Frequently Asked Questions (FAQs) about Sodium Hypochlorite (SH) |... http://www.cdc.gov/safewater/chlorination-faq.

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FAQ about Sodium Hypochlorite Solution (SH)

1. Is sodium hypochlorite (SH) the best disinfectant to use?
Investigations have shown sodium hypochlorite to be an effective disinfectant having broad
applications. Although a number of other disinfectants (calcium hypochlorite, ozone, UV, solar
disinfection) and treatment processes (filters, slow sand filtration) have been investigated, sodium
hypochlorite appears to offer the best mix of low cost, ease of use, safety, and effectiveness in
areas where there is enough water to drink and water is not excessively turbid. These
characteristics are the reasons why most water treatment systems in the US and Europe have been
using chlorine for disinfecting drinking water for nearly 100 years. The other disinfection methods
noted above also effectively disinfect water and are useful in a number of settings.

2. What about using calcium hypochlorite (HTH) or chlorine tablets

instead?
Chlorine tablets and/or HTH (also named calcium hypochlorite) are widely available in some
areas. A number of potential users of the SWS know that these tablets are used to disinfect water.
Unfortunately, we have also found that many people have different levels of knowledge regarding
appropriate dosing instructions, which is a concern because the tablets vary significantly in
strength. In Haiti, a small saran wrap bag of approximately 100 HTH pellets is widely available
and inexpensive. However, the pellets vary in size, the quality of the pellets is unknown, and,
depending on impurities in the manufacturing process, they can degrade quickly. In other
countries, very high strength tablets may be sold which, when added to water for disinfection,
leave a strong, unpleasant taste. It is important for users to know the quality and strength of HTH
and/or chlorine tablets and understand the appropriate dosing strategy before attempting to use
them for drinking water treatment; in most instances, however, this is impossible for users to do.
For these reasons, hypochlorite solution is likely to be a better option.

3. What characteristics are required for SH?

First, it is important that the concentration of the SH solution produced is correct (usually 0.5 to
1.0%). A concentration that is too low requires too high a volume to adequately treat enough water
to be practical. A concentration that is too high is difficult to accurately dose, raising the risk of too
high a dose (which is unpalatable), or too low a dose (which might not effectively disinfect the
water). Second, it is important that the pH level of the solution be at least 11. This increases the
shelf life of the solution.

4. How do we determine the appropriate SH dose?

The hypochlorite dose will depend on the characteristics of the local water. Usually an amount in

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the range of 5 to 10 milliliters added to 20 liters of water is sufficient to inactivate the disease-
causing organisms, but not leave an unpleasant taste. Once the size of the cap for your project has
been determined, some simple experiments can be used to determine the appropriate dose. To
conduct the experiments, you will need locally available SH, source water in your area, and a kit
that measures the amount of free and combined chlorine. Please contact safewater@cdc.gov
(mailto:safewater@cdc.gov) for more information on how to complete this testing.

5. How do you ensure adequate shelf life of SH?

Sodium hypochlorite is highly reactive and volatile. At normal pH (6-8), sodium hypochlorite can
degrade substantially within 2-3 weeks. This shelf life is not adequate for use in the SWS, which
requires that the hypochlorite remain at a high enough concentration to inactivate disease-causing
organisms. By raising the pH of the hypochlorite solution, you stabilize the solution. The pH can
be raised by the addition of sodium hydroxide, which is widely available. In order to determine
the amount of sodium hydroxide to add to your sodium hypochlorite solution, you will need to
complete trial-and-error testing. Add a known volume of sodium hydroxide to a known volume of
sodium hypochlorite, and then measure the pH with a meter or kit. Because source water quality
is different in each location, there is not one standard volume of sodium hydroxide to add to
ensure pH is above 11. You will have to start with a known volume (perhaps 1 tablespoon in 1
gallon, or 5 ml in 1 liter) and complete repeat trial-and-error testing. The exact pH is not
important in this contextyou simply need to ensure that the pH level is above 11.

6. Will adding NaOH change the effectiveness of SH?

No, because when the sodium hypochlorite solution is added to water, the water decreases the pH
and the sodium hypochlorite becomes more active. The chemistry behind this is: the pH scale is
from 0 to 14. Acids have a pH below 7, bases are above 7, and 7 is neutral. Most natural water is
around pH 6-7. When sodium hypochlorite is in water, it is a mixture of two compounds, with the
concentration of each compound dependent on pH. One of these compounds is significantly more
reactive, volatile, and more effective at inactivating bacteria than the other. At high pH (above 11)
the majority of the sodium hypochlorite is in the form of the less-reactive compound. Thus, when
you add sodium hydroxide to the sodium hypochlorite, you are converting it into the less-reactive
form. However, water is around pH 6-7. When you add a small amount (5 milliliters) of solution
at pH 11 to a large amount (20 liters) of water at pH 6-7, the mixture becomes pH 6-7. Thus, when
you add the hypochlorite at pH 11 to your water in the SWS, you convert the hypochlorite back
into the reactive form, and then it inactivates the disease-causing organisms.

7. If you add SH to water already treated in a municipal water treatment

plant, is there a risk of a chlorine overdose?
This is very unlikely. If sodium hypochlorite is added to water that is already treated, the water
would most likely still be within an acceptable range of chlorine residual. Typically, chlorinated
urban water systems have free chlorine levels of around 0.1 to 0.5 parts per million. We calculate
our sodium hypochlorite solution dose to give untreated water a free chlorine level of around 1
part per million. So if you add our solution (to achieve 1 part per million) to treated urban water
(0.1-0.5 parts per million), the level of the "overtreated" water would still be in the acceptable
range of 0.5-2 parts per million (which is the range that balances disinfection efficacy and
reasonable taste).

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8. Why does free chlorine in treated water decline over time?

Chlorine is an extremely reactive chemical. Right after the sodium hypochlorite is added to the
water, chlorine levels decline because the chlorine is reacting with inorganic and organic matter
and microbes. After those reactions are complete, chlorine in water will slowly escape into the air
as a gas. This is the reason that free and total chlorine levels slowly degrade over time in a covered
(but not sealed) container, and also why it is recommended that the pH level of the hypochlorite
solution be raised to over 11 to extend the shelf life of the solution before it is used.

9. What happens if a child accidentally drinks SH?

It is important to remember that the concentration of the SH used in the Safe Water System (SWS)
is approximately 0.5-1.0%. A review of health effects from accidental and intentional ingestion of
full strength bleach (sodium hypochlorite), which is 5-6%, in European poison control centers1
(http://www.cdc.gov/safewater/chlorination-faq.html#ref1) showed that "acute accidental exposure to
household bleach in use or in foreseeable misuse situations results, in the great majority of the
cases, in minor, transient adverse effects on health. The authors also cited two studies specifically
on children: 1) A study in Chicago showing that of 26 children admitted for accidental bleach
ingestion, only one had a moderate health effect (irritation of the esophagus, which healed on its
own without intervention), with the remaining children having only "minor transient irritation
effects", and 2) A study of 23 cases aged 1 - 3 years, with only one case having "superficial burns in
the esophagus", which disappeared two weeks later. Suicide attempts in adults have shown that a
lethal dose of sodium hypochlorite varies widely, with lethal results at 200-500 mL of 3-12%
strength. As mentioned above, the hypochlorite ingested in the majority of the cases in the review
was full strength household bleach: 5-6%. Several factors make it unlikely that the hypochlorite
solutions recommended in the Safe Water System could cause harm remembering that in most
countries, the SWS SH is sold in 250 ml bottles; in some countries, the 500 ml bottles are used.
First, it is unlikely that a child would accidentally drink 250 or 500 milliliters of something that
tastes as bad as the sodium hypochlorite does. Second, it is even less likely that, at the low
concentration used in this project, anything harmful would occur. Despite these safety data, it is
highly recommended that part of the educational materials emphasize the need to keep the
sodium hypochlorite solution stored somewhere safe (out of sunlight, sealed, away from children)
for health reasons; to protect the sodium hypochlorite from degradation; and to prevent spills in
households that, due to limited incomes, would be unable to purchase more solution.

10. Does SH inactivate Giardia and Cryptosporidium?

Giardia and Cryptosporidium are both protozoa and are highly tolerant to chlorination because
they exist in water in a cyst or oocyst form. The hard coat of the cysts or oocysts protects Giardia
and Cryptosporidium from being inactivated by chlorine. Cryptosporidium is much more
resistant to chlorine than Giardia (see pathogen inactivation table (/safewater/effectiveness-
on-pathogens.html) for more details). Both protozoa, however, are fairly large, which means that
they can be removed by filtration. If Giardia or Cryptosporidium are a significant health problem
in the project area, a filtration step (through ceramic, sand, or other filters) can be added before
adding the sodium hypochlorite.

11. What do we do if the source water is turbid?

Water that looks dirty or cloudy is called turbid water. Turbidity is a measure of the amount of

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light that is scattered as it passes through the water sample. If more particles are in the water,
more light will be scattered, and the turbidity is thus higher. Water that looks "dirty" will have a
higher turbidity than water that looks clear. Turbidity is often used to represent the amount of
total suspended solids and the amount of organic matter in the water. Bacteria and other
pathogens may also stick to particles in the water so high turbidity may increase the chance that
there are pathogens in the water. There are two issues associated with adding chlorine to water
that has a high turbidity: 1) Chlorine reacts equally with all the organic material in the water as
well as with the bacteria and other pathogens. If there is a great deal of organic material then it
will take more chlorine to fully react with all the dissolved solids and organic material as well as
inactivate the bacteria and other pathogens, 2) There is a potential for creating more disinfection
by-products if there is a higher concentration of organic matter in the source water. There are
three strategies that can be used to treat turbid water (/safewater/chlorination-pretreatment.html) : 1)
Filter the water through a cloth filter to remove some of the organic matter and then chlorinate; 2)
Let the water settle for 12-24 hours so the organic matter and solids fall to the bottom and then
pour off the clearer water into a separate vessel where it is then chlorinated; or 3) Increase the
dose of sodium hypochlorite solution added to the turbid water to be sure there is enough chlorine
to inactivate the disease-causing organisms. Because every community is different, experiments to
determine which is the most acceptable, appropriate, and effective strategy will need to be
conducted in the project community.

12. What are disinfection by-products, and are they an issue in the SWS?
Disinfection by-products (DBPs) are chemical compounds formed when chlorine is added to
water with organic material in it. All natural waters have some organic material in them, and
generally waters that are more turbid (dirty) have more organic material. DBPs are a concern
whenever chlorine is added to drinking water, whether in the Safe Water System or in a
large-scale water treatment plant in the United States, because some studies suggest that ingestion
of DBPs in water over a lifetime may be associated with a very low risk of cancer. However, this
risk is very small. In areas where many people, and many children, have diarrheal diseases caused
by unsafe drinking water, the risk of cancer from DBPs is very small compared to the risk of death
or stunting from diarrheal diseases. In their Guidelines for Drinking-water Quality, the World
Health Organization states: "Where local circumstances require that a choice must be made
between meeting either microbiological guidelines or guidelines for disinfectants or disinfectant
by-products, the microbiological quality must always take precedence, and where necessary, a
chemical guideline value can be adopted corresponding to a higher level of risk. Efficient
disinfection must never be compromised" 2 (http://www.cdc.gov/safewater/chlorination-faq.html#ref2) . For
more information, please see our detailed page on DBPs (/safewater/chlorination-byproducts.html) .

13. Why should I invest in a hypochlorite generator?

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A number of companies manufacture hypochlorite generators. There are several advantages in

using a hypochlorite generator. First, local production of the sodium hypochlorite minimizes
transportation costs. Second, in the event there is not a reliable bleach producer in the country,
the hypochlorite generator can provide the capacity. Third, revenues from the sale of the solution
can be used to help support operation and maintenance of the machine and to pay the operator.
Considerations that must be taken into account when producing bleach in this way include the
need for regular operation and maintenance of the machine, the need to test the concentration
and pH of the SH solution produced, payment of a reliable person to operate and maintain the
machine, replacement of the cell of the generator every 5 years, and the need for a reliable
electricity supply.

14. Are there advantages to having a private company manufacture SH?

There are several advantages to having a company make the solution: 1) Most likely, all a company
would need to do to make the desired concentration of hypochlorite is to dilute an existing bleach
product. 2) If demand for the solution grows, a company is better able to expand production. 3)
Many companies have certification from Bureaus of Standards for bleach products that can often
be applied to the new dilute solution. 4) Most reputable companies have quality control
procedures. In countries around the world, Populations Services International
(http://www.psi.org/) (http://www.cdc.gov/Other/disclaimer.html) (PSI--a social marketing,
non-governmental organization that has successfully implemented a number of SWS projects) has
opted to have private companies make the bleach for them.

15. How much does it cost to manufacture SH (per year)?

In the first year of the country-scale project in Zambia, it cost US$78,000 to manufacture
400,000 bottles. The labor cost was $23,000 and the materials (salt, vinegar, bottles, and labels)
cost was $55,000. The total production cost was therefore US$0.20 per bottle. Assuming a family
usage of one bottle per month, the production cost for a year's supply for one family is about
US$2.40. After the first year, costs usually decrease. Costs vary by country, depending on labor,
materials, and value-added taxes. In small-scale projects using a local hypochlorite generator and
reusable bottles, the production cost of the hypochlorite is only the cost of the salt, water, labor,
and electricity.

16. What characteristics do you recommend for the SH bottle?

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CDC recommends the following six characteristics for the sodium hypochlorite bottle that is kept
in the home: 1) The size of the bottle should be between 250 and 500 milliliters. This is small
enough to be affordable and to ensure that the solution will be used before it degrades, but large
enough that it will last a family for approximately one month. 2) The neck of the bottle should be
compatible with soda bottle caps, which tend to be mass-produced, inexpensive, typically have the
desired volume of 5-10mL for dosing, and are available in most locations. 3) The volume of the
cap should be between 5 and 10 ml so that it can be used to dose the solution. 4) The bottle should
be composed of an opaque plastic to prevent exposure of the solution to direct UV radiation from
sunlight, which will decrease its shelf life. 5) The neck and cap should have at least four threads to
improve the seal. The cap should have a raised ring inside to help seal the bottle, as well. 6) A
handle is not necessary. This only increases the cost and decreases the space available for
instructions.

17. How can we save money on manufacturing the SH bottle?

One way to save money when designing the solution bottle is to design the bottle so that an
already locally available cap will fit it. We recommend a plastic soft drink bottle cap with a volume
of 510 milliliters. Using a locally available cap will save you from having to purchase a mold for
the caps, and soft drink caps are typically mass produced at very low cost. The existing caps must
fit tightly and securely on the project bottle design.

18. How can you distribute SH throughout the country?

In many projects, PSI has initiated social marketing campaigns, which include activating networks
of wholesale and retail outlets and facilitating distribution to communities where vulnerable
populations live. For smaller projects, one idea is to purchase space on private delivery trucks that
are already going to target locations to deliver goods such as soft drinks and beer, or to request a
donation of space by the private companies as a charitable activity.

Page last reviewed: February 18, 2014

Page last updated: May 2, 2014
Content source: Centers for Disease Control and Prevention
National Center for Emerging and Zoonotic Infectious Diseases (NCEZID)
Division of Foodborne, Waterborne, and Environmental Diseases (DFWED)

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention 1600 Clifton Rd. Atlanta, GA
30329-4027, USA
800-CDC-INFO (800-232-4636) TTY: (888) 232-6348 - Contact CDC-INFO

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