant on people of higher social status
tlements and hill-forts of Western Balts and very rare (ulkus, Klimka 1989, pp.29-35).
among remote tribes living far away from the sea, is
The available material allows us to think that, starting
a manifestation of two things. Firstly, the custom of
with the 11th century, a thin layer of free, independ-
putting balances and weights into graves in the East
ent traders was forming in coastal areas (ulkus 1997,
Baltic region was spread in areas under Scandinavian
p.292; 2004, p.157). On the other hand, trading, most
influence only (Leciejewicz 1995). Secondly, inland
probably, was not the only occupation of these peo-
trading relations started later in comparison to coastal
ple, as there was no institution of traders-profession-
areas.
als in Baltic societies, as well as Scandinavia, back in
Information about traders in Baltic territories in Vi- the 12th and 13th centuries. Representatives of differ-
king times is poor. During the exploration of cemeter- ent social layers were trading there (Nedkvitne 1993,
ies in southern Curonia (Mguva Land) it was found p.649; Leziejewicz 1995, p.61).
that traders graves are different in every place. Most
A Viking trading manner among Baltic tribes has not
graves with a balance and weights were discovered
yet been investigated and we can only shape some of
around Palanga, whereas elsewhere they are rare. Most
the questions, though answers to them are not possible.
Palanga traders graves are dated to the 11th and 12th
More interest was directed towards trading routes, in
centuries. An examination of their burial items makes
eastern Baltic territories in particular (Kuncien 1972;
the stereotype of a rich, armed trader spruced up with
1981; Mugurvis 2001, pp.370-377). Trading routes
silver doubtful. It appeared that not every grave with
310
of Viking times in Western Lithuania are reconstructed Water routes, both downstream and upstream, were
BALTICA 8
with respect to the location of more significant cen- convenient and fast in winter time. Besides, sledges al-
tres, to find spots of hoards and imports, balances and lowed the carriage of bigger loads. Viking settlements
weights (ulkus, Klimka 1989, p.56ff.; Genys 1996). in which archaeologists discover evidence of trading
While identifying trading routes, written sources were are very often located close to small rivers, where ordi-
also employed, for example, a description of Crusad- nary travelling was next to impossible. In winter time,
ers routes in the 14th century (Wegeberichte). Route frozen rivers used to become a convenient network of
mapping was not always done with respect to the geo- routes, contributing to the development of tribal and
ARCHAEOLOGIA
graphical peculiarities of sites and social geography of intertribal trading. The ice of the River Nemunas, as a
the time. Besides, Crusaders routes should not be convenient winter route, was also used later. In 1414
identified with traders routes. Crusaders were trav- the French knight Ghillebert de Lannoy made use of
elling to rich Lithuanian centres for marauding. They sledges and left Kaunas to reach Prussia (Ragain/
were travelling secretly, choosing direct, hardly pass- Ragnit) along the River Nemunas (Dvi ilibero de
able routes, bypassing smaller settlements, and every Lanua kelions Lietuv 1983, p.50).
so often avoiding traditional routes.
The basic advantages of water routes used to be, and
Traders routes, on the contrary, led through inhabited still are, two: they are shorter and cheaper (for shipping
areas, where their articles and they themselves were larger quantities). Travelling over water also included
safe, where they could find shelter and opportunities some drawbacks: storms in the open sea and lagoons
for trading. Besides, straight routes usually used to used to be dangerous both for cargo and traders, and
be longer due to the huge woodlands and swamps. the possibilities for travelling up rivers were limited
Routes along river banks were not always easy. Trad- by strong currents and shallow waters. Besides, water
ers used to avoid these huge woodlands and swamps, travel (including both on the sea and shallow rivers)
choosing instead routes from one populous settlement required boats of different types. Therefore, traders
to another. In Viking times, unpopulated, almost inac- who wanted to start from coastal areas and reach inland
cessible areas existed between different tribes (usu- trading centres, coming back to the coastal centres af-
ally they were watersheds, inter-tribal deserts) (ulkus terwards, had to choose combined routes and transport.
2004; imnas 1997). Such a desert of 40 kilometres in Such a way of travelling is recorded in Roman sources.
breadth stretched between the Curonians and Samogi- Combined land-and-water transport by the rivers Rhine
tians. Smaller ones separated different territories and or Danube was the cheapest and most effective method
lands. It is evident that there were no trading routes along the waterways (Teigelake 2003, p.41).
there, they reached another tribe by moving from one
Travelling down a river used to be rather quick, not re-
important centre to another. Borderline centres were
quiring good boats. For that purpose, dugouts or even
also good trading sites.
temporary navigation devices, like rafts, were em-
Both long-distance and local traders could start off on ployed. Such a method of travelling in dugouts along
long journeys by exchanging, trading and storing up the River Dnieper was described in the middle of the
the most saleable articles. They did not necessarily tenth century (Kirpichnikov et al. 1986, p.232f.). This VII
have to choose the same route on their way back. Start- tradition survived and later, in the 16th century, when VIKINGS:
ing their journey from one centre in the summer time, cereal used to be transported from Vilnius to Prus- WA R FA R E
AND TRADE
they travelled overland and went down rivers, reach- sia along the Neris and Nemunas in jerry-built boats, FROM THE
ing inter-regional and remote trading centres in tribal which did not come back, being sold together with the B A LT I C T O
THE DANUBE
peripheries around big rivers and the coast, where they cargo as processed wooden material (Willoweit 1969,
used to meet foreign traders, selling their articles for p.299).
silver or exchanging them for other valued articles. Be-
The opportunities to sail up Lithuanian rivers have not
fore coming back home they could make a big circle.
yet been investigated. Still there are no detailed discus-
It is already traditional thinking that rivers used to be sions regarding the feasibility of the River Nemunas
basic trading routes, with traders travelling both on the for navigation in Viking times, though there were no
rivers and on their banks. Due to the specific way of doubts about the river as a trading route. Birger Ner-
travelling, aquatic routes along large rivers are more man believed this route could take the Swedes to Rus-
complicated for archaeologists to identify. sia (Nerman 1934, p.374). Nowadays the significance
Lithuanian woodlands in the ninth to 12th centuries were
of the Nemunas river, as a basic water trading route,
two to three times larger than they are now. Around 800 is treated rather sceptically (Genys 1996). While mak-
AD woods occupied about 73%, around 1000 AD about ing a general evaluation on the significance of the river
61%, around 1100 AD about 55%, in 1980 about 27.6% of for Lithuanian and neighbouring tribes (ulkus 2004,
the entire territory (Bumblauskis 1995).
311
p.125-131), the navigation opportunities were not in- long warships had a crew of about 100, and 78 of
vestigated. Looking for answers to this question, it them were oarsmen. The Viking-type boats with sails,
Tr a d e r s a n d t h e i r Wa y s i n
is necessary to evaluate the hydrological factors, the recently designed in the Roskilde shipyard, were able
rmed and Expected.
ships facilities and the navigation traditions of the to sail at a speed of over 12 knots. It was usual practice
time, and the situations of hill-forts and settlements that each day sailors managed to cover a distance of
along the rivers. 100 to 120 kilometres and about 40 to 60 kilometres
Vi k i n g Ti m e s
BALTICA 8
hood of Linkuhnen (Til/Tilsit), navigating the Gilija (stream strength, discharge). Regular navigation on
(Gilge), an arm of the Nemunas, bypassing the middle the Nemunas was possible after the spring floods until
section of the bay and dangerous spots around Vent winter. Floods repeatedly return in March and April,
cape, are groundless (Springmann 2005, p.173f.). The the water level may rise 0.4 to 2.5 metres and drown
first attempt to connect the Gilija and the Deim (Dei- huge areas, starting from the Jra (81.2km from the
me), making a proper navigation canal, was made in Nemunas mouth) and stretching down to the Curonian
1409, but the project was implemented only in 1697 Lagoon. The flood width of the right floodplain var-
ARCHAEOLOGIA
(Willoweit 1969, p.142). In medieval times, the Nemu- ies up to six kilometres (Ascila et al. 2002). From the
nas could be reached from the bay via one of three ba- spring floods to summer the level of the Nemunas and
sic arms of the river mouth (cf Wapowski 1526; Olaus other coastal rivers changes greatly (Gailiuis et al.
Magnus 1539). To control the route, back in 1360 the 2001, pp.129, 174, 241, 265-266 and 285).
Order erected Windenburg castle in Vents Ragas, and
The Nemunas used to be and still is a relatively calm
in 1366 Warruss (Variskin) castle, which probably used
and deep river. Its sinuosity coefficient (a major indica-
to be on Rusn Island, around Vorusn settlement (Wil-
tor of a slow current) in the upper reaches is 1.86, mid-
loweit 1969, pp.93 and 129).
stream 2.26, in the lower reaches only 1.2. Most of its
Sometimes the name of Russ (Rusn), an arm of the bends are sharp and wide, whereas the lower reaches
lower reaches of Nemunas, is also related to the Vi- are straight. The average depth of the Nemunas cross-
kings. In the upper reaches and midstream, the largest section varies from one to three metres. The breadth
Lithuanian river used to be called the Nemunas. Ac- in the higher reaches and midstream is an average of
cording to the bull of Pope Innocent IV of 23 August 250 metres, in the lower reaches 200 to 400 metres
1253, it was called Memole (Memole vulgariter appe- (Gailiuis et al. 2001, pp.96 and 101).
latum) (PUB 1. H. 1. Nr. 275, 207) by local inhabitants.
On the other hand, navigation on the Nemunas in mid-
Below Til the river splits into a few arms, the main
summer used to be problematic due to the shallows.
one of which in old times used to be called Russ (re-
According to records from 1873, the channel below
cently Rusn and Atmata).
Kaunas was only six to seven metres in width, the
On the eastern coast of the Baltic Sea larger rivers depth only 1.15 metres (except at the mouth of the
usually flow from east to west, with westerly winds Neris, with two metres depth). Below, the channel is
prevailing in the summer time (Stankeviius, Tilickis natural and irregular. The depth is only around one me-
2003, p.22). Therefore, it was possible to sail up rivers tre. At the confluence with the Dubysa, stones make
like the Nemunas, Jra, Dang, Prieglius and Venta, the flow more rapid. Around Jurbarkas there used to be
when the wind was favourable with the speed of the sandy shallows and the depth did not exceed one me-
flow being about 1m/s (about two knots), sailing up tre. The depth between Kaunas and Smalininkai varied
the river was more complicated even with the addi- from 1.4 to 1.1 metres. Down to Tilsit it was deeper
tional employment of oars, while a current of 2 m/s (KJM Kadrai 7581, after Deleckien 2003).
(about four knots) was hard to overcome. The flow of VII
Due to shallows and the narrow channel, lagoons and
coastal rivers was slow; therefore, it was possible to VIKINGS:
rivers were limited; therefore, only smaller and ma-
cover long distances up the river, sailing with Viking- WA R FA R E
noeuvrable boats could be employed for travelling. For AND TRADE
type boats. In coastal areas, compared to inland Lithua- FROM THE
voyages on rivers and lakes, small boats of seven to B A LT I C T O
nia and Latvia, the network of average rivers (Lielup,
eight metres in length could be most appropriate. The THE DANUBE
Venta, Minija, Jra, etc) is larger (Gailiuis et al. 2001,
minimal required depth of a river varies, then, between
p.90f.). Some of these rivers are rather wide and deep
80 and 90 centimetres for river boats. For small dug-
enough in their lower reaches (the Nemunas is about
outs 50 to 70 centimetres was enough (Teigelake 2003,
500 metres wide, higher about 100 to 120 metres in
pp.56 and 73). Written sources contain no information
width, the Venta 200 metres in width, up to nine metres
about the river boats of Lithuanians. From indirect
in depth, the Jra up to 40 metres in width (Lietuvos
sources, it is possible to conclude that the boats were
ups. http:/www.primate ia.infovx.net.lt).
not very large. In 1313 six hundred or more men in
We are mostly interested in an investigation of the nav- one hundred Lithuanian boats sailed against the Cru-
igation possibilities on the Nemunas. The possibility saders around Veliuona (Petras Dusburgietis 318 (311),
to go against the current under sails or using oars on p.263). This means six or seven armed men were sail-
ing in one boat.
Written sources from the Crusaders times do not tell us
Apart from archaeological data from cemeteries and
of the historical evidence about navigation on the River
Pregel (Petri de Dusburg). settlements, there are no other direct arguments or writ-
313
ten sources about traders coming to Kaunas along the The calculated speed of Viking Period sailors on the
Nemunas in Viking times. On the other hand, naviga- open sea could hardly be applied making calculations
Tr a d e r s a n d t h e i r Wa y s i n
tion up and down the River Nemunas in Viking times of voyages on rivers. Russian riverboats could daily
rmed and Expected.
could be confirmed by navigation in Crusaders times, cover only 30 to 35 kilometres (Edberg 2003, p.118).
ie in the 13th and 14th centuries. In 1274 (or 1275) According to other information, in Roman times river
the pagan castle of Ragain (Ragnit) was attacked from transport could daily cover a distance of 30 to 40 kilo-
Vi k i n g Ti m e s
boats by plenty of brothers and a thousand men (Pet- metres (land transport distance per day 18 to 20km,
ras Dusburgietis 182 (177), p.192). In 1298 a squad sea transport 45 to 65km) (Teigelake 2003, p.73). It
of Crusaders from Ragnit castle, built by the Order, is evident that the sailing speed depended much on
navigated to Junigeda castle in the neighbourhood of the rivers breadth, depth, obstacles and winds. River
Veliuona below the Dubysa and Pisten (Pietv) castle transport could carry 60 to 140 cwt (hundredweight)
in the confluence of the Dubysa and Nemunas (Pet- of cargo, land transport only five to six cwt, sea trans-
VLADAS
ULKUS
ras Dusburgietis 271 (264), p.240; Batra 1985, p.415, port even 600 to 2000 cwt. The transportation of cargo
416 and 417), 92 kilometres and 100 kilometres from by inland water routes was ten times cheaper than by
Ragnit respectively. Junigeda and Pisten castles were overland routes. Transportation by sea was 60 times
attacked by boats in October 1315 and the beginning of cheaper than overland (Teigelake 2003, p.73).
April 1319 (Petras Dusburgietis 325, 336 (318, 329),
Viking-type boats, leaving with sails from the Prussian
pp.267 and 271).
trading centre Kaup or from the Klaipda neighbour-
The Lithuanian castle Colayne (Kolainiai) and the vil- hood in the morning, could easily reach the surround-
lage Romene, Romeyn (Romainiai) were attacked on ings of Rusn (in the delta of the Nemunas) by the
12 May 1290, navigating from Ragnit up the Nemunas evening (Plate V: 1). The voyage was longer when
(Petras Dusburgietis 239 (232), 259 (252), p.222 and strong westerly or southwesterly winds were blow-
233). Colayne stood in the confluence of the Mituva ing, as it was necessary to sail along the coast of the
and Nemunas, 57 kilometres from Ragnit, Romainiai Curonian Spit before crossing the bay. In front of the
at the confluence of the Nevis and Nemunas, close mouth of the Nemunas, on the Curonian Spit, is Bulvi-
to Kaunas, 133 kilometres from Ragnit (Batra 1985, kis Bay and Bulvikis cape. This is the only place-name
pp.415 and 418). of Lithuanian coastal areas containing vik. This place
is not yet explored. There is an unchecked assumption
In 1313, after building Christmemel castle (now
that it could be a small Viking Period settlement, where
Skirsnemun), 68 kilometres upwards from Ragnit,
boats waited for favourable weather to sail towards the
plenty of Crusaders boats approached it (Petras Dus-
mouth of the Nemunas. Probably there was a pagan
burgietis 315 (308), p.261; Batra 1985, p.423). In the
temple (?) and a trading settlement on the island of
summer of 1313 they sailed up the river to (Bisena)
Rusn (Russ, Rusna, Russe) (Daukantas 1976, p.419).
Bisen castle (Petras Dusburgietis 316 (309), p.262).
The flow in the Nemunas delta is very slow: in Rusn it
Such intensive navigation required knowledge of the
is 0.6 m/s, in Atmata 0.20.3m/s. The speed of the flow
river (channels in riffles, channel signals). Dangerous
in the Minija, a Nemunas tributary in the delta, hardly
spots close to trading centres could be marked already
reaches 0.10.2m/s. Upstream about 100 kilometres
in Viking times.
the incline is absolutely even (Maceviius 1996, pp.11-
Experience of the Crusaders demonstrates that navi- 17). Under such conditions, and with the presence of
gation on the Nemunas could start in April, when the a favourable wind, it was possible to cover a distance
spring floods abated, and finish in the autumn, when of 60 kilometres (employing sails) within two days,
the river froze. On the other hand, the spring floods travelling from Rusn in the mouth to Linkuhnen, or
provided the opportunity to reach locations around even to the confluence of the Jra and Nemunas (about
smaller rivers by water routes. It is unknown whether 76km from the mouth), where a convenient anchorage
traders would sail during floods, but the Order prob- around Birtonikiai settlement and hill-fort was likely
ably used to take a chance while attacking Scalvian and to be. Sarecke castle was likely to be there (imnas
Lithuanian castles. Probably voyages took place in the 1990).
summer: for example, it is doubtful whether there were
From this point to modern Jurbarkas, where the Mitu-
any attempts at travelling up the Dnieper in the high
va flows into the Nemunas (about 50km), part of the
water season (Edberg 2003, p.117f.).
voyage was still possible with sails. A trading cen-
Let us come back to Viking Period sailing from coastal tre was likely to be there, near Vievil (Tautaviius
trading centres across the Curonian Lagoon and up the 1977, p.122; Bertaius 2001). Up the river to the next
Nemunas.
Flow speed in mid-stream Nemunas is higher, though usu-
ally it does not exceed 1m/s (Maceviius 1996, pp.11-17).
314
camp, to the confluence with the Dubysa (about 40km) times it was relatively easy to reach the neighbour-
BALTICA 8
the voyage, due to sandy shallows, was possible only hood of Kaunas in small boats directly from the sea.
with oars. From there, the densely populated territo- It would be much more complicated to do it with big
ries of central Lithuania with hill-forts and settlements cargo ships. In view of the fact that there was no ship-
start (Bertaius 2002, p.52; Baubonis,
Zabiela
I 2005, ping of silver, a commodity occupying a tiny space and
pp.214-241). In the next two days it was possible to weighing little from central Lithuania, it could be con-
cover a distance of 50 kilometres and reach the conflu- cluded that bigger cargo ships or rafts were necessary
ence of the Nevis and Nemunas, and even modern for the delivery of merchandise down the river. Traders
ARCHAEOLOGIA
Kaunas. Further up, to the confluence of the Neris and from remote countries could make use of bigger local
the Nemunas (51km), sailing was more complicated tonnages after they had reached the neighbourhood of
due to shallows and the higher flow (Plate V:1). Kaunas. They were employed to deliver merchandise
down the river to trading centres, which were easy to
Therefore, it was possible to start in the Baltic Sea
reach by bigger cargo ships. It could be the neighbour-
and reach the surroundings of Kaunas in eight to ten
hood of Til (Tilsit, presently Sovetsk).
days, sailing in the daytime only. Kaunas was likely
to be the final destination for most traders travelling Around Til and on both banks of the Nemunas,
in boats. The complex of archaeological finds in the specific place-names have been traced long ago. Ac-
neighbourhood of Kaunas suggests that it used to be cording to Aschmann, most of them retain the Viking
an important administrative, confessional, handicrafts name (variags). For example, Warruss, Swarren, Skul-
and trading centre. Finds in cemeteries, in Marvel in beatwarren, Plauschwarren, Pillwarren, Leitwarren,
particular, witness the concentration of imported met- Swarreitkehmen, Warrischken, Wartulischken et ali.
als and articles, silver ingots, chopped silver, balances Aschmann thinks Var means Wehr (earthwork, arma-
and weights (Bertaius 2002, pp.151-160, 206-212; ment), as the Vikings were armed, and travelled in sea
Baubonis, Zabiela 2005, pp.296-347). Settlements on boats from Sweden, marauding and trading (Aschmann
the riverside are not yet explored; therefore, there is no 1963). The root-var could be related to Swedish vara,
information about probable equipment of the harbour Danish vare, meaning article. Linguists give no
and finds, including boats from Viking times. convincing explanation for the hydronym with var in
the Baltic languages (Vanagas 1981, p.362f.). In the
The voyage back to the Curonian Lagoon could take
11th century Linkuhnen trading centre still existed in
three to four days, a stronger contrary wind could ex-
this area (Mhlen von zur 1975, p.53; Bertaius 2001,
tend the voyage. No doubt, sailing to and from Kaunas
p.194). Probably it was a colony of Swedish Vikings
for exchange and trading purposes used to be done by
(Nerman 1934, p.374).
means of dugouts and, on the way back, by other tem-
porary devices. Therefore, traders could reach the neighbourhood of
Kaunas, trading there for several days, and come back
In 2003 an expedition of the Lithuanian Maritime
to the Baltic Sea in about 20 days. Under ordinary con-
Museum sailed downstream from Kaunas to Rusn
ditions and favourable winds, it could take one month
in a kurnas (Kurenkahn), a restored fishermens boat
for Scandinavian traders to reach Kaunas and come VII
from the Curonian Lagoon. They used sails and cov-
back. Usually the trading and marauding campaigns of VIKINGS:
ered the distance in four days (sailing only in the day-
the Scandinavian Vikings to eastern Baltic areas used WA R FA R E
time, counting pure sailing time only). A cross wind AND TRADE
to be organized in summer and continued for several FROM THE
was blowing all the time (personal communication, B A LT I C T O
months.
Romualdas Adomaviius, leader of the expedition). THE DANUBE
There were no riffles on the route, though big stones, A more or less regular Viking Period journey from
tree trunks and shallows were potential and dangerous Kaunas upwards hardly existed. These water routes
obstacles in shallow waters. These obstacles used to were much more complicated, as a 150-kilometre sec-
be dangerous in particular to bigger boats. In 1829 a tion contains 16 shoals. On the other hand, between
voyage on board the Wittine (a cargo boat with upright those shoals, up to the Russian trading centre of Gardi-
sail, 53m in length and 8.1m in breadth, draft loaded up nas (Grodno), the current is slow (Kudaba 1970, pp.27,
to 1.2m), known on the Nemunas from medieval times 40-42 and 123-127). It is true, riffles, though impeding
was described. It covered a distance of 51 kilometres shipping very much, were not insurmountable obsta-
from Smalininkai to Til in only nine days. Cargo cles. It is known that in Viking times river riffles or
boats used to be pulled up the river (Litwin 2000, p. close watersheds used to be overcome by travellers.
375, 384, 389). Special tracks, like those in northern Sweden, could
be prepared beside the riffles, which made it possible
An analysis of the travelling possibilities along the
to pull boats on rollers. Some traders boats were too
Nemunas and parallels would confirm that in Viking
315
large and heavy to be hauled overland. Even people fluence of the Jra and the Nemunas (Gailiuis et al.
without ships might have changed rivers on foot or 2001, p.567). They could reach such places in small
Tr a d e r s a n d t h e i r Wa y s i n
on horseback and embarked on new boats. In northern boats. It is true, writing about onslaughts on Gedimi-
rmed and Expected.
Russia there were places where cargo was transported nas castle on the Jra, upstream from its confluence
by horses (Teigelake 2003, p.91). There ought to be a with the Akmena (Batra 1985, map), Petri de Dusburg
strong motivation for such a journey. We cannot trace a mentions only overland Crusades (Petras Dusburgietis
Vi k i n g Ti m e s
similar motivation for travelling along the Nemunas in 249 (242), 332 (325), 351 (344), p.269, 278 and 328).
Viking times upwards from Kaunas. Eastern silver did
No doubt, with a favourable wind, the Nemunas, as
not go along the Nemunas in such quantities as it did
well as smaller rivers, like the Venta, Prieglius, Jra
on the Dnieper and Daugava.
and Akmena-Dang, were suitable for travelling on in
From the point of view of travelling and trading, the small boats. Larger boats were not suitable on these
VLADAS
ULKUS
Nemunas appeared to be divided into two parts. In the rivers for long-distance sailing. The Crusaders at-
middle of the route, the trading centres of the Kaunas tempts to bring bigger warships to the Nemunas were
neighbourhood were in a favourable situation. East of not successful either. Apart from small boats, in 1313
it, in the upper reaches of the Nemunas, cultural ex- the castellan of Ragnit built a big warship with walls
change with the Prussians, Curonians and Scandinavi- (cum meniis). As soon as it reached Junigeda (92km
ans could be done through the agency of interregional up the river), the Lithuanians attacked it and burned it
trading centres in the neighbourhood of Kaunas, as down (Petras Dusburgietis 317, 318 (310, 311), p.263)
these centres were culturally influenced by the Scan- (Plate V:2).
dinavians. Burial rites typical of Scandinavians were
The economic importance of trading and traders in
discovered in Marvel cemetery. They are not identi-
different societies in Viking times was different. Nils
fied precisely, but their existence in Viking times begs
Blomkvist, writing about Scandinavia at that time,
no questions (Bertaius 2001, p.201).
concludes that traders in the early feudal system were
Navigation upwards from Kaunas, to go with the stream, necessary, though their role was not dominant (Blom-
involved dugouts, primitive flat-bottomed boats and kvist 1998, p.15). Both interregional trading and trad-
even rafts. Most probably the delivery of merchandise ing with other countries were important for the western
in this section of the Nemunas took place in winter, Balts in Viking times. Trading had to assist them in
on ice. Similar travelling in the higher reaches of the providing luxury goods, ornaments and armaments,
Nemunas took place in Crusaders times. On 20 May rare metals like silver, and raw materials for bronze
1295, after a military encounter in the neighbourhood production, but also important goods like iron and salt.
of Gardin, over 150 Crusaders in boats started down Lithuania was rich in swamp ore resources, but it was
the river (Fig.1:2). They sailed almost to Junigeda short of iron. Lithuania may be assigned to low-scale
castle (Veliuona), where they were stranded due to low iron metallurgy (Salatkien 2007, p.34). It is believed
waters (Petras Dusburgietis 260 (253), p.234). Down that in the middle of the first millennium less than half
the Nemunas, for about 350 kilometres, they probably the iron consumed in the territory used to be smelted
sailed in boats taken from locals, as they reached Gar- here. Local iron metallurgy went down significantly
dinas overland. in Viking times (Navasaitis 2004, p.130), which made
imported iron important in particular. The Western
Traders boats could also travel smaller rivers upwards.
Balts were mainly supplied with Scandinavian iron.
The situation of archaeological monuments points to
Iron trading via traditional water and overland routes
the existence of water and land routes extending along
was not interrupted, even during the Crusaders con-
the Jra and further to Nemunas. In the lower reaches
quests. In 1218, Pope Honorius III banned the sale of
of the Jra, at its confluence with the Nemunas, a trad-
iron, armaments and salt to the Prussians (Popieiaus
ing centre (eighth to 11th centuries) is probably to be
buls 31, p.75). In 1262, Pope Urban IV insisted upon
discovered (ulkus 2006, p.21). The Jra was fit for
the punishment of Linkping traders supplying Livo-
navigation even in Crusaders times. In the summer of
nian and Prussian pagans with arms, iron and other
1307, the Orders warriors managed to reach Puten-
goods (Popieiaus buls 123, p.237f.). Other sources
icka (Ptv) castle up the Jra, using boats with sails
from the 13th century confirm the active travelling of
and oars (?) (Petras Dusburgietis 298 (291), p.254; Al-
Scandinavian, Rigan and Sambian traders across the
monaitis 2007, p.52). This castle probably stood on the
bay and the Nemunas, trading in salt and arms (PUB 1.
Akmena, about 15 kilometres from its confluence with
H. 1. Nr. 275, p.207).
the Jra (Batra 1985, map). It is not clear whether
they reached Putenicka castle itself or the confluence
of the Akmena and the Jra (over 72km from the con-
The historian V. Almonaitis doubts the possibility (Al-
monaitis 2007, p.55).
316
Iron, silver, non-ferrous metals in huge amounts, and ments, some luxury items, and imported articles used
BALTICA 8
weaponry used to be delivered to the Balts from Scan- to be delivered by local traders to remote territories and
dinavia, the western Slavs and the Germans. It is still tribes by overland and water routes.
not clear what traders would take away from the Balts.
Arms, balances and weights used to be ordinary at-
Reference is made to amber, furs, and women slaves
tributes of traders in the 11th and 13th centuries. This
as traditional articles (Herrmann 1982). It is not clear
is why out of 18 explored graves of Curonian traders
what capital one had to possess to make this journey
in the Palanga neighbourhood, 11 of them contained
profitable. Hypothetically only, we can speak now
ARCHAEOLOGIA
swords (most of the ninth to 13th-century Baltic swords
about saleable goods. A slave cost about one mark (223
are found in the lands of the West Balts (Kazakeviius
grams of silver) in Viking times, a woman slave could
1996), battle-axes or spearheads. The arms in these
fetch a price of up to three marks (Steuer 2004, p.105).
graves prove that free traders used to be armed. Be-
Due to the good price, slave trading was a profitable
sides, trading and acquiring wealth with the help of
business, though the transportation of larger numbers
arms was typical of the soldiering of the time. Warri-
of slaves required bigger ships, which could enter the
ors graves with traders attributes of the tenth to 13th
mouths of larger rivers only. The neighbourhood of
centuries were also discovered in Palanga cemetery. It
Kaunas was famous for its horses. While exploring the
is interesting that they appeared to be in the zone of
abundant horse burials of the eighth to 12th centuries
rich graves in the central part of the cemetery (ulkus
in Marvel, Vervai and other cemeteries, peculiarities
1997, pp.289 and 292).
of a local horse breed were identified. They were small
(120 to 136cm in height), spindle-legged horses, but Commercial travelling in distant territories was dan-
very tough. Large hooves helped them to cross damp gerous, and traders were usually armed. Traders could
terrain easily. They were hardy, did not fear hunger be safe and rely on the protection of local dukes in cos-
and could carry heavy loads. These horses were also tal trading centres and larger tribal centres. It is likely
fit for war and work (Bertaius, Daugnora 2001, p.398; that major overland and water trading routes were also
Bertaius 2002, p.187f.). Horses from the neighbour- protected. Routes to other tribes used to be danger-
hood of Kaunas are attributed to the local breed (in ous; therefore, traders travelled with arms, and, what
Lithuanian emaitukai), traced from the sixth and sev- is likely, in groups. Before the appearance of more pro-
enth centuries. In the Middle Ages they were known found written sources in the 13th century, there is no
as a breed of manoeuvrable and tough combat horses material about interrelations of the Baltic tribes. The
(Macijauskien, veistien 2002). spread of archaeological artefacts points to cultural
links which existed between tribes, though, undoubt-
It is known that one of the important trading goods in
edly, armed conflicts and military campaigns, maraud-
Viking times was a thoroughbred horse with bridles
ing and piracy used to be daily routine in Viking times.
(Steuer 2004, p.107). There is no written material about
After the adoption of Christianity in neighbouring ter-
the transportation of Baltic horses to Scandinavia as
ritories, traders were often bringing the new confes-
merchandise or the spoils of war. Bearing in mind the
sion to the pagans, building churches and establishing
good capacities of Baltic horses, firstly of those com- VII
new parishes (Adami 1846, p.16). That could make
ing from the neighbourhood of Kaunas and valued in
their travelling even more dangerous. In Descriptiones VIKINGS:
severe Nordic conditions, it could be concluded that
terrarum, a written source from the 13th century, it is WA R FA R E
this trade was probable. As an argument, the horse bri- AND TRADE
said that Christians could never step without a sword FROM THE
dle discovered in Bjrk cemetery (Sweden) and prob- B A LT I C T O
into the territory of pagan emaitija (Samogitia), a
ably manufactured in the neighbourhood of Kaunas, THE DANUBE
neighbour of Curonia (Gorski 1981; Mugurvis1995,
could be presented (Bertaius 2002, p.194).
p.24).
In the 11th and 12th centuries the Balts could already
provide themselves with rye, which could also have
been an export article (ulkus 1997a, p.18f.). Archaeo- Translated by Algimantas Dautartas
logical material does not show that Baltic ornaments
were saleable in Scandinavia and the southwestern References
Baltic (ulkus 2004, p.136f.).
Probably demand on the internal market was differ- Published sources
ent. Iron, imported non-ferrous metals and local am-
ber travelled from coastal to inland centres. Besides, Adami M. Adami gesta Hammaburgensis ecclesie Pontifi-
cum Scriptores rerum Germanicarum in usum scholarum.
in some Curonian territories it is possible to identify
Hanoverae, 1846.
ornament manufacturing centres (ulkus 1991). Orna-
317
Dvi ilibero de Lanua kelions Lietuv. In: J. JURGINIS, DELECKIEN, I., 2003. Laivyba Nemune Kauno guberni-
Tr a d e r s a n d t h e i r Wa y s i n A. IDLAUSKAS, eds. Kratas ir mons. Vilnius: joje 17951914. Magistrinis darbas (unpublished Masters
Mokslas, 1983, 48-51. degree work at Klaipda University). Klaipdos univer-
KJM Klaipdos jr muziejus-akvariumas. Fotokopij ar- sitetas, Klaipda.
rmed and Expected.
chyvas, kadrai 75-81. EDBERG, R., 2003. By Lodia and Troika. Early Russian
Olaus Magnus 1539. In: E. JGER. Prussia-Karten 1542 Travellers Accounts. In: By the Water. Archaeological
Vi k i n g Ti m e s
1810. Weienhorn, 1982. Perspectives on Human Strategies around the Baltic Sea.
Petras Dusburgietis. Prsijos ems kronika (Petri
de Dus- Sdertrn Academic Studies, 17, 99-121.
burg. Chronica terrae Prussiae). In: Lituanistin biblioteka ENGLERT, A., OSSOWSKI, W., 2004. Sailing in Wulfstans
23. Vilnius: Vaga. wake. The trial voyage Hedeby-Gdask with the Skuldelev
Popiei buls dl kryiaus ygi prie prsus ir lietuvius 1 reconstruction Ottar. In: Pre-prints of papers for the
XIII a. (P. PAKARKLIS, ed.). Vilnius: Mintis, 1987. research seminar Wulfstans Voyages. Wismar 24th-25th
PUB - Preuisches Urkundenbuch Bd. I. Teil 1. Knigsberg September 2004, Wismar, 90-95.
I. Pr., 1882. GAILIUIS, B., JABLONSKIS, J., KOVALENKOVIEN,
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ULKUS
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WILLOWEIT, G., 1969. Die Wirtschaftsgeschichte des FROM THE
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chichte und Landeskunde Ost-Mitteleuropas. Im Auftrage kelius ir transport. THE DANUBE
320
THE VIKINGS IN THE BALKANS
BALTICA 8
( T E N T H T O 11 T H C E N T U R I E S )
S T R AT E G I C A N D TA C T I C A L C H A N G E S .
N E W A R C H A E O L O G I C A L D ATA
O N W E A P O N RY
ARCHAEOLOGIA
VALERI
YOTOV
Abstract
For a long time the interest of many scholars has been focused on issues of the Viking (Varangian, Norman) presence in the
Balkans. However, a series of strategic and tactical changes happened in warfare after the raids undertaken by the Russian-
Varangian Knyaz (Prince) Sviatoslav in Bulgaria in the late tenth century AD. Therefore, special attention could be given to
a series of new artefacts of north European (or Scandinavian) origin, which consists mainly of weapons and military equip-
ment.
Key words: Balkans, Bulgarian Kingdom, Vikings, strategies, armament.
Strategic and tactical changes in can hardly suppose that Sviatoslav had no intention
Bulgaria in the late tenth century or readiness to attack Constantinople. It is not acci-
dental that after his mothers death the Knyazs first
For a long time the interest of many scholars has been step was to divide his ancestral land between his
focused on issues of the Viking (Varangian, Nor- sons (Yaropolk in Kiev, Oleg amongst the Dereveh
man) presence in the Balkans (Blondal 1978; David- (Drevlyani), and Vladimir in Novgorod). There is a
son 1976; Ciggaar 1974, p.301-342ff.; Guzelev 2002, well-known interpretation of the fact, emphasizing that
p.30ff. and notes 13-29). One of the questions omitted Sviatoslav set off for Bulgaria, naming it his land
so far is the strategic and tactical changes in warfare forever, and, in this connection, after he had quitted
after the raids undertaken by the Russian-Varangian Dorostol (Drastar; Fig.1), it was impossible for him to
Knyaz (Prince) Sviatoslav in Bulgaria in the late tenth come back to Kiev, where his elder son Yaropolk was
century AD. Therefore, special attention now should already ruling (Russev 2000, p.222).
be paid to some new archaeological findings of north
One should not forget about the desire to control com-
European (or Scandinavian) origin accumulated in re-
merce on the Danube: all boons flow there [to the
cent years. They consist mainly of weapons and mili-
Danube]: from the Greek land, Czechia, Hungary, Rus-
tary equipment. In fact, such finds known to scholars
sia, and so on. VII
until recently were very rare (Paulsen 1953, pp.59 and VIKINGS:
63, 1, 5; Popa 1984, pp.425-431). Ultimately, one should realize that, in spite of the over- WA R FA R E
all weakening of the Bulgarian state in the early second AND TRADE
The raids undertaken by the Russian-Varangian Knyaz FROM THE
half of the tenth century, Sviatoslavs raids were the B A LT I C T O
Sviatoslav caused a chain of important events. There THE DANUBE
main reason for the defeat and the subsequent conquest
are many studies elucidating the reasons behind Svia-
of the Bulgarian lands by Byzantium.
toslavs raids on the Danube, so there is no need to
recall them again. The reorganization of the territory undertaken by Em-
peror John Tzimitzes (969976) and continued by Em-
First, it is necessary to mention that in military and
peror Basil II (9761025) concerned almost the whole
strategic terms, Sviatoslavs raid was not aimed at
empire; yet, there were two specially created themes to
Constantinople directly; primarily, it was aimed across
stop the penetration of the Russians into Byzantine ter-
the Danube against the Bulgarian Kingdom (Fig.1).
ritory: the Bosporus, the Pontos Euxeinos and Western
All previous raids passed by Bulgaria (for more about
Mesopotamia (Oikonomides 1972, p.101ff.). I shall
this, see the Emperor Constantine Porphyrogenitus).
speak about the Bosporus and Pontos Euxeinos themes
This approach is suggested by Sviatoslavs intentions as they were created to keep Chersonesos and maintain
expressed in his words to his mother and the boyars: a general influence in the northern Black Sea region,
I dislike being in Kiev, I want to live in Pereyaslavets lost under Vladimirs rule.
on the Danube. That is the middle of my land One
321
Military treaties of the second half of
Changes. New Archaeological
the tenth century
T h e Vi k i n g s i n t h e B a l k a n s
( Te n t h t o 11 t h C e n t u r i e s )
S t r a t e g i c a n d Ta c t i c a l
BALTICA 8
eval town, Drastar (Fig.1). I ask for your attention to
this fortress mainly because it has yielded the biggest
quantity of Scandinavian and Russian finds: a sword
pommel (Popa 1984, p.425ff.), two medallions with
images of eagles or falcons, and other items (Diaconu
1972; Yotov 2002).
ARCHAEOLOGIA
P r e s l a v i t s a Ve l i k i P r e s l a v
Va r n a
analogies.
The first and the main group of researched
artefacts is connected with weaponry and
military equipment (the main sites are pub-
lished in Yotov 2004).
BALTICA 8
types is unclear and could be discussed,
as they are found across Europe. How-
ever, they may well be connected with
our topic of discussion.
Most researchers refer such swords to
a group that includes a wide variety of
ARCHAEOLOGIA
types and variants, type (swords
from the Vikings time) in the clas-
sification of E. Oakeshott (Oakeshott
1991, p.50) dated to the early 11th and
later centuries; type (?) or rather V
in Kirpichnikovs classification, dated
to the 12th century, but the author ad-
mits an early dating (Kirpichnikov
1966a, p.56ff., Fig.1), and type V in
. Ruttkays classification, dated to the
12th to 14th centuries (Ruttkay 1976,
p.255ff., Abb. 1). To this type belongs
the sword from the village of Govezh-
da, Montana Region (Fig.4:f).
The latter two swords (coming from
northwest Bulgaria) seem to be con-
nected with the Magyars raids on the
Balkans from the late 930s to the mid-
dle of the 11th century (Dimitrov 1998,
p.71ff.). The north European, namely
Scandinavian, influence in these two
Fig. 5. Sword scabbard chapes: germanisches Vogelemotiv, germanisches swords is doubtless.
Vierflemotiv and orientalischer Palmette style. Sword pommels are not often found in
Bulgaria. One (Popa 1984, p.425ff.) was
the early Vikings to the first half of the ninth centu- found in the fortress on the island of Pacuiul Lui Soare
ry (Petersen 1919, p.176), although they could have (the possible residence of Knyaz Sviatoslav in 971),
reached the area south of the Danube in somewhat later and a second one was found somewhere in northeast
time. Bulgaria. There are engravings of silver with motifs of
VII
spirals and interlacing lines on the iron surfaces of the
There are three swords kept at the museum of Constana, VIKINGS:
two ferrules. In Petersens classification, they belong
Romania (Fig.4:bd). One of them was found near WA R FA R E
to the S type, and are dated to the tenth and early 11th AND TRADE
the village of Albeti (west of Mangalia), the other two FROM THE
centuries (Petersen 1919, p.142ff.).
come from somewhere in inland Dobrudja. The sword B A LT I C T O
THE DANUBE
from Albesti has on one of its surfaces a stamp, and on Sword scabbard chapes are openwork or solid cases
the reverse side there is the inscription Ulfberht. In fixed to wooden scabbards. Each one has a round
J.Petersens classification, all three swords belong to asymmetric rhomboid, triangular or more complex
types /W, X, V, dated to the second half of the tenth form with convex or concave shoulders. They are ellip-
and the 11th centuries (Petersen 1919, p.75ff., and tical in section and are cast in bronze. There are various
156ff.). Bearing in mind their location and date, these types in P.Paulsens and G.Korzukhinas classifica-
three swords may be connected with Sviatoslavs raids tions (Korzukhina 1950, pp.63-94; Paulsen 1953). Six
in 969971 into the area of the Lower Danube. sword scabbard chapes have parallels in the so-called
germanisches Vogelmotiv and germanisches Vi-
About the sword from a settlement by the village of
erflemotiv style (Fig.5:1-9) pieces according to
Gradeshnitsa, in the Vratsa Region (Fig.4:e), in
Paulsen (Paulsen 1953, pp.17-57).
J.Petersens classification, such swords belong to the
Z type, and are dated to the second half of the tenth Researchers admit that chapes of this group were
and the middle of the 11th centuries (Petersen 1919, manufactured in Sweden. What is interesting is their
325
placed somewhere in the Danube area, and by no
Changes. New Archaeological
means in the Baltic region (Korzukhina 1950, p.68).
T h e Vi k i n g s i n t h e B a l k a n s
( Te n t h t o 11 t h C e n t u r i e s )
BALTICA 8
srednovoevikovieto. Sofia. pasikeitim (1 pav.; iliustr. VI: 24), kuriuos liudija
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vnos vav Straipsnyje aptariami rusikos ir skandinavikos kil-
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ARCHAEOLOGIA
FEHNER, M.,
1982.
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VII
Received: 14 December 2006; Revised: 22 May 2007
VIKINGS:
WA R FA R E
AND TRADE
VIKINGAI BALKANUOSE FROM THE
( X XIa.):S trategijos ir B A LT I C T O
THE DANUBE
taktikos pasikeitimai .
nauji archeologijos
d u ome n y s apie gi n k l u ot
Valeri Yotov
Santrauka
327
Tr a d e a n d Wa r f a r e i n t h e B a l - T W O L A R G E S I LV E R H O A R D S F R O M O C K S A RV E
From Ocksarve on Gotland.
E v i d e n c e f o r Vi k i n g P e r i o d
T R A D E A N D WA R FA R E I N T H E B A LT I C R E G I O N
tic Region
Abstract
JAN PEDER
LAMM
Three of the most remarkable Viking Period silver hoards found on Gotland form the topic of this paper. They all offer view-
points upon trade, tribute and warfare in Gotland and the East Baltic area. The oldest of them (t.p.q. 870/1) was found in
1999 at Spillings in Othem parish. It illustrates the enormous influx of Arabic silver in its epoch, weighing more than 66kg, of
which 17.5kg are made up of about 14,000 coins. Both of the other hoards were found at Ocksarve in Hemse parish, the first
in 1920, the second in 1997. The hoard of 1920 i.a contains 112 Byzantine millaresia struck for Constantine IX Monomachos
(10421055), probably part of the salary of a Gotlandic mercenary and ex-member of the Varangian guard. The second hoard
(t.p.q. 999) is interesting from a metrological point of view, as it contains several interlinked payment spirals and bundles
containing hack-silver. There is also a magnificent silver sword chape, probably a masterpiece from a Kievan workshop, with
a graffito showing two crossed single-edged swords of J.Petersens type T, V or W.
Key words: sword chape, silver hoard, Ocksarve, Spillings, coins, metrology.
328
BALTICA 8
ARCHAEOLOGIA
Fig. 1. The Ocksarve hoard of 1997 (in the custody of the Statens Historiska Museum 33128), now exhibited in Gotlands
fornsal, Visby (photograph by R.Hejdstrm, after Thunmark-Nyln 2006).
VII
VIKINGS:
WA R FA R E
AND TRADE
FROM THE
B A LT I C T O
THE DANUBE
Fig. 2. The heaviest silver bundle from Ocksarve when opened (photograph by G.Hildebrand, Statens Historiska Museum).
329
ral rings, and artefacts have been bundled into heav-
Tr a d e a n d Wa r f a r e i n t h e B a l -
ier units. In the Ocksarve case most of the artefacts
From Ocksarve on Gotland.
E v i d e n c e f o r Vi k i n g P e r i o d
Tw o L a r g e S i l v e r H o a r d s
falling apart. These bundles weigh 435, 452, 499 and Fig. 3. One of the terminals of an East Baltic silver dress pin
LAMM
330
BALTICA 8
ARCHAEOLOGIA
VII
VIKINGS:
WA R FA R E
AND TRADE
FROM THE
B A LT I C T O
THE DANUBE
Fig. 4. The silver sword chape from Ocksarve: 1 the chape and its details; 1a reconstruction (drawing by C.Bonnevier,
Statens Historiska Museum).
331
military aspect. Altogether, only about 400 Byzantine
Tr a d e a n d Wa r f a r e i n t h e B a l -
silver coins have been found in Scandinavia, and no
From Ocksarve on Gotland.
E v i d e n c e f o r Vi k i n g P e r i o d
Tw o L a r g e S i l v e r H o a r d s
332
D u dideli sidabro lobiai ios monetos, matyt, pateko ia per karines peripeti-
BALTICA 8
i G otlando , O cksarve jas. Skandinavijoje i viso rasta tik apie 400 Bizantijos
vietov s . V iking monet. Manoma, kad bizantikos monetos atsirado
Gotlande kaip algos, moktos gotlandieiams samdi-
laikotarpio prekybos ir
niams (tarnavusiems Konstantinopolyje variagams),
karo ygi B altijos j ros
dalis.
regione rodymai
Straipsnyje Ocksarve lobis yra lyginamas su 1999 m.
ARCHAEOLOGIA
Gotlande, Othem parapijoje, Spillings vietovje rastu
Jan Peder Lamm sidabro lobiu didiausiu iki iol vedijoje. Spillings
lobis datuojamas 870871 metais, jo svoris yra ne ma-
Santrauka esnis kaip 66 kg, i jo 17,5 kg sveria sidabro monetos,
kuri daugiausia, t. y. apie 14 000, yra arab dirhamai.
Vienas i viking laikotarpio sidabro lobi, sveriani
daugiau nei 5 kg, 1997 m. buvo rastas Gotlando saloje,
Hemse parapijoje, Ocksarve vietovje (1 pav.). Lobis
tikriausiai buvo paslptas buvusioje stulpo duobje
999 metais. Tarp rast 370 monet 340 buvo vokikos,
8 Bohemijos, 6 Anglijos, 6 vlyvosios romni-
kos, 3 arabikos, 2 skandinavikos ir 1 bizanti-
ka.
Dauguma io lobio dirbini buvo surita ryulliais
(1pav.). Keturi ryulliai svr madaug po 200 gra-
m, penktas 155 gramus, o etas beveik dvigubai
daugiau, t. y. 301 gram. Lobyje taip pat buvo keturi
ryulliai, kuriuose rasta kapoto sidabro lazdeli, apy-
ranki, i vielos vyt vij gabal ir smeigtuk dali,
ie dirbiniai buvo suspausti ir susukti bei suverti vi-
jinmis antkaklmis. ie ryulliai svr 435, 452, 499
ir 779 gramus. Juose buvo dtos net kelios monetos,
kad ryullis pasiekt norim svor.
ie sidabrini dirbini ryulliai buvo suriti kiekvie-
nas savitai, taigi visi yra unikals. Nutarta juos saugoti
tokiu pavidalu, kokiu jie buvo rasti. Taiau sunkiau-
sias ryullis pradjo irti, todl nusprsta j ivynioti
(2 pav.). Viduje tarp kapoto sidabro lazdeli ir kit
VII
dirbini fragment buvo rastas Ryt Pabaltijui bdin-
VIKINGS:
go sidabrinio smeigtuko trikampe galvute fragmentas: WA R FA R E
trikamps galvuts su buoele dalis (2; 3pav.). AND TRADE
FROM THE
Lobyje tarp ryulli buvo rastas iskirtinis dirbi- B A LT I C T O
THE DANUBE
nys tai 16 cm ir apie 90 gram svorio kalavijo
maki apkalas (4 pav.). Apkalas yra ls tris dalis
(4: 1pav.). Tai vienintelis rastas toks kalavijo maki
apkalas vedijoje. Panai apkal yra inoma i Latvi-
jos, Lietuvos ir Ukrainos. Ant io apkalo rti du vie-
nameniai sukryiuoti kalavijai be apatini rankenos
skersini. rtus kalavijus galima priskirti J. Peterse-
no klasifikacijos T, V arba W tipo kalavijams.
1920 m. Ocksarve taip pat buvo rastas lobis, kuriame
buvo 631 sidabrin moneta. i monet lobis, surinktas
penki mponi kart, buvo paslptas apie 1120me-
tus. Pagal vert isiskiria 123 Bizantijos miliarisijai,
kaldinti Konstantino IX (10421055) valdymo metu.
333
i n t h e D e v e l o p m e n t o f Te n t h
VIII.ARMAMENTS AND DEFENSIVE
SYSTEMS
to 13th Century Blade
T h e M a i n Te n d e n c i e s
We a p o n s i n B e l a r u s
MIKALAI PLAVINSKI
Abstract
The article is devoted to the history of tenth to 13th-century blade weapons in Belarus. The main tendencies in the evolution
of blade weapons and the most important directions in military-technical contacts of the population of Belarus are defined.
Key words: blade weapons, sword, sword chape, sabre, Belarus, Medieval Period.
334
BALTICA 8
ARCHAEOLOGIA
Fig. 1. Distribution of Viking Period swords in Belarus (numbers on map correspond to numbers in the catalogue 1): H type
H sword; V type V sword; Y type Y sword; a sword cross-guard; b possible area of find.
with the ULFBERHT, blade inscription were possibly considering Vytautas Kazakeviius type scheme de-
produced in the Middle Rhine area (Kirpichnikov 1966, veloped for Baltic swords (Kazakeviius 1996).
p.38f.). Judging by the presence of fine vertical copper
Swords of type I after A. Kirpichnikov or type T1 Cu-
and silver ornamentation on the pommel and the cross-
ronian after V. Kazakeviius are represented on the
guard, the sword from Bryleuskae field was probably
territory of Belarus by six finds (see catalogue 1, 10-
also made by Carolingian armourers, possibly at the
15). The most interesting of them is a half-finished VIII
same workshop of ULFBERHT (Kirpichnikov et al.
cross-guard from
roundabout
the town of Navagrudak, ARMAMENTS
2000, p.109ff.). Finally, the sword from Vitebsk can be
which was found in a jewellers workshop of the first AND
attributed to Carolingian manufacturing because of the DEFENSIVE
half of the 12th century. Nowadays, the opinion of the SYSTEMS
pattern-welding of its blade.
Baltic, namely Curonian, origin of T1 Curonian type
is commonly accepted (turms 1936; Paulsen 1956,
S w o r d s f r o m t h e m i d - 11 t h p.133; Kazakeviius 1997).
to 13th centuries Type II most likely also has an Eastern Baltic origin
(Kirpichnikov 1966, p.34; Kazakeviius 1996, p.159).
The second half of the 11th to the 13th centuries are
defined as the Romanesque Period in the history of
It should be mentioned that sword types suggested by Vy-
the considered regions swords (Fig. 2). For the sys- tautas Kazakeviius correspond to Anatolii Kirpichnikovs
tematization of swords of this period, we use Anatolii types (type I corresponds to type T1 Curonian, type II
Kirpichnikovs typology (Kirpichnikov 1966, p.49ff.) type Z, type III swords with saddle-shaped pommels,
type IV swords with oval pommels, type V swords
with rhomboidal pommels, type VI swords with spheri-
cal pommels).
335
i n t h e D e v e l o p m e n t o f Te n t h Fig. 2.
Distribution
of mid-11th
to 13th-cen-
to 13th Century Blade
T h e M a i n Te n d e n c i e s
We a p o n s i n B e l a r u s
tury swords
in Belarus:
1 distribu-
tion of
mid-11th
to 13th-
century
typological-
ly defined
PLAVINSKI
swords in
MIKALAI
Belarus;
2 (numbers
on map
correspond
to numbers
in the cata-
logue 1):
T1 Curo-
nian type T1
Curonian
sword;
II type
II sword;
III type
III sword;
IV type
IV sword;
V type
V sword;
VI type
VI sword.
336
Six swords and fragments of them belong to this type In the lands of Western Russ the ratio of swords of Bal-
BALTICA 8
(see catalogue 1, 16-21). On the blade of the Hro- tic and Romanesque types is 8:5 (Table 2) (hilt details
dna sword there is an inscription consisting of several from the Homel armour workshop are not taken into
marks, among which is a cross. account because of their multiplicity, which can deeply
influence the whole picture (Plavinski 2006, p.19f.).
Type III is represented by one half-finished pommel
On average, on Old Russian territory in the second
from the Homel/Gomel armour workshop. Two pom-
half of the 11th to 13th centuries, against one sword
mels belong to type IV. Type V is represented by one
of Baltic origin there are approximately 2.5 swords of
ARCHAEOLOGIA
sword from Gurkovichy. Three finds belong to type VI
Romanesque types (Kirpichnikov 1966, Tabl. 4).
(see catalogue 1,
22-28).
There is no information about the existence of local
Apart from the swords and their fragments, the types
blade manufacturing in the mid-11th to 13th centuries.
of which can be defined, several cross-guards of Ro-
Sword blades were imported from Western Europe as
manesque style were found (see catalogue 1, 2930,
well as some finished swords with hilts. Nevertheless,
3236). Several cross-guards such as the sword from
it is likely that some swords were imported into terri-
Vysokae cannot be typologically defined yet (Fig.
tory of Belarus not directly but via Curonian armour
1:1) (see catalogue 1, 37-41). Types IIIVI include
workshops, where local hilts were attached to them.
swords of common European Romanesque style.
Other blades were made ready for use by craftsmen of
It is likely that on the territory of Belarus swords of Western Russ, who could produce hilts in a common
type T1 Curonian appeared as early as the 11th cen- European style, as well as in a southeast Baltic style.
tury, probably at first in the middle River Nemunas Local manufacturing of hilt details on the territory
region settled by the Balts. In the 12 and 13th centu- of Belarus is observed from the first half of the 12th
ries they spread on the lands of Western Russ. Type II century. The find of a half-finished bronze cross-guard
can be widely dated back to the 11th to 13th centuries. in a jewellers workshop in Navagrudak proves that
The earliest find of a fragment of a Romanesque-style jewellers were able to produce details of hilts along
sword dates back to the beginning of the 12th century with other jewellery. From jewellers and blacksmiths,
(Table 1). hilt details were sent to special armourers. Judging by
Types of swords are not represented uniformly. Among finds from the Homel workshop, such armourers were
18 swords and their fragments which can be attributed, mainly metalworkers who accomplished the fitting of
12 relate to types that have an Eastern Baltic origin. separate details and assembled different kinds of weap-
Among five swords found in the Nemunas region, four ons (Makushnikov, Lupinenko 2004, p.204ff.).
belong to the Baltic type and only one to Romanesque
(Fig. 1:2).
Ta b l e 1 . D a t i n g a n d s t a t i s t i c s o f m i d - 11 t h t o 1 3 t h - c e n t u r y s w o r d s f r o m B e l a r u s
Ta b l e 2 . T h e r a t i o o f s w o r d s f r o m t h e m i d - 11 t h t o t h e 1 3 t h c e n t u r i e s i n t h e
We s t e r n R u s s a n d B e l a r u s i a n N e m u n a s r e g i o n
337
i n t h e D e v e l o p m e n t o f Te n t h
to 13th Century Blade
T h e M a i n Te n d e n c i e s
We a p o n s i n B e l a r u s
PLAVINSKI
MIKALAI
Fig. 3. Distribution of tenth to 13th-century sword chapes in Belarus (numbers on map correspond to numbers in the cata-
logue 2): II: 4 type II: 4 sword chape; III: 1 type III: 1 sword chape; III: 2 type III: 2 sword chape; IV type IV sword chape;
V: 1 type V: 1 sword chape; V: 2 type V: 2 sword chape; individual forms sword chape of individual form; U-shaped
U-shaped sword chape.
Sword chapes The three most ancient chapes found in Belarus can be
dated back to the second half of the tenth to the begin-
A necessary accessory of a sword was a scabbard. Finds ning of the 11th century. They belong to types I: 2-c, II:
of intact scabbards are not known. The main evidence 4, III: 1 (see catalogue 2, 1-3), which have a North
for scabbard use is their metal chapes. Like swords, European origin (Paulsen 1953, pp.22-34, 54-57 and
sword chapes are divided into two groups. To the first 59-67).
one belong Viking Period chapes and their Baltic suc-
Types III: 2, IV, V: 1 and VII: 2 are represented by six
cessors of the 11th to 13th centuries. For their systema-
finds (see catalogue 2, 4-8 and 25). It is considered
tization, Peter Paulsens typology is used (Paulsen
that sword chapes of these types were manufactured in
1953, p.17-142). The second group unites U-shaped
the southeast Baltic or on Gotland (Korzukhina 1950,
chapes of the Romanesque epoch.
p.66f.; Paulsen 1953, pp.92-96 and 136-139).
338
BALTICA 8
ARCHAEOLOGIA
Fig. 4. Distribution of mid-12th to 13th-century sabres in Belarus (numbers on map correspond to numbers in the catalogue
3): IA type IA sabre cross-guard; II type II sabre cross-guard; II type II sabre cross-guard; III type III sabre cross-guard; I
type I sabre pommel; blade binding, sabre blade binding.
Type V: 2 counts ten chapes of two subgroups which Thus, chapes from the second half of the tenth and the
differ in their ornamentation (see Catalogue 2, 9-18). beginning of the 11th centuries from the territory of
The main manufacturing centres of type V: 2 chapes Belarus were of North European origin and were pos-
were on lands settled by the Curonians (Paulsen 1953, sibly brought to the region together with Carolingian
p.124). However, a find from a jewellery workshop swords. Among 22 chapes from the 11th to 13th cen- VIII
dated to the end of the 12th or beginning of the 13th turies, 18 can be attributed to Baltic craftsmens pro-
ARMAMENTS
century
in the vicinity of
the town of Homel shows the duction. The Homel chape was made by Old Russian AND
possibility of their local manufacture (Makushnikov, craftsmen who succeed to Baltic patterns. U-shaped DEFENSIVE
SYSTEMS
Lupinenko 2004, p.209f.). It is noticeable that the or- Romanesque chapes are represented just by three finds
namentation of the chape has its own peculiarities: the (Fig. 3). So, to one U-shaped chape there are six Bal-
central ornamentation motif is a rhombus that has no tic ones. The cited numbers can be compared to the
direct analogies in any variants of type V: 2 (Plavinski appropriate ratio of scabbard chapes from Iziaslavl
2006, p.28). at Valyn, where to 14 U-shaped examples there are
only two Baltic patterns (Kirpichnikov 1975, p.32f.).
Two chapes of individual forms and one fragment of a
chape are also ascribed to the Baltic group (see Cata- The chape from the jewellery workshop
in the vicinity
logue 2, 19-21). The group of U-shaped chapes is of
the town of Homel proves that jewellery craftsmen
represented just by three finds from Polatsk and Orsha, could manufacture not only details of hilts of swords
and are dated to the 12th and 13th centuries (see cata- but also scabbard chapes for them.
logue 2, 22-24).
339
i n t h e D e v e l o p m e n t o f Te n t h
to 13th Century Blade
T h e M a i n Te n d e n c i e s
We a p o n s i n B e l a r u s
PLAVINSKI
MIKALAI
Fig. 5. Areas of distribution of 12th to 13th-century swords and sabres in Belarus and in bordering regions (1 sword finds; 2
sabre finds; 3 area of sword distribution; 4 area of sabre distribution.
340
BALTICA 8
ARCHAEOLOGIA
Fig. 6. Type-chronological table of blade weapon evolution in Belarus in the tenth to 13th centuries.
(Zaria 2006, p.182, Fig. 110:1). Therefore, the possi- represented by types H, V, Y (Fig. 6) widespread in
bility of finding sabres in the Belarusian Dzvina region Europe. Their blades were manufactured in Frankish
cannot be excluded. workshops. In cases when we have information about
archaeological complexes from which swords from the
The finds from the Homel armour workshop prove
end of the ninth to the beginning of the 11th centuries
the manufacture of local sabre hilts. Such hilts were
originate, they were found together with artefacts of
attached to imported south Russian, Islamic and trans-
north European origin.
Caucasian blades.
The usage of sword chapes is observed from the sec-
ond half of the tenth century. Sword chapes had not so
Other types of blade weapons
much a functional but more a representative purpose.
They personify extremely well the preferences of the
The sword and the sabre were the main, but not the
only, types of Old Russian blade weapons. Apart from
military-retinue circles. From the very beginning, the VIII
assortment of chapes shows not only the military-tech-
them, several scramasaxes were also used, as well as ARMAMENTS
nical ties of the region with Scandinavia, but also dem- AND
daggers and long single-edged knives of Mongolian DEFENSIVE
onstrates the first signs of Eastern Baltic influence on
origin. SYSTEMS
their shape and ornamentation. It is natural that in the
Most researchers agree that the regular use of battle- Viking Age such manifestations in the decoration of
knives was not typical for the Old Russian military. It elite weapons did not have any certain ethnic signs; on
is considered that narrow single-edged knives longer the contrary, they were of above ethnic Circum Baltic
than 20 to 25 centimetres can be called weapons. Such nature. However, in the light of the further develop-
knives were found in Brest, David-Haradok, Homel ment of the regions blade weapons and weapons com-
and Vitebsk (Plavinski 2006, p.38f.). plex in general, the manifestation of such impulses has
an important meaning.
Conclusion Blade weapons from the 11th century on the territory
of Belarus are represented by swords as in the previous
On the territory of Belarus, swords from the end of
period. Carolingian swords of the Viking Age which
the ninth to the beginning of the 11th centuries are
went out of use approximately in the first third to first
341
i n t h e D e v e l o p m e n t o f Te n t h half of the century were changed for swords with hilts plex of weapons in the second half of the 12th and 13th
of Eastern Baltic origin, type T1 Curonian and type II. centuries. The uneven use of sabres reveals the grade
Sword chapes from the 11th century are represented of activity of military-technical contacts of certain
to 13th Century Blade
T h e M a i n Te n d e n c i e s
by types of Baltic origin. Most of them were brought Western Russian regions with other Old Russian lands,
We a p o n s i n B e l a r u s
from the southeast of the Baltic region, but certain ones and western and Baltic neighbours (Fig. 5).
could have been imported from Gotland.
In the second half of the 12th to the 13th century the
Starting from the 12th century, alongside swords of complex of blade weapons of Western Russ comprised
Baltic origin, swords of, common for Europe, Roman- the greatest number of different types. There were
esque types IIIVI appeared in the complex of weap- swords of type T1 Curonian, II, III, IV, VI, various
ons of the region. Yet type T1 Curonian and II swords Baltic and U-shaped sword chapes. Alongside them,
PLAVINSKI
did not pass out of use. On the contrary, their popular- sabres with cross-guards of types II, II, III and pom-
MIKALAI
ity kept growing. The demand for swords of type T1 mels of type I were used (Fig. 6).
Curonian led to the organization of their local manu-
The number of finds from the territory of Belarus
facturing, evidence of which was fixed in Navagrudak
throws a light on the manufacture of blade weapons
in the first half of the 12th century. It is worth recalling
in the region. Craftsmen dealing with jewellery-mak-
that under the term manufacturing we understand the
ing took part in the process of manufacturing blade
production of hilt details and their attachment to im-
weapons. They could make bronze cross-guards and
ported blades. No evidence of local blade manufactur-
pommels for swords, and also sword chapes. The pro-
ing on the territory of Belarus in the considered period
duction of these craftsmen went to armourers, who
was detected.
dealt primarily with metalwork and assembling opera-
Along with Romanesque swords, U-shaped sword tions: they attached hilt details to imported swords and
chapes appeared, but their number, compared to the sabres blades, and made scabbards for them.
sword chapes of Baltic types, remained insignificant
The Mongol invasion had a considerable effect on
during the 12th and 13th centuries. From the 11th till
the development of military technique and armour in
the 13th century, chapes of type V: 2 were the most
southern and eastern regions of Russ. At the same time,
popular. They made up two fifths of the whole number
materials from Belarus do not give any reason to speak
of finds. Akin to swords of type T1 Curonian, the de-
about a noticeable influence of Mongol traditions on
mand for these objects caused the emergence of their
local military technique and blade weapons as well in
local manufacture, which is traced in Homel at the end
the second half of the 13th century.
of the 12th and the beginning of the 13th centuries.
Translated by the author
Approximately from the 11th century, we can speak
about the existence of certain differences between the
blade weapons of the Belarusian Nioman region and APPENDICES
Western Russ. Blade weapons of the first region con-
Catalogue 1. Swords from the end of the ninth to the
sisted of swords during the 11th and 13th centuries.
13th centuries from the territory of Belarus (Fig. 1, 2)
Almost all these swords and all sword chapes were
presented by types of Baltic origin. It proves that the 1. Bryli, Barysau district. Hoard. Sword in fragments;
Baltic population of the Belarusian Nioman region had ca 890892; type H (Plavinski 2006, pp.8 and 53, map
close military-technical contacts with the population of 3).
the southeastern Baltic, besides, to a limited Old Rus- 2. Vitebsk. A stray find. Sword. Type H. 10th century
sian or common European effect on the development (Plavinski, Babenka 2006, pp.58-59, map 2).
of blade weapons. At the same time, the effect of Bal-
tic traditions on the blade weapons of Western Russ 3. Vitebsk neighbourhood. Fragment of a sword with
was very noticeable. It can be considered as a distinc- a blade inscription VLFBERH+. Type H. 10th century
tive feature of the region in comparison with other Old (Plavinski 2006, pp.9 and 53, map 4).
Russian lands. 4. Polatsk. Stray find from the probable territory of
Sabres emerged in the complex of weapons of Western a barrow field. Sword with a blade inscription ULF-
Russ in the middle of the 12th century. In the Dzvina BERHT. Type V. 10th century (Kirpichnikov 1966,
region, there are no finds of sabres at all, while in the p.32, catalogue 63).
Nemunas region and Central Belarus there are some, 5. Garadzilava, Valozhyn district. Barrow field. Sword
yet they were not frequent. However, in the Dnieper with a bent blade. Type V. 10th century (Pokrovskii
region sabres were sufficiently widely used and their 1892, Table XIV:1).
quantity could equal the number of swords in the com-
342
6. Gurkovichy, Smargon district. Barrow field. Two 21. Galshany, Ashmiany district. A stray find from a
BALTICA 8
sword fragments. Type V. 10th century (Kazakeviius burial. Upper cross-guard. Type II. 11th13th centuries
1996, p.114, Fig. 67). (Plavinski 2006, pp.15 and 56, map 14:1).
7. H
rodna. Fragment of a sword with a horseshoe-like 22. Homel. Armour workshop found near the town.
mark on its blade. Type Y. Mid-10th to first half of the Half-finished pommel. Type III. 1239 (Makushnikov,
11th century (Nikolaev 1983). Lupinenko 2004, Table 2:1, Fig. 3:4).
8. Franopal, Brest district. Hill-fort. Fragment of a 23. Homel. Armour workshop found near the town.
ARCHAEOLOGIA
cross-guard. Mid-10th to beginning of the 11th century Pommel. Type IV. 1239 (Makushnikov, Lupinenko
(Iov 1991, Fig. 29:6). 2004, Table 2:4, Fig. 3:5).
9. Vaukavysk, Shvedskaja gara hill-fort. Cross- 24. Maskavichy, Braslau district. Hill-fort. Pommel.
guard. End of the 10th to first half of the 11th century Type IV. 12th13th century (Duchyc 1991, p.41).
(Zverugo 1967, p.307).
25. Gurkovichy, Smargon district. Barrow field.
10. Gurkovichy, Smargon district. Barrow field. Sword Sword broken in two parts. Type V. 12th13th centu-
broken into two parts. Type T1 Curonian. 11th13th ries (Kazakeviius 1996, p.122, fig. 95:1).
centuries (Kazakeviius 1996, p.112; Kirpichnikov
26. Maskavichy, Braslau district. Hill-fort. Pommel.
1966, p.84f.; catalogue 3).
Type VI. 12th13th centuries (Duchyc 1991, p.41).
11. Gurkovichy, Smargon district. Barrow cemetery.
27. Homel. Armour workshop found near the town.
Cross-guard and pommel. Type T1 curonian. 11th13th
Half-finished pommel. Type VI (?). 1239 (Makush-
centuries (Kazakeviius 1996, p.112).
nikov, Lupinenko 2004, Table 2:2, Fig. 3:7).
12. Navagrudak. Jewellers workshop on the round
28. The territory of Belarus. Sword. Type VI. Second
about town. Half finished cross-guard. Type T1 Curo-
half of the 13th century (Plavinski 2006, pp.16-17 and
nian. First half of the 12th century (Gurevich 1981, Fig.
57, map 20).
28:4; Plavinski 2006, pp.13-14 and 55, map 13:1).
29. Slutsk. Hill-fort. Fragment of a cross-guard. Be-
13. Vusce, Orsha district. Hill-fort. Pommel. Type T1
ginning of the 12th century (Kaliadzinski 1993, p.162,
Curonian. 12th century (Levko 1993, p.25f., Fig. 13).
map 14:4).
14. Svislach, Asipovichy district. Hill-fort. Cross-
30. Minsk. Hill-fort. Cross-guard. Mid-11th century
guard and pommel. Type T1 Curonian. 1213th centu-
(Zagorulskii 1982, p.215, Table VI:3).
ries (Plavinski 2006, pp.14 and 55, map 13:3, 4).
31. Homel. Armour workshop found near the town.
15. Vishchyn, Ragachou district. Hill-fort. Cross-
Cross-guard. 1239 (Makushnikov, Lupinenko 2004,
guard. Type T1 curonian. Mid-12th to mid-13th cen-
Table 1:1, Fig. 1:1).
tury (Zagorulskii 2004, p.214, Table VI:1, 2).
32. Homel. Armour workshop found near the town.
16. Minsk. Hill-fort. Pommel. Type II. Mid-12th cen-
Cross-guard. 1239 (Makushnikov, Lupinenko. 2004,
tury (Zagorulskii 1982: 214, Table VI:1, 2).
Table 1:2, Fig. 1:2).
17. Drutsk, Talachyn district. Hill-fort. Pommel. Type
33. Homel. Armour workshop found near the town. VIII
II. 11th13th centuries (Alekseev 1966, p.159, Fig.
Half-finished cross-guard. 1239 (Makushnikov, Lu-
72:1). ARMAMENTS
pinenko 2004, Table 1:3, Fig. 1:3). AND
18. Vitebsk neighbourhood. Fragment of sword. Type DEFENSIVE
34. Homel. Armour workshop found near the town. SYSTEMS
II. 11th century (Plavinski, Babenka 2006, p.60, map
Cross-guard. 1239 (Makushnikov, Lupinenko 2004,
4).
Table 1:4, Fig. 1:4).
19. Hrodna. Hoard of weapons. Sword in three parts
35. Homel. Armour workshop found near the town.
with an inscription consisting of several marks among
Half-finished cross-guard. 1239 (Makushnikov, Lu-
which is a cross. Type II. 13th century (Kraucevich
pinenko 2004, Table 1:7, Fig. 2:6).
1992, p.41-44).
36. Homel. Armour workshop found near the town.
20. Ashmianec, Smargon district. Barrow field. Sword
Cross-guard. 1239 (Makushnikov, Lupinenko 2004,
broken into two parts. Type II. 13th century (Zajko-
Table 1:14, Fig. 3:1).
vskii 2001, p.413f., Fig. 2:2).
37. Homel. Hill-fort. Cross-guard (?). 12th century
(Makushnikov, Lupinenko 2004, p.213, Fig.3:2).
343
i n t h e D e v e l o p m e n t o f Te n t h 38. Brest. Cross-guard. 13th century (Lysenko 1985, 13. Vaukavysk, hill-fort Zamchyshcha. Type V: 2-c.
p.218, Fig. 149). 11th13th centuries (Zverugo 1967, p.307, Fig. 2:1).
39. Prudniki, Mijory district. Hill-fort. Horn cross- 14. Ashmianec, Smargon district. Barrow field.
to 13th Century Blade
T h e M a i n Te n d e n c i e s
We a p o n s i n B e l a r u s
guard. 10th13th centuries (Laskavyj 1993, p.23, Type V: 2-c. 13th century (Zajkovskii 2001, p.414,
Fig. 1:4). Fig. 2:3).
40. Minsk. Horn cross-guard. End of the 11th13th 15. Maskavichy, Braslau district. Hill-fort. Type V: 2-
centuries (Plavinski 2006, pp.17 and 58, map 18:7). c. 11th13th centuries (Duchyc 1991, p.41, Fig. 22:1).
41. Vysokae, Ashmiany district. Barrow cemetery. 16. Homel. Jewellery workshop found near the town.
Sword. 11th13th centuries (Jarocki 1901, p.47, Type V: 2. End of the 12th to the beginning of the
Fig. 15). 13th century (Makushnikov, Lupinenko 2004, p.209f.,
PLAVINSKI
MIKALAI
Fig. 9).
Catalogue 2. Sword chapes from the 10th13th centu- 17. Vaukavysk, Shvedskaja gara hill-fort. Type V: 2
ries from the territory of Belarus (Fig. 3) (?). 11th13th centuries (Tarasenko 1957, Table II:6).
1. The territory of Belarus. Stray find. Type I: 2-c. 18. Mscislau. Hill-fort. Type V: 2 (?). 11th13th centu-
Second half of the 10th to the beginning of the 11th ries (Alekseev 1995, p.165, Fig. 19:6).
century (Plavinski 2006, pp.29 and 61, map 27:2).
19. Lukoml, Chashniki district. 11th13th centuries
2. Franopal, Brest district. Hill-fort. Type II:4. End of (Laskavyj 1993, p.25, Fig. 2:11).
the 10th to the beginning of the 11th century (Kulakov,
20. Navagrudak, in the neighbourhood of the
Iov 2001, p.80f., Fig. 2:4).
town. 11th13th centuries (Gurevich 1981, p.107,
3. Iuravichy, Kalinkavichy district. Stray find (?). Fig. 88:2).
Type III:1. Approximately the second half of the 10th
21. Drutsk, Talachyn district. Hill-fort. 11th13th cen-
century (Isaenka 1999, p.40).
turies (Plavinski 2006, pp.29 and 61, map 31:7).
4. Garadzishcha on the river Menka, Minsk district.
22. Polatsk, Zapalocce. U-shaped. 12th13th centu-
Hill-fort. Type III: 2 (?). Approximately the first half
ries (Tarasov 1987, Fig. 25:1).
of the 11th century (Plavinski 2006, pp.26 and 59, map
27:3). 23. Polatsk, Zapalocce. Stray find. U-shaped. 12th
13th centuries (Tarasov 1987, Fig. 54:18).
5. Galshany (?), Ashmiany district. Stray find from a
burial (?). Type III: 2. 10th11th centuries (Plavinski 24. Orsha. U-shaped. 12th13th centuries (Dragun
2006, pp.29 and 61, map 28:3). 1965, p.7, Fig. 23:3).
6. Drutsk, Talachyn district. Hill-fort. Type IV. 11th 25. The territory of Belarus. Stray find. Type VII:
century (Alekseev 1966, p.158f., Fig.72:37). 2. 12th13th centuries (Plavinski 2006, pp.29 and 61,
map 31:6).
7. Litvinavichy, Korma district. Stray find. Type V: 1.
End of the 10th to the 11th century (Makushnikov, Lu-
pinenko 2003, p.109f., Fig. 2). Catalogue 3. Sabres from the mid-12th13th centuries
from the territory of Belarus
8. Galshany, Ashmiany district. Stray find. Type V:
1. 11th13th centuries (Plavinski 2006, pp.26 and 59, 1. Minsk. Hill-fort. Cross-guard. Type II. Mid-12th
map 28:2). century (Zagorulskii 1982, p.215, Table VI:4).
9. Gurkovichy, Smargon district. Barrow field. Type 2. Navagrudak, near the town. Cross-guard. Type
V: 2-a. 11th13th centuries (Paulsen 1953, p.107, II. 12th13th centuries (Gurevich 1981, p.107,
Abb. 147). Fig. 88:3).
10. Navagrudak, vicinity of the town. Type V: 2-a. 3. Kopys, Orsha district. Type III. 13th century (Za-
12th century (Gurevich 1974, p.97, Fig.33:3). gorulskii 1973, p.359).
11. Polatsk, hill-fort Verkhni Zamak. Type V: 2-a. 4. Slutsk. Hill-fort. Blade binding. Circa the end of the
First half of the 13th century (Shtykhov 1975, p.71, 12th century (Kaliadzinski 1993, p.162, map 4:20).
Fig. 33:17). 5. Vishchyn, Ragachou district. Hill-fort. Cross-guard
12. Minsk region (?). Type V: 2-a. 11th13th centuries and blade binding. The end of the 12th to mid-13th
(Plavinski 2006, pp.27 and 60, map 29:4). century (Plavinski 2006, pp.35 and 62, map 35:4).
344
6. Homel. Armour workshop found near the town. DOBROVOLSKIJ, I.G, DUBOV, I.V., KUZMENKO, IU.K.,
BALTICA 8
Cross-guard. Type IA. 1239 (Makushnikov, Lupinenko 1991. Graffiti na vostochnykh monetakh: Drevniaja Rus i
sopredelnye strany. Leningrad: LGU.
2004, p.204f., Table 1:8, Fig. 2:4).
DUCHYC, L.U., 1991. Braslauskae Paazere u IXXIV stst.
7. Homel. Armour workshop found near the town. Minsk:
Navuka i tehnika.
Cross-guard. Type II. 1239 (Makushnikov, Lupinenko GUREVICH, F.D., 1974. Nekotorye itogi arkheologichesko-
go izuchenija detinca drevnego Novogrudka. Kratkie so-
2004, Table 1:10, Fig. 2:3). obshchenija instituta arkheologii, Vyp. 139, 93-99.
8. Homel. Armour workshop found near the town. GUREVICH, F.D., 1981. Drevnij Novogrudok (posad
ARCHAEOLOGIA
okolnyj gorod). Leningrad: Nauka.
Cross-guard. 1239 (Makushnikov, Lupinenko 2004, ISAENKA, U.F., 1999. Ad Kieuskaj Rusi da Vialikaga knia-
p.205, Table 1:5, Fig. 1:5). stva Litouskaga. In: V.R. FERANC, ed. Pamiac: gisto-
ryka-dakumentalnaja khronika Kalinkavickaga rajiona.
9. Homel. Armour workshop found near the town.
Minsk, 37
-
44.
Cross-guard. 1239 (Makushnikov, Lupinenko 2004, JAROCKI, R., 1901. Kurhany i cmentarzyska w pow. Osz-
Table 1:3, Fig. 2:5). miaskim, w gub. Wileskiej. wiatowit,
, 46-48.
KALIADZINSKI, L.U., 1993. Umacavanni i uzbraenne leta-
10. Homel. Armour workshop found near the town. pisnaga Sluchaska (XIXIII stst.). In: A.A. MIACELSKI,
Half-finished cross-guard (?). 1239 (Makushnikov, ed. Gistarychna-arkhealagichny zbornik, 1, 160-180.
Lupinenko 2004, p.204f., Table 1:11, Fig. 2:2). KAZAKEVIIUS, V., 1996. IXXIII ami balt kalavijai.
Vilnius: Alma Littera.
11. Homel. Armour workshop found near the town. KAZAKEVIIUS, V., 1997. On One Type of Baltic Sword
Half-finished cross-guard (?). 1239 (Makushnikov, of the Viking Period. Archaeologia Baltica. The Balts and
Lupinenko 2004, p.204f., Table 1:12, Fig. 3:3). their Neighbours in the Viking Age, 2, 117-132.
KIRPICHNIKOV, A.N., 1966. Drevnerusskoe oruzhie. Vy-
12. Homel. Armour workshop found near the town. pusk I. Mechi i sabli IXXIII vv. Svod arkheologicheskikh
Pommel. Type I. 1239 (Makushnikov, Lupinenko istochnikov, Vyp. E136. Moskva, Leningrad: Nauka.
2004, p.206, Fig. 4:4). KIRPICHNIKOV, A.N., 1975. Mechi iz raskopok drevnego
Iziaslavlia. In: I.T. KRUGLIKOVA, ed. Kratkie soob-
13. Mscislau. Hill-fort. Cross-guard. Type III. 1260 shchenija instituta arkheologii. Vyp. 144, Moskva: Nauka,
1270s (Alekseev 1995, p.147f., Fig.4:8). 30-34.
KIRPICHNIKOV, A.N., THLIN-BERGMAN, L., JANS-
Catalogue 4. Details of sabre scabbards from the mid- SON, I., 2000. Novye kompleksnye issledovanija mechej
12th13th centuries from the territory of Belarus epokhi vikingov iz sobranija Gosudarstvennogo istoriche-
skogo muzeja v Stokgolme. Slaviane, finno-ugry, skandi-
1. Vishchyn, Ragachou district. Hill-fort. Cross-guard navy, volzhskie bulgary. Sankt-Peterburg, 100-125.
and binding. Mid-12th to mid-13th century (Plavinski KORZUKHINA, G.F., 1950. Iz istorii drevnerusskogo oru-
2006; pp.37 and 64, map 36:2). zhija XI v. Sovetskaia arkheologiia, XIII, 63-94.
KRAUCEVICH, A., 1992.
Kompleks zbroi i ryshtunku XIII
2. Homel. Armour workshop found near the town. Sa- st. z-pad Grodna. In: Z glybi viakou. Nash kraj. Minsk:
bre chape. 1239 (Makushnikov, Lupinenko 2004, Ta- Krok uperad, 40-46.
KULAKOV, V.I., IOV, O.V., 2001. Nakonechniki nozhen
ble 2:3, Fig. 4:4).
mecha iz kurgana 174 mogilnika Kaup i s gorodishcha
Franopol. In: V.V. SEDOV, ed. Kratkie soobshchenija in-
References stituta arkheologii, Vyp. 211, 77-84.
LASKAVYJ, G.V., 1993. K istorii oruzhija Belorusskogo
Podvinja v VIXIII vv. Statja pervaja. In: L.F. DANKO,
Manuscripts
ed. Polockij Letopisec. 1 (2). Polotsk, 19-38.
VIII
DRAGUN, IU.I., 1965. Otchet Orshanskogo otriada arkheo- LEVKO, O.N., 1993. Srednevekovaja Orsha i jejio okruga ARMAMENTS
logicheskoj ekspedicii Belorusskogo gosudarstvennogo In:Istoriko-arkheologicheskij ocherk. Orsha: Orshanskaja AND
DEFENSIVE
universiteta imeni V.I. Lenina o polevykh issledovanijakh, tipografija. SYSTEMS
provedennykh v 1965 godu. Arkhiu Instytuta gistoryi Na- LYSENKO, P.F., 1985. Bereste. Minsk: Nauka i tehnika.
cyjanalnaj akademii navuk Belarusi. Sprava 278. MAKUSHNIKOV, O.A., LUPINENKO, IU.M., 2003. Dve
IOV, O.V., 1991. Selskie poselenija IXXIII vv. v zapadnoj sluchajnye nakhodki predmetov kruga druzhinnoj kultury
chasti Belorusskogo Polesja. Dissertacija kandidata isto- XXI vv. iz Gomelskogo Posozhja. In: P.P. TOLOCHKO,
richeskikh nauk. Minsk. ed. Druzhynni starozhytnosti Centralno-Skhidnoj Evropy
TARASOV, S.V., 1987. Otchet o raskopkakh v g. Polotske v VIIIXI st. Chernigiv: Siverianska dumka, 107-113.
1986 g. Arkhiu Instytuta gistoryi Nacyjanalnaj akademii MAKUSHNIKOV, O.A., LUPINENKO, IU.M., 2004. No-
navuk Belarusi. Sprava
953. vye dannye o kharakteristike i proizvodstve vooruzhenija
vostochnoslavianskogo ratnika konca XII pervoj polovi-
Literature ny XIII v. (po materialam raskopok v Gomele). In: M. KA-
SCIUK, ed. Gistarychna-arkhealagichny zbornik. 19.
ALEKSEEV, L.V., 1995. Drevnij Mstislavl v svete arkheolo- Minsk: Kovcheg, 204-217.
gii. Gistarychna-arkhealagichny zbornik, 6, 118-182. NIKOLAEV, N.V., 1983. Mech X v. iz Grodno. In: L.D. PO-
ALEKSEEV, L.V., 1966. Polockaja zemlia: Ocherki istorii BOL, M.M. CHERNIAVSKIJ and G.V. SHTYHOV, eds.
Severnoj Belorussii v IXXIII vv. Moskva: Nauka. Drevnerusskoe gosudarstvo i slaviane.
Minsk, 81-82.
345
i n t h e D e v e l o p m e n t o f Te n t h PAULSEN, P., 1953. Schwertorbnder der wikingerzeit. tersen sud. past.) jie priklauso H, V ir Y tipams
Stuttgart: W. Kohlhammer verlag. (1; 6 pav.). J gelets buvo gamintos frank dirbtu-
PAULSEN, P., 1956. Einige Sbelschwerter im Ostseeraum.
vse. Nuo X a. antrosios puss kalavij maki galai
In: O. KLEEMAN, ed. Documenta archaeological Wolf-
to 13th Century Blade
T h e M a i n Te n d e n c i e s
346
A D
E F E N C E I N S TA L L AT I O N
BALTICA 8
O F T H E D E V E L O P I N G L I T H U A N I A N S TAT E
ALG
IRDAS GIRININKAS
ARCHAEOLOGIA
Abstract
The Rkuiai defence installation is in the eastern part of Lithuania between two lakes in wooded country. The installation
was comprised of a rampart and a ditch in front of it. This defence installation from the 12th and 13th centuries belongs to
the most important fortified area of the newly developing Lithuanian state. It extended about 50 kilometres from east to west,
and was built as a defence against the Polotsk-Pskov duchies and the Livonian Order. Analogous defence installations include
Kovirke (Cow Wall), a lesser fortification within the well-known Dannevirke earthwork fortification complex, as well as
the ramparts left by Prussian tribes.
Key words: Rkuiai, East Lithuania, defence installation, defence sector, Livonian Order, Pskov, Polotsk.
A ditch remains beside the rampart along the northern fence installation in 1990, 1991 and 1994 (Figs.2, 4).
side, from where enemy attacks were anticipated. The A better preserved 70-square-metre part of the defence
ditchs width throughout the entire known part of the installation, approximately 145 metres southeast of the
defence installation is 4.5 to 5.5 metres. railroad, was excavated in 1990. The width of the de-
fence installations excavated plot reached 11.3 metres.
The Rkuiai defence installation was first mentioned
The ramparts width at the base reached 6.3 metres,
on the archaeological map of the Vilnius province
its height one metre, the ditchs depth to the ramparts
compiled by F.Pokrovskii. The map indicates that
base was one metre, while its width was five metres.
there was a rampart one verst (1,067m) from Rkuiai
Upon removing the topsoil and sand, it became clear
that was 150 fathoms long (319.5m) (Pokrovskii 1893,
that underneath it was a frame-shaped construction
p.52). A little-known archaeologist named Kairskis
notched together from pine timbers, while the up to
wrote about the Rkuiai rampart; he even excavated
1.5-metre intervals formed in between them were filled
it in 1906. However, having found nothing in it, he left
with sand from the up to five-metre-high adjacent ditch
information about the site only in his excavation jour-
that was on the northern side of the rampart (Fig.5).
nal, which is currently in the St Petersburg Material
This is how the bottom part of the ramparts framework
Culture Institutes archives (Spitsyn 1907). A. Spitsyn,
was constructed. The diameter of the frameworks tim-
Kairskis teacher, published all of his students ex-
bers ranged from 14 to 20 centimetres. Remains of
cavation journals after his students death. Moreover,
poles hammered vertically into the base on the outer
after the 1906 excavation, Kairskis gave a presenta-
side of the ditch were also discovered in the defence
tion about his research near the Rkuiai village at a
installation during the excavation. These poles must
meeting of the Russian Imperial Archaeological Com-
have comprised the overground part of the enclosure
mission the same year. However, aside from the fact
that had been on the northern end opposite the ditch VIII
that this defence installation existed, nothing in par-
and that were not preserved. Sharpened stakes up to 15
ticular was really found out from this presentation. The ARMAMENTS
centimetres in diameter and 30 centimetres from the
Rkuiai defence installation was also included in P. AND
current ground surface were driven into the ground. DEFENSIVE
Tarasenkas archaeological site lists (Tarasenka 1928, SYSTEMS
Opposite the ditch, in a two-metre-long segment of the
p.344). The Rkuiai defence installation was again
ramparts excavated area, two stakes were discovered
encountered during the 1989 Kretuonas archaeological
pounded up to 35 centimetres deep into the soil. These
expedition (Girininkas et al.1990, pp.191-193). Thus,
stakes are presumed to have been an inherent constitu-
the earlier known site was rediscovered.
ent part of the entire defence installation. The ditchs
slope from the ramparts side and a portion of the ram-
Archaeological investigations of the part were reinforced with 61020 centimetre large
defence installation rocks. It was established during the time of the excava-
tion that the wooden framework part of the rampart had
The Kretuonas archaeological expedition (Girinin- burned, since ashes, burnt-through timbers, and sand
kas, Zabiela 1992, p.48f.) and the Nalia Museum that had burnt to a red hue were discovered. Part of
(Semnas 1994, p.52) investigated the Rkuiai de- a field ploghed with a agre-type plough (a wooden
349
plough with a two-toothed plough-
efence Installation of the
A D
Developing Lithuanian State share) was uncovered south of the
first excavated plot of the rampart, on
the sloping side of the Ravokas rivu-
let. For this reason, it is believed that
while the rampart was in use, this area
was open and was utilised for agricul-
ture.
The most disturbed part of the ram-
part in a fire prevention strip east of
GIRININKAS
BALTICA 8
Rkuiai defensive rampart
ARCHAEOLOGIA
wooden enclosure opposite the ditch.
According to the research data, it could
not have been a solid timber wall, but
rather a barrier consisting of every two
to four metres vertically hammered
wooden timbers and a short wall in-
terwoven from larger poles or notched
together from smaller timbers that was
supported by the vertically hammered
stakes (Fig.8). This obstacle could not
Fig. 6. The Rkuiai defence installations excavation in 1991: rows of timbers have been tall, so that the enemy could
(photograph by Girininkas). not hide behind it.
Behind this barrier was a 1.5 to two-
metre-deep and up to five-metre-wide
ditch. The ditchs bottom and the ram-
parts slope from the ditch side were
reinforced with rocks.
Behind the ditch was the rampart. It
was reinforced both longitudinally
and transversely by up to 20-centim-
tre-diameter timbers that were notched
together into a framework. The frame
that reinforced the base of the ram-
part had three or more rows. The
pine timber framework constructed
in this fashion was strewn with sand
that was probably dug out from the
Fig. 7. The Rkuiai defence installations excavation in 1991: location of defence ditch as well as with rocks.
timbers (photograph by Girininkas).
The notched frameworks length and
metre diameter sharpened timbers pounded vertically width reached 1.5 metres. Just like the Rkuiai de-
into the ground up to 35 centimetres deep below the fensive rampart, the upper layers of the piltis (Kret- VIII
present ground surface were found on the edge of the inga district), Apuol (Skuodas district), Auktadvaris ARMAMENTS
AND
ditch near the rampart. Apparently, they were a part (Trakai district) and Punia (Alytus district) hill-forts of DEFENSIVE
of a wooden defensive enclosure opposite the ditch, the ninth to 12th centuries were also found equipped SYSTEMS
which had also been observed in the first two excava- with ramparts (Puzinas 1938, pp.122-123; Daugudis
tion plots. The remains of two more small, vertically 1982, pp.66-70). The height of the Rkuiai defensive
hammered 12 to 15-centimetre diameter timbers were rampart could have reached 1.5 to two metres from
found on the southern side of the ramparts slope. They the surface of the ground at that time. Data confirm-
could have comprised a portion of the constructions ing whether or not a wall of vertically hammered or
top and strengthened the southern part of the ramparts dug-in timbers stood on the rampart is so far scarce.
slope as well as the frameworks construction. The Only the timbers longitudinally placed one on top of
first artefacts were found in 1994 in the mound of the the other found on the ramparts northern side in the
rampart: two whetstones and one stone artefact of un- second plot could have been used for the reinforcement
known function. The whetstones could have been used of the ramparts northern portion or the bottom portion
for building the ramparts framework. of the small defensive wall on top of the rampart. Its
existence would also be testified to by the two adjacent
351
efence Installation of the
A D
Developing Lithuanian State
GIRININKAS
ALG
IRDAS
stakes vertically driven into the southern side of the northern sides. No such natural environmental barriers
ramparts slope discovered in the third excavation plot exist to the east.
from 1994; these stakes could have supported either the
Mykolas Petknas, a former resident of the Ignalina
small defensive wall above the rampart or some other
districts Maiuliai farmstead (not far from the vil-
construction standing on top of the rampart. According
lage of Papraval), remembers how his grandfather
to current data, we believe that the general height of
would tell stories about how the opening and closing
the rampart from the ditchs side could have reached
of an iron gate could be heard in their village in the
about 3.5 metres. An additional 1.5-metre-high wall-
evenings. They used to call these gates Vok. When
cover could have stood on the rampart, so the height of
asked to identify this place, he pointed to the west, be-
the rampart together with the wall-cover from the bot-
yond the railroad and toward the Lake eimenis side
tom of the ditchs side could have reached 4.5 to five
of the defence installation. The same resident spoke
metres. Defensive ramparts constructed in such a man-
of how battles used to occur in these places in olden
ner are known not only in Lithuanian lands, but also in
days, and how the blood shed in these battles gave
Germanic and Slavic lands in the tenth to 13th centu-
the name Raudonupis (Red River) to the one rivulet
ries (Andersen 1992, pp.18-21; Kuza 1985, p.216).
flowing into Lake eimenis. Upon excavating two
A tower, or maybe even several towers, might have archaeological prospecting pits in the place indicated
stood in a particular place or places on the Rkuiai by Martinknas, several flaked stones and two wheel-
rampart. V.Aliulis, a former rector of the Pal par- made pottery sherds were found. It is likely that the
ish, mentions that until not long ago a small vale in the gate could have been a lookout or defensive tower
Pakretuon forest, not far from Pavajuonis, was called in the defended territory south of the rampart, and that
Iron Gates (Aliulis 1996, p.12). Local residents together with the defence installation it was part of a
speak of how the Iron Gates could have been on unified defensive system. Such a defensive system, in
the western side of the VilniusDaugpilis railroad, ap- which fortified lookout towers were built on the in-
proximately 100 metres west of it and 90 to 100 metres ner side of a continuous defensive wall, was already
south of the rampart (Fig.2). This area was identified in known from the times of the Romans battles with the
the summer of 1992 by Martinknas, a resident of the barbarians (Germanic tribes) (Hussen 1992, pp.33-70;
village of Paversmis in the Ignalina district. According Braun 1992, pp.9-32).
to his fathers narratives, a broma, or gate, used to
stand in that place, and before the Second World War
The Rkuiai defence installation in
local residents still used to take rocks for construction
the light of other sites from the time
purposes from that place. This place is currently dis-
tinguished by its topography as well. South of it is a
East of the Rkuiai rampart, as mentioned above, is
deep valley, the channel of the River Ravokas, while a
the Papraval hill-fort that also has ramparts protecting
deep bank encircles the place along its northwest and
352
BALTICA 8
ARCHAEOLOGIA
Fig. 9. The Kovirke (Cow Wall) defence installation.
the flat hilltop of the hill-fort. The width of one of the The Kievan Rus built ramparts with adjacent ditches to
ramparts is 12 metres, while its height is 0.5 metres. defend against the steppe nomads (Kuza 1985 p.216).
The rampart was levelled over the course of time. Be- The Bulgarians along the Volga had similar defensive
low the flat hilltop area is another ten-metre-wide and fortifications. The Chronicle of Nikonas mentions that
two-metre-deep ditch, behind which a one-metre-high when attacking the Bulgarian town of Oshel (Ashli) in
and eight-metre-wide rampart was constructed. Be- 1219, Svyatoslav Vsevolodovich encountered a defen-
hind this, a second six-metre-wide and one-metre-deep sive system that consisted of an oak fence construction,
ditch was dug, with yet a third one-metre-high and two ditches, and a rampart in between. The Bulgari-
five-metre-wide rampart behind it. This last rampart is ans defended themselves while riding on the rampart
similar to the long rampart of Rkuiai. The defensive (PSRL 1965, p.84f.). It is interesting to note that this
ramparts of this hill-fort and of Rkuiai could have defensive system was far from the actual town.
been contemporaneous and comprised a common de-
A rampart analogous to the Rkuiai defensive for-
fensive system.
tification and not yet excavated has survived in the
Defensive installations analogous to that of Rkuiai Pastovys area in Byelorussia (Fig. 2). The locals there
are known from the border of Germany and Denmark. assert that it was constructed by the Tartars. B.Kviklys
There, the eighth-century defensive wall of Kovirke wrote about this rampart (Kviklys 1989, p.704). The
(Cow Wall), which is between the settlements of Selk residents call it a Tartar rampart because a hoard of sil-
and Kl. Rheide and south of Dennewerk (Andersen ver from Baghdad was found not far from it. Moreover,
1992, pp.18-21), was intended for battles with the the date of the hoard is relatively late, thus, the date of
Carolingians (Figs.9 and 10). This fortification is very the rampart was pushed forward to the 17th century VIII
similar to the Rkuiai fortification both in its struc- (Riabtsevich 1977, p.42). ARMAMENTS
AND
ture and in its form. Only the Kovirke fortification DEFENSIVE
is two metres wider and could have been one metre SYSTEMS
The Rkuiai defence installation as
higher. Analogous defensive fortifications were left by
a part of the northern Nalia defence
the Prussian tribes. These were in the Curonian Isth-
line
mus at Krancu, Olendry, and other localities. Prussian
lands were separated from each other by a so-called no
The Papraval hill-fort on the northwest shore of Lake
mans land (wasteland). On both sides of the waste-
Vajuonis could have been an eastern fortification out-
land, the Prussians would establish systems of ram-
post of the Rkuiai defensive system. So far, it is still
parts with wooden enclosures and small watchtowers.
unknown whether the rampart, whose eastern end cur-
Often the wooden enclosures would be reinforced with
rently stops in the cultivated fields of Rkuiai, con-
earth and rocks (Okulicz-Kozaryn 1983, pp.207-213;
tinued straight to the western shore of Lake Vajuonis,
neidereitas 1989, p.51f.).
or whether it curved to the northwest and reached the
Papraval hill-fort. The identical date of the hill-fort
353
efence Installation of the
A D
Developing Lithuanian State
GIRININKAS
ALG
IRDAS
Fig. 11. Thrown pottery found in the top cultural layer of the Papraval hill-fort and in the Rkuiai Gate area.
354
BALTICA 8
ARCHAEOLOGIA
Fig. 12. The northern part of the Nalia defence line: 1 Tauragnai hill-fort (1st mil. - beginning of 2nd mil.); 2 Taurapilis
hill-fort (1st mil. - 15th cen.); 3 Sla hill-fort (1st mil.); 4 eimatis hill-fort (1st mil. - beginning of 2nd mil.); 5 Papiliakaln
hill-fort (1st mil.); 6 Ginuiai hill-fort (first half of 2nd mil.); 7 Papraval hill-fort (1st mil. - beginning of 2nd mil.);
8 Velioniai hill-fort (1st mil.); 9 Maulonys hill-fort (1st mil.- 13th cen.); 10 Strakik hill-fort (1st mil.); 11 Rkuiai
defence line (end of 12th - beginning of 13th cen.); 12 the estimated defence line of the northern part of Nalia
(end of 12th - beginning of 13th c.).
and the defence installation is testified to by the con- the ramparts towers for the two-kilometre frontal de-
temporaneous wheel-made pottery, dated to the begin- fence. Additional guards on horseback were necessary,
ning of the second millennium AD, found both at the with a mobile cavalry troop in case of enemy penetra-
Papraval hill-fort and at the gate locality (Fig.11). tion. The rulers of Nalia, as suggested by the military
organisation of the 12th and 13th centuries, could not
Both the geographical situation and the excavated ar-
yet maintain such a constant amount of soldiers for the
chaeological material show that the Rkuiai defensive
walls defence. Even at the Battle of Durb there were
installation was designed to repel attacks of enemy
about 150 fallen Livonian brothers, and that was con-
VIII
cavalry, to stop it penetrating the area between Lake
sidered a large military force for that time. Of course, ARMAMENTS
Vajuonis and Lake eimenis into Nalia from the north AND
these brothers could have had the same number of DEFENSIVE
(Fig.12). The reconstruction of the defence installation SYSTEMS
servants and weapon-bearers. However, only a troop
presented in Zabielas article shows that the fortifica-
of cavalry could block an enemys sudden penetration
tion was designed for the defence of infantry against
into a particular defended area. Evidently, the cavalry
infantry or cavalry (Zabiela 1992, p.26). However,
of Nalia also had to defend the Rkuiai defensive
the archaeological data from the excavations of 1994
fortification.
would allow the assertion that the vertically hammered
stakes found on the southern side of the rampart were Four barrows in the Rkuiai (Pavajuonis) barrow
apparently intended only to stop the mound of the ram- cemetery, located about 180 metres north of the central
part from sliding. The Rkuiai fortification was evi- defensive fortification area, are distinguished from oth-
dently designed for struggles against horsemen. If this ers by their size and shape. The largest has a diameter
defence installation had been designed for foot soldiers of 42 metres, two others over 30 metres, and one other
battling against other foot soldiers or horsemen, then over 22 metres. Aside from these barrows and those
quite a lot of defenders would have been needed for in the Sudota barrow cemetery (in the venionys dis-
355
trict, four kilometres south of venionliai), no other Defence from what?
efence Installation of the
A D
Developing Lithuanian State barrows of such a size are known in Lithuanian territo-
ry. Perhaps the defenders of the Rkuiai fortification In defence from what enemies was the Rkuiai de-
were buried in these barrows? Whether or not these fence installation built? One would think that there
barrows have any connection with the fortification will could have been various different enemies, because
be investigated in future excavations. the radiocarbon dating of the ramparts remains covers
the junction of the 12th and 13th centuries. In dating
The Rkuiai defence installation had much strategic
the Rkuiai rampart to the 13th century, it would be
significance in the first quarter of the second millen-
possible to assert that the Lithuanians were defending
nium. The inhabitants of Nalia did not choose this
themselves against Selonian or Slavic attacks. The first
area by chance. A water way was already known here
variant is confirmed by linguistic and ethnographic re-
GIRININKAS
356
BALTICA 8
ARCHAEOLOGIA
Fig. 13. Nalias defence at the beginning of the 13th century.
The 14th century would be too late a date for the tion about this wall is scarce). Its structure corresponds
Rkuiai defence installation, since battles with the with the rampart and ditch installations of hill-forts in
mentioned enemies resulted in an expansion of Lithua- Baltic tribe territory in the tenth to 13th centuries, as
nian lands, and the defence line lost its earlier strategic well as with the defensive fortifications utilised in the
significance. At this point, defence lines were drawn Viking period in Western Europe.
VIII
not by the fortifications of separate duchies, but rather
2. The Rkuiai defence installation was a strategic ARMAMENTS
on the scale of the Lithuanian states entire castle sys-
military installation at the time when the Lithuanian AND
tem. DEFENSIVE
state was forming. Its purpose was to stop a sudden SYSTEMS
enemy attack and not to allow cavalry to pass one part
Conclusions of Nalias northern defence line.
3. The Rkuiai defensive rampart could have been
1. Research into the Rkuiai defence installation shows
used in battles against the Slavs (Polotsk, Pskov) until
that it consisted of: a) an enclosure opposite a ditch; b)
the beginning of the 13th century, and in Lithuanian
a ditch whose width measured up to five metres and
battles against the Livonian Order at the beginning of
depth up to 1.5 metres; c) a wooden, framework-forti-
the 13th century.
fied and earth-covered, up to 1.5 to two-metre-high and
6.3-metre-wide rampart, whose front slope was rein-
forced with rocks; d) a fortification that strengthened Translated by Indr Antanaitis-Jacobs
the ramparts southern and the slopes northern sides;
e) a wall on the rampart from the front side (informa-
357
efence Installation of the
A D
References B esiformuojanios
Developing Lithuanian State L ietuvos valstybs
Aliulis, V., 1996. Pals banyia ir parapija. Vilnius:
Voruta. gynybinis renginys
Andersen, H.H., 1992. Opus Danorum-Bfestigungswalle
im altdanischen Grenzland. Archeologie in Deutschland,
Heft 3, 18-21. Algirdas Girininkas
BARANAUSKAS, T., 2000. Lietuvos valstybs itakos. Vil-
nius: Vaga.
Braun, R., 1992. Die Geschichte der Reichs-Limes-kom- Santrauka
mission und ihre Forschungen. In: Der rmische Limes in
Deutschland. Stuttgart, 9-32. Rkui gynybinis renginys yra venioni raj.,
GIRININKAS
Daugudis, V., 1982. Senoji medin statyba Lietuvoje. Vil- venionli sen., Pakretuons mike, tarp eimenio
IRDAS
ALG
358
griov buvo aptikta iki 35 cm gylio grunt kalt kuo- niekieno em (dykra). Abiejose dykros pusse prsai
BALTICA 8
l. Manoma, kad jie buvo neatskiriama viso gynybinio rengdavo pylim sistemas, medi utvaras su sargy-
renginio sudtin dalis. Griovio lait nuo pylimo pu- bos bokteliais. Danai medi utvaras sustiprindavo
ss ir dal pylimo stiprino aptikti 6 x 10 x 20 cm dydio upildami jas emmis ir akmenimis.
akmenys. iaurin pylimo pakrat tvirtino gulsi rs-
Pylimus su alia esaniais grioviais nuo stepi klajo-
t eil. Tyrinjim metu nustatyta, kad medin pylimo
kli stat Kijevo Rusia. Panaius gynybinius tvirtini-
karkaso dalis buvo degusi, nes aptikta pelen, perdegu-
mus turjo ir Pavolgio bulgarai.
si rst, iki raudonumo perdegusio smlio (8 pav.).
ARCHAEOLOGIA
pietus nuo tyrinto pylimo pirmojo ploto, Ravoko upe- Nuo koki prie ginantis buvo pastatytas Rkui gy-
lio laito pusje, atsideng agre arto lauko dalis. Todl nybinis renginys? Reikt manyti, prieai galjo bti
manoma, kad pylimo naudojimo metu i emdirbystei vairs, nes radiokarboninis pylimo liekan datavimas
skirta vieta buvo atvira. apima XIIXIII a. sandr. Rkui pylim datuojant
iki XIII a., galima bt teigti, kad lietuviai gynsi nuo
Tam tikroje Rkui pylimo vietoje galjo bti bok-
sli ar slav antpuoli. Pirmj versij patvirtina kal-
tas. Buvs Pals parapijos klebonas V. Aliulis mini,
biniai ir etnografini tyrinjim duomenys. Rkui
kad iki nesen laik vienas klonelis Pakretuons mike,
gynybinis tvirtinimas atitinka iaurin ir iaurs ryt
netoli gynybinio pylimo, buvo vadinamas Voks gele-
dzk tarms arealo rib, sutampa su istorine sli i-
iniais vartais. Pagal vietini gyventoj pasakojimus,
plitimo pietine ir pietryi riba.
Geleiniai vartai buvo vakarinje VilniusDaugpilis
geleinkelio pusje, madaug 100 m vakarus nuo jo XIII a. pradioje lietuviams prie i iaurs ryt ir
ir 90100 m pietus nuo pylimo (2 pav.). Nurodytoje iaurs puss padaugjo. Pirmiausia iuo laikotarpiu
vietoje, ikasus du bandomuosius urfus, buvo aptikti prie Dauguvos ups sitvirtina Livonijos ordinas, ple-
keli skaldyti akmenys ir dvi iestos puod uks, labai ia savo tak rus Polocko ir Pskovo kunigaiktysts.
panaios Papravals piliakalnyje aptiktas puod u- XIIIa. pradioje Padauguv intensyviai pradeda puldi-
kes. Tiktina, kad broma galjusi bti apvalgos ar nti lietuviai Nalios ems gyventojai. Gal bijodami
gynybinis boktas, esantis u pylimo pietus ginamoje prie atsakomj antpuoli, stiprino savo gynybi-
teritorijoje, ir su gynybiniu renginiu sudar bendr gy- n linij, kuri jo ir Rkui gynybinis renginys
nybos sistem. Tokia gynybos sistema, kai apvalgos (13pav.).
bei tvirtinti boktai statyti vidinje itisins gynybins XIV a. Rkui gynybin rengin datuoti bt jau per
sienos pusje, inoma dar i romn kov su barbarais vlu, nes kovose su mintais prieais Lietuvos ems
(germanais) laik. isiplt, gynybin linija neteko ankstesns strategins
Rkui renginys buvo tik dalis gynybins linijos, reikms. Gynybines linijas jau sudar ne atskir ku-
kuri tssi iaurs vakarus ir rytus. jos sistem jo nigaiktysi tvirtinimai, o Lietuvos valstybs mastu
vienalaikiai piliakalniai ir natralios gamtins klitys: formuojama itisa pili sistema.
eerai, kalnagbriai, ups. Todl iaurs vakarryt
pietryi kryptimi susidaryt apie 50 km bema tiesi
moni ir paios gamtos sukurta gynybin linija. At-
sivelgiant I tkstantmeio pirmojo ketvirio gamti-
n situacij ir ant aukt gbri esanius piliakalnius,
kuriuos jung sutartiniai ugnies (lauo) signalai, VIII
XIIXIIIa. staigiai ir nepastebimai siverti prieui ARMAMENTS
AND
Nalios em i iaurs ir iaurs ryt puss buvo ne- DEFENSIVE
manoma (12 pav.). SYSTEMS
359
the Daugava Area (Seventh to IX. TRAUMAS CAUSED BY WEAPONS
Tr a u m a t i c L e s i o n s i n H u m a n
Osteological Remains from
T R A U M AT I C L E S I O N S I N H U M A N O S T E O L O G I C A L
R E M A I N S F R O M T H E D A U G AVA A R E A
(SEVENTH TO 17TH CENTURIES AD)
GERHARDS
GUNTIS GERHARDS
GUNTIS
Abstract
The purpose of this paper is to report on the incidence of traumatic bone lesions among the population of the River Daugava
area in Latvia. A total of 804 skeletons from four cemeteries were analysed. The data obtained indicates that the frequencies
of cranial trauma in all the series are similar. Within each population there was a significant difference between males and
females with regard to the frequency of traumas. Skeletal traumas of the inhabitants of the Daugava area are not connected
exclusively with military conflict.
Key words: bioarchaeology, skeletal trauma, warfare, Daugava area, Latvia.
BALTICA 8
so as to obtain a more objective picture
of their living conditions. The data ob-
tained regarding injuries, disease, etc,
could prove very important for study-
ing the burial practices of this period.
ARCHAEOLOGIA
The material of this study consists of
804 skeletons. In spite of the large-scale
excavations undertaken at the Late Iron
Age cemeteries of the Lower Daugava
area, the anthropological material ob-
tained here is very limited in numerical
terms. Accordingly, only the mate-
rial from the cemetery of Lejasbitni
Fig. 1. Location of the skeletal series from the Daugava area. (seventh to tenth centuries) could be
utilised for palaeopathological study.
At this site, more than 450 graves were
among the most important routes for trade and trans- excavated by V. Urtns in 19621964.
port in Eastern Europe.
The composite 13th to 17th-century skeletal series
During the Iron Age (seventh to 12th centuries AD), comprised of skeletons recovered from three sites: the
the Lower Daugava area was inhabited by various Bal- churchyards of Ikile, Mrtisala and Slpils (Ta-
tic groups (Semigallians, Selonians and Latgallians) ble1). Material from two periods was compared.
and Finnic groups (Livs). According to archaeological
data, in this period the Daugava route remained under
Ta b l e 1 . C e m e t e r i e s , t h e i r d a t e , a n d
the control of the people living in the area around its
the number of skeletons examined
lower course. The centres along the lower reaches of
the Daugava differed in their character. Some were Cemeteries Date (c. AD) Number of
oriented more towards foreign trade and crafts, while skeletons
others were more important in terms of satisfying the Lejasbitni 7th10th 40
interests of tribal or state structures (Radi 2000). Ikile 13th15th 210
Mrtisala 13th17th 405
The situation changed at the close of the 12th and in Slpils 13th16th 149
the 13th century, when traders from Western Europe,
particularly from Germany, did not wish to accept the The criteria for the determination of sex included pel-
intermediary role in EastWest contacts played by the vic and cranial morphology (Buikstra, Ubelaker 1994).
inhabitants of the Lower Daugava. As a result of this, Adult age at death was estimated using as many meth-
a struggle for power began in this area between two ods as possible, including pubic symphysis morphology
Christian denominations: the Roman Catholic and Rus- (Brooks, Suchey 1990; Gilbert, McKern 1973), aurical
sian Orthodox Church. The military and ideological surface morphology (Lovejoy et al. 1985), ectocranial
struggle between these foreign forces had a destructive suture fusion (Meindl, Lovejoy 1985), and changes at IX
and irreversible effect on the lives of the local people. the sternal end of the rib (Iscan et al. 1984; 1985). In TRAUMAS
CAUSED BY
The existing political, administrative and economic subadults, age at death was estimated on the basis of WEAPONS
system was destroyed, and the battles with the Crusad- epiphyseal fusion, diaphyseal lengths, and dental erup-
ers brought considerable loss of life. The many feudal tion criteria (Scheuer, Black 2000).
wars of later centuries, usually followed by famine, Skeletal evidence of trauma was determined by the
disease and epidemics, worsened even more the living presence of healed or unhealed fractures. The fractures
conditions of the population of Latvia, including that or injuries have been divided into cranial trauma and
of the Lower Daugava area. postcranial trauma, which is trauma to any bone below
The aim of this study is to characterise the seventh to the cranium. Head injuries have been divided into cut
17th-century inhabitants of the River Daugava area injuries, from eg a sword or axe, and depression frac-
from a bioarchaeological perspective and assess the tures, which could have been caused by a blunt object,
361
but could also have occurred in accidents where a fall-
the Daugava Area (Seventh to
Tr a u m a t i c L e s i o n s i n H u m a n
362
BALTICA 8
ARCHAEOLOGIA
Fig. 3. Ikile churchyard, grave 262, a male aged 4045. Fig. 4. Ikile churchyard, grave 504, a male aged 3540
Unhealed multiple fractures of the skull, made with a sword. years. Unhealed fracture of the occipital bone, which caused
the death of this individual.
Injuries to the cranium were observed on seven (6.5%) In the second case of an unhealed fracture (grave 504),
of the 107 adult individuals of the Ikile population, this is a major injury to the occipital bone, suggesting
and these cases involve only males (11.7%). No trau- that the blow had been delivered to a fleeing enemy
matic lesions (cranium and/or postcranium) were found (Fig.4). This injury is very similar to those found on
on subadult skeletons. But this cannot be accepted as the skeletal material from the Battle of Visby in 1361
indicating the true prevalence of fractures in this age (Courville 1965).
group. It is likely that many of these fractures are invis-
The frequency of bone fractures (13 individuals, ex-
ible to the palaeopathologist, because they were prob-
cluding fractures of the spine: 9/19 (56%) males and
ably greenstick fractures, which heal so efficiently and
4/5 (80%) females) at Ikile is summarised in Ta-
quickly that they are not even visible by radiography
ble 2. Of the 210 individuals from Ikile, a total of
(Roberts, Manchester 1995).
19.8% (34) exhibited osteological traumas. The dif-
With respect to the location of the cranial injuries ference observed between males, with a proportion
among the population of ancient Ikile, the frontal of 26/96 (27.1%), and females, with a proportion of
bone was involved in three cases, the parietal in two, 8/76 (10.8%), was statistically significant (Chi-square
and both bones in one case. In two cases, fractures had =6.33; df=1; p<0.01). Traces of arm and leg bone
occurred in the occipital bone, and two fractures had fractures are not numerous at Ikile churchyard (ten
occurred in the mandible. One type of cranial injury males and four females). Fractures on the distal 2/3
was the depression fracture. In all these cases, the frac- of the ulna were of particular interest. Such fractures
ture had healed. Some of these depression fractures (parry fractures) are considered defensive fractures
could have been caused by an accident, in which an and occur when an individual shields the face or head
object (eg a stone) fell and struck the individual on the with the arm in an attempt to protect themselves from
head. However, it is more probable that injury resulted an assailant (Knowles 1983). The difference observed
from a blow with a blunt object. Cranial injuries re- between males and females was not statistically sig-
sulting from sword- blows had occurred in two out of nificant.
seven cases, and the individual had presumably died as
IX
One section of the inhabitants at Ikile was found
a result of the trauma, since no sign of healing could TRAUMAS
to have traumas (particularly fractures of the clavicle CAUSED BY
be observed. From this point of view, particularly sig- WEAPONS
among males) that are not connected with military con-
nificant is grave 262 at Ikile churchyard, with several
flict, but with economic activity instead. Such healed
fatal injuries. Multiple unhealed fractures of the skull
fractures of the clavicle occur after a heavy fall on the
(Fig.3), humerus, scapula and femur had been made
shoulder or arm. It is possible that the bone fractures
with a sharp-edged weapon (sword). It should be noted
among males relate to construction work, since lime
that this individual was found on the periphery of the
production from dolomite took place at Ikile from
churchyard (possibly outside the churchyard itself). In
the late 12th century onwards, continuing during the
accordance with Christian burial practices, graves out-
next centuries (Jansons 2004). The local people were
side the cemetery were for punished offenders, crimi-
also involved in the building of the church and castle.
nals, suicides, etc.
363
Mrtisala Castle was the second stone castle to be built
the Daugava Area (Seventh to
Tr a u m a t i c L e s i o n s i n H u m a n
364
* significant difference between groups, Chi-square test. Unfortunately, it is practically impossible to connect
BALTICA 8
these mass burials with any specific historical event at
An analysis of the burials at Slpils provides an an- Slpils, since no artefacts were found with the graves,
swer to this question. Six mass burials, with three and and they cannot be dated precisely. Considering that
seven individuals (25 altogether), were recorded at the no graves with gunshot wounds were found at Slpils,
churchyard. These are dated to the late 16th century or it is possible that the mass burials are no later than the
later. Various possibilities have been considered so far: 16th century.
that they were local people who died of the plague or
ARCHAEOLOGIA
other epidemics, soldiers killed in the Polish-Swedish
War (16271628), or victims of punishment (nore, Conclusions
Zaria 1980). The demographic structure of the mass
burials is as follows: four adolescents (age at death 15 The investigation of injury morbidity and mortality fa-
17 years); 12 young males (1719 years); eight adult cilitates the assessment of environmental, cultural and
males (2040 years), and only one elderly male (5560 social influences on behaviour. By examining traumat-
years). Bioarchaeological study of the mass burials ic bone lesions in the archaeological record, we may
at Slpils shows that these individuals had nothing in reconstruct aspects of the physical and social environ-
common with the local inhabitants of Slpils. The peo- ments of past populations.
ple buried in these mass burials were evidently soldiers This study has focussed on the traumatic lesions of
in an army. No evidence of traumatic lesions was found skeletons among the 13th to 17th-century population
on the skeletons, so these individuals evidently did not of the Daugava area in Latvia. The data obtained indi-
fall in battle. The males buried in the mass burials show cates that the frequencies of cranial trauma are similar
a statistically significant higher incidence of non-spe- in all the series, and such traumas are found exclu-
cific indicators of infection (Table 3). Porotic hyperos- sively among males. There is only a small amount of
tosis is a change characterised by a porous or sieve-like evidence of individuals who had been beaten up (in-
surface in the cranial bone or the orbit (Angel 1966). dividuals with several fractures), and the frequencies
The primary cause is usually iron-deficiency anaemia, of defensive parry fractures to the ulna was less than
which stimulates red blood cell production and bone 5% to 6% for the series.
marrow proliferation (Stuart-Macadam 1992). In the
The skeletal traumas of the inhabitants of the Daugava
present study, only changes in the roof of the orbit (cri-
area are not connected only with military conflicts, but
bra orbitalia) were investigated. In the mass burials
also with economic activities. In almost all cases, the
at Slpils, mild cases of orbital roof involvement were
accidents appeared to have been falls. The accidental
found, suggesting iron deficiency related to infectious
traumas occurred mainly to the upper limbs. Further
diseases and parasitism, which can also affect the oc-
research on skeletal series from the rest of the territory
currence of anaemia. Such causes as scurvy and direct
of Latvia is necessary to determine whether the data
infection cannot be excluded either (Larsen 1997).
from these collections confirms this correlation.
Another unspecific marker of stress and deprivation,
usually associated with inflammation, is the presence
of traces of periosteal reaction. Periostitis involves Translated by Valdis Brzi
inflammation of the periosteum, as evidenced by the
deposition of new bone on the outer surface of the af- Received: 6 December 2006; Revised: 4 May 2007
fected element (Ortner, Putschar 1985). Such perio-
steal inflammatory reactions, as well as more severe References IX
lesions, where bone marrow is affected, are most of-
TRAUMAS
ten caused by such microorganisms as Staphylococcus ANGEL, J.L., 1966. Porotic Hyperostosis, Anemias, Malar- CAUSED BY
ia and Marches in the Prehistoric Eastern Mediterranean. WEAPONS
and Streptococcus, the tibia being the bone most of-
Science, 153, 760-763.
ten involved (Goodman, Martin 2002). The total fre- ARCINI, K., 1999. Health and Disease in Early Lund. Os-
quency of periosteal lesions was significantly higher teo-Pathologic studies of 3,305 individuals buried in the
in the males buried in the mass burials (Table 3). This first cemetery area of Lund 9901536. Medical Faculty
indicates that a proportion of the males buried in the Lund University, Sweden.
AUFDERHEIDE, A.C., RODRIGUEZ-MARTIN, C., 1998.
mass burials were exposed to very unfavourable con-
The Cambridge Encyclopedia of Human Palaeopathology.
ditions. The possible cause of death could have been Cambridge University Press.
disease and poor epidemiological conditions. It cannot BROOKS, S., SUCHEY, J.M., 1990. Skeletal age deter-
be excluded that these are the graves of prisoners of mination based on the os pubis: a comparison of the Ac-
war, who died from starvation, injuries and disease.
365
the Daugava Area (Seventh to
sadi-Nemeskeri and Suchey-Brooks methods. Human Ev- V I I X V I I am iaus D auguvos
Tr a u m a t i c L e s i o n s i n H u m a n
olution, 5, 227-238.
regiono gyventoj
Osteological Remains from
366
uvo myje. Vyr, palaidot bendrame kape, tyrimai
BALTICA 8
rodo statistikai reikming auktesn nespecifini
infekcini rodikli paplitim. Tai rodyt, kad mirties
prieastis galjo bti ligos, susijusios su prasta epide-
miologine padtimi. Taip pat negalima atmesti prielai-
dos, kad bendri kapai yra karo belaisvi, kurie mir i
bado, nuo sualojim ir lig.
ARCHAEOLOGIA
IX
TRAUMAS
CAUSED BY
WEAPONS
367
X. TECHNOLOGICAL ASPECTS
in the Production of Medieval
T h e U s e o f I n l a y Te c h n i q u e
O F W E A P O N RY
(12th to 14th Century)
Military Equipment
T H E U S E O F I N L AY T E C H N I Q U E
I N T H E P R O D U C T I O N O F M E D I E VA L
C O U R O N I A N A N D S E M I G A L L I A N M I L I TA RY
E Q U I P M E N T ( 1 2 T H T O 1 4 T H C E N T U RY )
SVARNE
DAGNIJA
DAGNIJA SVARNE
Abstract
The subject of this paper is the inlay technique, namely the hammering of fine silver to an iron object specially grooved for the
purpose, and early medieval Semigallian and Couronian military equipment decorated in this technique. This includes sword
hilts, strap dividers and mounts made by Baltic smiths, and a unique armour plate. The study of the inlay technique permits the
former silver decoration on objects to be reconstructed. The ornate Couronian sword hilts provide grounds for hypothesising
that there was a specialist weaponry workshop at Talsi hill-fort.
Key words: inlay, silver, iron, sword hilts, strap mounts, armour plate.
BALTICA 8
alleviating its attachment to the socket. Unfortunately, have been characterised by the Latvian close combat
while concentrating on cold amalgamation, the idea of weapons and armaments specialist Mris Atgzis. He
direct beating of the silver onto the iron, the essence mentions that a total of 190 double-bladed swords have
of inlay, was in effect rejected (Creutz 2003, p.296). been found in Latvia (Atgzis 1998, p.14). Detailed
Also important are the studies by the German jeweller studies of sword blades have been undertaken by the
Erhard Brepol (1982, pp.338-342) and the archaeomet- historian of metallurgy Aleksis Anteins, devoting par-
allurgist Susan La Niece (1993, pp.102-114) on various ticular attention to inscriptions inlaid on the blades
ARCHAEOLOGIA
contemporary silvering technologies, including inlay. (Anteins 1964, pp.65-95; 1976).
Nine analyses of samples of silver from medieval ar- Swords from Estonia have been studied by the archae-
tefacts made in Latvia and one imported object were ologist Mati Mandel (1991), while swords discovered
undertaken at the Latvian State Metals Standards In- in Russia have been analysed by the researcher of an-
spectorate. In these analyses, mercury, the presence cient Russian armaments (Kirpichnikov 1966). For a
of which should have been easily ascertainable, was typology of the swords, I have used the classification
not discovered. Mercury is an essential component for of V. Kazakeviius (1996), which is the most appropri-
amalgamation, and its absence in the samples indicates ate for the Baltic.
that the objects had not been silvered by amalgama-
tion. The silver content of the samples was 87.7% to
Sources
95.67%, testifying to the use of fine precious metal
(Svarne 2004, p.34; 2005, p.183; 2006, p.249).
The rich and well-dated pre-Christian cemetery of
The author organised a series of experiments indicat- Sraji is located in the Lbagi parish of the Talsi dis-
ing that the described technique can be implemented in trict, on the left-hand side of the RigaVentspils high-
practice, provided that silver of a high fineness is used, way, about ten kilometres from Talsi. The cemetery
so that it is sufficiently soft. During the process, the was excavated in 1989 and 1990 under the direction
object is systematically tempered. It has been shown of Jnis Asaris, when 46 Couronian cremation burials
experimentally that it is possible to forge together sil- were uncovered (Asaris 1990, pp.30-36; 1992, p.20ff.;
ver wire and flatten it in such a manner that it presents 1994, p.15ff.). Sraji cemetery is important, in the first
the appearance of a monolithic sheet (Svarne 2004, place, because unburned objects were also provided
pp.21-37). in these Couronian cremation burials, in addition to
burned grave goods, and these have preserved their sil-
Medieval swords found in Latvia have been described
vering. The burials are precisely dated, to the 12th or
and partly analysed; but there is no general study on
13th century.
swords in Latvia. The earliest descriptions are from the
late 19th century (Sizov 1896, p.37ff.). Most authors A second very interesting site is Lake Vilkumuia at
limit themselves to a description of the form of the Talsi: an important Late Iron Age Couronian burial
sword hilt and blade. In the first half of the 20th cen- site, where grave goods from cremation graves have
tury, the swords found in Kurzeme were described in been sunk in water. The site was initially investigated
more detail by Eduards turms (turms 1936a, pp.72- by Eduards turms in 1934, when 85 kilograms of ar-
86). He concluded from his analysis of the archaeolog- tefacts were recovered: 1,300 objects (turms 1936a,
ical material that the Couronian weapon smiths were p.73). Gradually, the number of recovered artefacts has
fitting locally made hilts to imported blades (turms grown to 3,000. The artefacts from Lake Vilkumuia
1936b, p.114f.). Other researchers subsequently con- were burned on funeral pyres, and the original silver-
curred with this conclusion. ing has melted and fused to the object in the form of
small spheres. When an object is exposed to great heat,
In accordance with a tradition established in the early
20th century by the Norwegian researcher Jan Petersen,
a so-called fire patina forms on the surface, promot- X
ing its preservation and retaining an impression of de-
swords are divided into types, based on the form of TECHNO-
signs that have melted away, as a result of which the LOGICAL
the hilt (Petersen 1919, p.228). Petersens typology is ASPECTS
design can sometimes be reconstructed. The majority OF
so comprehensive that many weapons researchers still
of the artefacts found in Lake Vilkumuia date from W E A P O N RY
rely on it, augmenting it as necessary with their own
the 13th and 14th century.
variants.
Trvete hill-fort was excavated in the 1950s by Emlija
Important descriptions of swords have been given by
Brvkalne (1959a, p.35ff.). Fewer silvered artefacts
the Lithuanian researcher V.Kazakeviius, who ana-
from warriors equipment have been recovered at this
lysed Baltic swords found in both Latvia and Lithua-
site, but they are interesting both in terms of their
369
similarity to the corresponding Couronian artefacts, was a snail-like undulating pattern, augmented with ir-
in the Production of Medieval
and in terms of their local characteristics. These ob- regular, approximately plane-convex areas of silver.
T h e U s e o f I n l a y Te c h n i q u e
jects are not as well preserved as those found in Lake The crossed bands and snail pattern forming the rhom-
(12th to 14th Century)
Vilkumuia, and most of them are so thickly coated in buses were created by forging together between four
Military Equipment
chemicals that the original design is difficult or even and six strips of silver, while the plane-convex areas
impossible to reconstruct. The two uppermost layers of silvering consist of as many as 19 separate silver
at Trvete hill-fort, where the analysed objects were wires.
found, were dated by the director of the excavations to
In parallel with the outer contours of the basic ele-
the 13th century (Brivkalne 1959b, p.264).
ments of the decoration, there is a decorative band of
In the tenth to the 14th century, the technique of inlay inlay, appearing as a braid of two wires, silver and cop-
was quite widespread in Latvia. In western and central per, but on closer inspection found to consist of a large
SVARNE
DAGNIJA
Latvia, artefacts made in inlay technique are mostly number of miniature alternating oblique sections of in-
connected with weaponry and soldiers. laid silver and copper wire.
Traces of inlay and preserved silvering are found on The string of rhombuses consists of crossed bands, a
the sword hilts and their components from the Sraji design found on many Couronian artefacts. The design
cemetery: T Type swords and swords with a saddle- on the guards was inlaid in an unusual manner on the
shaped or discoidal pommel. hilt: on one side of the hilt, the upper guard had the
snail-like undulating pattern, and the lower guard had
rhombuses. On the other side of the hilt, the designs are
Ty p e T s w o r d h i l t s
the other way round: the upper guard had rhombuses
and the lower guard had the undulating pattern.
At Sraji cemetery silver-inlaid iron hilts from Type T
swords and their components were the most common, It should be added that the lower part of the upper
found in five graves. In accordance with the classifica- guard and the upper part of the lower guard were also
tion of Kazakeviius, Type T swords include swords decorated with a design of rhombuses and triangles ar-
with a tripartite pommel, and a straight or slightly ranged in a net pattern. This design consisted of inlay
downwards-curving guard, while the T-1 (Couronian) of silver wires (Plate VII: 1).
sword pommel consists of five or even seven parts,
One of the triangle designs on the shoulder of the
with a narrow bronze lower guard, either straight or
pommel, and likewise a rounded band on the middle
slightly downward-curving.
part, consisted of an imitation undulating pattern, cre-
There are two examples of sword hilts with a design ated with particular care and skill from a large number
consisting of a string of rhombuses and a snail-like of miniature inlaid sections of copper and silver wire.
undulating pattern. One comes from disturbed male
Sword hilts with a dot-and-circle or eye design have
cremation grave 1, the other from very rich double
been found with two undisturbed male cremation buri-
male grave 30. It should be noted that grave 1 pro-
als. The silvering is best preserved on a sword found in
duced the lower guard of such a sword hilt, while the
grave 41 (in the custody of LVM, No. A 12820: 474).
pommel and upper guard come from the topsoil above
All the parts of these were decorated in the same man-
the burial. Judging from the size and design, these ele-
ner: both the pommel and the guards in a silver plaque,
ments undoubtedly come from the same hilt, and are
in which a design of concentric circles has been cre-
considered as deriving from grave 1. The hilts have a
ated (Plate VII: 2; Fig. 1). In the literature, this design
tripartite pommel and a lower guard with ends slightly
is also referred to as a pit or hollow design. The term
downturned (in the custody of LVM, No. A 12816:
eye design has also been used. Such a design really
220, 217). Fragmentary remains of a joint of iron pins
does have associations with an animals eye, since each
were found in the pommel.
hollow is surrounded by a black ring, and then a silver
All three sword hilt elements from grave 1 have very circle.
well-preserved ornate silver decoration (Plate VII: 1).
The differences between these hilts are minor, and
The design that once adorned the hilt from grave 30
relate to the size of the elements and the number of
can be clearly traced from the presence of a shallow
dot-and-circle designs: the sword hilt from grave 34
recess intended for silver strips. The ornamenting tech-
has slightly more of them. The pommel and upper
nology is indicated by the clearly visible grooves for
guard from grave 34 have been exposed to a very high
inlay on the lower guard.
temperature. Copper and silver, which once adorned
The sword guards from grave 1 are decorated on one the upper part of the hilt, has not only melted, but has
side with a string of rhombuses. Inlaid on the other side also fused together, forming billon, an alloy of the two
370
ing countries. The dot-and-ring designs were various-
BALTICA 8
sized, arranged on the guards to form between one and
four rows. A similar design is also found on hilts cast
in bronze.
In archaeological literature there are references to the
eye design as a significant feature for distinguishing
sub-types of swords. For example, the Estonian ar-
ARCHAEOLOGIA
maments researcher M. Mandel distinguishes swords
with an eye design as one of the sub-types of Type T
(Mandel 1991, p.131).
371
laid silver strips covers almost the whole of the pom- long and 33 to 35mm wide). The mean thickness is two
in the Production of Medieval
A third sword of this type has been recovered as a stray From Sraji cemetery there are 16 such shield-shaped
(12th to 14th Century)
Military Equipment
find at Sraji cemetery. It has marked grooves cut on strap-dividers with strap-ends threaded in them, 14 of
both sides, vertical or in the form of oblique crosses. these deriving from eight richly furnished male cre-
On one side of the guard, traces of white metal are mation burials, the remaining two being stray finds
preserved, but these do not resemble typical traces of (Svarne 2006, Fig. 3). The best-preserved silver or-
inlay. The white metal has been grooved from the top namentation is to be found on the strap-divider and
in a similar manner to the iron, and there are none of strap-ends from grave 9 at Sraji cemetery (Fig. 2).
the usual fused silver spheres on the guard, but unusual Forty analogous strap-dividers have been found in
molten pieces instead. Although Kazakeviius has in- Lake Vilkumuia (Svarne 2005, Fig. 1), and 24 shield-
SVARNE
DAGNIJA
dicated that this sword would have been silvered, metal shaped dividers have been identified at the cemetery of
analyses are necessary to confirm this (Kazakeviius Piltenes Pasilciems.
1996, p.160). The sword is kept in Talsi Museum.
In terms of form, these strap-dividers are similar, but
A sword hilt with a discoidal pommel silvered in inlay the strap-ends in this assemblage are more diverse.
technique was found with grave 25 at Sraji cemetery. The two lateral strap-ends tend to be the same, while
The sword has not been cleaned of corrosion. It can the third, directed downwards, is sometimes similar
be seen that the guard is decorated with irregularly ar- in size, but in other cases is considerably larger. The
ranged, curved silver strips. It is possible that the de- strap-ends generally have undulating margins, or less
sign will be decipherable after restoration. commonly straight margins. The form of the ends also
varies: they may be straight, trapezoidal or tripartite
(Svarne 2006, Fig. 3, 4).
Horse-trappings
Similar in terms of function, but slightly different in
The equipment of the medieval soldier included horse- form, is the strap-divider in the form of an oval plaque
trappings leather straps for the bridle and saddle, with three perforations, with two preserved strap-ends
together with strap-dividers. In many cases, the bri- with undulating lateral margins, that was found on
dle was decorated with ornate, silvered iron fittings of Trvete hill-fort (in the custody of LVM, No. VI 24d:
various kinds (including strap-ends). The soldiers had 1140). The strap end is 58 millimetres long, and 1.5
leather belts with silvered iron buckles and mounts. millimetres wide and thick, while the oval plaque is
The function of the bridle and belt fittings can be deter- 36 millimetres long, 20 millimetres wide and 2.1 mil-
mined from their size, but not in all cases. The horse- limetres thick. A silver wire is visible, inlaid along the
trappings were decorated with larger pieces, while the outer margin of the disc. Very little is preserved of
smaller pieces would have been used for the straps of the rest of the silvering, and the artefact is covered in
the horse-trappings and for soldiers belts. chemicals, on account of which the design cannot be
reconstructed in full.
Considerable numbers of silvered bridle, strap and belt
fittings have been found in Lake Vilkumuia and Sraji These strap-dividers served for fastening the saddle:
cemetery, with smaller numbers at Trvete hill-fort. they were attached to the breast collar of the saddle,
and the strip on the back of the mount was intended
Constituting one of the largest groups are sets of ob-
to withstand considerable physical stress, preventing
jects consisting of a large shield-shaped strap-divider
the saddle from sliding in the course of battle (Svarne
with strap-ends threaded into it. This set consists of
2005, Fig. 4, 1).
shield-shaped discs with a spherical bulge at the centre
and three rectangular perforations, each of which has Two forms of fairly large, very unusual kinds of strap-
two or three rectangular or trapezoidal strap-ends pass- ends have been found in Lake Vilkumuia and Sraji
ing through it. The leather strap was attached to the cemetery. The first of these consists of an elongated
iron disc by means of a long strip of metal on the back plaque with openwork discs at one end, the other end
of each strap-end. being bifurcated (Svarne 2005, Fig. 2:2). Six of these
come from Lake Vilkumuia, and one from Sraji cem-
The diameter of the discs varied between 47 and 72
etery. These strap-ends are 120 to 130 millimetres long,
millimetres, while the strap-ends may be divided into
40 to 50 millimetres wide and two to three millimetres
three size groups: a) small strap-ends (48 to 50mm long
thick. They are decorated on top with a spiral design in
and 21 to 23mm wide); b) the most commonly occur-
inlay technique, consisting of curved lines constituting
ring medium-sized strap-ends (50 to 69mm long and
a design of circles. In the middle is a lunula figure with
19 to 27mm wide); c) large strap-ends (93 to 101mm
372
It should be noted that four finds from
BALTICA 8
Trvete hill-fort and one of the pieces
from Sraji have an iron hook riveted
to one end, most probably for fasten-
ing.
A second, more numerous group of
elongated silvered iron mounts con-
ARCHAEOLOGIA
sists of mounts with saw-tooth lateral
margins. Ten such pieces have been
recovered at Sraji, and seven from
Lake Vilkumuia. These mounts with
saw-tooth margins are of various sizes,
83 to 60 millimetres long, 24 to 10 mil-
Fig. 2. 1 Sraji grave 9. A horses breast collar strap-divider with strap-ends limetres wide and three to 0.5 millime-
(drawing by A. Ivbule, in the custody of LVM, No. A 12816: 121).
tres thick. Saw-tooth mounts silvered in
inlay technique were also favoured by
curled ends, while the rectangular strips of metal have the Livs. The reconstruction of Couronian mounts is
notches or incisions along the sides. actually based on analogous mounts from the Liv area,
namely from the Salaspils Mrtisala finds (Svarne
Outside Latvia, one analogous mount of this group has
2005, Fig. 3:3). Mounts of similar form, but made from
been found in Estonia, at the hill-fort of Phklimgi in
bronze, are very common finds in Latvia.
Viljandi (Valk 2000, p.67).
Fewer in number are other kinds of iron strap mounts.
There is a second unusual form: tripartite strap-ends.
From Lake Vilkumuia there are ten almost square or
These consist of two elongated plaques with a decora-
round mounts with triangular projections at the cor-
tive openwork mount attached at the end. Four such
ners (Svarne 2005, Fig. 3:1). These are comparatively
pieces have been found in Lake Vilkumuia, and two
small: the edges of the square pieces measure 26 to 28
more at Sraji. Both elongated plaques have a quadri-
millimetres, while the circular ones have a diameter of
partite thickened section in the middle (Svarne 2005,
25 to 28 millimetres. The mounts are 1.2 to 2.3 mil-
Fig. 2:1). The most ornate mount from Lake Vilkumuia
limetres thick, and generally have the stem of a rivet
(in the custody of LVM, No. A 10994: 1526), has a to-
on the back a small bar used to attach the object to a
tal length of 138 millimetres, a with of 19 millimetres
leather strap.
and a thickness of 28 millimetres. There are rivets at
the top ends of both elongated plaques, serving for the Three elongated mounts have been found at Sraji,
attachment of a leather strap. Suspended from the low- consisting of an oval mid-part, on the outside of which
er part was an openwork plaque, reminiscent of two two semicircles had been added on each side. One of
cup-shaped flowers. the mounts is whole, the other two being fragmentary.
The whole piece is 68 millimetres long, 14 millimetres
In a reconstruction of Couronian horse tack, the open-
wide and two millimetres thick (Svarne 2006, Fig.
work single-piece strap-ends bifurcated at the end are
5:2). A mount from Trvete hill-fort has a similar form
regarded as having been located on the horses fore-
of margin (in the custody of LVM, No. VI 24a: 569,
head, with the tripartite strap-ends at the ears (Svarne
dimensions: length 90mm, width 42mm, thickness
2005, Fig. 4:2,3).
2.3mm). This piece is significantly more robust than
From the Kurzeme region there are also a consider- the examples from Sraji. The Trvete mount is frag-
able number of iron strap mounts representing another mentary, but the narrow ends evidently had the form of
seven forms, which would originally have been sil- a gable roof. At the centre of the mount, a semicircular X
vered. In Zemgale, there is less diversity: three forms protuberance has been made, reminiscent of those on TECHNO-
of mounts have been identified. the shield-shaped strap-dividers. The silvering is partly LOGICAL
ASPECTS
From Sraji there are 15 examples of elongated mounts preserved: it consisted of a wire inlaid along the outer OF
with undulating lateral margins. These mounts are gen- edge and forming a circle in the circular central part,
W E A P O N RY
erally 32 to 60 millimetres long, 11 to 20 millimetres augmented with oblique miniature sections of inlaid
wide and 1.5 to two millimetres thick (Svarne 2006, wire. Partly preserved on the figural ends of the mount
Fig. 2: 2, 6). From Trvete hill-fort there are four entire is a design consisting of wire inlay, resembling the cap-
mounts and one fragmentary mount of this kind. Char- ital letter omega of the Greek alphabet. The silver is
acteristic of these mounts is a design of crossed bands.
373
preserved in the form of a separate area on the boss Depending on the size of the mount and its thickness,
in the Production of Medieval
of the central circular part, and on the lateral parts. these mounts could have been attached to a soldiers
T h e U s e o f I n l a y Te c h n i q u e
374
D i m e n s i o n s o f t h e Ty p e T s w o r d s f r o m S r a j i c e m e t e r y ( a l l m e a s u r e m e n t s i n
BALTICA 8
millimetres).
ARCHAEOLOGIA
upper guard A 12820:306 83 21 25
lower guard A 12820:307 113 24 28
41. pommel A 12820:474 67 23 28
upper guard 74 23 18
lower guard 97 20 16
12 pommel A 12816:402 50 19 20
upper guard A 12816:159 57 15 13
lower guard 80 18 15
from graves 25, 30 and 41, as well as the sword with ASARIS, J., 1994. Vrieu apbedjumi Sraju senkapos. In:
a saddle-shaped pommel from grave 39 and the sword Zintnisks atskaites sesijas materili par 1992. un 1993.
gadu. Rga: Zintne, 15-17.
with a discoidal pommel from grave 25 (Kazakeviius
ATGZIS, M., 1998. Tuvcas ieroi senaj Latvij 10.-
1996, p.109, 120 and 123). 13. gs. Promocijas darba kopsavilkums. Rga: Latvijas
The horse-trapping and belt mounts from Lake vstures institta apgds.
BREPOL, E., 1982. Teorija i praktika juveljirnogo djela. Le-
Vilkumuia date from the 13th and 14th century, while ningrad: Mashinostroenie.
the belt mounts from Trvete hill-fort are 13th century. BRVKALNE, E., 1959a. Trvetes pilskalna arheoloiskie
In accordance with E. Brvkalnes date for the first, top izrakumi 1958.g. In: Refertu
tzes zintniskai
sesijai
layer of Trvete hill-fort, the armour plate dates from velttai 1958. gada arheoloiskajiem izrakumiem un etno-
grafiskai ekspedcijai Latvijas PSR teritorij.
Rga: LPSR
the late 13th century.
ZA Vstures un materils kultras institts, 35-39.
The analysed artefacts would have been made at Talsi BRIVKALNE, E., 1959b. Gorodishche Tervete i ego is-
and Trvete hill-forts, which were major administra- toricheskoe znachenie. In: Voprosi etnicheskoi istorii nar-
odov Pribaltiki. Moskva: Akademia Nauk SSSR.
tive and craft centres. The analysis of inlay technique CREUTZ, K., 2003. Tension and Tradition. Stockholm : Sto-
opens up new possibilities for studying the high level ckholms Universitet.
of craftsmanship of the Couronian smith. An analysis ENIOSOVA, N.V., SARATSEVA, T.G., 1997. Sredneveko-
of the artefacts and the ornate decoration on them re- voe juvelirnoje remeslo Evropi: osnovnie aspekti v istorii
veals the attractiveness and splendour of the equipment izuchenija. In: S. DEMIDENKO, ed. Drevnostji
Evrazii.
Moskva: Gosudarstvennyi Istoricheskii muzei; Moskovs-
used by Couronian and Semigallian soldiers. kii gosudarstvennii universitet, 286
-
316.
KAZAKEVIIUS, V., 1996. IXXIII a. Balt kalavijai. Vil-
nius: Alma littera.
Translated by Valdis Brzi Katalog der Ausstellung zum X archologischen Kongress in
Riga 1896. Riga: W.F. Hcker.
KIRPICHNIKOV, A.N., 1966. Drevnerusskoe oruzhie. Me-
Abbreviations chi i sabli 9-13 vv. In: Arheologiia
SSSR. Svod arheo-
logicheskih istochnikov, E -1-36. MoskvaLeningrad:
LVM Latvian History Museum, Rga. Akademia Nauk SSSR. Institut arheologii. Nauka.
KRUSE, F., 1842. Necrolivonica oder Altertmer Liv-,
Esth-, und Curlands bis zur Einfhrung der Christlichen
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OLDEBERG, A., 1966. Metallteknik under vikingatid och
ASARIS, J., 1992. Arheoloiskie ptjumi Sraju un Upu
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1990 un 1991 gadu. Rga: Latvijas Vstures institta
apgds, 22-23.
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un sprdzes. Arheoloija un etnogrfija, 23, 230-250. Inkrustavimo technologijos analiz atveria naujas gali-
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Senatne un Mksla, 2, 72-86. juoti. J ginkluots ir ekipuots turtingum rodo tirt
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kuri ir iemgali
ginklu o t s inkrustavim o
technologij O S
Dagnija Svar
ne
Santrauka
376
T H E I R O N S M E LT I N G S I T E
BALTICA 8
IN VIRBALINAI ANCIENT SETTLEMENT
ARCHAEOLOGIA
Abstract
In Lithuania, iron smelting furnaces dating back to the Roman Iron Age and the Migration Period have been found in 20
places, notwithstanding that iron slag was found in numerous archaeological excavations concerning those periods. The
discovered furnaces are positioned in three groups on the northeastern outskirts of a former settlement. The investigated iron
smelting structures with a shaft furnace and a slag pit under a hearth could have been built in Lithuania from the first century
BC to the fourth or fifth centuries AD. The fact that there are no iron artefacts in dozens of household pits may be explained
by their small quantity and their high value, when things are not easily thrown out.
A comparison of the pottery found in the settlement indicates that furnaces were built and used in the transitional period when
coarse ceramics predominated: the fourth and fifth centuries were the boundary between the Late Roman Iron Age and the
Migration Period.
Key words: iron smelting furnace, iron slag, brushed and rusticated pottery, Roman Iron Age, Migration Period.
NAVASAITIS
BALINAS
ALGIRDAS
JONAS
Fig. 1. Distribution of furnaces in Lithuania and their technological aspects: 1 Auktadvaris hill-fort (Trakai district);
2 Bakiai settlement (Alytus district); 3 Daubariai settlement (Maeikiai district); 4 Ekets hill-fort (Klaipda district);
5 Juodonys settlement (Rokikis district); 6 Kereliai settlement (Kupikis settlement); 7a Kernav, Pajauta valley (irvintos
settlement); 7b Kernav, Semeniks settlement (irvintos district); 8 Kernav, Semeniks settlement (irvintos district);
9 Kumelinys settlement (Marijampol district); 10 Lavoriks settlement (Vilnius district); 11 territory of Lazdininkai cem-
etery (Kretinga district); 12 Lieporiai settlement (iauliai); 13 Moknai Laukupnai hill-fort (Rokikis district); 14 settle-
ment at Narknai hill-fort (Utena district); 15 Nemenin hill-fort (Vilnius); 16 Nendriniai cemetery (Marijampol district);
17 Paplienija settlement (Teliai district); 18 Petreinai hill-fort (Rokikis district); 19 ard settlement (Klaipda district);
20 Virbalinai settlement (Kaunas district) (after Navasaitis 2003, Fig.4.4; supplemented by the authors).
12500C. In Lithuania this iron smelting technology was per terrace, about 1.5 kilometres northwest of the Ku-
used from the times of the Roman Iron Age, or perhaps lautuva settlement boundaries and about 500 metres
even earlier (Navasaitis 2003, pp.45-50). northeast of the current bed of the Nemunas. The set-
tlement is named after the village of Virbalinai, which
Virbalinai iron smelting site is the first one found in
is situated on an upper terrace of the River Nemunas.
central Lithuania and complements our knowledge
At present, in the area of the former ancient settlement,
about the initial stage of ironware and weapon manu-
there is a flat meadow, gradually lowering southwest-
facturing, all the more as the best-surviving remains
wards from the foot of the upper terrace slope. During
of an iron smelting complex were uncovered. There-
an archaeological investigation of the site for a pro-
fore, the main purpose of this article is to introduce as
jected gas main, an area of 1,033 square metres was in-
thoroughly as possible the uncovered Virbalinai iron
vestigated. The surviving cultural layer of Virbalinai
smelting complex through an archaeological approach.
ancient settlement is about 55 metres in width and
Processes related to building furnaces and iron smelt-
about 175 to 180 metres in length. It lies in a strip of
ing, as well as technological issues, are discussed by
the Nemunas right valley, between the former wash
J.Navasaitis and A.Selskien in this volume.
and the right slope of the riverbed, and covers an area
of about one hectare.
T h e l o c a t i o n o f t h e Vi r b a l i n a i i r o n
Virbalinai ancient settlement was established on the
smelting site second flood plain terrace of the Nemunas valley. The
original surface of the terrace was comprised of sand
Virbalinai ancient settlement is situated in a valley on
and sandy loam, closer to the slope of oxidized gravel.
the River Nemunas right bank by a slope of the up-
378
BALTICA 8
ARCHAEOLOGIA
Fig. 2. Location of furnaces, pits with charcoal and pits belonging to the settlement in the excavated area of the Virbalinai
ancient settlement (drawn by alnierius).
The cultural layer of the abandoned settlement was also Iron Age. The ancient settlement, situated in the central
supposedly constantly ploughed, until it was covered and southwestern part of the researched area, and the
with layers of earth leached from a ravine of the Nemu- uncovered archaeological objects could be dated from
nas slope. Archaeological objects from the ancient set- the end of the Late Roman Iron Age up to the ninth or
tlement, uncovered under the deposits, prove this, as tenth centuries (alnierius 2006).
their surviving surface matches the surface of geologi-
cal layers. Overall, 57 archaeological objects linked to
Smelting furnaces
an ancient settlement both from the Roman Iron Age
and the Migration Period were found. There are nine
The most important and interesting finds at the
iron smelting furnaces, two pits for charcoal burning,
Virbalinai settlement are the remains of underground
one pile of clay for the furnaces, two postholes, 11
parts of nine iron smelting furnaces (alnierius 2006;
open hearths or fireplaces, one pit for provisions (?)
alnierius, Balinas 2006, pp.69-81). The iron pro-
and 31 pits of indefinite purpose (Fig.2).
duction site in Virbalinai is the first one excavated in
The bigger part of uncovered household pits is in the the central part of the country. The furnaces make three
central part of the researched site, which covers an area separate groups located towards a northeast and south-
of about 400 square metres. At the present time, it is west direction, and lie in one strip closer to the north-
impossible to trace a more definite order or system of western slope of the researched area (Fig.2). The first
pits. Eight hearths out of the 11 uncovered were con- group is comprised of three furnaces, F2, F6 and F7,
centrated in an area of 44 square metres, northeast of found in the southwestern part of the researched area
the first group of iron smelting furnaces. Supposedly, and located in a plot of 21 square metres (Fig.3). The
there were wooden laften structures in the settlement. first group also includes two pits for charcoal burning,
However, prints of clay daub that are usually found in 1 and 3. The second group (furnaces F27 and F31) was
researched settlements in the Kaunas district and in the found in the central part of about 15 square metres of
neighbouring settlements of Lentainiai and Jauiakiai the area (Fig.4), and the third group, comprised of four
were not found anywhere (Vakelis 2005, pp.59-61; furnaces, F49, F50, F51 and F52, was unearthed in the
alnierius 2005, p.75ff.). Currently, it is difficult to say northeastern part of the area and is located in a plot of
exactly what the chronological link between the struc- about 20 square metres (Fig.5). Each furnace consisted
tures that stood in the settlement and the iron smelt- of a shaft base, a slag pit and a channel that led to the
ing furnaces is. However, the household pits related to slag pit (Plate VII.I). The purpose of the channels is not
buildings are quite close to the first and second groups proven yet. Very likely, the channels could have been
of the furnaces, and contain bits of iron slag. This might designed for the faster drying of the furnace base and
X
prove that the buildings were built after the iron had the overhead part of the structure. After a furnace had TECHNO-
LOGICAL
been smelted and the furnaces had been destroyed. dried out, the air duct and the channel pit, which was ASPECTS
near the walls, were filled up with dry earth mixed with OF
The researched area of Virbalinai ancient settlement W E A P O N RY
charred wood particles. In the majority of furnaces, the
should be grouped chronologically into two areas. The
walls and pits of the channels have also survived. All
northeastern part of the researched area, located clos-
the slag pits of the furnaces were found filled up with
er to the right slope of the Nemunas, considering the
pieces of iron smelting slag and dark earth mixed with
archaeological finds and traces of the human activity
burnt charcoal. The plan and sections of the furnace
found, could be dated back to the Bronze or Roman
F52 are shown as an example in Fig.6.
379
The Iron Smelting Site
i n Vi r b a l i n a i A n c i e n t
Settlement
AND DAINIUS
ALNIERIUS,
NAVASAITIS
BALINAS
ALGIRDAS
JONAS
Fig. 3. Plan of the first furnace group: F6 and F7 furnaces; F6a-c and F7a-d piles and pits with slag and pieces of burnt clay;
P5 the pit belonging to the ancient settlement (draw by alnierius).
Fig. 4. Plan of the second group of furnaces: F27 and F31 furnaces; P27a pit; P27b and P27c piles of broken stone; P25,
P26 and P32 pits belonging to the ancient settlement (drawn by alnierius).
380
BALTICA 8
ARCHAEOLOGIA
Fig. 5. Plan of the third group of furnaces: F49, F50, F51 and F52 furnaces; F49a-b pits with slag; F 49 and F51a pits with
slag; F52a pile of slag; F52b-c pits with slag and burnt clay; 49c and 54 unidentified objects (drawn by alnierius).
Furnace F52 is one of the best surviving furnaces in they are about six to seven centimetres in width. The
the site. There is a base 1 of the furnace, a pit for slag air duct 3 is ten to 11 centimetres in width and seven to
to flow in 2, the channel 4 with walls at the furnace 12 centimetres in height.
base, and an air duct 3 leading to the slag pit 2. The
Beside furnace 52, a small pile F52a and two pits
furnace was built in a pit with slanting sides, tapering
F52b and c of slag and burnt-through clay were also
southwestward, 50 to 55 centimetres in width and up
found. The heaps were piled up both on the surface
to 21 centimetres deep, dug out of sand. For the chan-
of the ground and in specially dug out small circular
nel 4 an oblong small pit tapering southwestward, with
pits of 30 centimetres in diameter and 20 to 25 centi-
rounded sides, up to 40 centimetres in width and 15
metres deep. Beside the furnace, a bit of clay with an
to 17 centimetres deep, was dug out. The pit lowered
imprinted green slag of non-ferrous metal on one side
towards the base of the furnace. After the furnace had
was found. It might prove that non-ferrous metal was
been dried out, the duct and the channel were filled up
also smelted, but in another part of the settlement, and
with dark earth 6 mixed with charred wood particles
the slag turned up accidentally near the furnaces.
and fine bits of slag.
About 5.3 metres southeast of the furnace 52, pit 53, of
The base of the furnace was built of a mixture of clay
an irregular circular form, 180 centimetres in diameter
and sand. The clay in the base is burnt through and is
and 20 to 24 centimetres deep, dug out from the same
red, in some places black. The sides of the dug-out pit
surface of the horizon, was found. In the pit there was
were covered with the mixture, shaping the base after
a heap of brownish clay, about 160170 centimetres
the pitch of the pit. In the middle of the pit, a slag pit
in size and about 20 centimetres in height (Fig.2:53).
2 of an irregular form, 3035 centimetres in diameter
Under the clay, at the bottom of the pit, a layer of burnt
and with vertical walls, was made. The thickness of the
charcoal was uncovered. Supposedly, the clay stored in
base walls in the northeastern side is 11 centimetres,
in the southeastern and northwestern sides nine to ten
the pit was intended for building furnaces and had been X
brought from the upper terrace of the River Nemunas.
centimetres. Removing slag pieces off the slag pit 2, TECHNO-
LOGICAL
it was established that up to the bottom of the founda- The majority of the furnaces found in the site bear a ASPECTS
tion it was filled up with lumps of tap slag and black resemblance to the furnace F52. The main parameters OF
W E A P O N RY
earth mixed with charred wood particles. Larger lumps of the remains of all excavated furnaces are shown in
of slag 7 lay in the upper part of the slag pit. Above the table.
the air duct the width of the foundation is 25 centime- In summary, the diameter of the pits dug out for the
tres. The width of the clay walls 5 of the channel near iron smelting furnaces is from 40 to 100 centimetres,
the foundation is 15 to 18 centimetres. The walls are the depth from 19 to 46 centimetres, the length with
narrowing southwestward, and beside the rounded tip
381
The Iron Smelting Site
i n Vi r b a l i n a i A n c i e n t
Settlement
AND DAINIUS
ALNIERIUS,
NAVASAITIS
BALINAS
ALGIRDAS
JONAS
Fig. 6. Furnace 52, plan and cross-section: 1 furnace base; 2 slag pit; 3 duct; 4 channel; 5 channel walls; 6 earth with small
slag pieces and charcoal; 7 large slag pieces, burnt clay and charcoal; 8 burnt red sand (drawn by alnierius).
Ta b l e . T h e m a i n p a r a m e t e r s o f t h e r e m a i n s o f e x c a v a t e d f u r n a c e s
Cross-section of a duct to
Depth of furnace Furnace or base Furnace internal
Furnace or base a slag pit,
Furnace remains, external diameter, diameter,
walls thickness, cm cm
cm cm cm
width height
F2 46 98-100 55-60 18-19 up to 37 ca.15 ca.15
F6 25 ca.72 ca.33 20-27 ca.15 ca.10
F7 28-30 ca.55 31-32 11-15 ca.17 ca.18
F27 ca.19 55-58 ca.35 ca.8 12-13 n.s.
F31 ca.17 55-60 ca.38 7-11 n.s. n.s
F49 30 ca.60 38-40 irregular 5-17 n.s. n.s.
shape
F50 30 (45-55)x74 25x44 irregular 6-15 up to 21 11-12 18-20
irregular shape shape
F51 26 49-50 28-29 9-12 11-12 12-13
F52 21 50-55 30-35 irregular 9-11 10-11 7-12
shape
382
the channels 96 to 130 centimetres. The outer diam- naces by their construction were found at Kereliai
BALTICA 8
eter of the shafts foundation is 50 to 60 centimetres, hill-fort (Grigalaviien 1995, p.105), Lazdininkai
the diameter of the slag pit 28 to 40 centimetres. The (Kalnalaukis, Kretinga district) and the Pajauta valley
thickness of the bases is from five to 27 centimetres in Kernav (Navasaitis 2003, p.63ff.).
and sunk into the ground from nine to 25 centimetres.
Seemingly, people who smelted iron in Virbalinai
All the furnaces are very similar to each other; only
settlement were already familiar with the negative im-
furnace F2 is distinguished for its larger dimensions.
pact on health of the gas that was emitted during the
This furnace was built in a pit with slanting sides dug
ARCHAEOLOGIA
process of iron smelting. At least, they considered its
out in sand of about one metre in diameter. The sur-
impact, as the iron smelting furnaces had been special-
viving depth of the remains reaches 46 centimetres
ly built on the eastern side of the ancient settlement,
(Fig.7). The outer diameter of the base is 98 to 100
where the prevailing western winds would blow the
centimetres. The walls of the slag pit on the southeast-
gas and smoke emitted during the iron smelting proc-
ern and northwestern sides are vertical. On the eastern
ess beyond the settlements boundaries and not pollute
and western sides, at a depth of ten to 12 centimetres
the environment. If our presumption is right, then iron
from the surviving surface, the walls were widened by
smelting furnaces should be looked for on the leeward
eight to ten centimetres. The pits diameter in its up-
sides of ancient settlements.
per part above the widened place is 5760 centimetres,
below it the slag pit 2 is in the form of an irregular
rectangle with rounded corners and 4060 centimetres Dating the site
in size. The base 1 of the furnace was formed at a dif-
ferent depth: on the southeastern side, its bottom is at About 225 centimetres southeastward of furnace F2,
a depth of 21 centimetres, on the northwestern side 32 a pit 1 in the form of an irregular circle was found.
centimetres. The width of the base is also unequal: on The pits diameter is 8098 centimetres, and depth 30
the eastern side its width is 18 to 19 centimetres, while centimetres (Fig.2). The pit is filled with earth with an
on the southern and southeastern sides its width is up to abundant amount of burnt charcoal turned into soot.
37 centimetres. In the lower part of the base, the mix- Only a few small bits of field boulder stones and three
ture of clay and sand contains small, flat field boulders pieces of tap iron slag were found. Probably, it was a
57 centimetres in size and pieces of iron slag. Un- charcoal-burning pit. In another pit 3 about 120 centi-
der the base, there is a pit 5 of about 25 centimetres in metres in diameter and 50 centimetres in depth, whose
depth, filled with bits of slag and burnt charcoal mixed bottom was filled with a layer up to seven centime-
with earth. It was established that in the upper part of tres in thickness with charred wood particles, a bit of
the slag pit there were large, up to 15 centimetres in tap slag was found. The function of the pit is unclear.
an irregular form, pieces of slag 6. Some slag lumps Very likely, it was intended for charcoal burning. Bits
were baked to the top edges of the pit. Below in the pit, of charcoal taken from the layer of charred wood parti-
there was a layer 7 about 20 to 22 centimetres thick, of cles were researched in the laboratory of Radioisotope
slate-coloured earth with traces of charred wood parti- Research of the Institute of Geology and Geography.
cles mixed with smaller pieces of tap and light slag. At In accordance with C14 activity, it was established that
the bottom of the pit a layer 8 ten to 12 centimetres in the bits of charcoal submitted for research date to 1180
thickness, of dark grey-coloured earth with a rich tem- +/- 40 years, and the calibrated date is 860 years +/- 60
per of burnt charcoal, was found. The layer contained years.
fine bits of slag up to three centimetres in diameter. On Neither in the furnaces nor in their surroundings were
the northwestern side of the furnace base, an air duct 4 any artefacts found, except for some flint flakes, which
and a small channel 3 with slanting sides on the outer got in accidentally. Neither in the furnaces nor in the
side of the foundation were found. The width of the researched area of the settlement or in the household
duct itself was about 15 to 18 centimetres; however, its pits surviving in the geological layers, was an iron ar- X
vault has not survived. tefact, or at least a fragment, found. Probably, in the TECHNO-
Neither burnt-through clay nor pieces of furnace shafts, existing light and permeable ground, iron artefacts, if LOGICAL
ASPECTS
remaining after the used furnaces, were found on the they were there, simply rusted and just fell away as the OF
geological sand. The ruins that remain there, were very area of the settlement was constantly ploughed. This W E A P O N RY
likely scattered when the plot was ploughed. concerns only artefacts that might be in the layer of the
settlement. As for the fact that no artefacts were found
The channels of the furnaces are directed to the south-
in the household pits, let us suppose that there were
west and northwest, to the prevailing wind directions.
not many iron artefacts, and they were valued and not
Other furnaces that have been found in Lithuania did
thrown away. This impedes a more precise dating of
not have such drying channels and the nearest fur-
383
The Iron Smelting Site
i n Vi r b a l i n a i A n c i e n t
Settlement
AND DAINIUS
ALNIERIUS,
NAVASAITIS
BALINAS
ALGIRDAS
JONAS
Fig. 7. Furnace 2, plan and cross-section: 1 furnace base; 2 slag pit; 3 channel; 4 air duct; 5 slag pit; 6 large slag pieces; 7
earth with small slag pieces and charcoal; 8 earth with burnt charcoal and bits of slag (drawn by alnierius).
the iron smelting complex, the more that the uncovered the transition period when rusticated ceramics came
hearths that were situated in buildings near the second to dominate. Thus, the furnaces may be dated to the
group of furnaces are at a distance of one to three me- fourth and fifth centuries, the point between the transi-
tres, and they were supposedly made after the furnaces tion phase from the Late Roman Iron Age to the Migra-
had been used and destroyed. tion Period.
The estimated date of the charcoal is 860 years +/- 60 The iron smelting devices found in Virbalinai settle-
years, and the application of the date for the furnaces ment are ascribed to a type of shaft furnace with a slag
raises serious doubts, as the supposed charcoal burn- pit under a hearth and, according to J.Navasaitis, they
ing pit is related to the furnaces merely because a bit could have been built in Lithuania from the first cen-
of iron slag was found there. But such bits were found tury BC up to the fourth or fifth century AD (Navasaitis
in all uncovered household pits of various purposes. 2003, pp.55ff.).
However, a comparison of ceramics found in hearths
and household pits gives more information and refer-
ences for a more precise dating of the furnaces. Translated by Valdas Sedeika and Jonas Navasaitis
BALTICA 8
In: Archeologiniai tyrinjimai Lietuvoje 1992 ir 1993 tesniam i lapio molio nudrbtos krosnels idiovini-
metais. Vilnius, 64-73.
mui. Visos tyrintos krosnels buvo naudotos geleiai
SALATKIEN, B., 1998. Liepori 1-osios gyvenviets
tyrinjimai. In: Archeologiniai tyrinjimai Lietuvoje 1996 lydyti, o vir ems paviriaus buvusios lydymo ach-
ir 1997 metais. Vilnius, 90-99. tos nugriautos iimant ilydyt gele. alia krosneli
TAUTAVIIUS, A., 1996. Vidurinysis geleies amius Lietu- rasta specialiai ikast duobeli, kurias buvo supilta
voje (VIX a.). Vilnius: Lietuvos pilys. dalis isilydius geleiai likusio lydymo lako gabal
VAKELIS, A., 2005. Jauiaki piliakalnio papds
(38 pav.; VIII: 16 iliustr.).
ARCHAEOLOGIA
gyvenviet. In: Archeologiniai tyrinjimai Lietuvoje 2003
metais. Vilnius, 59-61. Krosnelms ikast duobi skersmuo siekia nuo 40iki
ALNIERIUS, A., 2005. Lentaini piliakalnio virutin
100 cm, gylis nuo 19 iki 46 cm. achtos pamat
gyvenviet. In: Archeologiniai tyrinjimai Lietuvoje 2003
metais Vilnius, 75-77. skersmuo yra 5098 cm, lako duobs skersmuo 38
ALNIERIUS, A., BALINAS, D., 2006. Virbalin 44 cm. Pamat storis yra nuo 5 iki 25 cm, em jie
netvirtinta gyvenviet. In: Archeologiniai tyrinjimai Li- gilinti nuo 9 iki 27 cm. Vis krosneli konstrukcija
etuvoje 2005 metais Vilnius, 63-81. panai, tik viena krosnel isiskiria didesniais matme-
ULKUS, V., 1997. Balt visuomen ankstyvaisiais
nimis. Gyvenvietje rasti geleies lydymo renginiai
viduramiais. In: Lietuvos valstyb XII-XVIII a. Vilnius:
aros leidykla, 13-30. priskirtini achtins krosnels, turinios lako duob
po aizdru, tipui. Pasak J. Navasaiio, Lietuvoje jos
Received: 8 December 2006; Revised: 12 September 2007 galjo bti statomos nuo I a. prie Krist iki IVV a.
Nei paiose krosnelse, nei j aplinkoje nebuvo rasta n
G eleies ly d y mo vieno radinio, iskyrus kelias titnago nuoskalas, kurios
vieta V irbalin ia pateko atsitiktinai. Nei krosnelse, nei tyrintoje
senovs g y venvietje gyvenviets teritorijoje ir geologiniuose sluoksniuose
ilikusiose kinse duobse nerasta n vieno geleies
dirbinio ar bent jo fragmento. Galbt lengvame ir pra-
Algirdas alnierius, Jonas Navasaitis, laidiame vandeniui grunte geleiniai dirbiniai, jeigu
Dainius Balinas ten j buvo, tiesiog surdijo ir nuolat ariant gyvenvie-
ts teritorij savaime sunyko. Taip atsitikti galjo tik
Santrauka su gyvenviets sluoksnyje galjusiais bti radiniais.
Kadangi j nerasta ir keliose deimtyse kini duobi,
Virbalin senovs gyvenviet yra Nemuno deinio- galima daryti prielaid, kad geleies dirbini nebuvo
jo kranto slnyje, apie 20 km vakarus nuo Kauno daug, jie buvo vertinami ir retai imetami. Tai apsun-
(1pav.). Tyrintame 1033 m2 gyvenviets plote buvo kino nustatyti tikslesn geleies lydymo krosneli nau-
rasti 57 archeologiniai objektai, sietini su senojo ir dojimo laikotarp.
vidurinio geleies amiaus senovs gyvenviete. Tai
Metalo lako buvo rasta senovs gyvenviets tyrin-
9geleies lydymo krosnels, 2 angli degimo duobs,
toje teritorijoje aptikt vairios paskirties kini duo-
1rudnelms skirto molio krva, 2 stulpaviets, 11atvi-
bi didesnje dalyje. Pagal radioaktyviosios anglies
r idini ar ugniaviei ir 31 neaikios paskirties duo-
metodik nustatyta, kad medio angli, rast sptinoje
b (2 pav.).
medio angli duobje, amius yra 1180 m., kalibruo-
Aptiktos geleies lydymo krosnels trimis grupmis tas amius 860 m. Taiau i spjam angli degi-
yra isidsiusios iaurrytiniame buvusios gyvenviets mo duob su krosnelmis sieja tik tai, kad joje rastas
pakratyje. alia j buvo rasta dvi medio anglies degi- geleies lako gabaliukas, todl ios datos taikymas
mo duobs ir molio krva, skirta krosneli statybai (2 krosnelms ir j datavimas IX a. kelia rimt abejoni.
pav.). Iliko tik poemins krosneli dalys. Tai nesu- Papildomos informacijos ir nuorod tikslesniam kros-
dtingas renginys, kur sudaro duob apvaliu dugnu ir neli datavimui teikia idiniuose ir kinse duobse X
nuolaidiais laitais, idrbtais molio ir smlio miiniu, rastos keramikos palyginimas. Atmetus 9-ias gele- TECHNO-
kad suformuot vir ems paviriaus buvusios kros- ies lydymo krosneles, kuriose nerasta joki radini, LOGICAL
ASPECTS
nels achtos pamatus. Pamat viduryje esanti daugiau 48-iuose archeologiniuose objektuose buitins kerami- OF
ar maiau apvali vertikaliomis sienelmis duob buvo kos uki buvo rasta 21-oje duobje. I j 4-iose buvo W E A P O N RY
skirta geleies lydymo proceso metu susidaraniam tik brkniuotoji keramika, 10-tyje tik gruobltoji ke-
lakui subgti. Prie krosneli on i tokio paties mo- ramika ir 4-iose duobse rasta ir brkniuotos, ir gruo-
lio ir smlio miinio yra suformuoti gal siaurjantys bltosios keramikos puod uki.
atsikiimai su kanalu viduryje, per pamat sienelje
Pagal iuo metu nustatyt datavim, Lietuvos terito-
esani ang besijungianiu su krosnels vidumi. J.
rijoje brkniuotoji keramika buvo naudota iki 350
385
450m. Kaip rodyt gyvenvietje rastos keramikos
palyginimas, krosnels buvo statomos ir naudojamos
pereinamuoju laikotarpiu, jau sigalint gruobltajai ke-
The Iron Smelting Site
i n Vi r b a l i n a i A n c i e n t
BALINAS
ALGIRDAS
gyvenviets rib.
386
I R O N S M E LT I N G T E C H N I Q U E S I N T H E
BALTICA 8
VIRBALINAI ANCIENT SETTLEMENT
ARCHAEOLOGIA
Abstract
The rescue excavations of the Virbalinai ancient settlement have unearthed an iron production site of the middle of the first
millennium AD. Nine slag-pit type furnace bottoms with the slaggy mass in situ, pieces of iron-smelting slag, potsherds and
other finds have been excavated here. An attempt at a metallurgical interpretation of both the furnace structure and the iron
smelting process at the site is discussed in this paper. The results of a metallographic examination of crude iron clot as well
as the data from chemical analyses of the smelting slags are also presented here.
Key words: slag-pit furnace, iron smelting, crude iron, smelting slag, composition, microstructure.
Ta b l e 1 . S l a g - p i t f u r n a c e s f o u n d i n L i t h u a n i a
Archaeological site Date, AD Number of Internal diameter Scholar and year of site
furnaces at the slag-pit top, investigation
revealed in cm
1. Auktadvaris hill-fort, Trakai 2nd-4th c. 2 18-24 V.Daugudis 1960 (Daugudis
district 1960, p.9.)
2. Kerelian hill-fort, Kupikis 2nd-3rd c. 1 ca. 35 E.Grigalaviien, 1984
district (Grigalaviien 1985, p.33ff.;
1986)
3. Kernav, Pajauta valley, irvintos 3rd-4th c. 1 28-34 A.Luchtanas 1984 (Luchtan
X
district 1987) TECHNO-
LOGICAL
4. Kernav, Semeniks settlement, 2nd-3rd c. 1 ca. 32 V.Uinskas and G.Karnatka 1990 ASPECTS
irvintos district (Uinskas & Karnatka 1991) OF
5. Lazdininkai (Kalnalaukis) Before the 1 ca. 45 D.Butkus and J.Kanarskas, 2001 W E A P O N RY
settlement, Kretinga district 3rd c. (Butkus 2001, p.16, Fig. 31)
6. Virbalinai ancient settlement, 4th-5th c. 5 30-35 A.alnierius and D.Balinas
Kaunas district 1 ca. 55 2005 (alnierius 2006)
1 ca. 46
1 38-40
1 oval 26-45
387
(1994). The slag-pit furnaces were spreading more timetres. Wall thickness has a great influence on the
to the north, and at the beginning of the first millen- smelting process. Fairly thick walls prevent the heat
i n t h e Vi r b a l i n a i A n c i e n t
I r o n S m e l t i n g Te c h n i q u e s
nium AD reached the Baltic tribes. The slag-pit fur- from escaping from a furnace, and help to maintain the
naces found in Lithuania are very similar to those in reducing conditions necessary for the extraction of iron
the countries of Central Europe in the La Tne Period: from the ore. In addition, the furnace walls have to pos-
the Holy Cross Mountains in Poland, Podboany in sess good refractory qualities and they must be strong
Settlement
north Bohemia, and others (Navasaitis 2003). La Tne enough to avoid damage during the smelting process.
slag-pit furnaces were rather small: the remaining slag
The analyses of the material used for the furnace walls
blocks were of some 20 kilograms in weight (Pleiner
have revealed that the walls were made of a mixture
1994).
prepared of silica sand and a certain proportion of clay
NAVASAITIS
AND AURA
SELSKIEN
This paper presents a metallurgical interpretation of (Table 2). Clay acts as a binding agent around the silica
the iron-smelting furnaces of the slag-pit type exca- grains, and sustains the good strength of a mix. The
JONAS
vated in the Virbalinai ancient settlement. The com- composition of both the furnace walls and the smelting
position of iron-smelting slag and the characteristics slag was determined by optical emission spectroscopy,
of the small pig iron pieces found in the slag are also using a DC plasma emission spectroscope, Beckman
discussed here. SpectraSpan VI. Three furnace wall samples were ana-
lysed: a grey wall (sample No 14/15A), a black wall
(sample No 14/15B) and a baked red wall (sample No
Structure and operation of the furnace
14/15C). The chemical composition of the furnace
walls is shown in Table 3. It is interesting to note the
Iron-smelting techniques in the ancient Virbalinai set-
presence of pebbles and charcoal dust in a structural
tlement are evident by the remains of several smelting
blend. The high proportion of silica sand and the small
furnaces, metallurgical slag and structural materials
amount of clay (about 9%) in the mix, with admixtures
visible in the excavated site. Excavations have revealed
of pebbles and charcoal dust, indicate a deliberately
nine well-preserved slag-pit type furnace bottoms with
prepared structural material demonstrating high refrac-
the slaggy mass in situ (Fig. 1a). An exhaustive de-
tory qualities.
scription and pictures of the findings are presented by
Algirdas alnierius and Dainius Balinas article in There are no indications of the full height of the furnac-
this volume. The furnaces are rather small about 30 es. The site was adversely affected by agricultural ac-
to 40 centimetres in internal diameter with sand-clay tivities in recent centuries, and the furnace shafts were
walls up to 20 centimetres thick at ground level. Only badly damaged. However, the excavated fragments of
two of them reach from 45 to 55 centimetres in internal the shafts suggest that they were probably from 70 to
diameter, with the wall thickness being up to 30 cen- 100 centimetres tall (Fig. 1b).
Ta b l e 2 . A n a l y s e s o f s t r u c t u r a l m a t e r i a l u s e d f o r t h e f u r n a c e w a l l s , w t %
Sieve mesh, mm 5 2.5 1.0 0.63 0.4 0.2 0.1 0.05 The rest
0.63- 0.4- 0.05-
Grain size, mm 5 2.5-5.0 1.0-2.5 0.2-0.4 0.1-0.2 0.05 0.022
1.0 0.63 0.1
Content, wt % 5.5 11.0 14.3 16.5 18.0 19.3 3.9 1.5 0.8 9.0 99.8
Ta b l e 3 . C h e m i c a l c o m p o s i t i o n o f t h e f u r n a c e w a l l s , w t %
Black 14/15 B 6.09 71.57 12.12 1.30 1.02 0.15 1.76 4.25 0.55 0.56 0.08 99.45 0.88
Baked red 14/15 C 5.68 71.84 11.93 1.37 1.25 0.21 1.32 3.91 0.65 0.56 0.08 98.80 n.d.
* Above 100%
n.d. not detected
388
BALTICA 8
ARCHAEOLOGIA
Fig. 1a-b. Reconstruction of the slag-pit furnace: a remains of furnace No 7, in Virbalinai settlement and its section;
b probable reconstruction of the furnace (after Navasaitis).
389
pit (Fig. 1a). The channel might have
served as an air duct during the furnace
i n t h e Vi r b a l i n a i A n c i e n t
I r o n S m e l t i n g Te c h n i q u e s
is ferrite (white) with some pearlite grains (variegated tered the carburization of part of the produced blooms
grey), while the prevailing phase in another area of up to 0.8% C (Piaskowski 2002). Were the Virbalinai
the sample is pearlite (grey) with some ferrite grains furnaces an installation of this kind? Making the axes,
(white) in a pearlite matrix (Fig. 4b). The microstruc- they forged the bloom in such a way that the cutting
ture demonstrates that sample material to be hypoeu- edge was formed of the carburised part of the bloom.
tectoid steel. Hence, it could be hardened by means of The axes were quenched and tempered (Piaskowski
quenching. Therefore, undoubtedly, this steel was suit- 2002). Analyses of the element concentration revealed
able for tool and weapon production. It should be noted a high amount of phosphorus (0.9% P on average) in
that the Polish scientist Jerzy Piaskowski has proposed the clot. The high phosphorus content resulted in the
that the Baltic tribes developed considerably iron pro- phosphide eutectic observed in the pearlite matrix of
duction in the first to the fifth centuries AD. They mas- the specimen (Fig. 4b). It should be noted that the high
Ta b l e 4 . T h e c h e m i c a l c o m p o s i t i o n o f s e l e c t e d s m e l t i n g s l a g s a m p l e s f r o m
Vi r b a l i n a i , w t %
Sample
Sample Fe tot FeO SiO2 Al2O3 CaO P2O5 MnO MgO K2O Na2O TiO2 BaO Total
No
Tap-slag 14/5 A 41.6 53.53 31.81 3.30 3.78 4.62 1.70 0.77 1.60 0.30 0.38 0.02 101.8
Tap-slag 14/9A 51.4 66.18 20.23 2.13 4.24 5.61 0.69 0.70 1.24 0.14 0.00 0.22 101.4
Tap-slag 14/19A 45.0 57.88 24.58 2.76 6.13 6.89 0.96 0.75 1.64 0.22 0.08 0.32 102.2
Light
14/19C 3.45 4.44 77.93 9.32 1.06 0.30 0.09 1.13 3.93 0.71 0.51 0.08 99.5
porous slag
Ta b l e 5 . T h e c h e m i c a l c o m p o s i t i o n o f i r o n c l o t N o 1 4 / 7 f o u n d i n s m e l t i n g
slag, wt % X
TECHNO-
LOGICAL
Phase C* P As S Co Mn Si Fe ASPECTS
OF
Ferrite 0.005 0.6-1.3 0.23 0.02 0.12 b.d. b.d. the rest W E A P O N RY
Pearlite 0.8 0.55 0.20 0.01 0.13 b.d. b.d. the rest
Average 0.3 0.9 0.22 0.02 0.12 b.d. b.d. the rest
* calculated from microstructure
b.d. below detection limit
391
phosphorus content in the sample tends towards an 5-9 October 1987. Prague: Archaeolog. Inst. CSAV, 169-
i n t h e Vi r b a l i n a i A n c i e n t
increasing steel brittleness, thus hampering the possi- 189.
I r o n S m e l t i n g Te c h n i q u e s
invitation to participate in the investigations of this in- Milan: Vol. 1. Milan: Associazione Italiana di Metallurgia,
teresting object. Verut Treiokien kindly helped in
JONAS
517-523.
preparing some illustrations for this paper. PAYNTER, S., 2006. Regional Variations in Bloomery
Smelting Slag of The Iron Age and Romano-British Peri-
ods. Archaeometry, 48, 2, 271-292.
PIASKOWSKI, J., 1992. Hutnictwo i odlewnictwo. In: B.
Translated by Jonas Navasaitis
OROWSKI, ed. Z Dziejow techniki w dawnej Polsce,
Warszawa: IHNOiT, 17-135.
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Steel Technology on the Territory of Poland in Ancient and
Mediaeval Times. In: H.-J. BRAUN, A. HERLEA, eds.
Manuscripts Proceedings of the XXth International Congress of His-
tory of Science, Liege, 20-26 July 1997. Vol. XV. Materi-
BUTKUS, D., 2001. Lazdinink (Kalnalaukio) senovs als: Research, Development and Applications. Turnhout:
gyvenviets ir kapinyno (Darbn sen., Kretingos raj.) Brepols, 195-210.
2000 m. archeologini tyrinjim ataskaita. Kretinga. In: PLEINER, R., 1994. Early Bloomeries in Central Europe.
Lithuanian Institute of History, LII F.1, b. 3667. In: M. MANGIN, ed. La sidrurgie ancienne de IEst
CREW, P., 2001. Innovation in Furnace Design and Tech- de la France dans son contexte europen: archologie
nology the Refractory Materials from Laxton. Poster et archomtrie, Actes du Colloque de Besanon, 10-13
presented to conference The introduction of Iron in Eura- Novembre 1993. Annales littraires de lUniversit de Be-
sia, October 2001. Uppsala. sanon, 536, 181-188.
DAUGUDIS, V. 1960. Auktadvario piliakalnio (Trak
r.) tyrinjim 1960 m. ataskaita. Grafin mediaga. In: Received: 10 December 2006; Revised: 22 May 2007
Lithuanian Institute of History, LII AS, Nr.1069, pl.9.
GRIGALAVIIENE, E. 1985. Kereli, Kupikio raj., pil-
iakalnio 1984 m. kasinjim ataskaita. In: Lithuanian In- G eleies lydymo
stitute of History, LII F.1, b.1164. technologija V irbalin
UINSKAS, V., KARNATKA G. 1991. Kernavs arche-
ologijos ir istorijos rezervatinio muziejaus teritorijos ir jo
senov s gyvenviet je
apylinki valgomieji tyrimai. Ataskaita. In: Lithuanian
Institute of History, LII F.1, b. 1805.
ALNIERIUS A., 2006. Virbalin senovs gyvenviets Jonas Navasaitis, Aura Selskien
(Kauno raj.) 2005 m. archeologini tyrinjim ataskaita.
T.1 (Ataskaita, radini pieiniai, tyrinjim foto fiksacija).
Santrauka
Kaunas. In: Lithuanian Institute of History, LII F.1, b.
4575.
Straipsnyje pateikiami Virbalin senovs gyvenviets
archeologini geleies lydymo radini: rudneli siene-
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BIELENIN, K., 1994. Der Rennofen vom Typ Burgerland in mo duomenys. Remiantis iais duomenimis pamginta
der frhgeschichtlichen eisenverhttung in Mitteleuropa. atkurti naudot rudneli konstrukcij bei paaikinti
In: M.MANGIN, ed. La sidrurgie ancienne de IEst de geleies lydymo technologij. Isamus radini arche-
la France dans son contexte europen, colloque de Be-
ologinis vertinimas su gausiomis iliustracijomis yra
sanon, 10-13 Novembre 1993. Paris, 255-267.
BIELENIN, K., WOYDA, S., 1978. Zwei Eisenverhttung- pateiktas iame leidinyje A. alnieriaus, J. Navasaiio
szentren des Altertums im Weichselbogen (1 Jh. V.u.Z. ir D. Balino straipsnyje Geleies lydymo vieta Vir-
4 Jh.u.Z.). In: Eisen + Archologie. Eisenbergbau und balin senovs gyvenvietje.
verhttung vor 2000 Jahre in der VR Polen. Deutsches
Bergbau-Museum Bochum, 25-55. Lietuvoje iki iol yra rasta apie 60-ties rudneli liekan
ESPELUND, A., 1989. The Operation of Bloomery Furnaces (1: ab pav.). Daugelis j siekia IIVI a. Penkiolika
from AD 0-500 in Mid-Norway. In: R.PLEINER, ed. Ar- rudneli, tarp j ir rastosios Virbalin senovs gyven-
chaeometallurgy of iron. International Symposium Liblice, vietje, priklauso tipui rudneli, po aizdru turjusi
392
lako duob, kuri sutekdavo lydymo metu susidars diovinant ar kaitinant prie lydym. Be to, is kana-
BALTICA 8
lakas. Lietuvos teritorijoje rast io tipo rudneli pa- las galjo turti ir kit, dar neiaikint technologin
grindins charakteristikos yra nurodytos 1 lentelje. paskirt. Reikia paymti, kad Virbalin rudnels yra
panaios ventojo Kryiaus kalnuose (Lenkijoje) ras-
Rudneli, turini lako duob po aizdru, kilm, deja,
tas rudneles, taip pat turjusias lako duob vedant
nra aiki. Radomiras Pleineris nurodo, kad tiksliai da-
kanal. Ten tokia rudnel buvo pavadinta Kotlinka
tuot i rudneli, siekiani La Tne kultros perio-
Switokrzyska 1. Spjama, kad rudnelei idivus
d, yra rasta Vidurio Europoje. Taiau manoma, kad
ir kaitus, arijos lako duobs dugne ir kanalas bda-
ARCHAEOLOGIA
jos buvo inomos dar iki kelt. La Tne periodu io
vo upilami eme, o duob dar bdavo prikraunama
tipo rudnels pasirod ir dabartins Lenkijos teritorijo-
ab ar kitokios medienos, kad lydoma rda ir medio
je. J liekan rasta to meto geleies gavybos centruose
anglys laikytsi vir duobs. Tuo tarpu skystas lakas
ventojo Kryiaus kalnuose. Plisdamos iaur ios
laisvai galjo sutekti tarpus tarp ab. Mediena duo-
rudnels pasiek ir balt kratus.
bje dl oro stokos nesudegdavo, tiktai apangldavo.
Virbalin senovs gyvenvietje buvo rastos palyginti i prielaid patvirtina nesudegusios ir nesudljusios
neblogai isilaikiusios 9-i rudneli apaios. Tai rudne- medienos liekanos, aptiktos keliuose lako gabaluose
li lako duobs su jose likusiu in situ lydymo laku (3 pav.).
(1 a pav.). Daugumos rudneli vidinis skersmuo siek
Rudnelje lydymo proceso metu redukuojasi rda ir
apie 3040 cm, o acht sieneli storiai ties buvusiu
isiskiria geleis. Kartu i bergdij rdos uolien,
ems paviriumi iki 20 cm. Dvi rudnels buvo kiek
kuro pelen, flius ir apsilydiusi rudnels sieneli
didesns, turjusios nuo 45 iki 55 cm vidin skersmen
susidaro daug patvaraus lako. Be to, rudneli lake
ir iki 30 cm storio acht sieneles. Rudneli sienels
lieka neredukuot geleies jungini. Taigi lako sudtis
buvo plktos i smlio ir molio miinio. Granuliome-
gali daug pasakyti apie geleies lydymo technologij,
trin jo sudtis pateikta 2 lentelje, o 3 lentelje nu-
naudot rd, kur ir fliusus. Virbalin rudneli lako
rodyta sieneli miinio chemin sudtis. Kad miinys
tyrimai parod, kad tai yra tiesioginei geleies gavybai
bt pakankamai atsparus kaitrai, molio kiekis jame
bdingas lakas (4 lentel). Kaip ir tiktasi, pagrindin
siekia vos 9%. Be molio, miin taip pat pridta iek
lako faz sudaro fajalitas, t. y. geleies ir silicio oksi-
tiek smulkaus virgdo bei malt (?) medio angli.
d junginys (Fe2SiO4). Aptiktas geleies kiekis tekiojo
ie priedai didina miinio atsparum kaitrai ir stipru-
lako bandiniuose svyruoja tarp 41,6% ir 51,4%. Pagal
m. domu, kad senovs metalurgai inojo, kokiomis
lake likus geleies kiek ie bandiniai yra labai pana-
priemonmis siekti rudneli sieneli stiprumo ir atspa-
s kitus Lietuvoje rast rudneli lakus. Pavyzdiui,
rumo kaitrai.
tekiuosiuose rudneli lakuose, paimtuose i lakduo-
Apie rudneli aukt galima sprsti tik i negausi bi, rastas geleies kiekis kinta ribose nuo 40,5% iki
achtos fragment bei analogijos su kitomis io tipo 61,1%.
rudnelmis. Tiktina, kad jos buvo apie 70100 cm
Palyginti didelis fosforo oksido kiekis lake (4,62
aukio (1 b pav.). Iliks lako duobi gylis siek nuo
6,89%) rodo, kad Virbalin metalurgai gele lyd i
20 iki 35 cm. Virutinje duobi dalyje buvo aikiai
fosforingos rdos. Lengvas purus lakas greiiausiai
matomas perdegusio raudono molio sluoksnis, rodan-
susidar i apsilydiusios rudnels sienels, nes jame
tis rudnels aizdro zon, kurioje lydymo metu vyko
vyrauja silicio oksidas (apie 78%), taip pat yra aliumi-
intensyvus medio angli degimas. Beje, iliko tiktai
nio oksido (9,32%), kalio oksido (3,93%) ir iek tiek
apatin aizdro dalis, nes vis rudneli virutins da-
geleies (3,45%).
lys buvo apgadintos vlesniais laikais dirbant em.
Taiau 49-oje rudnelje iliko sienels fragmentas su Maas lako kiekis rudneli duobse (apie 1216 kg)
4 cm skersmens apskritos angos dalimi (2 pav.). Ne- rodo, kad j naumas buvo nedidelis. Tiesa, reikia taip
abejotinai per i ang rudnel dumplmis buvo pu- pat vertinti ir nuardytos virutins duobi dalies lako,
iamas oras, reikalingas medio anglims degti. Nors pasklidusio aplink rudneles, mas. Skaiiavimai rodo, X
is sienels fragmentas buvo ijudintas i tikrosios kad Virbalin rudnelse per madaug 68 val. truk- TECHNO-
savo padties, taiau tiktina, kad anga buvusi rengta ms lydym galjo bti sunaudojama apie 1820kg LOGICAL
ASPECTS
keliolikos centimetr auktyje vir tuometinio ems bal rdos ir gaunama apie 1,52,0kg geleies, i ku- OF
lygio ir buvo pasvirusi apie 30 vidin rudnels pus rios buvo galima nukalti 34 movinius kirvius arba W E A P O N RY
394
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394
Klaipdos universiteto leidykla
ARCHAEOLOGIA BALTICA 8
Weapons, Weaponry and Man
(In memoriam Vytautas Kazakeviius)
Edited by Audron Bliujien
Klaipda, 2007
SL 1335. 20071109. Apimtis 50,5 sl. sp. l. Tiraas 500 egz.
Klaipdos universiteto leidykla, HerkausManto g. 84, LT-92294 Klaipda
Tel. (8~46) 398 891, el. patas: leidykla@ku.lt
Spausdino spaustuv Petro Ofsetas, algirio g. 90, Vilnius
BALTICA 8
ARCHAEOLOGIA
1 2
Plate I.
1 Vytautas Kazakeviius and V. ulkus, editors of Archaeologia Baltica, in 1997; 2 In the workroom at the Lithuanian Insti-
tute of History, 2004; 3.With colleagues at a conference in Pal, 2000; 4 Vytautas Kazakeviius in 2000.
I
Plates
Plate II.
1. ivutkalns: the steep outer slope of the bank was covered in certain places with stones laid in clay and covered
over with more clay on the outside (photograph by Vasks); 2 Reconstruction sources for grave 75: cardboard, de-
scription by Otto Tischler, transcript of the Zettelkatalog card with corresponding items.
II
BALTICA 8
ARCHAEOLOGIA
1
Plate III.
1 diamond-shaped blade spearheads with a short blade and long socket from Jauneikiai (Jonikis district) cemetery grave
390 (silver, bronze, iron; length 19.2cm and 36.3cm; after The Semigallians 2005, nos. 138-143); 2. Prittlewell, Essex. Re-
construction of the princely chamber grave, showing the tubs, buckets, bowls, cups, drinking-horns, the lamp and the lyre.
Copyright Museum of London Archaeology Service (MoLAS).
III
Plates
2
Plate IV.
1. Thorsberg. Components of Germanic scabbard fittings, set 2, attempted reconstruction (photograph by Archologisches
Landesmuseum, Schleswig); 2 Thorsberg. Components of Germanic scabbard fittings, set 1, attempted reconstruction (pho-
tograph by Archologisches Landesmuseum, Schleswig).
IV
BALTICA 8
ARCHAEOLOGIA
Plate V.
1: Navigation possibilities on the Nemunas according to archaeological data and written sources.
1 Balt castles, trading centres and settlements in Viking times (after Z. Baubonis, G. Zabiela 2005): 1 Rusn; 2 Linknai
(Linkhunen); 3 Rambynas; 4 ereitlaukis (Sarecke); 5 Vievil; 6 Burgaiiai; 7 Grinaiiai; 8 Atkalniks; 9 Kukarsks
(Kimel); 10 Raudonnai; 11 Stulgiai; 12 Plokiai; 13 Duliniks; 14 uklijai; 15 emoji Panemun; 16 Mikytai;
17 Vervai; 18 Marvel; 19 Jauakiai; 20 Altonikiai; 21 Pypliai; 22 Piepaliai; 23 Lentainiai; 24 Pakalnikiai; 25 Guogai;
26 Maisiejnai; 27 Paventupis; 28 arijai; 29 Paverkniai; 30 Birtonas.
2: Balt castles and villages which were attacked by Crusaders from boats (after Petri de Dusburg): 1 Ragain (Raganita
Ragnit); 2 Ptv (Putenic); 3 Gedimino pilis (Castrum Gedemini); 4 Kolainiai (Colayne); 5 Skirsnemun (Christmemel);
6 Bisen (Bisena); 7 Veliuona (Junigeda); 8 Pietv (Pisten); 9 Romainiai (Romeyn).
V
Plates
Plate VI.
1 grave 37 at Kirkkomki in Turku. In addition to remains of the shaft of the axe, the Hocker position of the body is also
exceptional; usually the deceased were buried on their back (photograph: H. Asplund; Turku Provincial Museum);
2 Heavily armoured horseman: kataphraktos (reconstruction by A. Vachkov); 3 the fortress on the Danube island of Pacuiul
Lui Soare; 4 finds from Varna: a the so-called Ovruch spindle whorls; b decorated glazed clay eggs.
VI
BALTICA 8
ARCHAEOLOGIA
1a
1b
3
Plate VII.
1 Sraji (Talsi district) grave 1. Components of the Type T sword hilt: 1a pommel and upper guard; 1b lower guard (photo-
graph by N. Grasis, in the custody of LVM, No. A 12816: 217, 220); 2 Sraji (Talsi district) grave 12. Components of the
sword hilt (partial reconstruction of the design; drawing by A. Ivbule, in the custody of LVM, No. A 12816: 159, 402);
3 East Lithuania: the location of the Rkuiai defence installation (photograph by Girininkas, 2007).
VII
Plates
1 2
3 4
5 6
Plate VIII.
Furnaces from Virbalinai ancient settlement: 1 trenches 34 and furnaces of the first group; 2 furnaces 2; 3 furnace 7;
4 trenches 1819 and third group furnaces; 5 furnace 51; 6 furnace 52 (photographs by Balinas).
VII