ETME 2011 e Proceeding Proc. of The 4th National Conference On Emerging Trends in Mechanical Engineering, March 18 19, 2011

Proc.
ofthe4thNationalConferenceonEmergingTrendsinMechanicalEngineering,March1819,2011
G.H.PatelCollegeofEngineering&Technology,V.V.Nagar388120,Gujarat,India
ISBN:9788190937634
Proceedings
4thNationalConference
on
EmergingTrendsinMechanicalEngineering
ETME2011
March1819,2011

Editors
Dr.DarshakA.Desai
Prof.VivekA.Deshpande
Mr.MehulM.Gor

DepartmentofMechanicalEngineering
G.H.PatelCollegeofEngineering&Technology
BakrolRoad,VallabhVidyanagar388120,
Gujarat,India

ACharutarVidyaMandalInstitution

Proc.ofthe4thNationalConferenceonEmergingTrendsinMechanicalEngineering,March1819,2011
ISBN:9788190937634
PREAMBLE
The 4th National conference on Emerging Trends in Mechanical Engineering is
scheduled to be held during March 18 19, 2011. The main objective of this
conference is to bring together experts from academic institutions, industries and
researchorganizationsforsharingofknowledge,experienceintheemergingtrends
relatedtoMechanicalEngineering.
Therehasbeenanoverwhelmingresponsetothecallforpapersthistimeandwe
beingareforcedtoextendthesubmissiondate.Totalof102fullpapershavebeen
received from the researchers and academicians of the leading institutes and
organizations all over the country. However, only about 69 full papers have been
finally selected based on the recommendations of the reviewers for presentation
and inclusion in the conference proceedings. By and large these technical papers
give a true account of current research and development trends in the field of
MechanicalEngineering.
We are extremely thankful and grateful to the authors of the papers, reviewers,
national advisory committee members, faculty and staff members of the
departmentofMechanicalEngineeringandstudentvolunteersfortheircooperation
andsincerity.WearedeeplyindebtedtoDr.C.L.Patel,Chairman,CharutarVidya
MandalandDr.AnuragVerma,PrincipalofourInstitutefortheirconstantsupport
andencouragementinmakingthis4thNationalconferenceasuccess.
Dr.DarshakA.Desai
ConvenerETME2011
Professor&Head,DepartmentofMechanicalEngineering
ISBN:9788190937634

CHAIRMANSMESSAGE
Itisamatterofgreatpleasurethat,Department ofMechanicalEngineering,G.H.
Patel College of Engineering & Technology (GCET) is organizing a 4th National
Conference on Emerging Trends in Mechanical Engineering (ETME2011) during
March1819,2011.
TheglobaltechnologicalchangesareforcingtheMechanicalEngineeringfraternity
to resort to innovative ideas and methods in the areas of computer aided
engineering, robotics, automation, materials development and advanced
manufacturingmethods.ByexposingtheEmergingTrendsinthefieldofMechanical
Engineering to the researchers, academicians and industrialists we can help the
countryincateringtothechangingneedsoftheglobalmarket.
The Department of Mechanical Engineering is enriched with young, dynamic,
dedicated, highly competent and qualified faculty members. I am sure that this
conferencewillbringtogetherresearchers,scientistsandengineersinrelatedfield
of Mechanical Engineering as well as other fields of engineering and science to
sharetheirresearchfindings.
I wish the participants and organizers a rich learning and sharing experience of
technical ideas & innovations. I congratulate them for their initiative and wish a
grandsuccesstoETME2011.
Dr.C.L.Patel
Patron,ETME2011
Chairman,CharutarVidyaMandal

ISBN:9788190937634

PRINCIPAL'SMESSAGE

Itakethisopportunitytowelcomeallthedelegatesfromacrossthecountryin4th
National Conference of Emerging Trends in Mechanical Engineering (ETME2011)
organizedbyDepartmentofMechanicalEngineeringduringMarch1819,2011.
The theme of the conference is highly relevant in the sense that it is trying to
explore the research and development in the emerging trends of the Mechanical
Engineeringandthustomeettheemergingchallengesofindustriesandcorporate
world.
Theconferencewilldefinitelyprovideaplatformforacademicians,researchersand
scientiststodiscusstheproblemsintheareaofMechanicalEngineeringviz.Design,
CAD, CAM & CAE, Robotics & Automation, Thermal Science & Engineering,
Manufacturing, Material Science and Metallurgy, Industrial Engineering &
Managementetc.
Theconferencehasreceivedtremendousresponsefromeverypartsofthecountry.
Icongratulatetheorganizingcommittee,supportingstaffandparticipantsfortheir
initiative and wish a grand success in their endeavour for the 4th National
ConferenceonETME2011.
Dr.AnuragVerma
Chairman,ETME2011
Principal,
GHPatelCollegeofEngineering&Technology

ISBN:9788190937634
CONVENOR'SMESSAGE

InspiredbythegrandsuccessofETME2008,ETME2009&ETME2010,Department
of Mechanical Engineering, has once again organized4th National Conference on
Emerging Trends in Mechanical Engineering (ETME2011). The major objective of
thisconferenceistoprovideacommonplatformtoacademicians,researchscholars
and students to share their ideas & research experiences in various aspects of
MechanicalEngineering.
We have received overwhelming response in the form of research papers from
highlyexperiencedacademiciansandresearchscholars.Wehavereceivedresearch
papers from various reputed institutions including NITs and IIT's. The conference
proceeding is divided into areas like Design Engineering, Thermal Science &
Engineering, Renewable Energy, Production Engineering, Material Science &
EngineeringandIndustrialEngineering&Management.
We are extremely thankful to our management, Keynote speaker, advisory
committeemembers,participants,reviewers,sessionchairs,organizingcommittee
membersandallthosewhohavehelpedustoorganizethisNationalConferenceto
makeitasuccess.
I extend my best wishes to the organizing secretaries and all the members of
organizingcommitteetoachieveagrandsuccessintheconference.
Dr.DarshakA.Desai
ConvenerETME2011

ISBN:9788190937634
Messagefrom:
OrganizingSecretaries
Prof. V A Deshpande Mr. M M Gor
"The Man who wins, is the Man Who Thinks He Can"

The significance of the bygone decade of the century evokes the planning,
economy, education, communication, development & every aspect in the global
context.Theconferencesplaythevitalroleindirectingtheviewsandwayswitha
larger perspective and varied facets linked with global changes. In view of this we
are organizing the 4th National Conference on "Emerging Trends in Mechanical
Engineering"(ETME2011),scheduledonMarch1819,2011.
We,theorganizingsecretariesofETME2011,takethisopportunitytowelcomeall
the delegates from across the country in 4th National Conference of "Emerging
Trends in Mechanical Engineering" (ETME2011) organized by Department of
MechanicalEngineering,GCET,duringMarch1819,2011.
The theme of the conference is highly relevant in the sense that it is trying to
explore the research and development in the emerging trends of the Mechanical
Engineeringandthustomeettheemergingchallengesofindustriesandcorporate
world. We received overwhelming response from different states like Gujarat,
Rajasthan,Maharashtra,Punjab,UttarPradesh,MadhyaPradesh,AndhraPradesh,
Orissa,Tamilnadu,Kerala,WestBengal&Irancountry.Outof102researchpapers
69 good quality papers were selected and 56 papers will be presented in total 7
technicalsessionsduringtheconference.
Weheartilyexpressdeepsenseofgratitudetoourmanagement,Keynotespeaker,
participants,reviewers,sessionchairs,organizingcommitteemembersandallthose
who have helped us to organize this National Conference to make it a success. It
givesusimmensepleasuretoforwardthiseProceeding(ISBN:9788190937634)
ofthe4thNationalConferenceonbehalfofDepartmentofMechanicalEngineering,
GCET.
ISBN:9788190937634
AboutCharutarVidyaMandal(CVM)
One of the greatest sons of India Late Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel inspired Shri
Bhaikaka and Shri Bhikabhai Saheb for rural resurgence of postindependent India
through education, and Charutar Vidya Mandal was born. Charutar Vidya Mandal
wasestablishedintheyear1945asacharitabletrustwithaprimeobjectiveofrural
development through education to bring about the social awakening, social
upliftment and enrichment. The uniqueness of Charutar Vidya Mandal lies in its
abilitytousequalityeducationasapowerfulmeansofsocialtransformation.Itwas
a stupendous task for the founders to establish a visionary organization; but the
largeheartednessandhighsenseofphilanthropyofthisregionmadethispossible.
Over the subsequent years, Dr. H M Patel consolidated the efforts put in by
thefounders. Later on, in the 1990s, when Dr. C L Patel took over the reigns
ofCharutar Vidya Mandal as the Chairman, the country was facing a major
economic and ideological change paving the way for globalization and
liberalization.Thedynamicleadership,missionaryzealandvisionaryoutlookofDr.C
L Patel successfully took up the challenges. Various selffinanced educational
institutions started being established in the areas of Technology, Science and
Engineering, Commerce and Management, offering emerging and innovative
courses and programs such as Mechatronics, Automobile Engineering, Bio
technology, Food Processing Technology, ECommerce, Valuation, etc. Today
Charutar Vidya Mandal is empowering budding graduates to live up to the ever
changing environment andequippingthem to face the Third Millennium with
confidenceandcompetence.Buildingcompetitiveadvantagesistherenewedfocus
of Charutar Vidya Mandal in the 21st century. At present, Charutar Vidya Mandal
operates 45 Educational Institutions from schools to colleges, and a
sophisticatedResearchInstitute.
ISBN:9788190937634
AboutTheInstitute&Department
TheinstituteismanagedbyCVM.Fromtheveryinception(intheyear1996)GCET
has striven to develop itself into an Institution of Excellence in education and
research. Today, GCET has total strength of 1800 students studying for Chemical,
Mechanical, Information Technology, Electronics and Communication, Computer,
Electrical Engineering and Mechatronics under tutelage of 127 dedicated and
competentfaculties.GCETisoneofthepremierSelfFinancedInstitutesinthestate.
GCET is the pioneer in offering Information Technology and Mechatronics
Engineeringprogrammes.Itisequippedwithstateoftheartcomputerlaboratories
with more than 674 nos. of P4 computers with 10Mbps shared internet WiFi
connectivity. Placements of eligible students are secured regularly in various
Professional and Multinational companies. GCET is ranked among top 100
engineering colleges across the country by Outlook2006 & Data Quest2009.
Department of Mechanical Engineering is flourishing with young and dedicated
headandfacultymembers.Thefacultymembersareencouragedandmotivatedfor
promoting research and development and thus enriching the excellence in
education.Withstrongindustryinstitutelinkage,thedepartmentisextendingtheir
servicesforindustrialconsultancies.

ISBN:9788190937634

OurVision
Toproduceengineeringgraduateswhoaregloballycompetitive,
live by a set of core values, are able to accept any professional
challengethrownatthem,andremainresponsivetotheneedsof
Indiaandthehumanity.

OurMission
Tofosterastimulatinglearningenvironment,developexcellence
amongststudents,facultyandstaffineveryactivityGCETcarries
out, and thereby aim to become one of the best premier
technicalinstitutesofthecountry.

OurQualityPolicy
We, at GCET, will continuously strive to become and remain
leadersamongsttechnicaleducationinstitutionsinIndiathrough
constant improvement in teaching learning process, continuous
interaction with industry through consultancy, combined
development project and providing an intellectual environment
conducivetolifelonglearning.
ISBN:9788190937634
OrganizingCommitteeETME2011:
Patron:
Dr.CLPatel
Chairman,CharutarVidyaMandal
Chairman:
Dr.AnuragVerma
Principal,GHPatelCollegeofEngineering&Technology
Convener:
Dr.DarshakADesai
OrganizingSecretary:
Prof.VivekADeshpande
Mr.MehulMGor
AdvisoryCommittee:
ShriRPPatel (Hon.Secretary,CVM)
Shri.SMPatel (Hon.Jt.Secretary,CVM)
Shri.BPPatel (Hon.Jt.Secretary,CVM)
Shri.SGPatel (Hon.Jt.Secretary,CVM)
ErVMPatel (Hon.Jt.Secretary,CVM)
Dr.VSPatel (Director,ISTAR)
DrFSUmrigar (Principal,BVM)
DrRKJain (Principal,ADIT)
DrVNKamat (Principal,ICCT)
Prof.JCPanchal (ChiefAdvisor,ICCT)
Dr.Makwana (Principal,BBIT)
Prof.BADoshi (Head,MechatronicsEngg.,GCET)
Dr.PMGeorge (Head,MechanicalEngg.,BVM)
Dr.AMTrivedi (Head,ProductionEngg.,BVM)
ISBN:9788190937634
TechnicalCommittee:
Dr.D.P.Vakharia,SVNIT,Surat
Dr.P.R.Tailor,SVNIT,Surat
Dr.J.Banerjee,SVNIT,Surat
Dr.P.Prabhakaran,FacultyofTechnology&Engineering,MSU,Baroda
Dr.J.M.Prajapati,FacultyofTechnology&Engineering,MSU,Baroda
Prof.V.R.Iyer,InstituteofTechnology,NirmaUniversity,Ahmedabad
Dr.MangalbhaiBhatt,S.S.EngineeringCollege,Bhavnagar
Prof.P.D.Solanki,L.D.CollegeofEngineering,Ahmedabad
Prof.B.A.Doshi,GCET
Dr.PMGeorge,BVM
Dr.AmitTrivedi,BVM
Dr.DADesai,GCET
Prof.MABulsara,GCET
Prof.MCDesai,GCET
Prof.MSVegad,GCET
Prof.HRThakkar,GCET
Prof.KMTamboli,GCET
Prof.AVMehta,GCET
Mr.SCShah,GCET
ISBN:9788190937634
Members:
Prof.MABulsara(Asst.Prof.) Mr.VVPatel
Prof.MCDesai(Asst.Prof.) Mr.HMPanchal
Prof.MSMehta(Asst.Prof.) Mr.SCParmar
Prof.MSVegad(Asst.Prof.) Mr.YMKhamar
Prof.HRThakkar(Asst.Prof.) Mr.KABhavsar
Prof.AVMehta(Asst.Prof.) Mr.PDPatel
Mr.SCShah(WS) Mr.HRPatel
Mr.FRMalek(Lecturer) Mr.HCSolanki
Mr.SPShah(Lecturer) Mr.SSDesai
Mr.NRPatel(Lecturer) Ms.KBChauhan
Mr.SKKulkarni(Lecturer) Mr.VMPandya
Mrs.ElaJha(Lecturer) Mr.DRPatel
Mr.OSBharti(Lecturer) MrRRRabari
Mr.CVPatel(Lecturer)
Mr.RRRathod(Lecturer)
ISBN:9788190937634
DifferentCommittee'softheConference:
No. Committee CommitteeMembers

1 Communication Prof.VADeshpande
MMGor
2 PrintingandPublications Prof.AVMehta
Prof.MSMehta
Prof.VADeshpande
Mr.MMGor
3 ConferenceKit,Registrations& Mr.FRMalek
Certificatedistribution Mr.SCShah
Mr.SKKulkarni
Ms.ElaJha
4 Accommodations Prof.HRThakkar
Mr.SPShah
Mr.NRPatel
5 Hospitality Prof.MCDesai
Mr.CVPatel
Mr.KABhavsar
Mr.VVPatel
6 Food Mr.SCShah
Mr.OSBharti
Mr.HMPanchal
Mr.HRPatel
Mr.HCSolanki
7 Functions(Inaugurationand Prof.M ABulsara
Valedictory) Prof.MSVegad
And Mr.RRRathod
TechnicalSessions Mr.PDPatel
Mr.SCParmar
Mr.HCSolanki
8 Publicity Dr.DADesai
Prof.VADeshpande
Mr.MMGor
Mr.YMKhamar
ISBN:9788190937634
CONFERENCESCHEDULE
Day1:Friday,March18,2011
Time Programme
8:309:00 Registration
9:0010:00 InauguralFunction (GCETAuditorium)
10:0010:30 HighTea
KeynoteAddress
Dr.N.Ramakrishnan,Professor,
10:3011:30
DepartmentofMechanicalEngineering,
IIT,Gandhinagar(GCETSeminarHall)
11:301:00 TechnicalSession1(GCETSeminarHall)
1:002:00 LunchBreak
GuestLectureby
TechnicalSession2A TechnicalSession2B
2:004:00 Dr.N.Ramakrishnan
(MEA.V.Room) (GCETSeminarHall)
(ECA.V.Room)
4.004.15 TeaBreak
4.156.15 TechnicalSession3(GCET SeminarHall)
8.009.00 ConferenceDinner
Day2:Saturday,March19,2011
Time Programme
8:309:00 HighTea
TechnicalSession4A TechnicalSession4B
9:0011:00
(GCETSeminarHall) (MEA.V.Room)
11:0011:15 TeaBreak
TechnicalSession5
11:1512:00
(GCETSeminarHall)
12:001:00 ValedictoryFunction(GCETSeminarHall)
1:002:00 Lunch

ISBN:9788190937634
DETAILEDCONFERENCESCHEDULE

TECHNICALSESSION1:[TIME:11:30AMTO1:00PM]
Date:18/3/2011 Venue:GCETSeminarHall AREA:THERMALENGG.

Paper
PaperTitle&Author'sName Affiliation
Code
MeasurementofTotalGasLoadofS.S.VacuumChambertoSelect L.D.Collegeof
ETME125 aVacuumSystem Engineering,
S.M.MODASIYA,Prof.J.M.PATEL Ahmedabad
Design,DevelopmentandCalibrationofaCostEffectiveSolar
MSU,Baroda,
ETME126 TrackingSystem
Gujarat
A.R.Patel,M.D.Kevat,P.G.Choksi
AReviewofCompressedNaturalGasasanAlternativeFuelfor L.D.Collegeof
ETME133 InternalCombustionEngines Engineering,
R.M.Khavdu,D.B.Jani Ahmedabad
NumericalAnalysisofOilfiredfurnaceflowthroughdifferentvane
MSU,Baroda,
ETME139 Swirlers
Gujarat
JigneshRVala
OpportunityforDieselEmissionReductionsUsingEmulsifiedFuel L.D.Collegeof
ETME179 AReviewPaper Engineering,
H.V.Mandalia,B.H.Mehta,A.B.Mistry Ahmedabad
VariableCompressionRatioEngine:OneOfTheMethodFor
L.D.Collegeof
ImprovementInTheOperatingCharacteristicsOfInternal
ETME191 Engineering,
CombustionEngineReviewPaper
Ahmedabad
J.R.Patel,K.P.Trivedi

ISBN:9788190937634
TECHNICALSESSION2A:[TIME:2:00PMTO4:00PM]
Date:18/3/2011 Venue:MEA.V.ROOM AREA:THERMALENGG.
Paper
Code
SprayCharacteristicsintheFlowFieldsofaGasTurbineBurner MSU,Baroda,
ETME141
SapnaA.Solanki Gujarat
EnhancedDesignAssortmentofAsepticHousingusingCFD
ICCT,New
ETME150 Analysis
V.V.Nagar
GauravV.Patel,RoshaniT.Patel
DesignofanInternallyMixedSwirlAnnularAtomizerforGas
ETME158 TurbineApplication SVIT,VASAD
V.C.Joshi,MalaySuvagiya
Performancemodificationmethodusedforendsuction
MSU,Baroda,
ETME160 CentrifugalPump
Gujarat
SamirA.Alad
Design&PerformanceStudyforSampleConcentrating
MSU,Baroda,
ETME196 ParabolicTroughCollector
Gujarat
A.B.Pandey,S.L.Prajapati
EstimationofHeatTransferCoefficientoverTubeBundleusing ParulInstituteof
ETME134 CFD Engg.&Tech.,
NiravR.Bhavsar*,Prof.A.N.Jejurkar Limda,Gujarat
Effectsofcollectortiltangleandnumbersofcoverson
ETME122 performanceofflatplatecollector SVNIT,Surat
Mr.H.GRanipa,Dr.M.K.Bhatt
PerformanceAndEmissionCharacteristicsOfADieselEngine
FuelledWithHempOilAnd20%BlendsOfHempOilWith
ETME103 ThaparUniversity
DieselFuel
S.S.Ragit,S.K.Mohapatra,K.Kundu
Studyofrealgasbehaviorinasinglestagegasgun SinaUniversity,
ETME121
A.Moradi,S.Khodadadiyan Hamedan,Iran

ISBN:9788190937634
TECHNICALSESSION2B:[TIME:2:00PMTO4:00PM]
Date:18/3/2011 Venue:GCETSeminarHall AREA:PRODUCTIONENGG.
Paper
Code
DesignofSuperiorRollcoolingsystemforPlateMillat
RDCIS,SAIL,
ETME112 RourkelaSteelPlant
Rourkela
SKThakur,SRath,AKMarik
OptimizetheCastingofAlSi/Al2O3CompositesUsingof Valiainstituteof
ETME115 TaguchiMethod Technology,Bharuc
MayurS.Modi,YagnikK.Gohil h
SwamiVivekanand
DesignofSingleSamplingPlanforAcceptanceofNon
collegeof
ETME120 ConfirmingLots.
engineering,Indore,
SanjayPurkar,GovindMaheshwariandA.I.Khandwawala
MP
Analysisofdowntimecostparametersforplantmaintenance
ITMMEC,IITDelhi,
ETME140 management
NewDelhi
AnilSharma,G.S.YadavaandS.G.Deshmukh
EFFECTOFDEEPCRYOGENICTREATMENTONTHEELECTRODE GuruNanakDev
ETME148 LIFEOFRESISTANCESPOTWELDING EngineeringCollege,
UpkarSingh,JatinderKapoor Ludhiana,Punjab,
RayatInstituteof
SelectiveInventoryControlusingCostmatrixandperpetual Engineeringand
ETME152 reviewmodel:Acasestudy Information
HarshdeepShergill,S.KGandhi,M.SMatharu Technology,
Railmajra,Punjab
DETERMINATIONOFTOOLWEARCONDITIONINCNCBORING RamdeobabaKamla
ETME162 MACHINEUSINGAESIGNALS NehruEngg.
A.Gurve,R,P,MishraandDrShitalChiddarwar College,Nagpur
Feasibilitystudyofmicroweldingofaluminiumfoilsusing
electrochemicaldischarge(ECD)withexperimentaland
Collegeof
ETME170 analyticalcomparisonoftemperaturedistributionofweld
Engineering,Pune
zone
NiyatiDave,RavindraDaspute,MadhuriKarnik
IndoGermanTool
MicromillingstrategiesformachiningofmicroEDM
Room,P31MIDC
ETME200 electrodes
Industrialarea
BhattacharyyaPulakesh,SamJessonG.
Aurangabad

ISBN:9788190937634

TECHNICALSESSION3:[TIME:4:15PMTO6:15PM]
Date:18/3/2011 Venue:GCETSeminarHall AREA:DESIGNENGG.

Paper
Code
RamMegheInstitute
ProblemIdentificationandModificationofGravity
ofTechnologyand
ETME108 ConveyorwiththeAidofCADPackage
Research,Badnera,
N.S.Pohokar,L.B.Bhuyar,AAShahade
India
ANALYSISOFCREEPMODELSOFPPNANOCOMPOSITES
L.D.Collegeof
WITHFEAABAQUSSOFTWARE
Ms.MeetaP.Chauhan,Prof.P.B.Patel,Mr.Yagnesh
Ahmedabad
B.Chauhan
ANOVELAPPROACHFORSELECTIONOFINDUSTRIAL
B.S.Patel
ROBOTINMANUFACTURINGENVIRONMENTUSING
ETME127 Polytechnic,Ganpat
MADMAPPROACH:STRATEGYCASESTUDY
University,Mehsana
B.D.Prajapati,K.V.Patel
SynthesisofFourBarMechanismforPolynomialFunction
ETME128 GenerationwithOptimumTransmissionAngle NirmaUniversity
T.N.Patel,J.R.Koisa,M.M.Chauhan
AReviewontheDevelopmentoftheAnalyticalSoilTool
U.V.patelcollegeof
ETME132 InteractionModelfortheEarthmovingOperations
engineering
BhaveshP.Patel,Dr.J.M.Prajapati,BhargavJ.Gadhvi
ADVANCEMENTINDESIGNANDDEVELOPMENTOF VehiclesResearch
EXPANDABLEMOBILESHELTERFORDEFENCE andDevelopment
ETME136
APPLICATION Establishment,DRDO,
DRMakwana,APKhode,MWTrikande Ahmednagar,M.S.
Overviewofmagnetorheological(MR)fluidsandits L.D.Collegeof
ETME143 applicationsinvibrationcontrolShivnarayan.D.THAKUR, Engineering,
Profl.M.Y.Patil Ahmedabad
STLFILEGENERATIONBYCLANGUAGE KPithawalaEng
ETME157
S.R.Mehta college,Surat
EffectofTwistandRotationonFreeVibrationof
DelaminatedPretwistedAngleplyCompositeConical JadavpurUniversity,
ETME175
Shells Kolkata,WestBengal
SudipDey,AmitKarmakar
JOURNALBEARING(Trimetal)FORANICENGINECRANK
VVPEngineering
ETME182 SHAFT
College,Rajkot
K.M.BHUPTANI,Dr.J.M.Prajapati
ISBN:9788190937634
TECHNICALSESSION4A:[TIME:9:00AMTO11:00AM]

Paper
Code
ProgressiveflankwearofCVDcoatedandUncoated U.V.PatelCollegeof
ETME124 cuttingtoolinsertsinCNCturningofEN8steelroundbar Engineering,Ganpat
VallabhD.Patel,MehulK.Patel University,Kherwa
CASESTUDYOFS.SPIPEMANUFACTURINGINDUSTRYFOR
THEREDUCTIONREJUCTIONWITHTHEAIDOFS.Q.C
ETME131 MSU,Baroda,Gujarat
TOOLS
Mr.KapilS.Banker,Mr.J.H.Mistry
TheRoleofFuzzyforSelectingtheIndustrialVendors: ShantilalShah
ETME147 FrameworkforDevelopment EngineeringCollege,
N.P.Nirmal,H.P.Nirmal,R.P.Nirmal Sidsar,Bhavnagar
ExperimentalInvestigations&developmentofempirical
modelinrotaryelectrodischargemachiningusingTaguchi V.V.P.engineering
ETME149
methodforworkpieceofHD11andBrassElectrode college,Rajkot
POPATMITESHA.,DR.S.S.KHANDARE,AMITV.SATA
StudyofBondingandInterfaceFormationinAMC
ETME153 SynthesisedbyStirCasting MSU,Baroda,Gujarat
HemantN.Panchal
EffectofDeepCryogenicTreatmentonToolSteel&Its
NirmaUniversity,
ETME154 Applications:AReview
Ahmedaba
Ms.HaniChotai
ExperimentalInvestigationofWaterJetCutting
ETME155 SVNIT,SURAT
V.P.Parekh,D.B.Gohil
ApplicationofCriterionFunctionstoPredictShrinkage
V.V.P.Engineering
ETME163 PorosityforAlloyASTMB62(RedBrass)
College,Rajkot
AmitV.Sata,MiteshA.Popat,K.B.Sangani
SLIDINGFRICTIONCHARACTERISTICSOFCOMPOSITE
ETME165 MATERIALACRITICALREVIEW SVNIT,SURAT
PrasoonChoudhary,B.M.Sutaria
PredictionofDimensionalAccuracyofFusedDeposition
L.D.Collegeof
Modeling(FDM)BuiltPartsusingFuzzyInferenceSystem
andcomparisonWithExperimentalResults
Ahmedabad
B.D.Parmar,N.G.Parmar,B.C.Khatri

ISBN:9788190937634

TECHNICALSESSION4B:[TIME:9:00AMTO11:00AM]
Date:19/3/2011 Venue:MEA.V.ROOM AREA:DESIGNENGG.

Paper
Code
U.V.Patelcollege
FINITESHELLELEMENTFORMATIONANDDEGENERATION
ETME151 ofEngineering,
KaushalBhavsar,Prof.J.R.Mewada,AshishAmin
Kherva,Mahesana
MethodologyforEstimationofModalParametersusing
L.D.Collegeof
ExperimentalModalAnalysisinlightofCurveFitting
Technique
Ahmedabad
N.V.Oza,R.I.Patel,S.S.Pathan
L.D.Collegeof
DesignofBellowsFreeCryogenicTransferline
AmitThakkarandMayankI.Vyas
Ahmedabad
Analysisofelectricallyoperatedoverheadcranestructure
L.D.Collegeof
withfiniteelementmethod,findoutcriticalpartinthis
structureandoptimizeitformaterialandcrosssectionarea.
Ahmedabad
AshishR.Amin,ProfUVShah
MathematicalModeling&SimulationofMultiUtilityCarby
ETME174 usingMATLAB/SIMULINK I.I.T.EAbad
AshishOJain,SuketuYJani,DarshitRShah
EffectofTimeVaryingMeshStiffnessofGearingforDynamic L.D.Collegeof
ETME183 Characterization Engineering,
R.I.Patel,N.V.Oza,S.S.Pathan Ahmedabad
ReplicationofHumanHandWristMovementintoRobotic
MSU,Baroda,
ETME198 ConfigurationUsingSensorsandMicrocontrollers
Gujarat
AkashPandey,BhavikPatel,AadityaGala
EvaluationofWorkingSpringRateofMetallicBellows
ETME199 GCET,VVNagar
HemantRThakkar,Dr.PMGeorge,Dr.MYVaijanapurkar
UniversalExclusiveComputerizedTechniquetoRateSimple
ETME203 JointedPlannerKinematicChains BVM,VVNagar
YagnikNikunjSanjaykumar,Dr.AnuragVerma

ISBN:9788190937634

TECHNICALSESSION5:[TIME:11:15AMTO12:00NOON]

Paper
Code
AnExperimentalStudyonReusabletypeWireEDMof L.D.Collegeof
ETME188 HcHcrsteelbasedonTaguchiMethodology Engineering,
N.G.Parmar,B.D.Parmar,B.C.Khatri Ahmedabad
EFFECTOFMATERIALSANDPROFILEONBEHAVIOUROF
ETME192 ULTRASONICHORNS MSU,Baroda,Gujarat
S.S.Soni,A.B.Pandey,U.R.Thakkar
FEA&ExperimentalInvestigationOfSpringBackEffectIn
RotaryDrawBendingOfSeamlessMetalTube. MITCOEKothrud,
ETME107
Pune(MS)
S.G.Thorat,S.G.Ghalme,N.T.Dhokane

ISBN:9788190937634
INDEX
Paper
Title with Author
Code
Performance And Emission Characteristics of a Diesel Engine Fuelled With HEMP Oil And
ETME103 20% Blends of HEMP Oil with Diesel Fuel
S. S. Ragit, S. K. Mohapatra, K. Kundu
FEA & Experimental Investigation of Spring-Back Effect in Rotary Draw Bending of
ETME107 Seamless Metal Tube
S. G. Thorat, S. G. Ghalme, N.T. Dhokane
Problem Identification and Modification of Gravity Conveyor with the Aid of CAD Package
ETME108
N. S. Pohokar, L. B. Bhuyar, A A Shahade
Analysis of Creep Models of PP Nanocomposites with FEA ABAQUS Software
ETME109
Ms.Meeta p. Chauhan, Prof. P.B.Patel(guide), Mr.Yagnesh B.Chauhan
Design of Superior Roll cooling system for Plate Mill at Rourkela Steel Plant
ETME112
S K Thakur, S Rath, A K Marik
Optimize the Casting of AlSi /Al2O3 Composites Using of Taguchi Method
ETME115
Mayur S. Modi, Yagnik K. Gohil
Design of Single Sampling Plan for Acceptance of Non Confirming Lots
ETME120
Sanjay Purkar, Govind Maheshwari, A.I.Khandwawala
Study of Real Gas Behaviour in a Single-Stage Gas Gun
ETME121
A. Moradi, S. Khodadadiyan
Effects of collector tilt angle and numbers of covers on performance of flat plate collector
ETME122
Mr. H.G Ranipa, Dr. M.K. Bhatt
Progressive Flank Wear of CVD Coated & Uncoated Cutting Tool Inserts in CNC Turning
ETME124 of EN-8 Steel Round Bar
Vallabh D. Patel , Mehul K. Patel
Measurement of Total Gas Load of S.S. Vacuum Chamber to Select a Vacuum System
ETME125
S. M. Modasiya, Prof. J. M. PATEL
Design, Development and Calibration of a Cost Effective Solar Tracking System
ETME126
A. R. Patel, M. D. Kevat, P. G. Choksi
A Novel Approach for Selection of Industrial Robot in Manufacturing Environment using
ETME127 MADM Approach: Strategy Case Study
B.D.Prajapati, K. V. Patel
Synthesis of Four Bar Mechanism for Polynomial Function Generation with Optimum
ETME128 Transmission Angle
T.N.Patel, J.R.Koisa, M.M.Chauhan
Case Study of S.S Pipe Manufacturing Industry for the Reduction Rejection with the Aid of
ETME131 S.Q.C Tools
Mr. Kapil S. Banker, Mr. J.H.Mistry
A Review on the Development of the Analytical Soil-Tool Interaction Model for the
ETME132 Earthmoving Operations
Bhavesh P. Patel, Dr. J. M. Prajapati, Bhargav J. Gadhvi
ISBN:9788190937634

A Review of Compressed Natural Gas as an Alternative Fuel for Internal Combustion
ETME133 Engines
R. M. Khavdu, D. B. Jani
Estimation of Heat Transfer Coefficient over Tube Bundle using CFD
ETME134
Nirav R. Bhavsar, Prof. A.N.Jejurkar
Advancement in Design And Development of Expandable Mobile Shelter For Defence
ETME136 Application
D R Makwana, A P Khode, M W Trikande
Numerical Analysis of Oil Fired Furnace Flow Through Different Vane Swirler's
ETME139
Jignesh R Vala
Analysis of Downtime Cost Parameters for Plant Maintenance Management
ETME140
Anil Sharma, G. S. Yadava, S. G. Deshmukh
Spray Characteristics in the Flow Fields of a Gas Turbine Burner
ETME141
Sapna A. Solanki
Overview of Magneto Rheological (MR) Fluids and its applications in Vibration Control
ETME143
Shivnarayan D. Thakur, Prof. M. Y. Patil
The Role of Fuzzy for Selecting the Industrial Vendors: Framework for Development
ETME147
N. P. Nirmal, H. P. Nirmal, R. P. Nirmal
Effect of Deep-Cryogenic Treatment on The Electrode Life of Resistance Spot Welding
ETME148
Upkar Singh, Jatinder Kapoor
Experimental Investigations & Development of Empirical Model in Rotary Electro
ETME149 Discharge Machining Using Taguchi Method for Work-piece of HD11 And Brass Electrode
Popat Mitesh A., Dr. S.S. Khandare, Amit V. Sata
Enhanced Design Assortment of Aseptic Housing using CFD Analysis
ETME150
Gaurav V. Patel, Roshani T. Patel
Finite Shell Element Formation And Degeneration
ETME151
Kaushal Bhavsar, Prof. J.R.Mewada, Ashish Amin
Selective Inventory Control Using Cost Matrix And Perpetual Review Model: A Case Study
ETME152
Harshdeep Shergill, S.K Gandhi, M.S Matharu
Study of Bonding and Interface Formation in AMC Synthesised by Stir Casting
ETME153
Hemant N. Panchal
Effect of Deep Cryogenic Treatment on Tool Steel & Its Applications: A Review
ETME154
Ms. Hani Chotai
Experimental Investigation of Water Jet Cutting
ETME155
V. P. Parekh, D. B. Gohil
Methodology for Estimation of Modal Parameters using Experimental Modal Analysis in
ETME156 light of Curve Fitting Technique
N.V.Oza, R.I.Patel, S.S.Pathan
STL File Generation by C Language
ETME157
S.R.Mehta
ISBN:9788190937634

Design of an Internally Mixed Swirl Annular Atomizer for Gas Turbine Application
ETME158
V. C. Joshi, Malay Suvagiya
Performance Modification Method Used for End Suction Centrifugal Pump

ETME160
Samir A. Alad
Determination Of Tool Wear Condition in CNC Boring Machine Using AE Signals

ETME162
A. Gurve, R P Mishra, Dr Shital Chiddarwar
Application of Criterion Functions to Predict Shrinkage Porosity for Alloy ASTM B62 (Red
ETME163 Brass)
Amit V. Sata, Mitesh A. Popat, K. B. Sangani
Sliding Friction Characteristics of Composite Material : A Critical Review
ETME165
Prasoon Choudhary, B.M.Sutaria
Design of Bellows Free Cryogenic Transfer line
ETME169
Amit Thakkar and Mayank I. Vyas
Feasibility Study of Micro Welding of Aluminium Foils Using Electrochemical Discharge
(ECD) With Experimental And Analytical Comparison of Temperature Distribution of Weld
ETME170
Zone
Niyati Dave, Ravindra Daspute, Madhuri Karnik
Analysis of Electrically Operated Overhead Crane Structure With Finite Element Method,
ETME171 Find Out Critical Part in this Structure And Optimize it for Material And Cross Section Area
Ashish R. Amin, Prof U V Shah
Mathematical Modeling & Simulation of Multi-Utility Car by using MATLAB/SIMULINK

ETME174
Ashish O Jain, Suketu Y Jani , Darshit R Shah
Effect of Twist and Rotation on Free Vibration of Delaminated Pre-twisted Angle-ply

ETME175 Composite Conical Shells
Sudip Dey, Amit Karmakar
Opportunity for Diesel Emission Reductions Using Emulsified Fuel : A Review Paper
ETME179
H.V.Mandalia, B.H.Mehta, A.B.Mistry
Journal Bearing (Tri-Metal) for an IC Engine Crank Shaft

ETME182
K.M. Bhuptani, Dr. J.M. Prajapati
Effect of Time Varying Mesh Stiffness of Gearing for Dynamic Characterization
ETME183
R.I. Patel, N.V. Oza, S.S. Pathan
Prediction of Dimensional Accuracy of Fused Deposition Modeling (FDM) Built Parts using
Fuzzy Inference System and comparison
ETME187
With Experimental Results
B.D.Parmar, N.G.Parmar, B.C.Khatri
ISBN:9788190937634

An Experimental Study on Reusable type Wire EDM of HcHcr steel based on Taguchi
ETME188 Methodology
N.G.Parmar, B.D.Parmar, B.C.Khatri
Variable Compression Ratio Engine: One Of The Method For Improvement In The
ETME191 Operating Characteristics Of Internal Combustion Engine -Review Paper
J. R. Patel, K. P. Trivedi
Effect of Materials and Profile on Behaviour of Ultrasonic Horns
ETME192
S. S. Soni, A. B. Pandey, U. R. Thakkar
Design & Performance Study for Sample Concentrating Parabolic Trough Collector
ETME196
A. B. Pandey, S. L. Prajapati
Replication of Human Hand Wrist Movement into Robotic Configuration Using Sensors
ETME198 and Microcontrollers
Akash Pandey, Bhavik Patel, Aaditya Gala
Evaluation of Working Spring Rate of Metallic Bellows
ETME199
Hemant R Thakkar, Dr. P M George, Dr. M Y Vaijanapurkar
Micro milling strategies for machining of micro EDM electrodes
ETME200
Bhattacharyya Pulakesh, Sam Jesson G.
Universal Exclusive Computerized Technique to Rate Simple Jointed Planner Kinematic
ETME203 Chains
Yagnik Nikunj S., Dr. Anurag Verma

ISBN:9788190937634
PERFORMANCE AND EMISSION CHARACTERISTICS OF A DIESEL

ENGINE FUELLED WITH HEMP OIL AND 20% BLENDS OF HEMP
OIL WITH DIESEL FUEL
S.S.Ragit1, S.K.Mohapatra2, K.Kundu3

1&2
Ph.D. student & Dean (Academic Affair), Thapar University, Patiala-147 004
3
Scientist-E1, Mechanical Engineering Research and Development organization, Ludhiana-141
006,Email Id: - satish_ragit@yahoo.com1, saroj500@yahoo.com 2 k_kundu@cmeri.res.in3
Abstract
The purpose of this study is to determined fuel properties of hemp oil and evaluating hemp oil and its
20% blends with diesel as a liquid fuel for diesel engine in relation to meeting performance and
emission requirements. The various proportions of hemp oil are prepared on a volume basis and used
in single cylinder, four stroke DI diesel engine, to study the performance and emission characteristics
of selected fuels. The 20% blends of hemp oil and diesel was prepared and its important properties
such as viscosity, calorific value, flash and fire point, and cloud and pour point, etc. were evaluated
and compared with diesel fuel. It observed that 12.9% increase in NOx, 26.32% increase in HC,
55.41% increase in smoke, however, brake thermal efficiency increased by 41.83% for HO100 at part
load. It revealed that 1% increase in NOx, 2.59% increase in HC, 0.54% increase in smoke, but brake
thermal efficiency increased by 6.32% for HO20 at full load. Hence, it is recommended that HO20 is
more suitable for diesel engine without any modification.
Keywords: Fuel characterization, performance and emission characteristics, alternative fuel
Introduction
Due to wide variations in climate, soil conditions, competing uses of land, etc. different nations look
upon different vegetable oils as potential fuels. Vegetable oils present a very promising alternative to
diesel oil since they are renewable and are produced easily in rural areas where there is an acute
need for modern forms of energy. only non-edible vegetable oils can be seriously considered as fuels
for engines as edible oils are in great demand and are far too expensive as fuels at present [1].
Compression ignition engines are employed particularly in the field of heavy transportation and
agriculture on account of their higher thermal efficiency and durability. However, diesel engines are
the major contributors of oxides of nitrogen and particulate emissions. Several researchers studied
that effect of vegetable oil fuels and their methyl esters injected in a diesel engine. They observed that
vegetable oils lead to problems such as gum formation, flow, atomization and high smoke and
particulate emissions. Attempts have been made in the past to evolve suitable methods for using
vegetable oils in diesel engines. Transesterification of vegetable oils showed improved performance
reduced emissions. It has been reported that methyl esters of vegetable oils give lower smoke levels
with higher thermal efficiency [2]. Vegetable oils posses almost the same heat values as that of diesel
fuel. But a major disadvantage of vegetable oils is their inherent high viscosity. There are some
methods to reduce the viscosity of vegetable oil. Fuel blending is one of the methods. It has the
advantages of improving the use of vegetable oil fuel with minimal fuel processing and engine
modification [3]. Abbas et al [4] experimented with pure sunflower oil and reported a higher emission
of CO, NOx, HC and PM as compared to that of mineral diesel due to a shorter ignition delay and
higher diffusive burning. Ghormade and Despande [5] used soybean oil to run a CI engine. They
found that there were only slight variations in part load efficiency and there was no improvement in
brake specific fuel consumption by blending. Wang et al [6] conducted experiment on blended
vegetable oil with diesel. They reported higher exhaust gas temperature with very small changes in
CO and lower NOx as compared to diesel. In the present work, experiments were conducted to study
the fuel characterization, performance and emission evaluation of hemp oil and hemp oil-diesel
blends in diesel engine.
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Fuel characterization
1
ISBN:9788190937634
The significant properties of hemp oil are found out during present investigation. The characteristics of
the vegetable oils fall within a fairly narrow band and quite close to those of the diesel oil. The
important fuel properties of brown hemp oil compared with diesel as reported in Table 1.
Table 1 Physical and chemical properties of hemp oil
Fuel property Hemp Diesel ASTM EN 14214

oil D6751
Density (gm/cc3) 0.888 0.830 - 0.860-

0.900
Viscosity( cSt) @ 42.72 2.6 1.9-6.0 3.5-5.0
40oc
Flash point (0C ) 125 60 >130 >101
Fire point ( 0C ) 135 65 - Min 120
Cloud point (0C ) 2 -12 10 -1
Pour point (0C ) -10 -16 -15 -
Calorific value 43.52 43 - -
(MJ/Kg)
Acid value ( mg 0.35 0.22 <0.8 <0.5
KOH/g)
2.2. Experimental set up or C.I. engine procedure

Tests have been conducted on a four stroke, direct injection; naturally aspirated single cylinder diesel
engine is employed for the present study. To obtain the baseline parameters, the engine was first
operated on diesel fuel. Performance and emission tests are carried out on the diesel engine using
HO, HO-diesel blends, and diesel fuel. The tests are conducted at the rated speed of 1500 rpm at
BMEP. Raw hemp oil and diesel are blended in 80/20%, and 100/0% on volume basis and mixture is
stirred well to get a homogenous stable mixture. In each experimental phase, engine parameter is
related to thermal performance of the engine such as brake thermal efficiency, specific fuel
consumption and applied load are measured. In addition to that, the engine emissions parameters
such as unburned hydrocarbons, smoke opacity and oxides of nitrogen. Mainly, at the given loading
conditions, comparative analysis of the engine performance on the HO, and its blends with diesel and
their emission were to be investigated. AVL 437 Smoke meter is employed to measure the smoke
opacity of exhaust gas emitted from the diesel engine. AVL Digas 4000 Five Gas Analyzer was used
to measure the concentration of gaseous emissions [4-6].
3. Results and Discussion
3.1. Fuel characterization
The calorific value of hemp oil increased 1.19 % than that of diesel. The kinematic viscosity of neem
oil is however, several times higher than that of diesel oil. The high viscosity of hemp oil about 42.72
0
cSt. & 3.7 cSt for diesel oil at 40 C, leads to problem in pumping and atomization in injection system
of a diesel engine. The combination of high viscosity and low volatility of neem oil causes poor cold
engine start up, misfire and ignition delay. Hence, it is necessary to bring their combustion related
properties closer to those of diesel oil. The fuel modification is mainly aimed at reducing the viscosity
of vegetable oils to get rid of the flow related problems. The free fatty acid content of raw hemp oil is
about 0.175 %.
3.2. Performance analysis
3.2.1. Brake thermal efficiency
The variation of brake thermal efficiency with respect to brake mean effective pressure for different
fuels considered for the present analysis present in figure 1. Brake thermal efficiency of HO is 41.83%
higher than that of diesel at part load as well as it increases 31.61% with diesel fuel at full load. Brake
thermal efficiency of HO20 is 8.28% higher than that of diesel at part load as well it increases 6.32%
with diesel fuel at full load and 20% blends of HO showing increasing in trend at all load condition.
2
ISBN:9788190937634
Figure 1 BTE Vs BMEP
3.2.2. Specific fuel consumption

The variation of specific fuel consumption with brake mean effective pressure for different fuel is
presented in figure 2 for all fuel tested, brake specific fuel consumption is found to decrease with
increase in brake mean effective pressure. This is due to the higher percentage increase in brake
power with brake mean effective pressure as compared to the increase in fuel consumption. At part
load, brake specific fuel consumption of HO20 was obtained 2.38% lower than that of diesel as well
as brake specific fuel consumption of HO20 was observed 4.41% lower than that of diesel at full load.
At part load, brake specific fuel consumption of HO was obtained 11.74% lower than that of diesel as
well as brake specific fuel consumption of HO was observed 20.7% lower than that of diesel at full
load.
Figure 2 SFC Vs BMEP
3.2.3. Exhaust gas temperature

The variation of brake thermal efficiency with respect to brake mean effective pressure for different
fuels as shown in figure 4.Using 100% raw hemp oil, higher exhaust gas temperature is attained at all
load conditions, which is indicating more energy loss in this case. The exhaust gas temperature
increases with increase in brake mean effective pressure at full load only. The exhaust gas
temperature of HO20 was obtained 0.07% higher than that of diesel at part load as well as it
increases at full load by 3.06% than that of diesel. The overall results revealed that it slightly
increases at part load and it largely increases at full load for tested fuels. It shows increasing in trend
3
ISBN:9788190937634
at full load.
Figure 3 EGT Vs BMEP
3.3. Exhaust emission analysis

3.3.1. NOX (Oxides of Nitrogen)
The variation of oxides of nitrogen with respect to brake mean effective pressure for different fuels as
shown in figure 8. It can be seen that NOX emission was a direct function of engine power output. This
trend was occurred as NOX formation is a temperature dependent phenomenon. NOX emission
increases 12.9% at part load and 5% at full load for HO and HO20 increased by 2.58% and 1% at part
and full load respectively. Consequently, it was found that HO and its blends showing increasing trend
at all load condition. NOX can be controlled by adopting EGR and by employing suitable catalytic
converters. Reduced oxygen and flame temperature leads to lower NOX formation.
Figure 8 NOx Vs BMEP
3.3.2. Unburned hydrocarbon

The variation of unburned hydrocarbon with respect to brake mean effective pressure for different
fuels as shown in figure 9. HO20 increase by 5.26% and 2.59% with diesel fuel at part and full load
respectively as well as HO shows that 26.32% increase in unburned hydrocarbon at part load
condition and it also increases by 12.98% at full load condition. Ultimately, it was observed that HO
4
ISBN:9788190937634
and its blends reveals increase in nature at all load conditions.
Figure 9 UBHC Vs BMEP
3.3.3. Smoke opacity

The variation of smoke opacity with respect to brake mean effective pressure for different fuels as
shown in figure 10. HO20 revealed that it increases by 11.08% at part load and it also increases by
0.54% at full load condition. In case of HO, it again increases by 55.41% than that of diesel fuel at
part load and slightly increases (2.73%) at full load condition.
Figure 10 SO Vs BMEP
4. Conclusions
Single cylinder diesel engine ran successfully during tests on hemp oil and its 20% blends even
without preheating and require no modification in engine hardware. Performance and emission
characteristics of hemp oil along with its 20% blends were found to be comparable to that of mineral
diesel. The calorific value of hemp oil increased 1.19 % than that of diesel. The brake thermal
efficiency of HO is 41.83% higher than that of diesel at part load whereas brake thermal efficiency of
HO20 is 8.28% higher than that of diesel at part load. The brake specific fuel consumption of HO20
was observed 4.41% lower than that of diesel at full load as well as brake specific fuel consumption of
HO was observed 20.7% lower than that of diesel at full load. The exhaust gas temperature of HO20
was obtained 0.07% higher than that of diesel at part load. In case of NOX emission, it was found that
5
ISBN:9788190937634
HO and its blends showing increasing trend at all load condition. In case of unburned hydrocarbon, it
was observed that HO and its blends reveals increase in nature at all load conditions. In case of
smoke opacity, HO20 revealed that it increases by 11.08% at part load and slightly increases (2.73%)
at full load condition when HO was tested.
Acknowledgements
The authors are thankful to the authorities of Thapar University, Patiala for permitting them to carry
out C.I. Engine testing and fuel testing provided by Mechanical Engineering Research and
Development Organization, Ludhiana is gratefully acknowledged.
Nomenclature
BMEP : Brake mean effective pressure

BTE : Brake thermal efficiency
SFC : Specific fuel consumption
EGT : Exhaust gas temperature
NOx : Oxides of nitrogen
UBHC : Unburned hydrocarbon
SO : Smoke opacity
HO : Hemp oil
HO20 : 20% blend of hemp oil with 80% diesel
References
[1] S. Rao, K.V. Gopalkrishanan, Vegetable oils and their methyl esters as fuels for diesel
engines, Indian Journal of Technology, Vol. 29, June 1991, pp 292-297.
[2] K. Purushothaman, G. Nagarajan, Performance, emission and combustion characteristics of
a C.I. engine operating on neat orange oil, Renewable Energy, 34, 2000, 242-245.
[3] Y.D. Wang, T. Al-shemmeri, P. Eames, An experimental investigation of the performance
and gaseous exhaust emissions of a diesel engine using blends of a vegetable oil, Applied
Thermal Engineering, DOI:10.1016/japplthermaleng,2005,11.013.
[4] T.K. Ghormade, N.V. Deshpande, Soybean oil as an alternative fuels for I.C. engines,
Proceeding of recent trends in automotive fuels, Nagpur, 2002.
[5] Y.D. Wang, T. Al-shemmeri, P. Eames, An experimental investigation of the performance
and gaseous exhaust emissions of a diesel engine using blends of a vegetable oil, Applied
Thermal Engineering,2006, 26,pp.1684-1691.
[6] S. Dhinagar, B. Nagalingam, Experimental investigation on non-edible oil operation in a LHR
diesel engine for improved performance, SAE 932846,1993.
6
th
Proc.ofthe4 NationalConferenceonEmergingTrendsinMechanicalEngineering,March1819,2011
ISBN:9788190937634
FEA & Experimental Investigation Of Spring-Back Effect In Rotary Draw

Bending Of Seamless Metal Tube.
S.G.Thorat1, S.G. Ghalme2, N. T. Dhokane3
1
Sr.Lecturer, MIT COE Kothrud, Pune (MS),
2
Asst.Prof, PDVVPCOE Ahmednagar (MS),
2
Asst.Prof, SIT Pune (MS).
1
sandeepgthorat@rediffmail.com, 2sachinghalme@hotmail.com
Tube bending is a widely used manufacturing process in the aerospace, automotive, and other
industries. During tube bending, considerable in-plane distortion and thickness variation occurs. The
thickness increases at the intrados (surface of tube in contact with the die) and it reduces at the extrados
(outer surface of the tube). In some cases, when the bend die radius is small, wrinkling occurs at the
intrados. In industry a mandrel is used to eliminate wrinkling and reduce distortion. However, in the case
of a close bend die radius, use of a mandrel should be avoided as bending with the mandrel increases
the thinning of the wall at the extrados, which is undesirable in the manufacturing operation.
The present research focuses on additional loadings such as axial force and internal pressure
which can be used to achieve better shape control and thickness distribution of the tube and also the
calculation of spring-back and its experimental investigation.
1. Theory of Rotary Draw Bending

Rotary draw tube bending is the most flexible bending method and is used immensely in industry
on account of its tooling and low cost. The tooling consists of a bend die, clamp die, pressure die and
wiper die. In this bending technique the tube is securely clamped to the bend die by using the clamp die.
The bend die rotates and draws the tube along with it. The pressure die prevents the tube from rotating
along with the bend die. The pressure die may be stationary or it may move along with tube. The
pressure die provides a boost (pushes the material at the extrados of the tube) to reduce the thinning of
the tube and can be very helpful when the bending angle is large and the bending radius is small [1]. A
mandrel along with wiper die may be used to prevent the wrinkling and collapse of the tube. But the use
of mandrel should be avoided if possible since it increases the production cost [2]. Figure 1.1 shows the
tooling of rotary draw bending process. Rotary draw tube bending provides close control of metal flow
necessary for small radius and thin walled tube [3].
Fig. 1.1 Schematic Representation of Rotary Draw tube Bending Machine
7
th
ISBN:9788190937634
2. Defects in Tube Bending

During the bending process the tube undergoes considerable in-plane distortion. The
limitations in the tube bending process are,
Variation in Wall Thickness

Bursting or Fracture
Wrinkling
Cross Section Distortion
Spring-back
3. Some Measures to reduce the defects in tube:

The present study is focused on additional loading conditions in tube bending. The additional
loadings considered are:
Application of axial pull in the direction opposite to the motion of the tube.
Application of internal pressure.
Combination of internal pressure and axial pull.
The application of internal pressure and axial pull either individually or in combination has various
advantages when compared to the conventional bending methods.
The advantages of using axial pull are listed below.

1. Eliminates wrinkling.
2. Reduces springback
3. Improves bending for small bend die radius.
4. Increases versatility of the bending process.
Despite the above mentioned advantages, application of axial pull increases the cross section
distortion.
The main advantages of applying internal pressure are
1. Eliminates wrinkling.
2. Reduces the cross section distortion.
3. Reduces the thinning at the extrados for small bend die radius as compared to using a
mandrel.
4. Increases plastic flow due to the absence of friction between the tube and fluid.
5. Provides better contact with the tube as compared to using a mandrel.
4. Problem Statement
The work involves:

1) Simulation of Rotary Draw Bending using ABAQUS
Modeling
a. Bend Die. c. Wiper Die.
b. Pressure Die. d. Clamp Die.
Assembly of Components of Rotary Draw Bending machine
Applying Boundary Conditions
I. Contact Boundary Conditions Between Bend Die and Tube, Pressure Die and
Tube, Wiper Die and Tube.
II. Rotation of Bend Die through desired angle.
8
th
ISBN:9788190937634
Simulation of Rotary Draw Bending process through various angles of rotation of a Bend
Die and Results.
2) Results and Conclusion.

5. Simulation of Rotary Draw Bending using ABAQUS
In first step we created different part of rotary draw bending like Bend Die, Clamp Die, Pressure
Die, Wiper Die, and Tube. Using property module applied following mateial properties for alloy steel
Shell thickness = 1 mm
Material Density = 7360 Kg /cu. m
Poisons ratio = 0.3
Young's modulus = 2.1E5 N/sq.mm
After carrying out analysis following are the results of analysis:
5.1. von Mises Stress Distribution . 5.2 von Mises Stress Distribution:
(30 deg Rotation): (45 deg Rotation)
Fig 5.1: von Mises Stress Distribution Fig 5.2: von Mises Stress Distribution.
5.3. von Mises Stress Distribution 5.4. von Mises Stress Distribution
(60 deg Rotation): (180 deg Rotation):
Fig. 5.3: von Mises Stress Distribution. Fig. 5.4: von Mises Stress Distribution
6. Spring-back Effect.
The spring-back of the tube always makes this an uncertain job. That may influence the accuracy
of the tube bending production. The simulation to the tube spring-back process will be helpful in
understand the uncertainty. By estimating the spring-back angle to a desired bending angle, a proper
9
th
ISBN:9788190937634
initial bending angle can be obtained to make the real-time controlled bending process more efficient. In
order to study the effect of spring-back mathematical formula is derived to calculate the spring-back and
experimental investigation has been done. It is found that the experimental investigation, simulation and
analytical calculation have good agreement with each other as follows:
6.1 CASE:- I
6.1.1Given
Tube dimension : OD 50mm X Thk. 06mm
Material : ST52 NPC GRADE 6
6.1.2 Material Properties
Modulus of elasticity =210*e3
Poisson's ratio =0.3
Density =9.8 g/cm^3
Yield stress =375.94 N/mm^2
Strength coefficient = 1. 44 *e-3
Strength strain coefficient =0.51
UT.S. =524.57 N/mm^2
% elongation =27.1 %
Modulus of rigidity =0.790*e5 N/mm^2
6.1.3 Calculation Of Bend Radius
% e1ongation = [{(R+2r)/(R+r)}-1]* 100
27.1 = {{(R+50)/(R+25)}-1} *100
R = 68 mm
6.1.4 Calculation of Moment of Inertia
I =Pi*0.25(ro^4-ri^4)
= 204.442e3 mm^4
By using formula
Table 01:
Bending Spring back

angles (deg)
(deg) Calculated Experimental
05 0.2321 0.20
10 0.2982 0.25
15 0.3826 0.35
30 0.7653 0.65
45 1.1479 0.95
60 1.5241 1.2
90 2.2959 1.90
120 2.5214 2.25
150 2.8719 3.10
180 3.1415 3.25
10
th
ISBN:9788190937634
Fig 6.1 Graph of Bend angle Vs Spring .
6.2 CASE:- II
6.2.1 Given
Tube dimension : OD 30mm X Thk. 03mm
Material : ST52 NPC GRADE 6
6.2.2 Material Properties
Modulus of Elasticity = 210*e3
Poisson's ratio =0.3
Density =9.8 g/cm^3
Yield stress =375.94 N/mm^2
Strength coefficient = 1. 44 * e-3
Strength strain coefficient =0.51
UT.S. =524.57 N/mm^2
% elongation =27.1 %
Modulus of rigidity =0.790*e5 N/mm^2
6.2.3 Calculation Of Bend Radius

% e1ongation =[{(R+2r)/(R+r)}-1]* 100
27.1 = {{(R+30)/(R+15)}-1} *100
R = 15mm
6.2.4 Calculation of Moment of Inertia
I =Pi*0.25(ro^4-ri^4)
= 23.474 e3 mm^4
By using formula
Table: 02
Bending Spring back

angles (deg)
(deg)
Calculated Experimental
05 0.1301 0.11
10 0.1489 0.13
15 0.1568 0.15
30 0.2315 0.21
45 0.3459 0.30
60 0.5781 0.51
90 0.7241 0.65
120 0.8125 0.79
150 1.1459 1.15
11
th
ISBN:9788190937634
180 1.2122 1.20
Fig 6.2 Graph of Bend angle Vs Spring.

Conclusion
Fig.5.1, Fig.5.2, Fig.5.3. fig 5.4 shows the variation of von Mises stress for a tube bent
at 30 deg., 45 deg and 60 deg. During the simulation it was observed that at 30 deg bend angle
the stress reached the yield stress in the fiber from outside and inside of curvature. Between
these zones there is middle zone in which the strains are still in elastic field.
The maximum stress observed for 30 deg bend angle is 3.112E4 N/sq mm., for 45 deg
bend angle is 4.447E4 N/sq mm., for 60 deg bend angle is 4.755E4 N/sq mm., Penetration of
bend die is not observed inside the tube for 30 deg and 45 deg rotation of the die. But for 60
deg rotation of the die penetration of the bend die occurs.
Folding of tube at certain areas is observed due to absence of mandrel. This can be
eliminated by using
Fixed mandrel or
Flexible mandrel or
By using internal pressure.
Table no. 01 & 02 and fig no 6.1& 6.2 shows that the experimental investigation of
spring-back have good agreement with analytical calculation made by the mathematical
formula.
Future Scope
In the second stage of the work to be carried out is
1. Use of internal pressure to eliminate the folding and wrinkling of the tube during bending
ABAQUS Simulation.
2. Analysis of Spring Back effect
a. Mathematical modeling for calculation of bend radius considering the springback of the
tubes.
b. Calculation of spring back for different bend angles.
Reference
12
th
ISBN:9788190937634
[1] Tarana, K., 2002, Finite Element Simulation of the Tube Hydro forming Process Bending,
Performing and Hydro forming, Journal of Materials Processing Technology, 127, pp. 401-408.
[2] Yang, J., Jeon, B., 2001, The Tube Bending Technology of a Hydro forming Process from an
Automotive Part, Journal of Materials Processing Technology, 111, pp. 175-181.
[3] Kervick, R.J., and Springborn, R.K., 1966, Cold Bending and Forming Tube and Other Sections,
American Society of Tool and Manufacturing Engineers, Dearborn, MI.
[4] Li, H.Z., Fagerson, R., and Stelson, K.A., 1994, A Method of Adaptive Control of Rotary-Draw
Thin Walled Tube Bending With Spring Back Compensation, Transactions of the North American
Manufacturing Research, S.M.E, 22, pp. 25-28.
[5] Jyhwen Wang, Rohit Agarwal, Tube Bending Under Axial Force and Internal Pressure,
Transactions of the ASME Vol. 128, MAY 2006 598 - 605 .
13
ISBN:9788190937634
Problem Identification and Modification of Gravity Conveyor

with the Aid of CAD Package
N. S. Pohokar1 ,L.B. Bhuyar2 ,A A Shahade3
1
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Prof. Ram Meghe Institute of Technology and Research,
Badnera, India(nilesh .pohokar@gmail.com
2
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Prof. Ram Meghe Institute of Technology and Research,
Badnera, India(lbbhuyar@gmail.com)
3
Department of Mechanical Engineering, IBSS College of Engineering, Amravati, India
(abhijeet123@rediffmail.com)
Abstract: This paper deals with modification of material handling equipment by attaching
the turn table arrangement for the gravity type 900 roller conveyors by replacing the curve
portion. Moving raw materials and finished products through a facility is a common
process in any industry. During the process, operators routinely lift/lower, push/pull and
carry an object, which presents significant challenges to health and safety professionals.
When investigating manual material handling, Health and safety professionals must
determine the most practical ways to move object while decreasing ergonomics risk and
positively affecting production and cost.
Computer Aided design (CAD) applications in material handling (MH) have been few in
the sphere of real life manufacturing technology. This work attempts to solve a MH
problem faced by a manufacturing industry located in Central India
Keywords : CAD, material handling, production flow analysis, push and pull system
1. Introduction
For material handling equipment selection it is not possible to suggest a common

solution for all manufacturing and storage facilities because of the variation in layout,
Analytical techniques often used in industries consider only the quantitative factors as cost
and utilization. This work aims towards the development of a conveyor with the help of
methods of mechanics for obtaining the suitable solution for the problem for movement of
material, the two major activities are
To analyze the problem and suitable causes
To propose proper solution for the problem
CAD software PRO/ENGINEER wildfire 2.0 has been used to prepare a CAD model
to understand the problem as well as propose /evaluate alternative solutions. CAE software
ANSYS 10.0 has been used to analyse deflection and stress develop in the components.
1.1 Existing Condition
At curvature one worker is required to push that assembly from start to end of
curvature. Conveying assembly at the curvature is difficult task to push that assembly through
the overall curvature. None of the currently available facilities are found suitable for this
purpose. This adds fatigue and unsafe condition for worker. The stoppage of assembly leads
to several problem like damage of assembly when another assembly strikes on the first
assembly, delay in production flow. These create a lot of quality problems in the product (viz.
rejection, rework). Which directly reduce the productivity?
1.2 Aims and Objective
To facilitate easy operation on the dispatch conveyor without any obstacle from start
to end.
Improvement in the production flow.
To reduce labour cost
14
ISBN:9788190937634
To avoid operator fatigue
2. Case problem description:
In an assembly section of a leading farm equipment manufacturing industry, while

transmitting the assembly on the gravity type roller 90 0 dispatch conveyor the assembly stop
at the curve.
The stoppage of assembly leads to several problem like damage of assembly when
another assembly strikes on the first assembly, delay in production flow, additional operator
required to push the assembly. These problems create lot of quality problems in the product,
rejection, rework etc. which directly reduce the productivity
The figure 1 shows the cause and effect for suitable solution. The material is rigid
and very heavy. The ergonomic factors as well as the environment factor such as space
constraints, unsafe assembly practice etc are to be taken into account.
Fig 1. Cause and Effect Diagram
According to the fig.1 we know that for conveying 128 kg VTU assembly without human
assistance , we first find the suitable solution required.
2.1 Production Flow Analysis
Fig. 2 shows the actual representation of the work. It consists of power conveyor and
production line in which the VTU assembly is made. From the power conveyor, the VTU
assembled in 2.5 min with 9 operators. After that with the help of hoist it manually transfers to
the inspection conveyor with one operator. Next it transfers to VTU test rig one assembly on
first inspection machine for the hydraulic inspection. Then it transfer to second, third, forth
and fifth machine successively for hydraulic inspection. And after that it transfers to the
dispatch conveyor in 2.5 min with one operator simultaneously. There are five test rig in which
the total flow of assembly requires 12.5 min. Operator manually unload the assembly from
test rig and transfer it with the help of hoist to dispatch conveyor. Then assembly travels
through the dispatch conveyor from various points as shown in fig 2. When assembly reaches
to the starting of curve section it stop. For moving the assembly one operator need to push
the assembly from curvature up to the end. At part 3 the final inspection and top plate fitting is
done with one operator within 2 min. Then it transfer to the oil draining machine to drain the
oil from the VTU assembly with in 2.5 min then it transfer to quality inspection conveyor.
The aim of the work is to eliminate one operator at the curved section and make a
flow continuous on dispatch conveyor.
15
ISBN:9788190937634
Fig 2. Layout of Varying Touch Unit
2.2 Problem Definition
Conveying assembly at the curvature is difficult task require one operator to push that
assembly through the overall curvature. While studying the production flow, we analyse
gathering of VTU assembly at the curvature, if the worker is not present. None of the currently
available facilities are found suitable for this purpose. At curvature one worker is required to
push that assembly from start to end of curvature. This adds fatigue and unsafe condition for
worker. The stoppage of assembly leads to several problem like damage of assembly when
another assembly strikes on the first assembly, delay in production flow, additional operator
require pushing the assembly. These create a lot of quality problems in the product (viz.
rejection, rework). Which directly reduce the productivity?
3. Methodology Adopted
3.1 Specification of existing conveyor
Gravity given 5 inch per 10 feet

Type: - Gravity type roller bearing conveyor
Dimensions: -
Length: -78.5 feet 23.926 m
Width:- 1.45 feet-0.4419m
Starting height:-3.90 feet:- 1.888 m
End height:- 2.48feet:-0.756 m
Gravity given for total conveyor: -1.132 m
Loading Capacity :- To withstand and transmit a load of 5 tone
16
ISBN:9788190937634
3.2 Data collection
Measuring the heights at different positions from the ground level. Total length of
conveyor 78.5 feet=23.92 m. We divide the conveyor equally in to 16 number of points. Table
1. Shows the number of points and its heights. It also show the height similarities at various
points such as
Table 1. Difference in the heights of the points
Point Lengt Inner Outer Differenc

s h in height in height e in
meter meter in meter meter
1 1.91 1.188 1.170 0.018

2 3.83 1.137 1.132 0.005
3 5.74 1.062 1.062 0.000
4 7.66 1.023 1.020 0.003
5 9.57 0.971 0.971 0.000
6 11.49 0.915 0.910 0.005
7 13.41 0.885 0.885 0.000
8 14.53 0.885 0.885 0.000
9 15.66 0.875 0.885 0.000
10 16.76 0.870 0.870 0.000
11 17.92 0.865 0.870 0.005
12 19.04 0.840 0.840 0.000
13 20.53 0.840 0.840 0.000
14 21.47 0.813 0.810 0,003
15 22.69 0.780 0.784 0.004
16 23.92 0.756 0.750 0.006
Note :- The height of the conveyor is taken from the base with pipe level measurement
techniques. Observing the point 1,2,4,6,7,8,9,11,12,13,14,15,16 there is difference in the inner
and outer heights and point 7-8-9,12-13 having a same height at different point.
3.3 Problem Areas
At curved section: improper joints, gradient, height,

Height of the conveyor mismatch at defined points: as there is mention in the various point
measure
difference in inner and outer heights.
Assembly strike at curved section: Because of stoppage of assembly at curve section.
Gradient of the curvature at curved section: as per the data collected from the curved
section, not sufficient gradient is given.
3.4 Problem Identification
Data collected and calculated we are analysing gradient for the curvature is not
sufficient.
Cause and effect diagram states suitable solution required at curvature. From the CAD
model, we observed the curvature was the exact location of problem
17
ISBN:9788190937634
3.5 Preparing CAD model for existing conveyor
Fig 3. CAD Model of Existing Conveyor Fig 4 CAD Model for Gradient of the Curve
Section
Fig 5. CAD Model for Analyzing Problem areas

4. Result & Discussion
18
ISBN:9788190937634
By considering all these factors we are trying to focus on the other alternative solution
for the problem such as removing the curved section replace by the turn table or any other
alternative method, which will solve the problem. If this problem is solved, eliminates not only
the worker but also improve the productivity and quality of the product.
5. Conclusion
The work objective was reducing the labour cost and optimization of the production
flow analysis. This reduces the cost of labour (10,000 per month) 120000 per annum and
reworks damage cost. By applying systematic study it was proved that industrial engineer
improve the overall productivity of the organization to increase the production rate. And with
the aid of the CAD package it was very easy to imagine the idea and applying the methods of
mechanics analytically prove the exact problem.
References
[1] Apple J.M..Material Handling System Design, John Wiley & Sons New York, ISBN
0471066524, Forth edition
[2] Singer S.L. (1975). Engineering Mechanics Static and Dynamic ,Harper & Row
Publishers Singapore, ISBN 9971-470-051-9, Third edition.
[3] Alexandrov M.P. (1981). Materials Handling Equipment, Mir publication, ISBN 0-670-
12949-6 Fifth edition
[4] Bhandari V.B(1981).Design Of Machine Elements,Tata McGraw-Hill publication,
ISBN 0-07-460060-5,Third edition.
[5] Erdman A.G,Sandor G.N.(1984).Mechanism Design Analysis and Synthesis
volume1, Prentice-Hall,ISBN 0-13572396-5
[6] Sheath V.S, Dourlay M. D.(1986), Facilities Planning And Material Handling ,
McGraw-Hill Publication, Second edition
[7] Beer F.P.,Jonston E.R(1987),Mechanics For Engineers, McGraw-Hill Publication,
ISBN 0-07-004582-8,Forth edition.
[8] Allegri T.H. (1992). Material Handling: principal & Practice, Kriger Publishing, ISBN 0-
471-85403-4, Malabar Florida, Second edition.
[9] Agrawal G.K.(1999) , Plant Layout and Material Handling ,McGraw-Hill Pulication,
Third edition.
[10] Reese C.D. (2000). Material handling system Designing for safety & health, Taylor &
Francis Publication, ISBN 1420051806, Forth edition.
[11] Chandrapatla T.R.(2001),Introduction to Finite Elements In Engineering Prentice
Hall, second edition
[12] Garvalia N.N. (2004). Material Productivity Improvement for cost reduction, Industrial
Engineering Journal, Vol. XXXV, No.5,(May-2006) page numbers (9-10). ISSN 0970-
2555
[13] Maitra G.M., Handbook Of gear Design, Tata McGraw-Hill publication
[14] Shigley J. E. ,Mischke C.R.(2004) Mechanical Engineering Design in SI Unit, Tata
McGraw-Hill publication, ISBN 0-07-365939-8,Sixth edition.
[15] Alexander G. Razdolsky (2005).Euler Critical Force Calculation for Laced Columns.
Journal Of Engineering Mechanics, Vol 997, PP 1-7
19
ISBN:9788190937634
ANALYSIS OF CREEP MODELS OF PP NANOCOMPOSITES WITH

FEA ABAQUS SOFTWARE
1 2
Author : Ms.Meeta p. Chauhan. Author : Prof. P.B.Patel(guide)
Student of M.E.(cad/cam)[Mechanical deptt.] A.P.of M.E.(cad/cam)[Mechanical deptt.]
L.D.College of engineering, Ahemdabad. L.D.College of engineering, Ahemdabad.
Email:meeta_chauhan@ymail.com Email:P.B.Patel_58@yahoo.co.in
3
Author : Mr.Yagnesh B.Chauhan
A.P. govt.engg.college,chankheda,gandhinagar.
Student of M.E.(cryogenics)[Mechanical deptt.]
L.D.College of engineering, Ahemdabad.
Email:yagnesh.chauhan@yahoo.com
Abstract:
The present paper is about the parameter analysis of creep models of Nanocomposites
(Isotactic polypropylene). The parametric analysis of the Nanocomposites under creep was carried
out, and the parameters related to creep model are determined by comparing to the Theoretical
results. The influence of these parameters on the creep was studied. Using commercially available
software ABAQUS, Finite Element Calculations were done for creep condition. The result obtained
from theoretical analysis was verified with the ABAQUS results.
[1][6]
ABAQUS/CAE :
The ABAQUS software suite has an unsurpassed reputation for technology, quality, and
reliability and provides a powerful and complete solution for both routine and sophisticated linear and
non linear engineering problems. ABAQUS delivers a unified FEA environment that is a compelling
alternative to implementations involving multiple products and vendors.
The finite element analysis of the creep model has been done in ABAQUS.
The assumptions made in our modelling are as follows
1. The material is assumed to be isotropic. 2. The material is assumed to be homogeneous.
The step by step procedure of the analysis of the creep model in ABAQUS is shown in later It
includes creation of part, assigning of various material properties, creation of the section and the
assembly, steps, applying of loads and boundary conditions, meshing of the model.Finally, creation of
job and submitting the job for the analysis.
After submitting the job for analysis the ABAQUS software performs the creep analysis of the
material model. The results can be interpreted as shown below.
The creep formation in the material can be seen for different step times in the following figures,
FOR STEP TIME = 125 SECONDS
20
ISBN:9788190937634
Figure 1: Starting Stage of Creep of PP under 24 Mpa.
From the fig 1 the propagation of the creep at step time 125 seconds can be observed. Since
the object is constrained at one end the values of the creep strain vary according to the coloured
regions.
FOR STEP TIME = 960 SECONDS FOR STEP TIME = 2500 SECONDS

Fig 2: PP under 24 Mpa at certain step time. Fig 3: Creep formation at certain step time
From the fig 2 the propagation of creep at step time 960 seconds can be observed. The
centre region has the maximum creep strain and the region tends to expand with the increase in step
time.
From the fig 1 to 3 the propagation of creep for step time 2500 seconds can be observed.
From the fig 1 we can notice the creep phenomena with the dark region formed in the centre .Also
from the fig 1 to 3 we can conclude that the increase in step time results in the increase in the creep
strain up to a certain time period.
All the physical phenomena encountered in engineering mechanics are modelled by

differential equations, and it is very complicated to solve these equations by normal analytical
methods. The finite element method is the one approach by which differential equations can be
solved in an approximate manner as shown in fig.

Figure 4: steps in Engineering Mechanics Analysis
The differential equation or equations, which describe the physical problem considered, are assumed
to hold over a certain region. This region may be one, two or three dimensional. It is a characteristic
feature of the finite element method that instead of seeking approximations that hold directly over the
entire region, the approximation is then carried out over each element. For instance, even though the
variable varies in a highly in nonlinear manner over the entire region, it may be a fair approximation to
assume that the variable varies in a linear fashion over each element. the collection of all elements is
called a finite element mesh.
When the type of approximation which is to be applied over each element has been selected, the
corresponding behaviour of each element can then be determined. This can be performed because
the approximation made over each element is fairly simple. Having determined the behaviour of all
elements, these elements are then patched together, using some specific rules, to form the entire
region, which eventually enables us to obtain an approximate solution for the behaviour of the entire
21
ISBN:9788190937634
body. The finite element (FE) method can be applied to obtain approximate solutions for arbitrary
differential equations.
As the FE method is a numerical means of solving general differential equations, it can be applied to
various physical phenomena. In order to emphasize this aspect, we shall be concerned here with FE
formulation of such diverse problems as heat conduction, torsion of one, two, and three-dimensional
bodies, including beam and plate analysis.
As previously mentioned, it is a characteristic feature of the FE method that the region, the
body, is divided into smaller parts, the elements, for which a rather simple approximation over each
element means that an approximation is adopted for how the variable changes over the element.
This approximation is, infact, some kind of interpolation over the element, where it is assumed that the
variable is known at certain points in the element. These points are called nodal points and they are
often located at the boundary of each element .The precise manner in which the variable changes
between its values at the nodal points is expressed by the specific approximation, which may be
linear,quadratic,cubic,etc.
The finite element Method is a numerical approach which results in the establishment of systems of
equations often involving thousands of unknowns.
FEM is the numerical analysis technique for obtaining approximate solutions to many types of
engineering problems. The need for numerical methods arises from the fact for most engineering
problems analytical solutions does not exist while the governing equations and boundary conditions
can usually be written for these problems, and difficulties introduced by either irregular geometry or
other discontinuities render the problems intractable analytically.
To obtain a solution, the engineer must make simplifying assumptions reducing the problem to one
that can be solved, or a numerical procedure must be used. In an analytic solution, the unknown
quantity is given by a mathematical function valid at an infinite number of locations in the region under
study, while numerical methods provide approximate values of the unknown quantity only at discrete
points in the region. In the finite element method, the region of interest is divided into numerous
connected sub regions or elements within which approximating functions are used to represent the
unknown quantity.
[1][6]
Modelling and Results in ABAQUS :
The ABAQUS procedure consists of the following processes:
Pre-Processing
In the Pre-Processing part the model of the specimen is created for the analysis.
There are different steps in this process, they are as follows
Part
In this module it has been taken a 3D solid part with extrusion property to
create the required element for analysis. The sketcher size was taken as
200.A beem with length 30mm, height 50mm and width 10mm has been
created as shown in fig.
Fig: 5 Model of nano composite PPC 2.25
22
ISBN:9788190937634
[5]
Property
In this module it has been defined the properties of the material like poisons ratio, Youngs
Modulus, etc;
The properties of the materials used are shown in the table
Specimen Youngs Modulus Poissons ratio Material Constant

Code (Gpa) v N
PP 1.21 0.34 10.28
PPC-2.25 1.31 0.32 12.20
Assembly
In this module an independent mesh on instance for the analysis has been created.
Step
In this module the analysis procedure was defined and the visco procedure has been taken and the
step time was taken as from 4000 to 16000 seconds depending on the stresses applied.
Load
In this module the boundary conditions and the load conditions required for our analysis has been
considered. The beam was fixed at one end and the load has been applied at the other end as shown
in the figure below.
Fig: 6 Boundary condition & load for material Fig: 7 meshing of the model
Mesh
In this module the finite element mesh for the element for the analysis has been generated.
Post-Processing
Visualization: This module is used to read the output database that ABAQUS generated during the
analysis and to view the results of the analysis. All the results required are generated from the field
output. The creep strain values are determined. The results for the creep analysis are shown in the
figures.

Fig: 8 S, Mises for PPC 2.25 under 24Mpa Fig: 9 Tensors and vectors for the model
23
ISBN:9788190937634

Fig: 10 Undeformed shape Fig: 11 deformed shape
Result:
The PPC (pp-caco3) is better than the PP nano-composite for the creep strength.
[2][3][4][5]
Conclusion :
Creep behaviour is depending on the material parameters. The parameter varies with specific
stress &strain value. The creep behaviour is dependent on the material parameters.
References:
[1]. Meeta P.Chauhan Modelling and expiremental proven analysis of pressure vessel using Ansys
and ABAQUS software running M.E.dissertationwork.
[2]. Theodorbalderes,Finite element method in Access Science by McGraw-Hill.
[3]. http://websok.libris.kb.se/websearch/search?SEARCH_ONR=10133679
[4]. Introduction to finite Elements in Engineering by Tirupathi R.Chandrupatla and Ashok
D.Belegundu.
[5]. Ritchie, R.O.Mechanical Behavior of Materials Lecture Notes,University of
California,Berkeley.Rhoads,Fall 1993.
[6]. ABAQUS Standard manual.
24
ISBN:9788190937634
25
ISBN:9788190937634
Design of Superior Roll cooling system for Plate Mill at Rourkela

Steel Plant
S K Thakur*, S Rath*, A K Marik*
*RDCIS, SAIL, Rourkela-769011, Phone : 0661-2511208, FAX : 0661-2513505

e-mail: skthakur@sail-rdcis.com
Thermal related problems of work rolls in hot rolling process includes two major areas-
cyclic thermal stress which affects roll life and thermal expansion which affects mill
performance and product quality. The change of surface heat fluxes and convective boundary
conditions in the circumferential direction introduces a large temperature gradient at the roll
surface. The thermal profile affects the roll force distribution along the width of strip resulting in
bad strip shape. Thus, maintaining work roll temperature within working range is necessary to
minimize the thermal expansion of the rolls by effective roll cooling. The important information
required for improving roll cooling is temperature history of work rolls. Cooling can be improved,
once temperature history of the roll is known. This work has been taken to develop a
mathematical model using finite difference method (FDM) to study the temperature behaviour of
work roll in one stand reversing Plate Mill, Rourkela Steel Plant. The offline roll cooling model
has been developed and validated by comparing the predicted work roll temperature with
measured work roll temperature.
Based on the model output, Roll Cooling application System was modified. The modified
roll coolant system has exhibited improved heat transfer effect with the help of perfectly aligned
spray band onto the rolls. The modified coolant application system has reduced roll surface
o o
temperature from 60 C to 46-48 C and also reduced the temperature difference between centre
o o
to edge from 14 C to 4-5 C which has resulted in improved flattened roll thermal profile and
improved strip shape / flatness on account of roll thermal crown.
1. Introduction
Product quality in the Plate Mill rolling process is greatly affected by the surface shape of
work roll which directly contacts the strip. In general, the surface shape of work roll is determined by
initial crown, wear profile and thermal expansion during rolling. Since work roll crown is changed by
the thermal expansion, maintaining work roll temperature within working range is necessary to
minimize the thermal expansion of the rolls. Thus effective roll cooling in Plate Mill is required for
achieving standard product quality in terms of shape and surface defects. The damage of roll surface
caused by thermal fatigue is greatly influenced by the roll cooling practice, control of roll temperature
is increasing importance as new and costly roll materials are being used. The important information
required for improving roll cooling are temperature history of work rolls, temperature distribution on roll
cross section, temperature variation during each revolution, temperature variation of the roll with time,
temperature variation of the roll with mill speed. Cooling can be improved, once temperature history of
the roll is known since most of the effects of cooling can be deduced from the temperature history.
Mathematical modeling of the heat transfer during hot rolling is often the best way of deciding
on the spray cooling requirements. Mathematical models are designed to give the temperature history
of rolls in the mill. Several roll cooling models have been developed to analyze the temperature effects
of cooling work rolls. Most of the models are developed for tandem hot rolling mill. This work has been
taken to develop a mathematical model using finite difference method (FDM) to study the temperature
behaviour of work roll in one stand reversing Plate Mill, Rourkela Steel Plant. The work has been
concentrated on obtaining roll cooling temperature profile and cooling effect of spray on hot surfaces.
The offline roll cooling model has been developed using Visual Basic 6.0 programming language. The
model is validated by comparing the predicted work roll temperature with measured work roll
temperature.
2. Principle of roll cooling
26
ISBN:9788190937634
Heat is primarily generated in the roll bite from deformation of the metal and friction, at the
direct interface between the slab and rolls (Fig.1). Hence energy is related to the actual electrical
energy driving the mill stand. Some mechanical energy is consumed in increasing the hardness of the
strip, but most ( i.e. 85% of the total electrical energy driving the mill) will become heat that must be
removed. In the hot mill scenario, additional heat is generated from the slab itself by radiation. As the
roll moves away from the roll bite, heat is pulled into the roll interior. The rate of diffusion depends on
the temperature difference between the surface and the core and the roll conductivity. The purpose of
a spray system is to remove heat from the roll surface before this heat energy diffuses to the core.
Thus, cooling systems must maintain a thermal balance between top and bottom rolls as well as
across the full width of the rolls. In roll cooling design, the relevant parameters to be considers are:
2.1 Target surface for cooling
Primarily work roll should be the first target to cool. If work roll is adequately cooled, the back
up roll temperature is automatically controlled. Also. applying coolant at roll bite (primary where heat
is generated) is problematic due to the Leidenfrost Effect, which is the creation of steam barrier
between the roll surface and the coolant creating a very low heat transfer . It is much better to have
air and radiation in the area adjacent to the roll bite because it is more efficient than using coolant.
2.2 Nozzle selection
To maintain nearly constant heat transfer coefficients (HTC) on the impact area the nozzle
should be as large as possible and the coolant flow density at the impact area should be nearly
constant. The flat jet nozzles are having maximum HTC with relatively low coolant pressure and have
been selected for the modified roll coolant system. The coolant flow density at the impact areas is
achieved nearly equal to the width of spray in flat jet nozzle compared to other nozzles.
2.3 Spray condition
Basically the spray condition depends upon three basic parameters like coolant pressure,
spray angle and the spray height (distance between nozzle tip and roll surface). It has been observed
that with increase in coolant pressure, there was increase in HTC up to a pressure limit 15 bar. It has
been experimented that lesser spray distance results to higher HTC, but mill condition is a constraint
in reducing the spray distance. The distance of the coolant spray should be perpendicular to the roll
surface. If the impinging spray angle is more than 15, an increasing disturbances of the coolant flow
at the impact area takes place and hence cooling efficiency decreases.
Fig.1. Typical roll cooling arrangement
27
ISBN:9788190937634
3. Development of mathematical model
As the roll surface comes in contact with the hot slabs, it receives heat from the slabs at high
rate. After the surface comes out of the roll bite, it is subjected to cooling by water sprays considering
axial heat flow as insignificant, the equation of heat transfer in the work roll, with respect to a fixed
Eulerian reference frame becomes:
T 2T 1 T 1 2T
= + +
r 2 r r r 2 2
Here,
T= Temperature C
= Rotational speed, rad/sec
= Thermal diffusivity, m2/sec
, r= cylindrical co-ordinate
(t) is the time taken for an elemental volume of the roll to rotate through an angle measured from
the reference point.
This equation is subjected to the following boundary conditions:
At the Roll surface: for t>0 & r = R (radius of the roll)

T
k = h(t ){T T }
r
T = Ambient Temperature
h(t ) = Heat transfer coefficients , W/m 2 K
As the rolling proceeds and there is continuous rolling, the major portion inside the roll achieves a
nearly steady and uniform temperature. The temperature variations are localized in a very thin layer
near the surface. Therefore, this thin layer only needs to be considered in the model:
For t>0 and r = R- ,
T
k =0
r
3.1 Validation of the Model
To assess the accuracy of the model, the output of the model was compared with output of
2
the model developed by Dr D. M. Parle & Dr. James L L Baker . The author has instrumented a work
roll with thermocouples and measured the temperature response at different depth below the surface.
With the operating conditions for work roll described in the mentioned paper, the work roll temperature
variation was predicted with the present model. The results for the first eight revolutions are shown in
Fig. 2. It can be seen from the figure that the surface of the roll would reach a peak of 445C during
the first revolution and a peak of 453C during the second revolution. The predicted temperature
variations at different depths from the roll surface have also been depicted in the figure. A comparison
of the values of the model predicted work roll temperature with published measured data is depicted
in Table 1 which indicates fair agreement between predicted and measured values. However, for a
more accurate validation of the model, a work roll can be instrumented with thermocouples and
temperatures measured during rolling.
Moreover the predicted average temperature of work roll was compared with measured
temperature of the work roll .Both the validation indicates fair agreement between predicted and
measured value. However for a more accurate validation of the model, a work roll can be
instrumented with thermocouples and temperatures measured during rolling.
28
ISBN:9788190937634
Temp curves after each rotation
500.00
450.00
400.00
Temp Degree cenrigrade

350.00
1 rotation
2 rotation
300.00
3 rotation
4 rotation
250.00
5 rotation
6 rotation
200.00
7 rotation
8 rotation
150.00
100.00
50.00
0.00
1 11 21 31 41 51 61 71 81 91 101111121131141151161171181191201211221231
Klick
Fig.2. Model predicted work roll temperature variation for first eight revolutions.
Table-1: Comparison of model predicted and measured work roll temperature
First Revolution Second Revolution

Temperature C
Predicted Measured Predicted Measured
Max temp at the surface 445 500 453 539
Max temp at a depth of 0.35 mm 90 100 95 117
4. Modification of roll cooling application system
Fig.3 shows the modified roll cooling system installed at Plate Mill.
4.1 Pump Set
The roll coolant application system was being carried out by two pumps of capacity 150 m3/hr @ 5
bar, out of which one is kept spare and other is in operation. These pumps deliver low volume of
coolant with low coolant pressure of 2.5 bar, resulting to low impinging force with insufficient volume
of coolant onto the roll surface and results in inadequate roll cooling and higher rate of premature roll
thermal failure. Subsequently it has been designed to install high capacity pump of capacity 200
m3/hr @ 5 bar for higher coolant flow with higher coolant pressure 4.5 to 5.0 bar. The new pump has
been installed at zero level of Shop floor. The new Pump set is of different design than the existing
one. The new Pump set is of close type. Thus any kind of dirt in the water will lead to pump jamming
and subsequently pump set will not work effectively. In view of this, it was desired to install a suitable
filtration system to take care of any dirt in the water.
4.2 Filtration System
A Duplex type Filtration system has been installed before the Roll cooling Pump to take care of dirt,
3
scales coming in industrial water. The capacity of the Duplex type filter is 200m /hr at 6 bar pressure.
The filter element has mesh of 500 micron. The differential pressure gauge is provided with the filter
to indicate the filter element clogging. This will help in preventive maintenance of the filter system.
4.3 Coolant flow distribution
The volume of coolant used for roll cooling varies, depending on the type of mill. However, the
pressure requirements are constant and generally ranged between 3 to 7 bar. This range is perfectly
acceptable for the application of coolant in hot rolling mills, with a recommended value of
approximately 4 to 5 bars. As the volume and pressure of the coolant are directly related to the
impact density of the spray and in turn to the heat transfer efficiency, a minimum of 3 bar is need to
achieve any thermal response to the sprays. However, the benefit of increased pressure decreases
rapidly above 7 bar, thereby making its use unjustified. Mostly, the coolant application is neglected, as
very inefficient flooded cooling was carried out.
29
ISBN:9788190937634
Fig.3. Schematic diagram showing modified roll cooling system.
The FDM model has been developed to study the thermal behaviour of rolls during hot rolling.
The greatest differential expansions occur at the slab contact and cooling can have little or no effect
there. As the slab leaves the contact area its outer layers come into an environment that could lead to
large differences in thermal expansion, but in the near exit area it is not physically possible to apply a
sufficient amount of cooling with water. The roll surface leaves the slabs with a high temperature and
a very steep temperature gradient. There are several advantages of early cooling. The heat is
extracted before it penetrates. The metal is brought quickly to lower temperatures and any reversal in
gradient is under better control where over cooling is difficult to achieve. The cooling on the exit side
should endeavor to reduce the temperature of the surface layers. The outside surface should also be
dropped in temperature so that the backup roll contact will not cause quench to the outer layers of the
roll. The roll surface is at lower temperature beyond the backup roll due to lower temperature
difference between roll and water and low heat transfer coefficient due to lower surface temperature.
Therefore, since the heat transfer rate is approximately proportional to the product of the temperature
difference and the film coefficient, the heat transfer is hugely reduced. The figures have been shown
to depict the temperature behaviour of rolls with different conditions.
The modified roll coolant system has been installed and commissioned at Plate Mill starting
from March09 onwards. The system performance was evaluated and following results have been
achieved and discussed. In the modified design, the flat jet type spray nozzles were introduced in the
spray header to enhance the emulsion pressure, to increase the impact force of spray, wider spray
coverage and to improve HTC. Therefore the target in the modified design was to achieve coolant
pressure of 3.5 - 4.0 bars with higher capacity pump running.
The maximum heat is being generated at the roll-bite due to deformation of hot slab i.e.
friction. The major part of the generated heat is taken up by the rolls and the coolant. This gradual
heat input to the work rolls are to be efficiently taken out by the roll cooling system or other-wise the
work roll will be subjected to premature thermal failure. A nominal part of heat is being conducted to
the back-up rolls and the frictional effect between the back-up roll and work roll generates
comparatively low heat input to the back-up rolls. Therefore the cooling of back-up roll is not so
vigorous as the work roll. If the work roll temperature is controlled effectively, it will help to reduce the
heat flow to the back-up rolls. Therefore in the modified coolant system, the coolant flow distribution
for back-up rolls are reduced drastically (to nearly half) and the curtailed coolant flow was
redistributed to work rolls for intense cooling to achieve higher HTC. In the modified design coolant
flow distribution was redistributed roll wise to achieve optimum heat transfer effect and to avoid
flooding and wastage of coolant.
In the modified roll cooling system, the distribution of coolant flow is arranged in such a way,
that 20% of total flow will cater for top back-up roll, 35% of total flow will cater for top work roll and
45% of total flow will cater for bottom work roll, which makes mild cooling of BUR and intense cooling
of WR. The top work roll will be compensated with additional flow from top back-up roll.
With the introduction of modified roll coolant system at Plate Mill,, the performance has
resulted in significant enhancement in coolant pressure to 3.5 bar with drop in work roll surface
temperature by 10 to 12oC (avg) and flattened roll thermal profile by reducing the temperature
difference between centre and edges from 14C to 4-5oC which in turn will help to improve plate
profile. The thermal profile before and after modification is shown in fig. 4. Using of flat jet type
30
ISBN:9788190937634
nozzles has ensured perfectly aligned herringbone spray band onto roll surface with improved heat
transfer rate from rolls. The nozzles are fitted to the coolant header with an off-set angle of 20o to
ensure no interference of two successive spray bands and can take care of effective and higher heat
removal rate from each spray band. The modified roll cooling system also helped to reduce
substantially the fire crack formation and improved overall mill performance. It has reduced the
grinding off-take of rolls after campaign from 3.5 mm to 2.5 mm, which has also reduced the specific
roll consumption from 0.685kg/t in the year 2007-08 to 0.665kg/t in the month of Mrach09.
Top WR (Before Mod) Top WR (After Mod)
Fig.4. Thermal profiles of work roll before and after modification.
6. Conclusion
Roll cooling model studies the roll cooling behavior under different conditions and helps in
understanding the roll cooling phenomena. It also gives the temperature history of roll surface
layer at different conditions which helps in optimizing the flow characteristics for different mill
set up.
The modified roll cooling system has exhibited improved heat transfer with the help of
perfectly aligned spray band onto the rolls.
The redistribution of coolant flow has avoided flooding and wastage of coolant and made
effective roll cooling and intensive cooling of the work rolls.
References
[1] Jayant Kumar Saha, Sourabh Kundu, Sanjak Chandra, Santosh Kumar Sinha Mathematical
modeling of Roll Cooling and Roll surface stress, ISIJ Int, Vol-45(2005), No 11
[2] Dr. David M Parke & Dr. James L L Baker,Temperature effects of cooling work rolls, Iron
and Steel Engineer, December,1972
[3] Ian Stewart, John D Massingham, Jerry J Hagers Heat transfer coefficient effect on spray
cooling, Iron and Steel Engineer, July 1996.
31
ISBN:9788190937634
Optimize the Casting of AlSi /Al2O3 Composites

Using of Taguchi Method
Mayur S. Modi1*, Yagnik K. Gohil2
1*
Assistannt Professor Valia institute of Technology,Bharuch-393135, Gujarat, India
2
Assistant Professor S.P.B.Patel College of Engineering, Linch, Mehsana, Gujarat, India
Corresponding author (e-mail:maymodi@gmail.com)
Taguchi method is a problem solving tool which can improve the

performance of the product, process design and system. This method
combines the experimental and analytical concepts to determine the most
influential parameter on the result response for the significant improvement in
the overall performance. In this research AlSi /Al2O3 composites was
prepared by vortex technique using three different parameters, stirring time,
stirring speed, and volume fraction of the reinforcement particles. A tensile
and hardness tests were done for the resulted castings. The primary objective
is to use Taguchi method for predicting the better parameters that give the
highest tensile strength and hardness to the castings, and then preparing
composites at these parameters and comparing them with the randomly used
once. The experimental and analytical results showed that the Taguchi
method was successful in predicting the parameters that give the highest
properties and the volume fraction was the most influential parameter on the
tensile strength and hardness results of castings.
Keywords: AlSi /Al2O3, Composites, Taguchi method, Tensile
strength, Hardness
1. Introduction
Metal matrix composite materials are advanced materials, which combine

tough metallic matrix with a hard ceramic or soft reinforcement [1,2]. These materials
have superior properties compared tothe monolithic materials and can be tailarable
to a specific applications [3,4]. Metal matrix composites show advantages in a great
number of specific applications (aircraft, automobile, machines) due to their high
specific strength and stiffness, wear resistance and dimensional stability [5]. The
quality of any composite material is influence by varying processing parameters.
Among these parameters, there must be one or two that have the most influence. It
has been realized that the full economic and technical potential of any manufacturing
process can be achieved only while the process is run with the optimum parameters.
One of the most important optimization processes is Taguchi method [6]. Taguchi
technique is a powerful tool for the design of high quality systems [7,8]. It provides a
simple efficient and systematic approach to optimize design for performance, quality
and cost. The methodology is valuable when design parameters are qualitative and
discrete. Taguchi parameter design can optimize the performance characteristic
through the setting of design parameters and reduce the sensitivity of the system
performance to source of variation [9,10]. The Taguchi approach enables a
comprehensive understanding of the individual and combined from a minimum
number of simulation trials. This technique is multi step process which follow a
certain sequence for the experiments to yield an improved understanding of product
or process performance [5].
2. Experimental Work
2.1 Composite Preparation
32
ISBN:9788190937634
Commercial eutectic modified (Al 12% Si) alloy with good bearing properties, good
fluidity and low coefficient of thermal expansion is used as the matrix. This alloy is
commonly used in the production of pistons. Table (1) shows the chemical
composition of the alloy Al2O3 powder with (+50 to 75) micron grain size is used as
the reinforcement. A measured amount of the matrix alloy was melted at 700 Co in
an electrical furnace shown in figure (1).
Figure (1) Electrical furnace used for production castings.

A measured amount of Al2O3 powder was melted at 300 Co for 30 minutes, then
added to the melt. After that, the melt was stirred inside the furnace at different
speed and times to make a vortex in order to disperse the particles in the melt. The
melt temperature was controlled and checked with thermocouple before pouring into
a carbon steel die shown in figure (2).
Figure (2) Carbon steel die.
Figure (3) The dimensions of the tensile.
Table (1) Chemical composition of commercial Al Si alloy.

Si Cu Fe Zn Mg Mn Ti Al
12.1 0.83 0.65 0.45 0.27 0.2 0.02 Rem.
Table (2) Control factors and levels

Factor Control factor Level 1 Level 2 Level 3
A Stirring Time (min) 1 2 3
B Stirring speed (rpm) 50 150 250
C Volume fraction (%) 5 10 15
The dimensions of the resulted castings are (15 x 15 x 100) mm. The volume
fraction of the particles is calculated by taking its weight and density then dividing its
33
ISBN:9788190937634
volume on the composite volume which is determined from the inner dimensions of
the die. After some preliminary tests, the experimental conditions shown in table (2)
were chosen to study the effects of processing parameters (volume fraction, stirring
time, and stirring speed) on the tensile strength and vicker's hardness of the
composites. All the composites and tests were done in the laboratories of the
Production and Metallurgy Department and Materials Engineering Department at the
University of Technology.
2.2 Application of Taguchi Method
In order to observe the influencing degree of process parameters in the

composite preparation method, three parameters namely; (1) stirring time; (2) stirring
speed; and (3) particles volume fraction, each at three levels were considered and
are listed in table (2). Maintaining these processing parameters as constants enabled
us to study the effect of stirring time, stirring speed, and volume fraction on the
resulted properties. The degrees of freedom for three parameters in each of three
levels were and it is calculated as follows [7]:
Degree Of Freedom (DOF) = number of levels -1 (1)
For each factor, DOF equal to:
For (A); DOF = 3 1 = 2
For (B); DOF = 3 1 = 2
For (C); DOF = 3 1 = 2
In this research nine experiments were conducted at different parameters,
and then the specimens were machined and tested by Vickers hardness and tensile
test. The hardness of each specimen is measured by using Vickers hardness
apparatus type Zwick & co., Germany, while the tensile tests were done by using the
Instron machine type 1195, England. Figure (3) shows the dimensions of the tensile
specimen. Table (3) indicates the used parameters and the result values of hardness
and tensile strength. A three level L9 34 orthogonal array with nine experimental runs
was selected. The total degree of freedom is calculated from the following [7]:
Table (3) Experimental observation
Tensile Hardness
Exp.No A B C
strength (Mpa) Hv N/mm2
1 1 50 5 171 65
2 1 150 10 190 86
3 1 250 15 210 118
4 2 50 15 205 110
5 2 150 5 180 80
6 2 250 10 199 97
7 3 50 10 224 99
8 3 150 15 219 126
9 3 250 5 185 73
Exp. no: Experimental number, A: Stirring time (min) ,B: Stirring speed (rpm), C:
Volume fraction (%),E: Error
Table (4) S/N ratio for tensile strength and hardness
S/N Ratio S/N Ratio

Exp.No A B C E (Tensile (Hardness
strength) HV)
1 1 1 1 1 44.66 36.25
34
ISBN:9788190937634
2 1 2 2 2 45.57 38.69
3 1 3 3 3 56.44 41.43
4 2 1 2 2 46.23 40.82
5 2 2 3 3 45.10 38.06
6 2 3 1 1 45.97 39.73
7 3 1 3 3 47.00 39.91
8 3 2 1 1 46.80 42.00
9 3 3 2 2 45.34 37.26
Total DOF = no. of experiments 1 (2)

The total DOF for the experiment is:
Total DOF = 9 1 = 8
Taguchi method stresses the importance of studying the response variation
using the signal to noise (S/N) ratio, resulting in minimization of quality
characteristic variation due to uncontrollable parameter. The tensile strength and
hardness were considered the quality characteristic with the concept of "the larger
the better". The S/N ratio used for this type response is given by [7]:
..(3)
Where dB means decibel and Yi is the response value for a trial condition
repeated n times. The composite preparation parameters, namely stirring time (A),
stirring speed (B), and particles volume fraction (C) were assigned to the 1st , 2nd and
3rd column of L9 34 array, respectively. The 4th column was assigned as error (E), and
was considered randomly. The S/N ratios were computed for tensile strength and
hardness in each of the nine trial conditions and their values are given in table (4).
Computation scheme of pareto ANOVA (analysis of variance) for three level factors
is shown in table (5). In order to study the contribution ratio of the process
parameters, pareto ANOVA was performed for tensile strength and hardness. The
details are given in tables (6) and (7) respectively.
Table ( 5 ) Pareto ANOVA for three level factors [7]
Factors A B C E Total
1 A1 B1 C1 E1
Sum at factor level 2 A2 B2 C2 E2 T
3 A3 B3 C3 E3
Sum of squares of
SA SB SC SE ST
difference
DOF 2 2 2 2 8
(Contribution
SA/ST SB/ST SC/ST SE/ST 1
ratio)/100
T = A1 + A2 +A3
SA = (A1 - A2)2 + (A1 - A3)2 + (A2 - A3)2
SB = (B1 - B2)2 + (B1 - B3)2 + (B2 - B3)2
SC = (C1 - C2)2 + (C1 - C3)2 + (C2 - C3)2
SE = (E1 - E2)2 + (E1 - E3)2 + (E2 - E3)2
ST = SA + AB + SC + SE
From Table (6), it can be seen that the third level of factor (A) give the highest
summation (i.e A3, which is 3 min stirring time). The highest summation for factor (B)
35
ISBN:9788190937634
is at the first level (i.e B1, which is 50 rpm) and the highest summation for factor (C)
is at the third level (i.e C3, which is 15% volume fraction). These predicted
parameters are not used in the composite preparation which indicated in table (3).
We conducted an experiment at the predicted parameters (A = 3 min , B = 50 rpm,
and C = 15 % volume fraction), and tested the resulted specimen by tensile. The
resulted tensile strength was 256 Mpa which is greater than the tensile strength
values in table (3).
Table (6 ) Pareto ANOVA for tensile strength
1 136.679 137.899 135.108 137.445
Sum at
2 137.317 137.489 138.556 137.153 413.15
factor level
3 139.157 137.764 139.488 138.554
Sum of
squares of 9.931 0.262 31.936 3.278 45.409
difference
DOF 2 2 2 2 8
(Contributio
21.87 0.58 70.33 7.22 1
n ratio)/100
(2) (3) (1)
Optimum
A3 B1 C3
level
3 50 15
These results have proved the success of Taguchi method in the prediction of
the optimum parameters for higher tensile strength. In table (7) it can be seen that
the highest summation is at A3 (3 min stirring time), B2 (150 rpm), and C3 (15 %
volume fraction). The predicted parameters for giving the highest hardness by
Taguchi method is already used in our experiments and it gave the highest hardness.
This also proves the success of Taguchi method. In both tables (6) and (7), it was
found that the particles volume fraction contributes a larger impact on tensile strength
and hardness of the composites followed by stirring time then finally stirring speed.
Table (7) Pareto ANOVA for hardness

1 116.385 116.998 111.586 118.299
Sum at factor 354.19
2 118.625 118.759 118.338 116.752
level 7
3 119.186 118.439 124.272 119.412
Sum of
270.58
squares of 119.174 5.276 241.750 119.412
0
difference
DOF 2 2 2 2 8
(Contribution
0.0486 0.0195 0.8934 0.0383 1
ratio)/100
(2) (3) (1)
Optimum level A3 B2 C3
3 50 15
4. Conclusions
This paper has reported a research in which Taguchi's off line quality control
method was applied to determine the optimal process parameters which maximize
the mechanical properties of AlSi /Al2O3 composites prepared by vortex technique.
For this purpose, concepts like orthogonal array, S/N ratio and ANOVA were
employed. After determining the optimum process parameters, one confirmation
36
ISBN:9788190937634
experiment was conducted. In light of our analysis the following conclusions were
drawn: The optimum level of process parameters to obtain good mechanical
properties for the vortex technique cast AlSi /Al2O3 are 15% volume fraction of
particles, 3 min stirring time, and 50 rpm stirring speed for tensile strength and 150
rpm for hardness. From the pareto analysis it was evident that the volume fraction is
a major contributing factor for improving tensile strength and hardness. Taguchi
method has proved its success in prediction the optimum parameters to reach the
best properties.
References
[1] Ibrahim A., Mohamed F. A., Lavernia E. J., "Metal matrix composite a review", J.
Mat. Sci., 1991, pp. 37 57.
[2]Surappa M. K., "Aluminum matrix composite: challenges and opportunities",
Sadhana, Vol. 28, 2003, pp. 319 334.
[3]Rohatgi P.K., Asthana R., Das S., "Solidification, structure, and properties of cast
metal ceramic particle composition", Int. Met. Rev., Vol. 31, No.3, 1986, pp. 115
139.
[4]Goni J., Mitexelena I, Coleto J., "Development of low cost metal matrix composites
for commercial applications", Met. Sci. Tech., Vol. 16, 2000, pp. 743 746.
[5]Basavarajappa S., Chandramohan G., Paulo Davim J., "Application of Taguchi
techniques to study dry sliding wear behaviour of metal matrix composites", Materials
and Design, Vol. 28, 2007, pp. 1393 1398.
[6]Hu H., "Squeeze casting of magnesium alloys and their composite", J. Met. Sci.,
Vol. 33, 1998, pp. 1579 1589.
[7]Taguchi G., Konishi S., "Taguchi methods, orthogonal arrays and linear graphs,
tools for quality engineering", Dearborn, MI: American Supplier Institute, 1987, pp. 35
38.
[8] Taguchi G., "Taguchi on robust technology development methods", New York,
NY: ASME press, 1993, pp. 1 40.
[9]Ross Phillips J., "Taguchi technique for quality engineering", New York: McGraw
Hill, 1988.
[19] Roy Ranjit K., "A primer on Taguchi method", New York : Van Nostrad Reinhold,
1990.
37
th
ISBN:9788190937634
Design of Single Sampling Plan for Acceptance of

Non Confirming Lots
Sanjay Purkar1, Govind Maheshwari2and A.I.Khandwawala3.
1
Department of mechanical engineering, Swami Vivekanand college of engineering, Indore
(M..P.)(Purkar_77@yahoo.co.in)
2
Department of mechanical engineering, Institute of engineering and technology, DAVV, Indore.
3
Retired professor, SGSITS Indore.
ABSTRACT
Acceptance sampling is a major field of statistical quality control. A sample is taken

form the lot and some quality characteristics of the units in the sample inspected. On
the basis of the information in this sample a decision is made regarding lot disposition
usually this decision is either to accept or to reject the lot. Sometimes we refer to this
decision as lot sentencing. Accepted lots are put into productions; rejected lots may
return to the vendor or may be subjected to some other lot disposition action. It is now
common that even with a single defective unit in the sample in a compliance testing
calls for rejection of the entire lot because of improved technology and quality systems
such as the total quality management and six sigma. Such rejected lots are also useful
in some situations. A different type of sampling plan is necessary for these situations.
In this paper a single sampling plan (SSP) is constructed using a Zero Truncated
Poisson Distribution (ZTPD) and Intervened Poisson Distribution (IPD) through
Maximum Allowable Percent Defective (MAPD) and Maximum Allowable Average
Outgoing Quality (MAAOQ) which can be useful to take decisions by inspecting the
second quality lots. Tables are constructed and presented for the easy selection of the
plans. The procedure for selecting the sampling plans using other conventional
parameters is also provided.
Key Words: Acceptance sampling, Intervention, IPD, Truncation, ZTPD.

INTRODUCTION
In a competitive business environment, the common practice is that even with a single
defective unit in the sample in a compliance testing calls for rejection of the entire lot. It
would be a great loss for a company. However, such rejected lots (second quality lot)
would be useful in many situations such as sampling in vegetables, paper, plastics,
metals, scraps and etc. However, not much work has been carried out in this area.
Shanmugam (1985) has shown that a Zero Truncated Poisson Distribution (ZTPD) can
be used to model such second quality lots which have the possibility of at least one
defective in the sample information. He further suggested an Intervened Poisson
Distribution (IPD) to be employed in the study of number of cholera cases in a
household. The intervention changes the incidence parameter to , where is an
intervention parameter (0 1) and is the average number of defectives in the lot.
Thus, in this study single sampling plan is constructed using IPD through Maximum
Allowable Percent Defective and Maximum Allowable Average Outgoing Quality for the
38
th
ISBN:9788190937634
second quality lots. The results are compared with the sampling plans constructed
using ZTPD.
PROCEDURE
The single sampling plan (SSP) is an acceptance sampling plan through which
decision of accepting or rejecting a lot based on a single sample. The operating
procedure of SSP is as follows.
Step 1: Take a random sample of size n from the lot and count the number of non-
conformities (say d).
Step 2: If d c, then accept the lot
Step 3: If d > c, then reject the lot
The proportion defective corresponding to the inflection point of the operating
characteristic curve (OC) is interpreted as the maximum allowable proportion defective
(MAPD). The desirability of developing a set of sampling plans indexed with p* (MAPD)
has been explained by Soundararajan (1975). One of the desirable properties of an OC
curve is that the decrease of the probability of acceptance should be slower for lesser
values of p (good quality level) and steeper for larger values of p (bad quality level),
which provides a better overall discrimination. If p* is considered as a standard quality
measure then the above property of a desirable OC curve is exactly followed since p*
corresponds to the inflection point of the OC curve. The SSP that would discriminate
perfectly between good and bad would have an ideal OC curve this would run
horizontally at a probability of acceptance of 1.0 until p*, at which point it would drop
vertically and then for higher values p would run again horizontally at the probability of
acceptance of 0. Thus, in the ideal OC curve p* is the quality standard and therefore
several authors state that the engineers requirements on a quality standard is more or
less fulfilled by p* when compared to any parameter. Suresh and Ramkumar (1996)
justified the use of the maximum allowable average outgoing quality (MAAOQ) for
developing sampling plans. The MAAOQ of single sampling is defined by the average
outgoing quality (AOQ) at MAPD, which is a favorable index for the engineers. (MAPD,
MAAOQ) indexed plans have a more discriminating OC curve than the plans indexed
through (MAPD, AOQL). Considering the simplicity, practicability and more consumer
protection offered, the MAAOQ is used as the indexing parameter for the selection of
the plan. Radhakrishnan (2004), Radhakrishnan and Sekkizhar (2007) constructed
sampling plans using MAPD and MAAOQ.
Symbols and mathematical model
The following notations are used in this paper.
P-Proportion defective/ lot quality
- Intervention parameter
- Mean of Poisson distribution
p*-Maximum Allowable Proportion Defective (MAPD)
pt - Tangential intercept
h*- Relative slope at MAPD
K- Ratio of pt/p*
Pa (p)- Probability of acceptance of the lot quality p
n - Sample size
d- Number of the defectives counted
39
th
ISBN:9788190937634
c - Acceptance number
R- Ratio of MAPD by MAAOQ
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Operating characteristic (OC) function
The OC function for single sampling plan using ZTPD is the equation 1.
c
(e 1) 1 x
Pa ( p ) = (1)
x =1 x!
(e 1) = (1 e ) = mean of ZTPD.The OC function for single

1 1
Where np= e
sampling plan using IPD (Shanmugam, 1985) is the equation 2.
1
c e (e 1) x
Pa( p) = (1+ ) x x (2)
x=1 x!
Where np = e e 1 ( ) + = mean of IPD.

1

The OC curves for sampling plan constructed through ZTPD and IPD are shown in the
figure 1. All the curves show similar level of slope in their tangents to the proportion
defective axis. Figure 1 shows the operating characteristics curves of the sampling plan
(100, 3) constructed through intervened Poisson distribution at various intervention
levels (=0.1,0.4,0.7,0.9 and 0). Intervention parameter decides the effectiveness in
the reduction of defective units (quality improvement) and if its value reaches zero then
IPD becomes ZTPD with reduced mean defectives. The plan constructed through
ZTPD has more probability of acceptance than the plans.
Figure 1: The operating characteristics curves for the sampling plan n=100; c=3
constructed using ZTPD and IPD.
0.9
ZTPD IPD WITH =0.1
0.8
IPD WITH =0.4
0.7
IPD WITH =0.7

0.6
0.5 IPD WITH =0.9

Pa (p)
0.4
IPD WITH =1.0

0.3
0.2 ZTPD
0.1
0
-0.01 0.01 0.03 0.05 0.07 0.09 0.11 0.13
40
th
ISBN:9788190937634
Construction and selection of plans through IPD
d2Pa( p) d3Pa( p)
The value of MAPD (p*) is obtained using = 0, at p=p* and 0,
dp2 dp3
at p=p*. The value of MAAOQ is obtained by p* Pa(p*). The values of nMAPD,
nMAAOQ. and R=MAAOQ/MAPD have been calculated using a C++ program for
different possible combinations of c & and Table 1 is constructed. Other parameters
such as AQL, LQL, IQL (with the risk of 5%, 10% and 50% respectively), their slopes
and measures of sharpness (Hamaker, 1950) are also provided.
For any given values of , MAPD and MAAOQ, the ratio R = MAAOQ / MAPD is found
and the nearest value of R is located in Table 1. The corresponding c and nMAPD
values are noted and the value of n of SSP is obtained using n = nMAPD / MAPD.
Example 1 (IPD)
Given = 0.7, MAPD = 0.022 and MAAOQ = 0.0144, the ratio R = MAAOQ / MAPD =
0.6545 is computed. In Table 1, the nearest R value is corresponding to c=3. The value
of nMAPD (=3.07163) is found and hence the value of n is determined as n = nMAPD /
MAPD = 3.07163/ 0.022 140. Thus, n=140 and c = 3 are the parameters of SSP, for
the given values of = 0.7, MAPD = 0.022 and MAAOQ=0.0144.
Example 2 (ZTPD)
Given = 0 (ZTPD), MAPD = 0.022 and MAAOQ = 0.0144, the ratio R = MAAOQ /
MAPD = 0.6545 is computed. In Table 1, the nearest R value is corresponding to c=3.
The value of nMAPD (=3.11293) is found and hence the value of n is determined as n
= 3.11293/ 0.022 142. Thus, n=142 and c = 3 are the parameters of SSP, for the
given values of MAPD = 0.022 and MAAOQ=0.0144 of ZTPD plan. From the examples
1 and 2, IPD shows sample size reduction over the ZTPD in the construction of
sampling plans.
The other parameters of SSP for a given = 0.7, MAPD = 0.022 and MAAOQ = 0.0144
are also obtained from Table 1 as AQL= nAQL/n = 1.79329/140 =0.0128, LQL=
nLQL/n =6.55807/140 = 0.0469, IQL = nIQL/n =3.70288/140 =0.0265, pt = npt/n =
3.25754/140 =0.0233. K = pt/p* = 1.060524 and h* =16.52245.
CONCLUSION
The methodology developed in this paper can be used to construct the sampling plan
which has at least once non-conformity in their output (second quality). These plans
may help the users of the second quality lots, which are used for various reasons.
41
th
ISBN:9788190937634
REFERENCES
[1] Montgomery, D.C. (2001). Introduction to statistical quality control. 4th edition., John
Wiley & Sons, Inc.
[2] Hamaker, H.C. (1950). The theory of sampling inspection plans. Philips Technical
Review. 11(9), 269-70.
[3] Ksenija Dumicic;Vlasta Bahovek;Natasa Kurnoga Zivadinovic (2006) studying an oc

curve of an acceptance sampling plan:A statistical quality control tool.WSEAS
conference.
[4] Radhakrishnan, R. (2004). Construction of the sampling plan of the type CSP-T.
Management Matters. Management Matters, 1(3), 57-60.
[5] Radhakrishnan, R. and Sekkizhar, J. (2007). Construction of sampling plans using

intervened random effect Poisson distribution. International Journal of Statistics
and Management Systems. 2(1-2), 88-97.
[6] Shanmugam, R. (1985). An intervened Poisson distribution and its medical

applications. Biometrics. 41, 1025-1029.
[7] Soundararajan, R. (1975). Maximum allowable percent defective (MAPD) single

sampling inspection by attributes plan. Journal of Quality Technology. 7(4), 173-
177.
[8] Suresh, K.K and Ramkumar, T. B. (1996). Selection of a sampling plan indexed
with maximum allowable average out going quality. Journal of Applied Statistics.
, 23 (6), 645-654.
42
th
ISBN:9788190937634
TABLE 1.
C nAQL nLQL nIQL ho np* h* MAAOQ R=MAAOQ/p* npt K=pt/p*

0.9 1 1.05135 3.39954 1.70282 5.80999 -------- -------- --------- ----------- ----------- -----------
2 1.35030 5.05345 2.69775 14.57039 2.03733 6.96542 1.47113 0.72209 2.32982 1.143566
3 1.79911 6.52519 3.69839 27.26246 3.05907 16.33931 2.02046 0.66048 3.24629 1.061202
4 2.32692 7.90287 4.69647 43.87603 4.06665 29.26644 2.56814 0.63151 4.20560 1.034169
5 2.90621 9.22205 5.69345 64.45334 5.06447 45.71894 3.11351 0.61477 5.17525 1.021873
6 3.52357 10.50173 6.68846 88.94135 6.05706 65.70163 3.65772 0.60388 6.14925 1.01522
0.8 1 1.05135 3.41272 1.70453 5.81816 -------- ------- -------- ----------- -------- ----------
2 1.34994 5.07050 2.70019 14.58689 2.04252 7.00960 1.47101 0.72020 2.33390 1.142661
3 1.79654 6.54114 3.70057 27.28391 3.06489 16.42359 2.01923 0.65882 3.25151 1.060888
4 2.32175 7.91567 4.69774 43.89385 4.07096 29.36572 2.56602 0.63032 4.20959 1.034053
5 2.89867 9.23134 5.69373 64.46187 5.06651 45.80366 3.11106 0.61404 5.17712 1.021832
6 3.51431 10.50814 6.68864 88.96845 6.05699 65.75088 3.65542 0.60350 6.14911 1.015209
43
th
ISBN:9788190937634
TABLE: 1.
C nAQL nLQL nIQL ho np* h* MAAOQ R=MAAOQ/p* npt K=pt/p*

0.9 1 1.05135 3.39954 1.70282 5.80999 -------- -------- --------- ----------- ----------- -----------
2 1.35030 5.05345 2.69775 14.57039 2.03733 6.96542 1.47113 0.72209 2.32982 1.143566
3 1.79911 6.52519 3.69839 27.26246 3.05907 16.33931 2.02046 0.66048 3.24629 1.061202
4 2.32692 7.90287 4.69647 43.87603 4.06665 29.26644 2.56814 0.63151 4.20560 1.034169
5 2.90621 9.22205 5.69345 64.45334 5.06447 45.71894 3.11351 0.61477 5.17525 1.021873
6 3.52357 10.50173 6.68846 88.94135 6.05706 65.70163 3.65772 0.60388 6.14925 1.01522
0.8 1 1.05135 3.41272 1.70453 5.81816 -------- ------- -------- ----------- -------- ----------
2 1.34994 5.07050 2.70019 14.58689 2.04252 7.00960 1.47101 0.72020 2.33390 1.142661
3 1.79654 6.54114 3.70057 27.28391 3.06489 16.42359 2.01923 0.65882 3.25151 1.060888
4 2.32175 7.91567 4.69774 43.89385 4.07096 29.36572 2.56602 0.63032 4.20959 1.034053
5 2.89867 9.23134 5.69373 64.46187 5.06651 45.80366 3.11106 0.61404 5.17712 1.021832
6 3.51431 10.50814 6.68864 88.96845 6.05699 65.75088 3.65542 0.60350 6.14911 1.015209
44
th
ISBN:9788190937634
Study of real gas behavior in a single-stage gas gun

A. Moradi1*, S. Khodadadiyan2
1, 2
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Bu-Ali Sina University, Hamedan, Iran
*
Corresponding author (e-mail: amirmoradi_hs@yahoo.com)
In this paper, one-dimensional of a flow in a barrel of a single-stage gas gun is simulated.

The compressible inviscid flow equations have been numerically solved by second-order
Roe TVD method, by using moving boundaries. For investigation of the real gas effect is
applied the Noble-Able equation. The numerical results are compared with the experimental
data that are obtained from a transonic gas gun. The results show that with using the Noble-
Able equation, the muzzle velocity decreases.
1. Introduction
A number of different methods can be used to launch a projectile at a high velocity exceeding a few
kilometers per second. Many years ago, two types of single-stage gas guns were in general used: powder
gun using the standard gunpowder as the propellant, and gas gun using the compressed gas as the
propellant. A powder gun with a reasonably large caliber launches a projectile with a maximum velocity of
about 2-2.2 km/s. A single-stage gas gun using light gas such as helium or hydrogen as the propellant
provides increased projectile velocity. In such powder guns the projectile is driven by gas from the
burning gun powder, as well as the principle of a other single-stage gas gun is that gas, initially stored at
high pressure, is suddenly released and allowed to act on the rear face of a projectile enclosed inside a
long tube or barrel. The gas pressure difference across the projectile causes it to accelerate along the
barrel until emerging from the muzzle. Jacobs [1] presented a report about shock tube modeling with a
light gas gun. He estimate the performance of a free piston driven impulse facility, and in his report the
presented a simple formula for calculating the friction between the projectile and the barrel wall. Of
course, in majority of researches has been ignored the concepts of the sliding friction in the conventional
gas gun. Sasoh et al. [2] investigated projectile acceleration in a single-stage gas gun at breech
pressures below 50 MPa experimentally. Nussbaum et al. [3] used the one dimensional numerical
solution for gas particle flows with combustion in the powder gun. They applied the first-order TVD
Rusonov scheme for simulation of the powder gun and for validating their results, they compared them
with other reported results. Yingxing et al. [4] performed a characteristics study on performance of a two -
stage light gas gun. They used the van der waals model for equation of state. Kashimov et al. [5] has
proposed an improved procedure for modeling the operation of light gas gun. The motion of the projectile
in both the firing chamber and the light-gas chamber is studied as well. Jahnston and Krishnamoorthy [6]
used the one dimensional Godunov method for solving the governing equations system. They used the
experimental data for validating results. Philippon et al. [7] implemented an experimental study on the
friction at high sliding velocities. Jiang et al. [8] investigated blast flow fields induced by a high-speed
projectile in the barrel of a gas gun. They used the commercial CFD-FASTRAN finite volume solver
package for the axisymmetric numerical simulation. They compared the numerical and experimental
results in order to validate their research. Jiang et al. [9] investigated shocked flow induced by supersonic
projectiles moving in the tubes.
Most of the previous researches have not investigated the effect of real gas model in simulation of
a gas gun. They applied ideal gas model for simulation of the flow in a gas gun. But in this paper, the
Noble-Able equation is selected for the equation of state for gas in a gas gun. Here, the transonic and
supersonic gas guns with 265 mm and 50 mm bore respectively were investigated and discussed. For
more information about the transonic gas gun please to [6].
2. The governing equations
Quasi-one-dimensional flow governing equation

r r
can be expressed as:
( SU) f r (1)
+ H =0
t x
45
th
ISBN:9788190937634
r r r
where, S is cross section area, and conservative variables U , inviscid flux f and source term H are
defined as
r
U = ( , u, et )T
r
f = S ( u, u 2 + p, ( et + p)u )T
r dS
H= (0, p, 0)T (2)
dx
where, , u , p and e are the density, the velocity, the static pressure and the total energy per mass,
respectively. The cross section area is assumed constant, so that Eq. (1) can be write as:
r r
U f (3)
+ =0
t x
The pressure is related with the equation of state for the Noble-Able equation given by
( 1) e (4)
p=
(1 )
where is the gas covolume. The total energy et is defined as

1 (5)
et = e + u 2
2
2.1 Numerical simulation
In this paper, the second semi-discretized TVD Roe scheme is used for solving Eq. (3) which is
expressed as [10]:
t *(2) (6)
U in +1 = U in (fi +1/ 2 fi*(2)
1/ 2 )
x
where fi+*(2)
1/2
can be expressed as:
1 1 (7)
+1/2 = fi +1/2 +
fi*(2) *( R )
(ri+1/2 )(fi fi*(1/2
R)
) (ri+3/2 )(fi +1 fi*(+3/2
R)
)
2 2
where fi+*(1/2
R)
is the numerical flux of the Roe scheme for a scalar conservation law, which is given by
1 1 3 (8)
fi*(+1/2
R)
= (fi + fi +1 ) (i*+1/2 ) j (i +1/2 ) j (ri*+1/2 ) j ,
2 2 j =1
and variables of limiter function are defined as
fi +1 fi*(+1/2
R) fi fi*(+1/2
R) (9)
ri+1/2 = ri+3/2 =
fi fi 1/2
*( R )
fi +1 fi*(+3/2
R)
In Eq. (6) t and x are time and space step respectively. is the limiter function that has been used the
Osprey limiter function [11] here. For how to calculating i +1/2 and ri+1/2 for real gas model, the primitive
*
r
variable vector v is defined as follow:
r
v = ( , u , p )T (10)
r
% = fr is in the following form [10]:
The Jacobian Matrix A
v
46
th
ISBN:9788190937634
u 0

% = 0 u 1
A

(11)
0 c u
2
% are:
The eigenvalues of the Jacobian Matrix A
1 = u 2 = u + a 3 = u a (12)
where a is the sound speed.

1
The two matrixes L and L are defined as:
1
1 1 0
2c 2c c2

1
L = 0
1 1
L1 = 0
c
1
2 2

0 c c 1

2 2 0 1
c

% . The Matrix M for r

(13) Note that the columns of L1 and L are the left and right eigenvectors of A
the real gas model is defined as:
% . The Matrix M for the r
Note that the columns of L1 and L are the left and right eigenvectors of A
real gas model is defined as:
% . The Matrix M for the real r
Note that the columns of L1 and L are the left and right eigenvectors of A
gas model is defined as:

1 0 0

M = u 0
2
u u (1 )
2 1
(14) The Matrix P is given by:

The Matrix P is given by:
The Matrix P is given by:

1
2c 2c

P = ML = u (u + c) (u c)
2c 2c
2
u u2 c 2 (1 ) u2 c 2 (1 )
2 ( + uc + ) ( uc + )
2c 2 1 2c 2 1
r
f
(15) where p is the Matrix that the columns of it are the eigenvectors of Jacobian Matrix A = r .
U
47
th
ISBN:9788190937634
The wave length vector in Eq. (8) is defined as [10]:

r
where p is the Matrix that the columns of it are the eigenvectors of Jacobian Matrix A = fr . The
U
wave length vector in Eq. (8) is defined as [10]:
r
where p is the Matrix that the columns of it are the eigenvectors of Jacobian Matrix A = fr . The
U
wave length vector in Eq. (8) is defined as [10]:
r
= L1 v
p
(i +1/ 2 )1 = i +1/2 * i +1/ 22
(ai +1/2 )

pi +1/2
(i +1/ 2 ) 2 = ui +1/ 2 +
i +1/ 2 ai*+1/2
pi +1/2
(i +1/ 2 )3 = ui +1/2
i +1/ 2 ai*+1/2
zi +1/2 = zi +1 zi ,
(16) and the osprey limiter function is given by [11]:

and the osprey limiter function is given by [11]:
and the osprey limiter function is given by [11]:
1.5r 2 + r
(r ) = (17)
r2 + r +1
(17)

2.2 The Employed boundary conditions
To simulate moving projectile, we must trace the moving surfaces of the projectile in each
moment of solution time. This means that, in each moment of solution time, the position of the front
and back surfaces position of the projectile must be identified. So, we can apply conditions of the
movement of these surfaces in the computer program. For more explanations see Figure 1. The
amount of velocity u, in point a, inside the projectile is interpolated the right-hand side points of the
projectile, so as to the velocity of right-hand face must be exactly equal to the velocity of the
projectile. The pressure and density gradients on these surfaces are applied so as to they must
equal to zero (these conditions are due to boundary layer assumption). On the other hands, the
velocity of a and b points is equal to a1 (Fig. 1). Actually, by this work the right-hand side face and
two cells in two sides of this surface (front and back of it) will have the same velocity and we will not
have any mass fluxes in this face and the condition of solid body has been applied. These boundary
conditions are applied on left-hand side of the projectile similar to right-hand side of it. Our goal to
apply these conditions is being entered no mass to the projectile limit, so as to the simulation for
moving projectile as a solid moving body is true. The interior points of the projectile were considered
in to similar manner to other points of solution domain. Actually, the interior points of the projectile
(except projectile boundary points) are not important here.
Main
grid
Projectile
b a a1 b1
48
th
ISBN:9788190937634
Figure 1 Manner of data giving into points of projectile


Diaphrag
Projectile Tube(265)
Reservoir
(0.57m3)
6500 mm
Figure 2 The physical dimension of the single-stage transonic gas gun

3. Results and discussion
The transonic and supersonic single-stage gas gun with 265mm and 50 mm caliber, 6.5m
and 12m tube length respectively were considered and studied in this paper. The physical
dimension of the transonic gas gun is shown in Figure 2. The propellant gas for the transonic gas
gun is nitrogen which is cooled up to 283K. The ambient pressure and temperature are 1atm and
300K respectively. The projectile velocity for different space steps for ideal gas model is shown in
Figure 3 where the reservoir pressure is 4MPa and m p = 27 kg . Figure 3 shows that the space step
x = 0.0125 is sufficient for simulation but here, we used x = 0.01 .
49
th
ISBN:9788190937634

Figure 3 Variation of projectile velocity with for Figure 4 Variation of the projectile velocity
for
Figure 3 Variation of projectile velocity with for Figure 4 Variation of the projectile
velocity for
Figure 3 Variation of projectile velocity with for Figure 4 Variation of the projectile
velocity for
different space steps different projectile mass in transonic gas
gun
The variation of projectile velocity and comparison between ideal and real gas model for reservoir
pressure 4MPa is shown in Figure 4. This comparison shows that for the real gas model the muzzle
velocity is lower than the ideal gas model. The analytical formula is used for obtaining the muzzle velocity
with the isentropic approximation and ideal gas equation of state is defined as:
2 B 2 F
Ap ( 1) ( 1)
VP ) F 1 (18)
dV p
= PB (1 B V p ) B 1 PF (1 + F
dt m p 2 aB 2aF
(18)

where subscript B and F, denoted the back and front side of the projectile, and a are the specific heat
ratio and velocity of sound respectively, Eq. (18) can be solved numerically.
The propellant gas for the supersonic gas gun is helium with temperature 300K as initial. The effect
of the reservoir pressure and projectile mass on the muzzle velocity for the supersonic gas gun is shown
in Figs. 5 and 6 respectively. In the Fig. 6 has been used the ideal gas equation for simulation of flow. In
the supersonic gas gun, the muzzle velocity decreases with using real gas model as well. The result of
comparison between numerical, analytical and experimental results for the transonic gas gun is shown in
Table 1. It is evident from Table 1, there is a good agreement with numerical and experimental results,
but the analytical results have deviation from the experimental data. These results describe that the
analytical data are not credible for simulation and design of a gas gun.
In this paper, the results show that the one dimensional simulation and inviscid flow approximation
is enough for obtaining the higher accuracy solution and the second-order Roe TVD scheme is a powerful
method for simulation of subsonic and supersonic flows as well. The supersonic gas gun results show
that can be reached to the muzzle velocity about 1500 m/s for the low weight projectile with a single-stage
gas gun with helium gas as propellant.
Table 1 Comparison between the experimental, numerical and analytical results for the transonic gun
50
th
ISBN:9788190937634
preservoir mp(Kg) Experimental Vp(m/s)[6] Numerical Vp(m/s) (ideal gas) Analytical Vp(m/s)
(MPa)
4.0 27.0 231 229 219
4.0 32.5 216 213 205
4.0 42.5 199 194 186
5.0 27.0 252 250 239
7.8 27.0 305 301 280
4. Conclusion
In this paper, the one dimensional simulation of the single-stage gas gun was studied. The
second-order Roe TVD scheme was applied to solving the governing equations. The comparison
between the numerical, analytical and experimental results shows that the one dimensional simulation
and inviscid approximation are sufficient for simulation of flow in a gas gun and analytical results have
deviation from the numerical and experimental data. But form the analytical results can be used for
obtaining the maximum muzzle velocity that the projectile can be reached to it in the specific condition.
Figure 5 Variation of the projectile velocity with reservoir Fig. 6 Variation of the projectile velocity with
pressure for supersonic gas gun when m p = 0.1 Kg projectile mass for the supersonic gas gun
Reference
[1] P. A. Jacobs, Shock tube modeling with L1d, Research Report 13/98, Department of Mechanical
Engineering, University of Queensland, 1998.
[2] A. Sasoh, S. Ohba, K. Takayama, Projectile acceleration in a single-stage gun at breech pressure
below 500 MPa, Shock Waves, Vol.10, 2000, pp. 235-240.
[3] J. Nussbaum, P. Helluy, J. M. Herard, A. Carriere, Numerical solution of gas-particle flows with
combustion, Flow Turbulence Combust, Vol. 76, 2006, pp. 403-417.
[4] W. Yingxiang, Z. Zhichu, P. Kupschus , A characteristics study on the performance of a two- stage light
gas gun, SCIENCE IN CHINA (Series A), Vol. 38, No. 9, 1995, pp. 1070-1082.
[5] V. Z. Kashimov, O. V. Ushakova, P. Khomenko, Numerical modeling of interior ballistics processes in
light gas gun, J. Appl. Mech. Tech. Phys., Vol. 44, No. 5, 2003, pp. 612-619.
[6] I. A. Johnston, L. V. Krishnamoorthy, A Numerical Solution of Gas Gun Performance, DSTO-TN-0804,
AR-014-105, 2008.
[7] S. Philippon, G. Sutter, A. Molinari, An experimental study of friction at high sliding velocities, Wear, Vol.
257, 2004, pp. 777-784.
[8] X. Jiang, Z. Chen, B. Fan, H. Li, Numerical simulation of blast flow fields induced by a high-speed
projectile, Shock Waves, Vol. 18, 2008, pp. 205-212.
51
th
ISBN:9788190937634
[9] Z. Jiang, Y. Huang, K. Takayama, Shocked flow induced by supersonic projectiles moving in tubes,
Computers & Fluids Vol. 33, 2004, pp. 953-966.
[10] C. Hirsch, Numerical Computation of Internal and External Flows. Vol. 2, Computational Methods for
Inviscid and Viscous Flows, John Wiley and Sons: Toronto, 1989.
[11] N. P. Waterson, H. Deconinck, A Unified Approach to the Design and Application of Bounded High-order
Convection Schemes, Proceeding of 9th International Conference on Numerical Methods in Laminar and
Turbulent Flow, Pineridge Press, Swansea, 1995.
52
ISBN:9788190937634
Effects of collector tilt angle and numbers of covers on

performance of flat plate collector
Mr. H.G Ranipa 1*, Dr. M.K. Bhatt 2
1*
Student Of Svnit , Email haresh.ranipa@yahoo.com
2
Asso.Profesor, SVNIT, Surat,Gujarat
The device absorbs the incoming solar radiation and converting it into heat at the
absorbing surface, and transfers this heat to the fluid flowing through the collector. A
flat plate collector is most applicable in domestic purpose. The detail analysis of the
flat plate collector is more complicated but tries to solve simple equation and good
collector efficiency
1. Introduction
The construction of a flat-plate collector is shown in fig. the basic parts noted are full-
aperture absorber, transparent or translucent cover sheets, and an insulated box. The
absorber is usually a sheet of high thermal conductivity metal with tubes or ducts either
integral or attached. Its surface is painted or coated to maximize radiant energy absorption
and in some cases to minimize radiant emission. The cover sheets, called glazing, let
sunlight pass through to the absorber but insulate the space above the absorber to prohibit
cool air from flowing into this space. The insulated box provides structure and sealing and
reduces heat loss from the back or sides of the collector.
2. Number of covers:-
The number of cover sheets on commercial flat plate collectors varies from none to three or
more. Collectors with no cover sheet have high efficiencies when operated at temperatures
very near ambient temperature. This is because incoming energy is not lost by absorption or
reflection by the cover sheet. When no cover sheet is used, however, a considerable amount
of the incident energy is lost during operation at temperatures much above ambient or at
solar irradiance levels.
3. Collector tilt angle:-

The most logical tilt angle for the fixed flat plate collector is to tilt the surface from horizontal
by an angle equal to the latitude angle. At this tilt, if the collector is facing south, the sun will
be normal to the collector at noon twice a year. Also, the noontime sun will only vary above
and below this position by a maximum angle of 23.5 degrees.
4. Declination angle:-
The declination is the angle made by the line joining the centers of the sun and earth with the
projection of this line of the equatorial plane.
= 23.4sin (4.1)
53
ISBN:9788190937634
Performance analysis for flat plate collector:-
We will now take for detailed consideration the performance of a flat plate collector.
The analysis will first be done for a steady state situation in which the liquid is flowing through
tubes bonded on the underside of the absorber plate. The results for other types of the flat
plate collector will be given and transient effects will be considered.
Energy balance on the absorber plate the following equation for a steady state.
Q= (4.2)
Where
Q =useful heat gain
S =incident solar flux absorbed in the absorber plate
=area of the absorber plate
(4.3)
= the heat lost from the collector is the sum of the heat lost from the top, bottom, and sides
=rate at which heat is lost from the top
=rate at which heat is lost from the bottom
=rate at which heat is lost from the sides
All of above losses are expressed in terms of coefficients called the top loss coefficient,
bottom loss coefficient, side loss coefficients and defined by the equations.
(4.4)
Same equation for bottom and side loss coefficient
It is convenient from the point of view of analysis to express the heat lost from the collector in
terms of an overall loss coefficient defined by the equation
(4.5)
Where
=overall loss coefficient
=area of the absorber plate
=average temp of the absorber plate
=air surrounding temperature
Now the overall loss coefficient is an important parameter it is measure of all the losses.
Typical values range from 1.5to9 w/m2-k.
The useful heat gain rate for the collector
Q= (4.6)
Where
=collector heat remove factor.
54
ISBN:9788190937634

(4.7)
The term is called the collector heat remove factor. It is important deigns parameter
since it is a measure of the thermal resistance uncounted by the solar absorbed solar
radiation in reaching the collector fluid. It can be seen that Fr represents the ratio of the actual
heat gain rate to the gain which would occur if the collector absorpate plate was at the
temperature As such its value ranges between 0 and 1.
Above equation is a very convenient expression for calculating the useful energy gain
because the inlet fluid temperature is usually a known quantity. It is often referred to as the
Hottel-whillier-Bliss equation.
Now, it will be worthwhile to define two terms, the instantaneous collection efficiency and
Stagnation -temperature. The instantaneous collector efficiency is given by
= (4.8)
Where
It = the flux incident on the top cover of the collector is given by
(4.9)
Absorbed flux
S = *() (4.10)
Problem statement:-
Consider simple flat plate collector
Length of collector =2m
Width of collector =1m
Length of absorber plate =1.90m
Width of absorber plate =0.95m
Collector tilt angle =45, 40, 35, 30.
No of covers =1, 2, 3, 4
Location of collector =baroda (22N)
Date and time =1 st Jan (11:00 to12:00)
=625
=225
Material =Glass wool
Reflecting index glass wool =1.526
Transmittance =0.85
Absorptivity =0.93
Ambient temperature =22 C
Collector fluid temp =65 C
Fluid flow rate =70kg/h
5. Result&discussion
Collecto Beam Diffuse Reflecte Incident Absorbe One Two Three Heat
rtilt radiatio radiatio d flux d cover cover cover gain(W)
angle n n radiation flux
45 1.41 0.8535 0.2234 1222.34 966.26 46.20 42.95 41.11 1129.46

40 1.40 0.8830 0.1785 1185.93 937.47 45.55 41.22 40.23 1080.53
7
35 1.39 0.9095 0.1379 1152.40 910.976 44.92 40.22 39.11 1035.49
30 1.36 0.9330 0.1022 1110.24 877.64 44 39.11 38.11 978.826
25 1.32 0.9531 0.07148 1065.42 842.21 43.09 38.11 36.14 918.238

Conclusion:-
55
ISBN:9788190937634
The effect of the numbers of cover on the performance of a flat plate collector, shows that by
using one , two , three , covers. The highest value of efficiency is obtained with single cover plate.
With addition of two or more cover the efficiency decrease.
O=onecover
+=twocover
*=threecover

covercollectorefficiencyVscollectortiltangle,
References:
(1) http;//www.powerfromthesun.net/
(2) analysis of a flat plate solar collector by Fabio struckmann
(3) Solar energy by S P Sukhatme &J K Nayak(Third edition)
(4) Garg, H.P. 1974. Effect of dirt on transparent covers in flat-plate solar energy collectors,
(5) Kumar, s., chourasia, B.K. and Mullick, s.c. 2005. Wind heat transfer coefficient in flat plate
collectors.
(6) Klein, S.A.1975. calculation of flat-plate collector loss coefficients, solar Energy,17:79
(7) Hotel ,H.C.and Woertz,B.B. 1942. Performance of flat-plate solar-heat
collectors,trans.ASME,64:91.
(8) Garg ,H.P. and Garg,S.N.1985. correlation of monthly-average daily global, diffuse and beam
raditation with bright sunshine hours. Energy Conversion and Management,25:409.
(9) Collares-Pereira, M, and Rabl, A.1979. the average distribution of solar radiation correlations
between diffuse and hemispherical and between daily and hourly insolation values. Solar
energy,22:155.
(10)Gueymard, C. 1986. Mean daily averages of beam radiation received by tilted surfaces affected
by atmosphere. Solar energy,37:261.
(11)Gueymard,C.2000. prediction and performance assessment of mean hourly global radiation.
Solar energy, 68:285.
(12)Satyamurty, V.V. and Lahiri, P.K. 1992. Estimation of symmetric and asymmetric hourly global
and diffuse radiation from daily values. Solar energy,48:70.
56
ISBN:9788190937634
Progressive flank wear of CVD coated and Uncoated cutting tool

inserts in CNC turning of EN-8 steel round bar
Vallabh D. Patel1 , Mehul K. Patel2
1
P.G. Student, U.V.Patel College of Engineering, Ganpat University, Kherwa, Dist: Mehsana-
382711,Gujarat, India.(Email: vdpatel_21@yahoo.com)
2
Asst. Prof. of Mechanical Dept. of U.V.Patel College of Engineering, Ganpat University, Kherwa, Dist:
Mehsana-382711, Gujarat, India. (Email: mehul22278@gmail.com)
In this study, tool flank wear of CVD applied TiN coatings on carbide inserts with 55
diamond shape have been measured during the finish turning of EN-8 steel round bar
under the dry condition. Experiment was performed under same cutting parameters like
cutting speed 240 m/min, depth of cut 1.5 mm and feed rate 0.05mm/rev kept constant
throughout the experiment. For comparison uncoated carbide insert was also tested
based on the flank wear under the same cutting condition and same tool geometry. CVD
coated carbide insert produced 14.75% lower tool flank wear compared to uncoated tool.
1. Introduction
The main purpose of the machining operation- to bring the work piece at the required surface
quality and geometry is to use the cutting tool with maximum performance during its lifetime. The
surface operations used at machining methods may be affected from several parameters. Among
them; the geometry of selected cutting tool, coating method, the type of material, machine and cutting
parameters may be listed. Generally, the geometry of cutting tools is thought as stationary. However,
selection of inappropriate cutting parameters quickly brings the cutters to a non-usable state by the
possible built-up edge (BUE), notch wear, flank wear, and similar causes. These situations make the
workpiece unusable and cause deterioration on the surface quality [1].
One important aspect that is being vigorously researched and developed is the hard coating for
cutting tools. These hard coatings are thin films that range from one layer to hundreds of layers and
have thickness that range from few nanometers to few millimeters. In addition to increasing the tool
life, hard coating deposited on cutting tools allows for improved and more consistent surface
roughness of the machined work piece. The majority of carbide cutting tools in use today employ
chemical vapor deposition (CVD) or physical vapor deposition (PVD) hard coatings, which have been
found to reduce wear considerably [2, 3]. The majority of inserts presently used in various metal
cutting operations are cemented carbide tools coated with a material CrN, etc.), carbides (TiC, CrC,
W2C, WC/C, etc.), oxides (e.g. alumina) or combinations of these. Coating cemented carbide with
TiC, TiN and Al2O3 dramatically reduces flank wear [4].
Schintlmeister et al. (1989) [5] had summarized the effect of coatings in the following
statements:
1. Reduction in friction, in generation heat, and in cutting forces.
2. Reduction in the diffusion between the chip and the surface of the tool, especially at higher speeds
(the coating acts as a diffusion barrier)
3. Prevention of galling, especially at lower cutting speeds.
Flank wear is observed on the flank or clearance face of a metal cutting insert and is caused
mainly by abrasion of the flank face by the hard constituents of the work piece [6]. Some authors
affirm that the flank wear in carbide tools initially occurs due to abrasion and as the wear process
progresses, the temperature increases causing diffusion to take place [7, 8]. Severe abrasion occurs
at the flank face because of the lower temperature, the more rigid work piece relatively to the chip,
and the constraint in the movement of the work piece and tool [9]. The intimate contact between the
flank of the tool and work piece, high compressive and shear contact stresses acting on the flank of
57
ISBN:9788190937634
the tool and cutting temperature of around 850 oC can encourage atomic dissolution diffusion wear
[10].
CVD coated cemented carbides have been a huge success since their introduction in the late
1960s [11]. Since then, chemical vapor deposition technologies have advanced from single layer to
multi layer versions combining TiN, TiCN, TiC and Al2O3 [12-14]. Modern CVD coatings combine high
temperature and medium temperature processes in complex cycles that produce excellent wear
resistant coatings with a total thickness of 4-20 m [15]. However, the high deposition temperature
(950-1059 oC) during CVD results in diffusion of chemical elements from the carbide substrate to the
coating during growth. The main effect is an embrittlement of the coating edge [16].
2. Methodology
2.1 Test specimen
Due to experimental investigation EN-8 steel round bar of dimension 28x375 mm is used in
test. In length of 375 mm, 275 mm was used for turning and remain 125 mm for fix the round bar in
chuck and tolerance from insert and chuck. Chemical composition and mechanical properties of test
specimen are shown in table 1 and table 2.
Table1 The chemical composition of test specimen

Sr.No. Elements % value
1 Carbon 0.412
2 Silicon 0.224
3 Manganese 0.740
4 Phosphorous 0.025
5 Sulphur 0.022
Table 2 Selected mechanical properties of test specimen

Sr.No. Mechanical properties Value
1 Hardness 126 HB
2 Ultimate tensile strength 635.64 MPa
3 % Elongation 23 %
4 Yield stress 391.38 MPa
5 Density 7.85 g/cc
2.2 CNC Lathe and cutting tools
Cutting tests were carried out under dry conditions on a computer numerically controlled
(CNC) lathe machine. The specifications of machine were; motor rating: 14 KVA, spindle bore: 38 mm
diameter, speed range: 50 4000 rpm, positioning accuracy: 0.015mm and repeatability: 0.003.
58
ISBN:9788190937634
Figure 1 The Simple turn 50125 CNC lathe machine
Uncoated cutting tool insert of sandvik (H20) and CVD applied TiN coating carbide insert of
Taegu Tec (TT5100) were used for turning of EN-8 steel. These both inserts have same geometry
and ISO coding of inserts was DNMG 150604.Cutting tool insert was fitted in to the corresponding
tool holder which had ISO designation of DDJNR 2525 M15 of Kennametal.
2.3 Tool wear measuring instrument
The cutting performance tests involved 27 cuts for each of the cutting inserts 27 cuts on
each work piece. Flank wear on each cutting tool was measured after every 3 cuts using a Tool
makers microscope as shown in figure 2.
Figure 2 The tool makers microscope for wear measurement
Specification of tool makers microscope is mention in table 3.
Table 3 Specification of tool makers microscope

Sr.No. Descriptions Specifications
1 Table Glass 90 mm diameter
2 Work stage 120x120 mm
3 Travel X & Y 0 to 25 mm with accuracy 0.005 mm/ 0.01 mm
4 Working distance 4
5 Illumination :Episcopic 12 V, 5W
6 Power required 220-230 V AC, 50 Hz
7 Eyepiece 15X
8 Objective 2X
9 Magnification 30X
During the turning cutting parameters; cutting speed 240 m/min, feed rate 0.05 mm/rev and
depth of cut 1.5 mm keep constant throughout the experiment. The surface roughness found by
above parameters was as per the requirement of HI-Tech industries where I have done the
experiment. Tool flank wear is measured at every three cut; one cut had 250 mm length. Flank wear
of cutting tool inserts are shown in following tables;
Table 4 Tool flank wear of Uncoated cutting tool insert

Sr.No No. of cut Flank wear in mm
1 3 0.18
2 6 0.23
59
ISBN:9788190937634
3 9 0.29
4 12 0.34
5 15 0.37
6 18 0.39
7 21 0.43
8 24 0.49
9 27 0.57
Table 4 Tool flank wear of CVD coated cutting tool insert

Sr.No No. of cut Flank wear in mm
1 3 0.11
2 6 0.20
3 9 0.24
4 12 0.30
5 15 0.33
6 18 0.35
7 21 0.38
8 24 0.40
9 27 0.44
From table 3 and table 4 draw one graph for comparison as per the following:
Figure 3 Tool flank wear of two inserts on cutting speed 240 m/min, feed rate 0.05 mm/rev and depth
of cut 1.5 mm.
4. Conclusion
Tool flank wear play a critical role in an estimation of the productivity level expected for
specific cutting conditions in manufacturing. It becomes extremely important both economically and
for good quality that a tool insert should be chosen in such a way that it wears out in a progressive
manner rather than being unpredictable for its working life due to its uncertain machine capability. We
can see from the graph that CVD coated cutting tool proved more consistence than uncoated insert.
The average wear rate of CVD applied TiN coating insert shows 14.75% less wear than uncoated
insert.
References
[1] GokkayaH, SurG, DilipakH. Experimental investigation of the effect Of uncoated cemented carbid
insert and cutting parameters over surface roughness, Pamukkale University. J Sci Eng 2005;12
1:59 64.
60
ISBN:9788190937634
[2] Lux, B., Columbier, C., Atena, H., Stemberg, K., (1986). Preparation of Alumina Coatings by
Chemical Vapor Deposition, Thin Solid Films 138, pp 49-64.
[3] Prengel, H. G., Pfouts, W. R., Santhanam, A.T.,(1998). State of the art in hard coatings for
carbide cutting tools, Surface & Coatings Technology 102 pp 183-190.
[4] Dearnley, P. A.,(1985). Rake and flank wear mechanisms of coated and uncoated cemented
carbides, Journal of Engineering Materials and Technology, 107 pp 68-82.
[5] Schintlmeister, W., Wallgram, W., Kanz, J., Gigl, K.,(1989) Cutting tool materials coated by
chemical Vapor deposition, Wear 100. pp 153-169.
[6] Santhanam, A. T., Quinto, D. T., ASM Handbook, Surface Engineering, vol. 5, ASM International,
Materials Park, OH, 1994, pp. 900-908.
[7] Venkatesh, V. C., Tool wear investigations on some cutting tool materials, Journal of Lubrication
Technology 102 (1980) 556-559.
[8] Chubb, J. P., Billingham, J., Coated cutting tools a study of wear mechanism in high speed
Machining, Wear 61 (1980) 283-293.
[9] Cho, S. S., Komvopoulos, K., Wear Mechanisms of Multi-Layer Coated Cemented Carbide
Cutting Tools, Journal of Tribology 119 (1997) 8-17.
[10]Dearnley, P. A., Trent, E. M., Wear mechanisms of coated carbide tools, Metals Technology 9
(1982) 60-75.
[11]Venkatesh, V. C., Ye, C. T., Quinto, D. T., Hoy, De. E. P., Performance studies of uncoated, CVD
coated and PVD coated carbides in turning and milling, CIRPAnnals 40 (1991) 545-551.
[12]Schnitlmeister, W., Pacher, O., Titanium carbide and titanium nitride for highly wear resistant and
decorative coatings, Metall 28 (1974) 690-695.
[13]Undercoffer, K., E., Downey, B. K., Battaglia, F. B., Bryant, W. A., Development of an improved
multilayer CVD coating for metalcutting operations, Proceedings of the 7th Euro CVD, Perpignan,
1989, 783-792.
[14]Bonetti, R., Wipraechtiger, H., Mohn, E., Protective CVD coatings for the tool industry
Requirements for process control and equipment, Metal Powder Rep. 45 (1990) 837-843.
[15]Prengel, H. G., Heinrich, W., Roder, G., Wendt, K. H., CVD coatings based on medium
temperature CVD - and -Al2O3, Surface & Coatings Technology 68/69 (1994) 217-220.
[16]Soderberg, S., Sjostrand, M., Ljungberg, B., Advances in coating technology for metal cutting
Tools, Metal Powder Report 56 (2001) 24-30.
61
ISBN:9788190937634
Measurement of Total Gas Load of S.S. Vacuum Chamber to

Select a Vacuum System
S. M. MODASIYA1, Prof. J. M. PATEL2
1
PG Student, M.E. Cryogenics, 2 APME, Mech. Engg. Deptt.
L. D. College of Engineering, Ahmedabad-380015, Gujarat
(modasiya_mechanical@yahoo.co.in)
Outgassing rate is the property of material which mainly depends on temperature. There are
also many factors which are affected on outgassing rate. This paper focuses that factor which
is affected on outgassing rate. Also this paper shows the procedure for total gas load
measurement of S.S. vacuum chamber to select a vacuum system.
1. Introduction
Most significant factor in the selection of a pumping system is the total gas load
to be pumped. This is affected by the following.
1. Volume of system. Mainly the process vessel or chamber.
2. Material of construction and condition of internal surface (this is related particularly
outgassing rates).
3. Leakage in to the system through joints etc.
4. Permeation and diffusion through the vessel walls and seals.
5. Outgassing of process material.
6. Possibly back migration from the pump.
The following design criteria relate to material of construction and condition of
internal surfaces.
(1) The vapor pressure of any material used in the construction of a system should
be much less than the required ultimate pressure at the operating temperature of
the system.
(2) The surface of the material used should produce the minimum of outgassing by
being suitably cleaned, preferably polished (to reduce surface area of adsorption)
and subject to a minimum of chemical reaction when exposed to atmosphere.
(3) The most common substance to build up may adsorbed layers on a surface is
water vapor. This stick tendentiously to the surface exposed to the atmosphere
and its subsequent removal in vacuum can be difficult. It is therefore advantages
to raise a system that is already under vacuum to atmospheric pressure using a
such gas on dry nitrogen.
(4) If any appreciably removal of adsorbed gas is required, then the rate of release is
increased by raising the temp. (degassing) ultra high vacuum where outgassing
is the major source of gas load is seldom obtained without prolonged baking.
(5) It is of the utmost importance to design for the maximum effective pumping speed
at the vessel.
(6) The outgassing rate in vacuum decrease with time on gas is removed from the
material. It reaches an approximately constant value after typically four hours.
62
ISBN:9788190937634
2. Outgassing
Evaporation and sublimation into a vacuum is called outgassing. All materials, solid or
liquid, have a small vapour pressure, and their outgassing becomes important when the
vacuum pressure falls below this vapour pressure. In man-made systems, outgassing has the
same effect as a leak and can limit the achievable vacuum. Outgassing products may
condense on nearby colder surfaces, which can be troublesome if they obscure optical
instruments or react with other materials. This is of great concern to space missions, where
an obscured telescope or solar cell can ruin an expensive mission. The most prevalent
outgassing product in man-made vacuum systems is water absorbed by chamber materials. It
can be reduced by desiccating or baking the chamber, and removing absorbent materials.
Outgassed water can condense in the oil of rotary vane pumps and reduce their net speed
drastically if gas ballasting is not used. High vacuum systems must be clean and free of
organic matter to minimize outgassing. Ultra-high vacuum systems are usually baked,
preferably under vacuum, to temporarily raise the vapour pressure of all outgassing materials
and boil them off. Once the bulk of the outgassing materials are boiled off and evacuated, the
system may be cooled to lower vapour pressures and minimize residual outgassing during
actual operation. Some systems are cooled well below room temperature by liquid nitrogen to
shut down residual outgassing and simultaneously cryopump the system.
2.1 To Reduce Outgassing

Eliminate elastomers, hydrocarbon, oil and grease.
Eliminate material with potentially bad outgassing properties e.g. mild steel or porous
surface.
Bake the system two orders of reduction in outgassing typical after a 150 C bake out
under vacuum for a two hour.
Eliminate material that cannot be backed e.g. brass cannot be baked to high
temperature because zinc is given off.
Use clean techniques gloves, clean atmosphere.
3. Procedure for measurement of total gas load
The total gas load is the sum of that due to gas evolution from the workpiece loaded
in to the process chamber, outgassing from the surface of the wall in the vacuum and the gas
leaking in from the atmosphere.
Q = Qwork + Qout + Qleak = PpSp = PSe

Where, Pp = Pressure at the pump Inlet
P = Pressure in the vacuum chamber
Sp = Intrinsic speed of the pump or pump speed
Se = Speed of the exhaust.
Qwork = G qout /t
Where G = mass of the workpiece, kg

qout = gas evolution per kg of material, Pa m3/kg
= Coefficient accounting for variation in gas evolution with time (1.5 to 3)
t = duration of the vacuum process, S
The outgassing from the surface of the wall in the vacuum,
Qout = qout A
Where qout = rate of outgassing from the surfaces in the vacuum
A = Area of the surface in the vacuum
63
ISBN:9788190937634
The gas load due to leakage, Q leak is usually found from the characteristics of the
components of the vacuum system or, if no characteristic are available is taken equal or
slightly greater than the product of the sensitivity of a leak detector.
4. Calculation of mean free path for different flow pattern
If molecular /d 1/3
= mean free path of gas molecules
d = pipe diameter
Pd 0.02 Pa m
P = (P1 + P2)/2,
P1 = initial pressure & P2 = final pressure
If viscous flow /d 5 10-3
Pd 1.33 Pa m
Mean free path = (/P) (RT/2gc) 1/2
= Viscosity of gas
p = absolute pressure at temp T
R = specific gas constant = Ru /M
Conductance: The conductance value of pipeline and apertures depends on the many
factors,
(1) Pressure region
(2) Cross-sectional of the tube e.g. circular or rectangular etc.
(3) Whether straight or bent
(4) Molecular weight of gas
(5) Temperature of gas
(6) Length of duct
(7) Surface finish
(8)Diameter
4
For viscous conductance Cv= 136.5D P/L
For molecular conductance Cm=12.1D3/L
Where D=Pipe bore in cm (assuming circular cross section and straight)
P= average pressure in the pipe
L= Length of pipe cm
Conductance C=Q/ (P-Pp), Where Q=PSe=PpSp
Q=throughput of the system=PV/t=Pa m3/sec, Se=speed of exhaust, Sp=pump speed,
P=pressure in vacuum chamber. Pp=pressure at the pump intake
5. Pumping speed
1/Se = 1/Sp + 1/C

Se = SpC /(Sp+C)
If we analyze above equation we will see that if the pipe work conductance is substantially
greater than the pump speed, then the speed of exhaust will depends on the pump
conversely. If the pipe work conductance is substantially smaller than the pump speed the
speed of exhaust will be approximately equal to the pipe work conductance and will only
slightly depends on the pump speed.
5.1 Pump down time

tp = (V/Ss) ln[(P1-Pu)/(P2-Pu)]
Initial pressure P1 at t=0 to the final pressure P2 at t=tp. The leak rate is often difficult
to predict for a system in the design stage. So that pump selection is made in there cases by
64
ISBN:9788190937634
using a modification in the equation, by setting the ultimate pressure equal to zero and
introducing the system allowance factor, Fs
Ss= (Fs V/tp) ln (P1/ P2)
6. Design of a vacuum system
Technical specification:
Vacuum vessel material = S.S.304, Inner dia = 220mm, Length = 220mm
Thermal shroud material temp range = S.S.304 -150 C to 100 C
Initial pressure = atm or 1013 mbar = P1 , Final pressure = 10-5 = P2
Time to achieve vacuum = 5 hr
Outgassing rate of S.S.(electropolished) in 5 hr of vacuum at 300 K = 5 10-10 mbar
l/s/cm2
Outgassing rate of Viton in 5 hr vacuum at 300K= 15 10-8 mbar l/s/cm2
Outgassing rate of wires (Teflon materials) of 1.0 mm dia and 1.5 m length = 20 10-
8
mbar l/s/cm2
Pipe size = 1 and length = 1 meter total (from pump to chamber etc)
Baking at 373 K of shroud the Outgassing rate at 373K (100 C) of S.S.304 = 110-11
mbar l/s/cm2
O ring (Viton) and insulation wire Outgassing at 100 C = 2 10-9 mbar l/s/cm2
6.1 Total gas load from vacuum chamber (Q1)

Q1 = q1A1
q1 = Outgassing rate of S.S. (5 hrs) at room temp.
D = Inner diameter of vacuum chamber D = 4967mm,
Thickness = 1.65mm
Surface area A1 = D0 L
= 3.14 0.4967 0.6
= 0.935 m2
q1 = Outgassing rate at room temp = 5 10-10 mbar l/s/cm2 or 5 10-6 mbar l/s/m2
Gas Load due to vacuum chamber Q1 = 5 10-6 0.935 = 4.675 10-6 mbar l/s
6.2 Total gas load from thermal shroud (Q2)
(At room temp 300K)
Diameter of thermal shroud (inner) = 300 mm
Surface area = Di L, length
= 0.40m
= 3.14 0.300 0.400
= 0.3768 m2
Total surface area from (inside and outside) = 2 0.3768 = 0.7536 m2

Gas load at room temp (300K) = 0.7536 5 10-6 mbar l/s = 3.768 10-6 mbar l/s
Gas load from thermal shroud (at -40C temp (233K))
S.S. 304 Outgassing rate at 233K, 5hrs vacuum = 51.70 10-6 mbar l/s
The gas load = 51.70 10-6 0.7536 = 38.96 10-6 mbar l/s
Gas load of thermal shroud at 100C (373K)
S.S. 304 Outgassing rate at 373K, 5 hrs vacuum = 27.6 10-6 mbar l/s
The gas load = 27.6 10-6 0.7536 = 20.7 10-6 mbar l/s
The total gas load due to thermal shroud (outgassing rate) = 3.768 10-6+38.96 10-6+20.7
10-6
Q2 = 63.36 10-6 mbar l/s
6.3 Outgassing rate from sensor wires (Q3)

No. of wires = 10 no., Material = Teflon, Dia meter = 1.0mm, Length = 1.5 m
Surface area = D L no of wires
= 3.14 1.0 1.5 20
= 0.0942
65
ISBN:9788190937634
Outgassing rate of Teflon at 300K (5 hrs in vacuum) = 20 10-4 mbar l/s

Gas load Q3 = 20 10-40.0942
= 188.4 10-6 mbar l/s
6.4 Outgassing rate (gas load) from viton O ring (Q4)

Material = Viton, Qty = 2 no, Diameter = 300mm, Thickness = 5 mm
Outgassing rate of viton O ring = 15 10-4 mbar l/s,
Surface area of O rings, 2 no. = /4(D02 Di2) 2
D0 = OD of O ring,
Di = ID of O ring
= /4(D02 (D0 2t) 2 ) 2
= 3.14/4 [(0.3)2 (0.290)2] 2 = 0.009263 m,
Outgassing rate = 0.00926315 10-4 mbar l/s
= 13.5 10-6 mbar l/s
Gross leak rate from O rings, permeation of materials, weld joints, electrical feedthrough,
valves, piping and flanges etc. Q5 = 2 10-4 mbar l/s
Total gas load Q = Q1 + Q2 + Q3 +Q4 + Q5
Q1= Outgassing rate from vacuum chamber,
Q2= Outgassing load from thermal shroud,
Q3= Outgassing load from sensor wires,
Q4= Outgassing load from Viton O rings,
Q5= Gross leak helium rate.
Q= 4.675 10-6 + 63.36 10-6 + 188.4 10-6 +13.5 10-6 +200 10-6
Q = 470 10-6 mbar l/s
Results & Discussion:
From calculation of pumping speed and total gas load we can select the
pumping system in following two options
Option I 500 l/sec Turbomolecular pump and Option- II: 3000l/sec Diffusion pump.
References:
[1] Karl Jousten, Physikalisch-Technische Bundesanstalt, Berlin, Germany

[2] P.A. Redhead, J. Vacuum Science. Technology. A 13 (1995), 2791.
[3] P.A. Redhead, J. Vac. Sci. Technology. A 13 (1995), 467
[4]. Y. Ishikawa and T. Yoshimura, J. Vacuum. Science. Technology. A 13 (1995), 1847
66
ISBN:9788190937634
Design, Development and Calibration of a Cost Effective Solar

Tracking System
A. R. Patel1*, M. D. Kevat2, P. G. Choksi3
1,2
Faculty of Tech. & Engg., The M. S. University of Baroda, Vadodara - 390 001, Gujarat
3 Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel Institue of Technology, Vasad 388306, Gujarat
*Corresponding author (e-mail: amit.at.msu@gmail.com, Ph. No: 9898300277)
Major drawback of any solar system is its large capital cost. The payback period of
such a system can be reduced not only by reducing the capital cost, but simultaneously
by improving its performance. Present work aims at attaining the same by designing a
cost effective solar tracking system. For this a laboratory based conceptual model of
solar tracking system is designed and developed. The system is aimed to measure two
important angles, azimuth and altitude angles. Both the angles are measured in terms
of the resistance of nicrome wire. System is calibrated and tested in the laboratory
using electric bulb as light source. Result suggests that the average error in measuring
azimuth angle is only 9%, which is quite satisfactory. However error in measuring
altitude angles is of the order of 12%. Suitable suggestions are recommended in order
to bring down the error. On the cost front the system cost comes up to Rs. 1,000/- only.
After certain modifications the system can be subjected to direct field-testing and
subsequent installations.
Index Terms: Altitude angle, Azimuth angle, Cost effective, Solar Tracker
1. Introduction
In today's climate of growing energy needs and increasing environmental concern, alternatives
to the use of non-renewable and polluting fossil fuels have to be investigated. Solar radiation along
with secondary solar resources such as wind, tidal and biomass are available renewable energy on
earth, but only a small fraction of the available solar energy is used. Now a days several commercial
application of the solar energy have developed, few of them are Solar lighting, water heating, HVAC,
water treatment, cooking, process heat, electricity generation, vehicles etc.
2. Solar Tracker
A solar tracker is a device for orienting a reflector, photovoltaic panel or lens toward the sun.
Solar tracker can increase the effectiveness of such equipment at the cost of additional system
complexity. There are many types of solar trackers, of varying costs, sophistication and performance.
The required accuracy of the solar tracker depends on the application.
2.1 Mathematical description
In order to find the energy falling on surface having any orientation, it is necessary to convert
the value of the beam flux coming from the direction of the sun to an equivalent value corresponding
to the normal direction of the surface. Relationship for making this conversion will be given. If is the
angle between an incident beam of flux (Ibn) and the normal to a plane surface, then the equivalent
flux falling normal to the surface is given by Ibn cos. The angle can be related by a general
equation to Declination Angle (), Hour Angle (), Slope (), Azimuth Angles () and latitude Angle
(). It can be shown that
cos = sin(sin cos + cos cos cossin )

+cos(cos coscos sin cos sin ) + cos sin sinsin (1)
0
For Vertical surface = 90
cos = sin cos cos cos cos sin cos + cos sin sin (2)
For Horizontal surface = 00
cos = sin sin + cos cos cos (3)
67
ISBN:9788190937634
2.2 Types of Solar Tracker
Solar trackers may be active or passive and may be single axis or dual axis. Single axis
trackers usually use a polar mount for maximum solar efficiency. Single axis trackers usually have a
manual elevation (axis tilt) adjustment on a second axis, which is adjusted on regular intervals
throughout the year. Compared to a fixed mount, a single axis tracker increases annual output by
approximately 30%, and a dual axis tracker an additional 6%. There are two types of dual axis
trackers, polar and altitude-azimuth. The paper shows the potential system benefits of simple tracking
solar system using a stepper motor and light sensor. A solar tracking system is designed, deverloped
and experimentally tested. The design details and the experimental results are shown. The present
solar tracker was successful in maintaining a solar array at a sufficiently perpendicular angle to the
sun and the power gained over a fixed horizontal array was in excess of 30%.
Figure 1 Experimental Set up Figure 2 Locking for azimuth angle
The set up consists of base, Rectangle Channel, Square Channel. Circular Disk, Sunmica
Plate, Bearing, Stud And Nut, Border Frame, Bulb (200 W), Connecting Wires, Connector Sockets,
Magnet, Resistant Wire, Screws, Wooden Sockets, Pointer, LDR.
The set up has been prepared in the following way using above parts.
Insert stud and bearing assembly in the bore of base.

Insert magnet for locking of disk in side hole of wooden base.
Insert disk in the stud.
Fix pointer by screw on base then mount vertical rectangle channel on center of disk.
Mount square channel in the middle slot of vertical channel by screw.
Tighten sunmica plate on vertical channel by screw.
Socket of square channel is inserted into slot of sunmica plate.
Put the LDR in the bottom of vertical channel on disk.
Insert 2 acrylic black plates in the slot of vertical channel as like LDR is situated between them.
Fix LDR at one end of square channel at opposite direction of acrylic black plates.
Connect wires at points of both LDR for proper measurement
68
ISBN:9788190937634
Figure 3 Locking for altitude angle
2.2.1 Sun Trapping system for Azimuth angle measurement
Fix position of bulb (acting as sun)

Rotate disk in the direction of maximum intensity of bulb light.
Measure resistance of LDR located on the plate by multimeter.
Now fix position of plate by magnet lock when we get minimum resistance of LDR.
Now measure resistance of resistance-wire between reference point and distance travelled by
disk.
Measure horizontal distance between set up and reference position of bulb.
Measure distance between reference position and original position of bulb.
2.2.2 Sun Trapping system for Altitude angle measurement
After fixing position of circular disk, set square channel at max intensity of bulb light.
Fix position of square channel by locking socket on sunmica plate, when the resistance value of
LDR is minimum.
Measure resistance between reference point and socket mounted on square channel.
Measure height of lamp from the reference point of set up.
Measure horizontal distance between set up and reference position of bulb.
2.2.3 Locking system
For Locking of circular disk for azimuth angle, a magnet is inserted in the side hole of wooden
base. When the magnet is pushed upward the disk is locked. (Fig. 2) For locking of square channel
for altitude angle, a socket and nut assembly is used. The socket is mounted on square channel,
which can move in the slot of sun mica plate. (Fig. 3)
Let and be the azimuth and altitude angle respectively, x be the linear distance between
set up & bulb viewing from top, y be the lateral distance between set up & bulb when viewing from the
top and Z as linear distance between set up & bulb when viewing from side of the experimental set-
up. and can be calculated as = tan (Y / X ) & = tan ( Z / X ) . Measure the corresponding
1 1
resistance for azimuth and altitude angles as given by R and R respectively.
69
ISBN:9788190937634
Table 1 Observation Table
Sr. No. Resistance Azimuth

1 2.753 0.000
2 3.160 11.990
3 4.002 31.870
4 2.567 5.033
5 2.015 9.991
6 2.317 15.631
7 5.022 38.190
8 3.072 19.409
9 3.259 23.270
10 3.082 24.265
11 3.327 28.318
12 3.991 36.176
13 4.579 42.861
14 5.095 44.321
15 5.915 54.033
16 4.321 28.440
17 6.583 77.850
In order to obtain the characteristic of the system various readings were taken (Table 1 & 2)
and all the azimuth and altitude angles were plotted against its corresponding resistance on graphs
(Fig 4 & 5). A third order polynomial trend line is proposed from all such observation.
Table 2 Observation Table
Sr
Resistance Altitude Y Error
No.
1 8.532 22.760 6.587 22.796
2 8.232 25.486 6.372 22.586
3 8.564 13.216 7.057 17.597
4 5.136 24.017 6.491 26.379
5 5.172 24.265 6.472 25.138
6 5.718 22.514 6.605 15.512
7 5.881 19.935 6.779 15.274
8 5.578 17.269 6.924 24.126
9 5.059 39.523 5.135 1.499
10 5.399 42.417 4.920 8.881
11 4.369 44.775 4.771 9.198
12 4.807 57.758 4.639 3.499
13 4.676 41.060 5.017 7.285
14 5.168 31.220 5.865 13.500
15 8.322 25.980 6.331 23.921
16 4.904 62.080 4.956 1.065
17 6.453 13.660 7.048 9.223
R = a4 3 + a3 2 + a2 + a1, where a1 = 2.13, a2 = 1.15E-2, a3 = 2.22E-03, a4 = -2.11E-05
R = b4 3 b3 2 + b2 + b1, where b1 = 6.4481, b2 = 0.123, b3 = -0.0067, b4 = 0.0001
It is observed that the average error in predicting the resistance value for azimuth and altitude
angles using equation found to be 9% and 12% respectively.
70
ISBN:9788190937634
2.2.4 Sample Calculation
For date 8/5/2009, Friday, 11.20 AM, Baroda, Sun rise = 6.00 AM
Total number of days starting from 1/1/2009 will be n = 127
Declination angle = 23.45 sin [(360/365)*(284+127)] = 16.688 0
Obtain latitude () of the city chosen, from the table, which 18.54 0
Omega () = (input time/60-Sun rise time)*15,

= (11.3333 - 6.00)*15 = 80
-1
= cos (sin()*sin() + cos()*cos()* cos())
= cos-1 (sin(0.323585)*sin(0.291267) + cos(0.323585)*cos(0.323585)*cos(1.396263))
so, input () = 75.58101
Output ()
= cos-1(sin()*cos()*cos()*cos()*cos() *sin()* cos() + cos() * sin() * sin())
= cos (sin(0.323585) * cos(0.291267) * cos(3.054326) * cos(0.291267) *cos(0.323585) *
sin(0.291267) * cos(3.054326) + cos(0.291267) * sin(3.054326) *sin(1.396263))
= 72.49702
Error in theta or altitude which is, 4.25%
Obtain unknown value of gamma from following formula
cos = sec * (cos sin - cos sin cos )

sin = sec * cos * sin
For = 175 = 3.054326 rad
Input = ( - 90) = (175 - 90) = 85
Output = 93.32
Error in gamma, which is 8.91%
9
8
RESISTANCEVSALTITUDE
7 8.5
6 8
y=7.00379E05x3 6.70877E03x2 +1.22522E01x+6.44806
5 7.5
R e s is ta n c e
4
7
3
6.5
2
y=2.957669E 05x3+3.468945E 03x 24.045829E 02x+2.646154E +00 6
1
5.5
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 5
Azimuthangle(deg)
45
Figure 4 Variation of Resistance with Azimuth Figure 5 Variation of Resistance with Altitude
angle
3. Result and Conclusion
Average error obtained in the measurement of altitude angle is 12%. This is due to availability
of measurement technique of resistance provided for the altitude angle. This shows that,
71
ISBN:9788190937634
displacement of the resistance element, measuring the altitude is less sensitive to the unit change in
observation. This can be over come by providing a highly sensitive resistance measurement system
in place of present system.
Average error obtained in the measurement of azimuth is less compared to that observed in
case of altitude angle, which is only 9%. This is satisfactory and good response of the system is due
to availability of large displacement of resistance measuring element for unit change in the azimuth
angle.
As an alternate, to increase the sensitivity, stepper motor and control through precise change
in voltage may be obtained. However performance of solar system is very marginally affected in terms
of performance for up to the variation in 8-10%.
Two options can be used for obtaining the time wise variation in azimuth and altitude. One is
the data can be obtained using analytical method using formulas in terms of various angles,
declination of earth, and time of sun rise. Another approach is to use standard tables showing
variation of azimuth and altitude angle for the given location of city, given day of the year and given
time of the day. Latter approach is more reliable since certain data like time of sunrise may not
available precisely.
The economic analysis shows that the system is reliable as it is having very less parts and
cost of the set-up comes out to be Rs. 1000/- only, which is very moderate. Further the set-up is
subjected to the robust conditions because it has to remain in open space under sunlight.
References
[1] Solar Tracking System: More Efficient Use of Solar Panels, by J. Rizk, and Y. chaiko,
proceedings of world academy of science, engineering and technology volume 31 july 2008 issn
2070-3740
[2] Solar energy engineering by A.A.M. Sayigh
[3] Non Conventional Energy Sources by G.D. Rai
[4] Solar Power Engineering by B.S.Mangal, Tata Mc Graw hill, 1990.
[5] http://www.wikipedia.org
[6] http://www.howstuffworks.com
72
ISBN:9788190937634
A NOVEL APPROACH FOR SELECTION OF INDUSTRIAL ROBOT IN

MANUFACTURING ENVIRONMENT USING MADM APPROACH:
STRATEGY CASE STUDY
1
B.D.Prajapati, 2K. V. Patel
1
Department of Mechatronics Engineering,
2
Department of Mechanical Engineering,
B. S. Patel Polytechnic, Ganpat University, Mehsana,Gujarat, India
1
bdp01@ganpatuniversity.ac.in,2kvpatel@live.in
ABSTRACT
Multiple attribute decision making (MADM) is an important part of modern decision
science. It has been extensively applied to various areas such as society, economics,
military, management, etc., and has been receiving more and more attention over the
last decades.To date, however, most research has focused on single-period multi-
attribute decision-making in which all the original decision information is given at the
same period, and a number of methods have been proposed to solve this kind of
problems.
The objective of a robot selection procedure is to identify the robot selection
attributes, and obtain the most appropriate combination of the attributes in
conjunction with the real requirements of the industrial application. A robot selection
attribute is defined as a factor that influences the selection of a robot for a given
industrial application. These attributes include: cost, configuration, load capacity,
weight and size of the robot, type and number of end effectors, type of control,
velocity of movements, type of programming, programming flexibility, reliability,
repeatability, positioning accuracy, resolution, number of degrees of freedom, number
of joints, their sequence and orientation, motion transformation characteristics, ease
of operation, work volume, drive system, man-machine interface, vendors service
contract, training, delivery period, maintainability, ease of assembly, ease of
disassembly, types and number of sensors used, availability or assured supply,
management constraints, etc.
INTRODUCTION:
Recent developments in information technology and engineering sciences have been the
main reason for the increased utilization of robots in a variety of advanced manufacturing facilities.
Robots with vastly different capabilities and specifications are available for a wide range of
applications. The selection of robots to suit a particular application and production environment from
among the large number available in the market has become a difficult task. Various aspects such as
product design, production system, and economics, need to be considered before a suitable robot can
be selected. The selection problem is particularly relevant in view of the likely lack of experience of
prospective users in employing a robot. Indeed, robots are still a new concept in industry as a whole,
and so it is not unusual for an industry to be a first-time robot purchaser. Many precision-based
methods for robot selection have been developed to date.
Efforts need to be extended to determine attributes that influence robot selection for a given
industrial application, using a logical approach to eliminate unsuitable robots, and for selection of a
proper robot to strengthen the existing robot selection procedure. Pertinent attributes and the
alternative robots involved are to be identified. Values of the attributes and their relative importance
are to be obtained. An objective or subjective value, or its range, may be assigned to each identified
attribute as a limiting value, or threshold value, for its acceptance for the considered robot selection
problem. An alternative robot with each of its selection attributes, meeting the acceptance value, may
be short-listed. After short-listing the alternative robots, the main task to choose the alternative robot
is to see how it serves the attributes considered.
However, in those areas such as robot selection in which there are numerous different
choices and many various criteria influencing the selection, a more precise approach would be
required. The main attributes are PC: Purchasing cost, LC: Load carrying capacity, R: Repeatability
73
ISBN:9788190937634
error, MI: Man-machine interface, PF: Programming flexibility and the selection of above attributes
are often makes the selection process a difficult task.
When selecting Robot, a large number of factors should be taken into account.Selection is
identified and ranked in order of importance. Optimization techniques may then be used to select the
optimal material. Several quantitative selection procedures have been developed to analyze the large
amount of data involved in the selection process so that a systematic evaluation can be made.
ANALYTIC HIERARCHY PROCESS(AHP) METHODS
One of the most popular analytical techniques for complex decision making problem is the analytic
hierarchy process (AHP). Saaty( 1980, 2000) developed AHP, which decomposes a decision making
problem into a system of hierarchies of objective, attributes ( or criteria) and alternatives.
CASE STUDY:
Find the best Industrial Robot from the givendata intable using AHP methods and find all sequence
of probability for selection.
This example problem considers five robot selection attributes, and three alternative robots. The
objective and subjective information of the attributes is given in Table 1.
Table: 1 GivenData
__________________________________________________________________________
Robot PC ($1,000) LC (kg) RE (mm) MI PF
__________________________________________________________________________
Robot 1 73 48 0.15 0.5 0.665
Robot 2 71 46 0.18 0.59 0.745
Robot 3 75 51 0.14 0.41 0.665
__________________________________________________________________________
Were,
PC: Purchasing cost LC: Load carrying capacity R: Repeatability error
MI: Man-machine interface PF: Programming flexibility
Let the decision maker prepares the following matrix:
PC LC RE MIPF
A1=
Find the relative normalized weight (Wj) of each attribute by calculating the geometric mean of the i-th
row and normalized the geometric means of rows in the comparison matrix.
Table 2: Normalized data
Robot PC LC RE MI PF
1 0.9726 0.9412 0.9333 0.8475 0.8926

2 1.0000 0.9020 0.7777 1.0000 1.0000
3 0.9467 1.0000 1.0000 0.6949 0.8926
Now calculate
A2=
74
ISBN:9788190937634
where A1=
A2= =
Normalized A2 in weighting factor
A2=
Here A2 is also known as weight matrix

Where w1=0.4060,w2=0.0872,w3= 0.4060,w4= 0.0502, w5= 0.0872
And A3 = A1 X A2 Eq.(1)
A3=
Similarly for A4
A4= A3/A2 Eq.(2)
A4=
So Ymax = = 5.01996 Eq.(3)
Were M= 5 and RI = 1.11 for 5 attributes, and for CI

CI = (5.01996-5)/ (5-1) Eq.(4)
= 0.01996/4
= 0.00499
CR = CI/RI = 0.00499/1.11
75
ISBN:9788190937634

= 0.0045 Eq.(5)
Now compare the alternative pair-wise with respect to how much better they are in satisfying each of
the attributes, andobtained the overall performance scores for the alternatives by multiplying the
weight of each attributes with its corresponding normalizing weight value.
Table 3: Normalized data with weight factor W

Weight W1 W2 W3 W4 W5
Robot 0.4060 0.0872 0.4060 0.0502 0.0872

1 0.9726 0.9412 0.9333 0.8475 0.8926
2 1.0000 0.9020 0.7777 1.0000 1.0000
3 0.9467 1.0000 1.0000 0.6949 0.8926
So for
Robot 1
P1=(0.4060x0.9726) + (0.0872x0.9412) +(0.4060 x 0.9333) +(0.0502 x 0.8475) +(0.0872 x 0.8926 )
= 0.9762
Similarly for all Robot
Tabel4: Final selection index
Robot Overall Probability

performance for Selection
score
P1 0.9762 2ND
P2 0.9378 3RD
P3 0.9902 1ST
So the final selection based on all non-beneficial attribute, the sequence is
3-2-1
CONCLUSION:
The ranking of Robot based on its performance score (i.e. Robot selection index) for AHP methods is
3-2-1
These method show different Robot ranking, however comparing the attribute data of the Robot in
with given table data we can see that robot no 3 has maximum possibility for selection because
compare to other it has highest performance index . Similarly Robot 1 has second no for selection
because normalized value for all attribute are near to 1. Similarly we can obtain all sequence for
selection of Robot for different attribute.
REFERENCES:
[1] Bhangale PP, Agrawal VP, Saha SK (2004) Attribute based specification, comparison and selection of
a robot. Mechanism & Machine Theory 39:13451366
[2] Booth DE, Khouja M, Hu M (1992) A robust multivariate statistical procedure for evaluation and
selection of industrial robots. International Journal of Operations & Production Management 12:1524
[3] Boubekri N, Sahoui M, Lakrib C (1991) Development of an expert system for industrial robot selection.
Computers & Industrial Engineering 20:119127
[4] Bragilia M, Petroni A (1999) Evaluating and selecting investments in industrial robots. International
Journal of Production Research 37:41574178
[5] Chu TC, Lin YC (2003) A fuzzy TOPSIS method for robot selection. International Journal of Advanced
Manufacturing Technology 21:284290
[6] Goh CH (1997) Analytic hierarchy process for robot selection. Journal of Manufacturing Systems
16:381386.
76
ISBN:9788190937634

[6] Goh CH, Tung YCA, Cheng CH (1996) A revised weighted sum decision model for robot selection.
Computers & Industrial Engineering 30:193198
[7] Imang MM, Schlesinger RJ (1989) Decision models for robot selection: a comparison of ordinary least
squares and linear goal programming method. Decision Sciences 20:4053
[8] Karsak EE, Ahiska SS (2005) Practical common weight multi-criteria decision-making approach with
an improved discriminating power for technology selection. International Journal of Production
Research 43:15371554
77
ISBN:9788190937634
Synthesis of Four Bar Mechanism for Polynomial Function

Generation with Optimum Transmission Angle
T.N.Patel1*, J.R.Koisa2, M.M.Chauhan3
1. PG Student, Nirma University, Ahmedabad
2. PG Student, L.D.C.E, Ahmedabad
3. Professor, Mechanical Engg. Department, Institutes of Technology, Nirma University,
*Corresponding author (09mme015@nirmauni.ac.in)
General solutions for determining link lengths of four bar mechanism for function
generation where function is polynomial equation up to second order with
optimum transmission angle. Different methods are available for synthesis of
four bar linkage and amongst these Freudenstein method has its useful
characteristics in the synthesis problems. In precision point approach, the
desired motion characteristics are achieved at precision points only and at all
other points there is structural error. The generalized formulation thus obtained is
coded and few numerical results are obtained using MATLAB 7.6.
Keywords: Kinematic Synthesis, Function Generation, Structural Error, Optimum
Transmission Angle.
1. Introduction
The important and complementary area called kinematics synthesis, where mechanism
is created to meet certain motion specification is touched upon only by a consideration of the
simple aspect of planner linkage synthesis. Four-bar linkage has various applications like
automobiles, endolite prosthetic knee, and mechanism for steam engines. The criteria for the
design of mechanism are low fluctuation of input torque, compact in size and links proportion,
good in force transmission, low periodic bearing loads, less vibrations, less wear, optimum
transmission angle and higher harmonics. The four-bar linkage has a long history in both the
theoretical kinematics literature as well as a variety of applications The transmission angle is
one of the important design criteria to be considered for the effective force/motion
transmission by a mechanism was pointed by Bali [2].Eres Soylemez [3] determined the
dimensions of planar slider crank mechanisms with optimum transmission angle.
Dr.V.P.Singh, B.S.Thakur, S.Sharma [4] determined structural error. Optimization approach
by least-square technique is used for minimizing the structural error. Dr. V.B.Math,
Sharangouda, S.G.Sarganachari [1] done the Synthesis of Slider Crank Mechanism with
Optimum Transmission Angle, and transmission angle is finding out as root of cubic equation.
Todor Stollov Todorov [5] synthesized four bar mechanism by fredenstein and chebyshev
technique.
2. Synthesis of Mechanism
A frequent requirement in design is that of causing an output member to rotate,

oscillate or reciprocate according to the specified function of time or function of the input
motion; this is called the function generation. When a mechanism is designed to generate a
given function or trace a given curve, it is not possible in general to obtain a mathematically
exact solution but that the mechanism fits the function or curve at only a finite number of
points, the accuracy points. The number of these accuracy points is equal to the number of
fixed parameters that may be used in the synthesis. The problem considered here is that of
spacing the accuracy points within the interval of function generation to minimize the errors
between accuracy points. Consider the function f(x) to be approximated in a given interval of
variation of x by means of a mechanism which generates function F(x, D1, D2,., Dn) where
D1,..., Dn, are the values of the n design parameters in the linkage. The difference between
these two functions is the structural error. f(x)-F(x, D1, D2,..., Dn) The general appearance of
the structural error when plotted against x [6].
78
ISBN:9788190937634
Figure 1 Four Bar Mechanism Figure 2 Mini max Transmission Angle [2]
Transmission angle () for four bar mechanism is the angle between coupler and the follower
as shown in figure. Where, is the angle between coupler and driver as shown in figure 1
= cos-1 ((l32 + l42 - l12 - l22 + 2l1l2cos2) / 2l3l4)
= cos-1 ((l22 + l32 - l12 - l42 + 2l1l4cos4) / 2l2l3)
The maximum and minimum values are shown in figure 2.
Mechanical Advantage is directly propositional to sin of angle , and inversely propositional to
sin, When sin = 0, The Mechanical Advantage = . Thus at such a position only a small
input torque is necessary to overcome a large output torque load. This is the case when the
driver is directly inline with the coupler is said to be Toggle position. As Transmission Angle
become small Mechanical Advantage decreases, and even small amount of friction will cause
the mechanism to lock or jam.
3. Mathematical Formulation
3.1 For Function Generation Formulation
Initially taking polynomial equation as function, Y=f(x),

2
Y = a0 + a1x + a2x ..(1)
Where a0, a1, a2, are constants of polynomial equation. Using chebychev spacing and
freudenstein's equation derive equation which gives relation between constants of coefficient
of polynomial equation and link lengths of four bar mechanism.
From n accuracy points, by using chebychev spacing, for given range X0 < X < Xn+1, precision
points are obtained.
If is input crank angle, is output follower angle and ranges from 0 to 360.
Range of = f s, Range of = f s,
From linear relationship between x and , from eq (2) values of and are obtained.
(2)
Kncos1 + kn+1cos1+ kn+2 = cos (1- 1) ... (3)
Equation (3) is Freudensteins equation for starting position. Where, n=no of precision points,
k1, k2, k3 can be evaluated by Gaussian elimination method.Either value of l1 (fix link) or l4
can be assumed as unity to get the proportionate value of other parameters.
k1 = l1 / l2, k2 = -l1 / l4, k3 = (l22 - l32 + l42 + l12) / (2l2l4). ..(4)
3.2 For Optimum Transmission Angle Formulation
Figure 3: Dead Centre Position of Four Bar Mechanism
79
ISBN:9788190937634
If the rotation of the crank has to be exactly corresponding to both forward and
return strokes of the rocker, then the link length should be such that the outer and inner dead-
centre configurations are like those shown in figure 3, where the points A1, A2, B1, B2 and O2
are all collinear. From the triangle O2O4B1 and O2O4B2, by using COS rule
l12 + l22 = l32 + l42 (5)
From figure B1 B2 = 2l2 = 2l4sin (4*/2) (6)
If the 4* of the rocker increases, then the maximum possible value of min decreases.
From equation 1 and 2 and considering 2 = 0 i.e. min = ABO4
O4A2 = (l1 l2)2 = l32 + l42 - 2l3l4cosmin (7)
Dividing equation 1 by l12 and substituting the equation 2 and 3,
l3 / l1 = sin (4*/2) / cosmin (8)
It is obvious that l3 / l1 1,so
cosmin sin (4*/2)
cosmin cos (( - 4*)/2)
(min) max (( - 4*)/2) (9)
Here 4* = 90, so (min) max 45.
4. Results & Discussion
The generalized solutions for getting comparison between input angle, transmission
angle, angle, mechanical advantage and generalize code for getting link lengths for function
generation and finding structural error are obtained. The basic procedure for the numerical
solution is as follows:
a. Calculate all values of x from chebychev spacing.
b. Take values of a0, a1, a2.
c. Calculate y values by substituting x values in polynomial equation.
d. Take the values of f, s, f, and s.
e. Calculate i and i by using linearity.
f. Evaluate k1, k2, k3 from Freudensteins equation,
g. Evaluate link lengths from k values.
Synthesized link lengths for various polynomial equations for function generation are
tabulated below.
Table 1. Synthesized link lengths for various polynomial equations
Sr. Polynomial
l1 l2 l3 l4
No. Equation
1 y = x2+2x+1 100 102.00 77.88 98.77
2 y = x2+3x-10 100 50.19 88.48 47.68
3 y = x2-6x+13 100 229.36 67.02 225.12
4 y = x2-10x+25 100 445.45 109.31 433.37
5 y = 12x2-x+35 100 246.85 63.18 238.60
Table 2. Result for generated link lengths and
Sr.
l1 l2 l3 l4 min
No.
13 128 8
1 132 101
0
66 650 11
2 674 513
0
40 390 14
3 408 311
0
30 290 17
4 306 233
0
5 15 152 118 140 21
80
ISBN:9788190937634
0
12 110 25
6 123 90
0
90 880 31
7 911 700
0
80 790 34
8 816 623
0
Table 2 shows the result for various combinations of link lengths and for that function
generation value of minimum transmission angle is obtained. It can be concluded that the link
lengths 81, 81, 62, 79 gives maximum value of min.
Figure 4 shows linear relationship between x values and .Also y values and values.
Figure 5 shows parabolic relationship between x and y,and .
Figure 6 shows the plot for input crank angle v/s transmission angle. It can be concluded that
minimum value of transmission angle is 20 at input crank angle 0 that of maximum value
90 at input 180.
Figure 7 shows the plot between input crank angle and output rocker angle.
Figure shows the plot for transmission angle v/s mechanical advantage. It can be concluded
that as Transmission angle increases Mechanical advantage increases up to becomes 90.
Figure 8 shows plot for transmission Angle v/s Mechanical Advantage.
Figure 9 shows minimum value of is 35 at 180 crank angle and maximum value of 60 at
90 crank angle.
Example: For function y = 1 + 2x + x2, start rage of xs = 1 and final range of xf= 3, number of
precision point n = 3. Value of constants of polynomial equation a0 = 1, a1 = 2 and a2 = 1, s=
30, f= 120. s=50 and f=140, fixed link length l1=800.
l2, l3, l4 are obtained as shown in table 1.
Figure 4 Linear Relationship
Figure 5 Parabolic Relationship
Figure 6 Plot for V/S Figure 7 Plot for 4 V/S 2
81
ISBN:9788190937634
Figure 8 Plot for Transmission Angle V/S Mechanical Advantage Figure 9 Plot for 2 and
Structural Error: A mechanism has only a limited number of designed parameters, a few link
lengths, starting values for the input and output so a linkage synthesis problem usually has no
exact solutions over its entire range of travel. So structural error is defined as the theoretical
difference between the function prescribed by the synthesized linkage and the function
originally prescribed.
Example:
2
For function y = 1 + 2x + x , start rage of x = 1 and final range of x = 3, n = 10. Value of
constants of polynomial equation a0 = 1, a1 = 2 and a2 = 1, s= 30, f= 120, s=50 and
f=140, By taking the rounding values of generating link lengths l1 = 800, l2 = 815, l3 = 620,
l4 = 790, find the structural error.
Table 3 Result Table for Structural Error
Sr. X (Precision (Input (Output Y co- Yc co-

% Error
No. points) Angle) Angle) ordinate ordinate
1 1.012 30.554 52.512 4.0494 4.2760 -5.5947
2 1.109 34.907 54.323 4.4479 4.5413 -2.1000
3 1.292 43.182 59.364 5.2574 5.2536 0.0718
4 1.546 54.574 68.187 6.4822 6.4792 0.0458
5 1.843 67.964 80.024 8.0859 8.1161 -0.3743
6 2.156 82.036 93.527 9.9631 9.9864 -0.2344
7 2.454 95.426 107.196 11.9301 11.9014 0.2401
8 2.707 106.882 119.617 13.7426 13.6916 0.3718
9 2.891 115.095 129.444 15.1399 15.2108 -0.4683
10 2.987 119.446 135.147 15.9017 16.2590 -2.2474
82
ISBN:9788190937634
Figure 10 Structural Error Figure 11 Plot for x range V/S Structural Error
It can be concluded from graph; error is more at extreme position as shown in table 3.
Figure 10 shows structural error, and figure 11 shows Plot for x range V/S % structural error.
5. Conclusion
The general solution presented is very much useful to study of Synthesis of four bar
mechanism for function generation with using chebychev spacing and freudenstein's
equation, where function is polynomial equation up to second order. Function gives parabolic
curve. The synthesis of four bar mechanism for function generation for various values of
constant of polynomial equation is obtained. Generated function satisfies the Grashofs
condition, so gives fully rotating mechanism. By this optimum transmission angle will be
obtained, and also structural error is obtained using MATLAB 7.6 and not more than 3 to
4%.In Future scope simulation of mechanism with software solution will be carried out.
References
[1] S. G. Sarganachari, Dr V. B. Math, Sharangouda, Synthesis of slider crank
mechanism with optimum transmission angle, International Conference, pp 727-732,
2009.
[2] Satish chand Shrinivas S. Bali, Transmission angle in mechanism, Mechanism and
machine theory 37, pages 175-195, 2002.
[3] F. Freudenstein E.Soylemez, Classical transmission-angle problem for slider crank
mechanisms, Indian Journal of Technology, 31, pages 539-541, 1993.
[4] B.S.Thakur, Dr V P Singh, S Sharma, Kinematic synthesis and optimization of four
bar linkage, Mechanism and machine theory 85, pages 199-205, 2005.
[5] Todor Stollov Todorov, Synthesis of four bar mechanism by fredenstein-
[6] Chebyshev, Mechanism and machine theory, 37, pages 1505-1512, 2002.
[7] A Textbook of Theory of Machines and Mechanism by Amitabha Gosh and Mallik.
83
th
ISBN:9788190937634
CASE STUDY OF S.S PIPE MANUFACTURING INDUSTRY FOR

THE REDUCTION REJECTION WITH THE AID OF S.Q.C TOOLS
Mr. Kapil S. Banker (M.E production, MSU Baroda) 1, Mr. J.H.Mistry 2
Faculty of technology and engineering, M.S University, kalabhavan, Baroda. Gujarat, India.
*
Corresponding author (e-mail: banker.svbit@gmail.com)
Stainless steel welded pipe is manufacture by various methods like as shearing,

bending, partial welding, and full welding.
This research paper is about to implementation of statistical quality control

tools in pipe manufacturing industries. As many defects found, pipes are rejected
lot wise, and that is very unproductive result for each and every company. So,
using statistical quality control tools, such as x bar chart, R-chart, C-chart, P-chart.
Based on S.Q.C tools implementation at the process whether it is in control or not.
These types of charts will also provide the fast result that will be used to take
action immediately.
In Apurvi Manufacturing Industries, I found that main rejection affected

parameters are ovality in diameter. Reduction is possible by proper shearing
process, appropriate welding line, maintaining expanding process. This paper
helps to decide the process within the control limit or not, that has been decided
by various control charts. This is also used for quality improvement.
I have plotted various charts such as x-bar, R chart, and also plotted
fishbone diagram for root cause analysis.
From all of these tools, we have to concentrate only on control charts.

Ultimately that will be used for any manufacturer to solve the rejection problem,
enhancing the productivity and quality of the product.
1. Introduction.
1.1 Stainless Steel Welded Pipes:
Basically, there are two types of stainless steel welded pipe.
1. Seamless pipe and

2. Welded pipe.
Stainless steel welded pipes are used in production of submersible pump as a part. Other
application of s.s welded pipe for pumps, furniture etc. They are made of stainless steel metal
such as 202, 302, 4% and many more types of stainless steel.
Mostly stainless steel welded pipes are used as a body part of submersible pump. It is
available in various diameter and length as per the customers requirement. They are used for
assembling purpose of the submersible pump so extra care must be taken during production of
stainless steel pipe.
84
th
ISBN:9788190937634
Figure 1, Process chart of stainless steel welded Pipe manufacturing
Every manufacturer of stainless steel welded pipe wants the best quality of the product.
Due to this they gave concentrate on the good quality of the pipe through defect reduction. In pipe
manufacturing, there are various defect found such as ovality in diameter, porosity in weld line,
peak and valley on cylindrical surfaces, variation in thickness on weld line, porosity in pipe etc.,
Stainless steel pipes are made by the number of process, such as shearing process,
bending, partial welding, full welding, nitriding, expanding, final length and last one is buffing or
polishing.
Shearing process involves sheet cutting into require size on the shearing machine,

Figure 2, Shearing Machine
85
th
ISBN:9788190937634
Figure 3, Bending Machine.
Bending process convert sheet of required size into round bending through roll bending machine.
Partial welding is a process of dot welding at the end of bending sheet. Full welding is done on arc
welding machine.
Nitriding process removes the oxidation on the weld line. Expanding involves press, die operation
to make correct roundness of the pipe by various size of die on adjustable pressure press
expanding machine. Final length involve extra length cutting process done on expandable cullet
lathe and buffing process involves buffing or polishing on the flexible grinding machine
1.2 PROBLEM STATEMENT:-
Apurvi Industries is producing different types of stainless steel pipe, which is used for
assembling purpose of submersible pump. Generally in pipe manufacturing various defects found
but main defect is ovality, that affects the assembling process,.
Ovality means variation of diameter in bilateral way. This defect is not good for assembling
work. It may create misalignment problem during assembling process.
So, company has to decide manufacturing of stainless steel welded pipe without ovality.
This can be achieved by applying statistical quality control method. S.Q.C method suggest,
whether the process is in control or not.
1.3 OBJECTIVES OF PAPER:-
The objective of paper is:
1. Cost reduction of stainless steel welded pipe.

2. Improve quality of stainless steel welded pipe.
3. Productivity improvement through S.Q.C tools.
4. Rejection reduction of the product.
1.4 SCOPE OF PAPER:-
The scope of paper is to overcome defects through the statistical quality control method.
The main concentration of this paper is to overcome ovality problem. These results can be used
for seamless pipe also. The data is collected for the period July-2010 to January-2011.
86
th
ISBN:9788190937634

2. Result & Discussion.In Apurvi industries, I found various defects in manufacturing process
so; I had decided to solve the defects by using statistical quality control tools. Pipe diameter data
are as follows for depicted the X-bar and R- chart.
Table 1, Test result , (KSB PUMP)
sample X-
1 2 3 4 Range
no. average
1 18.25 18.2 18.1 18.3 18.2125 0.2
2 18.2 18.23 18.01 18.35 18.1975 0.34
3 18.02 18.03 18.03 18.04 18.03 0.02
4 18.2 18.2 18.25 18.35 18.25 0.15
5 18.02 18.02 18.02 18.02 18.02 0
6 18.04 18.35 18.02 18.01 18.105 0.34
7 18.2 18.25 18.1 18 18.1375 0.25
8 18.25 18.25 18.2 18.01 18.1775 0.24
9 18.2 18.02 18.2 18.35 18.1425 -0.02
10 18.42 18.02 18.01 18.2 18.1625 0.41
11 18.01 18.01 18.2 18.02 18.06 0.19
12 18.02 18.35 18.25 18.02 18.16 0.33
13 18.25 18.01 18.04 18.2 18.125 0.24
14 18.01 18.01 18.05 18.2 18.0675 0.19
15 18.2 18.25 18.35 18.35 18.2875 0.15
16 18.25 18.25 18.25 18.01 18.19 0.24
17 18.01 18.01 18.04 18.25 18.0775 0.24
18 18.01 18.01 17.85 18.01 17.97 0.16
19 18.01 18.01 18.2 18.14 18.09 0.19
20 18.01 18.05 18.05 18 18.0275 0.05
21 18.01 18.04 18.05 18.25 18.0875 0.24
22 18.01 18.02 18.25 18.01 18.0725 0.24
23 18.02 18.05 18.05 18.05 18.0425 0.03
24 18.25 18.25 18.04 18.07 18.1525 0.21
25 18.25 18.1 18.01 18.08 18.11 0.24
sample X-
1 2 3 4 18.1182 Range
0.1948
no. average
1 89.8 89.96 89.92 89.85 89.8825 -0.07
2 TABLE02,Testresult(KSBPUMP)
89.85 88.2 89.92 89.94 89.4775 0.02
3 89.9 89.85 90 89.88 89.9075 -0.02
4 90.07 89.75 90 89.65 89.8675 -0.1
5 90.05 89.71 90.01 89.7 89.8675 0.31
6 90.1 89.73 89.8 88.25 89.47 1.48 R- CHART
7 89.85 89.97 89.8 89.96 89.895 0.01
8 89.8 89.85 89.97 89.98 89.9 -0.13
9 89.9 88.58 89.76 90 89.56 1.18
10 89.96 90 89.85 89.75 89.89 0.11
11 89.9 88.55 89.78 89.97 89.55 1.23
12 89.9 89.8 89.97 89.85 89.88 -0.1
13 90.05 89.7 89.65 90.06 89.865 0.35
14 90.05 88 89.96 89.78 89.4475 1.78
15 90.23 89.7 89.7 89.85 89.87 -0.53
16 89.25 89.55 89.9 89.01 89.4275 0.54
17 89 89.7 89.22 89.9 89.455 0.2
18 89.55 90 88.7 89.9 89.5375 1.3
19 89 89.96 89.22 88.7 89.22 -0.74
20 89.96 89 89.02 88.74 89.18 0.28
21 88.75 88.76 88.99 88.5 88.75 -0.25
22 89.95 89.62 89 89 89.3925 -0.95
23 88.5 88.5 88.95 88.95 88.725 0.45
24 88.95 88.97 89.25 89.26 89.1075 -0.28
25 88.65 88.75 89.02 89.25 88.9175 -0.37
89.5217 0.228
87
th
ISBN:9788190937634

Test result: 02
R- CHART
As per the above test results, I found that first lot results are quite good but second lot results
are not good for pipe manufacturing industries, this type of result gives indication of various
defects in the particular lot. so, The fishbone diagram has been developed for diagnosis the root
cause of the manufacturing problem. Fishbone diagram depicted the root cause analysis as
follows:
Root cause analyses

Material Man Design Cutting

Unskilled
Overconfident
worker Dimension
worker

88
th
ISBN:9788190937634

Interpretation

Lownickel Less
thickness

Low or
high pr. Wrong Wrong

die Heavy mandrel
Low current Defective

grade roller

Pressure
Polishing Expandin Welding Bearing

Rolling
Figure 04, Root cause analysis.
Discussion of result:-
From above root cause analysis I found that the main defect in manufacturing processe
is ovality. It will be eliminated by proper pressure setting of expanding process and appropriate
die for particular diameter pipe.

Conclusion: -
Ovality can be reduced with help of proper setting of expanding machine by oil
pressure valve and placed the correct size of die in the expanding machine. It can also be
reduce by high concentration during material cutting on the shearing machine. And also take
appropriate size of mandrel during bearing operation.
Reference
1. A text book of Statistical quality control. Author: M. Mahajan.

2. A text book of statistical quality control. Author : Douglas Montgomery.
3. Evaluating environmental performance using statistical process control techniquesby:-
Charles J. Corbett.
4. Improvements in flattening test performance in high frequency induction welded steel pipe
mill
5. Khalid Ali Babakri Saudi
6. European Journal of Operational Research 88 (1996) 203-214
7. Statistical quality control and improvement Michael Stuart, Eamonn Mullins, Eileen Drew
8. Department of Statistics, Trinity College, Dublin 2,
***********************************************************************************
89
ISBN:9788190937634
AReviewontheDevelopmentoftheAnalyticalSoilToolInteractionModel
fortheEarthmovingOperations
Bhavesh P. Patel1,Dr. J. M. Prajapati2, Bhargav J. Gadhvi3

1
U. V. Patel College of Engineering, Ganpat Vidyanagar, Kherva-382711, Gujarat, India.
2
Maharaja Sayajirao University of Baroda, Vadodara, Gujarat, India.
3
M.Tech (CAD-CAM) student, U. V. Patel College of Engineering, Ganpat Vidyanagar,
Kherva-382711, Gujarat, India.
*
Bhavesh P. Patel (bppmech@gmail.com)
In the process of automating an earthmoving machine, it is important to develop a model of soil-tool

interaction that predicts resistive forces experienced at the tool during digging. The predicted forces
can be used to model the closed loop behavior of a controller that servoes the joints of the
earthmoving machine. Researchers have developed the soil-tool interaction model over the years, for
different applications and by different methodology, such as the models have been developed for
particularly agricultural machines, and empirical model for a wide range of earthmoving machines.
Different methodologies used are analytical methods based on first principle mechanics, numerical
methods, FEM, discrete element method (DEM), simulation. This paper focuses on the review of a
work carried out by researchers in the field of analytical both two, and three dimensional soil-tool
interaction model based on first principle mechanics, which includes the fundamental of soil
mechanics, soil tool interaction forces and various parameters that affect on the soil-tool interaction
during its actual digging action.
1. Introduction
The surface mining of metals, quarrying of rocks, and construction of highway requires the rapid removal
of soil and rocks. By its nature, excavation involves forceful interaction with terrain. The nature of this
interaction is most influenced by soil properties. Intuitively, it is obvious that digging in loose, dry sand
is very different from digging in a compacted, clayey medium. Indeed, this difference can be so large
that strategies for digging in various media differ radically. So it becomes extremely important to
answer the two critical questions regarding the excavation. First question is: What is the effect of the
excavation tool on the soil? And second question is: What is the effect of the soil on the excavation
tool? [1, 2] But to answer these both questions the basic knowledge of soil mechanics and
fundamentals of earthmoving equipment is of the prime importance. Firstly the introduction of the
earthmoving equipment is described in this section and secondly a very brief introduction regarding
soil mechanics is described in the second section.
Construction equipment for earthmoving is highly diverse in shape and function, but most of the soil
cutting machines can be categorized into one of three principal classes, namely blade, ripper or
shovel as shown in figure 1. Tools which resemble blades include bulldozer front and back blades,
road graders, hauling scrapers, snowplows, and other all straight edged blades. These instruments
cut and push soil or other granular material at a depth which is generally less than their width. Ripper
types of tool, on the other hand, are more narrow compared to their working depth, and are often
attached to graders and bulldozers when it is necessary to cut and loosen hard soil, pavement or
even soft rock layers. Whereas shovels are blades equipped with sides which form a space in which
soil or other materials can be cut and lifted up. The action of shovels usually causes a vertical sided
trench to be excavated owing to the cutting action of the shovel sides in conjunction with the bottom
cutting edge.
2. Motivation
In order to analyze the mechanism of soil failure, it is necessary to know under what regimes of forces
or pressures soil failure does occur. Coulomb in 1776 provided the basic knowledge of soil
mechanical strength. Coulomb while working with masonry and soils noted that there appeared to be
two mechanical processes in action which determine the ultimate shearing strength of both these
materials. One process he called friction, and the other cohesion. In the first case, the portion of the
90
ISBN:9788190937634
shear strength is proportional to the pressure acting perpendicularly on the shearing surface. In the
second, part of the strength resisting shear movement is a constant, regardless of the normal
pressure acting. The total material shear strength is the sum of these two components as follows:

Figure 1 A comparison of three different classes of earthmoving implements
Where S = shear strength (ultimate shear force per unit area), C = cohesion (force per unit area), =
the normal pressure acting on the internal shear surface in question and = the coefficient of
internal sliding friction. Parameter is called the angle of internal friction [3]. In 1914 Mohr provided
equations and a graphical method for finding stresses on different planes in a material at equilibrium.
The Mohr circle of stresses, together with Coulombs strength law, enables one to locate the attitudes
of the rupture planes at points in a soil body which is subject to failure.
In complex cases of soil failure, whether they be involved in earth work or soil cutting situations, the
level of stresses changes from point to point throughout the soil body. Thus while Mohrs circle of
stresses can provide information concerning the stress levels on planes at different angles at a single
point, it gives no help by itself for determining variable stress distributions. Knowledge of stresses
change from place to place in soil is required to find the pressure distributions acting on structures or
cutting tools, and to perform a rational design of such systems [3]. And this motivated the researchers
to develop the soil tool interaction theory in the earthmoving tasks.
3. Development of 2D soil-tool interaction model
In 1965 Reece [4] recognized that in the case of earth moving tasks, the soil is always brought to a
state of complete failure and therefore the principles of soil mechanics should be applicable and
should permit the development of a theory of earthmoving machines. He carried the analysis of a flat
blade moving through soil. The dimensional analysis of earth-moving machines was effectively
established by the Caterpillar group but has been formally written down in a satisfactory manner by
Osman [5], which depends upon known variables related to the problem. It can be stated that a
typical earth-moving problem like the cutting blade is described by equation (1):
...(1)
The application of the pi theorem leads to the dimensionless equation (2):
(2)
Where F is the resistive force experienced at a blade (N) or force per unit width (N/m), c is the soil
cohesion (N/ ), is the soil density (N/ ), q is the surcharge pressure (N/ ), is the soil to metal
adhesion (N/ ), is the angle of internal shearing resistance (deg), is the angle of soil to metal
friction (deg), b is a characteristic dimension or tool depth (m), and is the shape factor or rake angle
of cutting blade(deg).
In equation (2) the dimensionless groups were chosen so that they are the ratio of the force due to a
particular soil property divided by that due to gravity. The groups are respectively the ratios of
draught, cohesion, internal friction, soil-metal friction, soil-metal adhesion, and surcharge to the force
91
ISBN:9788190937634
due to gravity. Is a factor describing the shape of the machine elements which engage the soil. In
the case of the cutting blade it is equal to the rake angle and only one factor is required to define
shape. In the case of more complex shapes several such factors would be necessary. Equation (2) is
comprehensive and applies to the forces involved in any slow soil deforming process in which the soil
is brought to a state of complete failure. Equation (2) does not take into account the effect of velocity.
As far as it was known at that time the rate of shearing does not appreciably affect the shear strength
of soil, at least within the range of velocities likely to be found in earth-moving machines. That is, soil
does not exhibit any viscosity. It therefore follows that velocity only enters into the problem in so far as
it causes inertia forces. This then requires another dimensionless group giving the ratio of inertia force
to gravity force and this has the magnitude .
Reece replaced the equation (2) by a much more specific and powerful equation:
(3)
This equation (3) is popularly known as Reeces fundamental earthmoving equation (FEE). The four
terms represent the effects of the soils cohesion, its weight, any surcharging load that is present, and
the adhesion that develops between the soil and the metal parts of the machine. The N factors are
dimensionless numbers describing the shape of the soil failure surface. They, therefore, depend
on , , and the shape of the structure and soil mass involved in the system. These N factors are, of
course, independent of each other. A partial justification of this equation is given and it is shown how
it may be used to guide theoretical analysis and model testing. For certain problems which can be
treated as two-dimensional (e.g. Bulldozer blade or strip foundation) equation (3) will have the form:
+ (3a)
Equation (3) was suggested by the civil engineers bearing capacity equation:
(4)
Equation (4) was first published by Terzaghi [6] and has for a quarter of a century been the
basis of subsequent developments in the theory and practice of the design of foundations. It
is evidently a special case of equation (3a) referring to a two-dimensional strip foundation of
width 2b. The power of equation (3) is very well shown by applying it to computed results for the force
on a cutting blade. Osman has published computed curves showing draught force as a function of
blade rake angle for three different soils. The data is presented in the form of five graphs showing
against the rake angle , where b in this case is the depth of cut. Whereas the equation (3)
enables far more information than this to be conveyed using only four graphs and these cover all
possible combinations of c and . Reece also showed the validity of the FEE by carrying out the
analytical model of soil-tool interaction.
McKyes [3] in 1985 developed trial wedges theory, followed by the theory of Terzaghi [6] and
approximated the logarithmic spiral slip lines by straight lines, for ease of resolution forces, and
developed a single wedge model as shown in figure 3. In this figure, the exact shape of the lowest soil
slip line, caused by a tool cutting the soil, is approximated by a straight line at an angle to the
horizontal, , of which the magnitude was not determined. He assumed that soil slip is on the tool
surface and within the soil itself. So the frictional components of shear strength on the two slip lines
have been combined with perpendicular forces to form resultant forces P and R as indicated, and
resistance forces due to cohesion are shown separately as and . Here P is the force required
to move the blade, L = blade length, = length of failure surface, and the rake angle is instead of ,
and other conventions are same. Leaving wedge angle undetermined yet, the net forces in the
horizontal and vertical directions are assumed to be zero because of equilibrium, and P solved as
follows, for a unit tool width:
92
ISBN:9788190937634
Figure 3 The wedge theory of passive soil failure (McKyes model)
For a uniform soil with a uniform surface pressure loading q,
, and
The resultant equation of force P can be written into the form of the universal earthmoving equation as
below:
Where w is the tool width. The four N factors can be calculated based on the geometry of the wedge
as shown below:
To find the most appropriate angle of the soil failure wedge, It is therefore logical to determine that
value of the angle, , which causes to be a minimum using the equation. When different
values of slope line angle were tried by McKyes between 0 and , varied. At the minimum
value of , the most likely value of angle was found, and this was used to calculate the three
other N factors.
H. Cannon [7] in 1999 developed a model that compensates for the slope of the terrain as shown in
figure 4. He developed the model for the hydraulic excavator or backhoe in particular. The material in
the shaded region corresponds to the swept volume . Is the weight of the material above the
bucket, is the weight of the rest of the material in the wedge, is the length of the tool, is the
length of the failure surface, is the rake angle, R is the force of the soil resisting movement of the
wedge, F is the force exerted by the tool on the wedge, and here is the terrain slope.
As previously noted that FEE was developed for agricultural tools, and thus it was assumed that the
terrain profile will be flat, but Cannon proposed a model that can be used for mass excavation as well,
because it accounts for ground profile as sloped. And he developed following equation:
93
ISBN:9788190937634
In contrast X. Zeng et al. [8] in 2007 developed a soil-tool interaction model based on principles of soil
mechanics, which would be easy to use and parameters be easy to obtain using conventional soil
test. They developed the model to design excavation tools by predicting accurate excavation force for
digging and pushing lunar regolith for in-situ resource utilization (ISRU) applications. Figure 5 shows
the free body diagram of the blade. There are three forces are to be calculated to calculate the total
force T: friction force on the blade , passive earth pressure , and side friction force . He
also proposed the detailed calculation scheme with one sound example of how to calculate the
excavation force. Apart from this he also compared his calculated forces with McKyes model,
Wilkinson [9] model, and concluded that excavation force calculated by his method is more sensitive.
Figure 4 Cannon wedge model Figure 5 Forces act on the blade
4. Development of 3D soil-tool interaction model
Payne in 1956 noted that the 2D models are only valid for tool with wide blades relative to their depths
of operation. He noted that when vertical soil cutting tool is not very wide, the cut soil moves
sideways, rather than simply in the X and Z directions as shown in figure 3. Evidently more elaborate
techniques are needed to describe soil cutting forces in 3D. Hettiaratchi and Reece [10] in 1967
developed such a 3D model. Experimental results showed that the equation developed by them to
predict draft forces was quite well for narrow blades having the width of one sixth of the depth of
operation. However; actual draft forces were less than those predicted for blades wider than that.
Godwin and Spoor [11] in 1977 noted that the shape of failure crescents on the surface and to the
sides of narrow blades was elliptical, but not very far from perfectly circular. He proposed that the
assumption of a circular shape would be reasonably accurate in predicting the volume of the soil
moved, and developed their mechanical model.
McKyes and Ali [12] in 1977, by combining some of the ideas of Godwin and his trial wedges theory
as described in section 3, developed an independent analytical model for the cutting of soil by narrow
tools without the need to rely on experimental inputs. The model is shown in figure 6. The radius of
the side crescent is called r, and it is equal to the total forward distance of soil failure on the surface
from the tool face. The crescent has an included angle of:
Figure 6 The three dimensional cutting model of McKyes and Ali
The centre zone will require a force for movement as shown in equation (5).For each elemental
segment of angle d , the forces can be resolved to find in a similar way.
94
ISBN:9788190937634
Grisso et al [13] in 1980 also developed a 3D model quite similar to the model of McKyes and Ali [12].
For Grisso model and quantities are quite similar to the values of McKyes and Ali model, for
the particular range of depth to width ratios. However the factors of Grisso model are less than
one half of the Mckyes and Ali model.
5. Conclusion
Reeces [4] universal earthmoving equation can be adapted to many theories for the prediction of
forces required to cut soil by wide and narrow tools. The modifications to the equation to include the
effects of soil movement to the sides of narrow tools can take various forms. Godwin and Spoor [11]
have increased the tool force by enlarging the effective width of narrow tools while using the N factors
calculated for blades of semi-infinite width. McKyes and Ali [12] proposed N factors which are
themselves functions of tool width. But if the interest is limited to the hydraulic excavators only then
Cannon [7] model gives a better result as it accounts for the terrain slope. But compared to all the 2D
model of Zeng [8] is relatively easy to apply as well as gives better results. One way to compare all 3D
models is to relate N factors predicted for the same soil and tool combinations. The study showed that
for the range of depth to width ratios above 0.1, the N factors of Godwin and Spoor are larger than
that of McKyes and Ali. So the 3D model can be best approximated by McKyes and Ali model. In short
there still may be improvements possible for the development of such an analytical model that best
accounts all the geometric constraints and thus becoming more specific towards actual conditions,
and provides more accurate results, that may lead to a better tool design.
References
[1] Bhargav J Gadhvi, B. P. Patel, P. M. Patel, Development of a Controller for Mini Hydraulic
Excavator As a Review, Proceedings of the National conference on Recent Advances in
th st
Manufacturing (RAM-2010), July 19 21 , 2010, S. V. National Institute of Technology, Surat-
395007.
[2] Sanjiv Singh, Synthesis of Tactical Plans for Robotic Excavation, Ph D thesis, 1995.
[3] E. McKyes, Soil Cutting and Tillage, Elsevier, 1985.
[4] A. R. Reece, The Fundamental Equation of Earth-moving Mechanics, Proceedings of Institution

of Mechanical Engineers, 1964.
[5] M. S. Osman, The mechanics of soil cutting blades, Journal of Agricultural Engineering
Research, Vol. 9, Issue No. 4, 1964, pp. 313-328.
[6] K. Terzaghi, Theoretical Soil Mechanics, J. Wiley and Sons, New York, 1944.
[7] H. Cannon, Extended Earthmoving with an Autonomous Excavator, Master of Science thesis,
1999.
[8] X. Zeng, L. Burnoski, J. Agui, A. Wilkinson, Calculation of Excavation Force for ISRU on Lunar
th
Surface, Paper presented at the 45 American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics (AIAA)
Aerospace Sciences Meeting and Exhibition, 2007.
[9] A. Wilkinson, A. DeGenaro, Digging and pushing lunar regolith: classical soil mechanics and the
forces needed for excavation and traction, NASA Glenn Research Center, Cleveland, OH, 2006.
[10] Hettiaratchi, D.R.P, and A. R. Reece, Symmetrical three-dimensional soil failure, Journal of
Terramechanics, Vol. 4, Issue No. 3, 1967, pp. 45-67.
95
ISBN:9788190937634
[11] R. Godwin, G. Spoor, Soil Failure With Narrow Tines, Journal of Agricultural Engineering
Research, Vol. 22, 1977, pp. 213-228.
[12] E. McKyes, O. S. Ali, The Cutting of Soil by Narrow Blades, Journal of Terramechanics, Vol. 14,
Issue No. 2, 1977, pp. 43-58.
[13] R. D. Grisso, Perumpral, C. S. Desai, A soil tool interaction model for narrow tillage tools,
International journal of the American Society of Agricultural Engineering.
96
ISBN:9788190937634
A Review of Compressed Natural Gas as an Alternative Fuel

for Internal Combustion Engines
R. M. Khavdu1 , D. B. Jani2.
1. Student, M.E.(IC/AUTO), Mech. Engg. Dept., L.D. College of Engineering, Ahmedabad.
2. Lecturer in Mech. Engg. Dept., L.D. College of Engineering, Ahmedabad.-380015.
(rmkhavdu@gmail.com)1 . (dbjani@rediffmail.com.)2
Abstract: - Compressed Natural Gas (CNG) is promising alternative fuel to meet the
increasing demand of I.C.Engine fuels and engine exhaust emission regulations in many countries.
The application of CNG as a automobile engines fuel has been considerably advanced over the last
decade by the development of lightweight high-pressure storage cylinders. Compressed Natural Gas
(CNG) is a fossil fuels substitute for petrol, diesel, or LPG. Higher octane rating allows higher
compression ratios and improved thermal efficiency, reducing carbon dioxide emissions. Although its
combustion does produce greenhouse gases, it is a more environmentally clean alternative to
petroleum fuels, and it is much safer than other fuels because Natural Gas is lighter than air,
disperses quickly when released. Natural Gas are increasingly used in the Asia, Europe and America
due to rising gasoline prices. In response to high fuel prices and environmental concerns, CNG is
starting to be used also in buses, trucks and train also. Engine conversion technology is well
established and suitable conversion equipment is readily available. For spark ignition engines there
are two options, a bi-fuel conversion and use a dedicated to CNG engine.
Keywords: Compressed natural gas, Economics, Emission, alternative fuel, engine development
1. Introduction
The petroleum fuels are geographically located in few countries which create a monopoly of
supply. There will be a great demand of fuel in the coming decades due to increases in the numbers
st
of the automobile vehicles. The crude oil and petroleum products sometimes during the 21 century
will become very scared and costly to find and produce. In India and other countries a large
percentages of crude oil must be imported and therefore more money is spend over it which effects
the economy of the country. Automobile exhaust is one of the major sources of air pollution. Some of
the components in exhaust emissions which pose environmental problems are; Carbon monoxide,
Oxides of nitrogen, Unburnt hydrocarbons, Lead, Smoke, Particulate matter and Sulphur dioxide.
These pollutants have varying effects on health of people and some of them have larger impact in
terms of destroying protective ozone layer. The various alternative fuels are.
Alcohol (methyl alcohol and ethyl alcohol)
Hydrogen
Natural Gas
LPG
CNG
LNG
Biogas etc.
Natural gas is a mixture of hydrocarbons consisting of approximately more than 80 per cent
methane in gaseous form. Natural gas is the second most abundant fuel available In India.
Compressed Natural Gas (CNG) is a fossil fuels substitute for petrol, diesel or LPG.
2. Composition of CNG
The compressed natural gas is composed of methane, ethane and propane with other
contaminants. The main constituent of CNG is methane which is minimum 90%. Methanes simple
molecular structure and clean burning characteristics make it one of the most attractive features of the
natural gas vehicles as it has the potential for ultra low exhaust emissions.
Table 1 Typical composition (vol. %) of CNG (source: PETRONAS).
Component Symbol Volumetric %
Methane CH4 94.42
Ethane C2H6 2.29
Propane C3H8 0.03
Butane C4H10 0.25
Carbon dioxide CO2 0.57
Nitrogen N2 0.44
97
ISBN:9788190937634
Others (H2, O2, S, etc.) 2

3. CNG As Fuel For Automotive Vehicles
The octane rating of Natural Gas is about 130, meaning that engines could operate at
compression ratio of up to 16:1 without knock or detonation and improve thermal efficiency by about
10 percent above that for a petrol engine.
As natural gas is lighter than air, it disperses into the atmosphere in the event of sudden
release and does not form a spread pool or vapour cloud at the ground. One unique quality of natural
gas is its narrow range of flammability. In the range below 5 per cent and above 15 per cent, it will not
burn. Also, due to high ignition temperature, simple exposure to hot surface (such as exhaust
manifold) is unlikely to lead to fire.Most importantly, Natural Gas significantly reduces CO2 emissions
by 20-25% compare to gasoline because simple chemical structures of Natural Gas (primarily
methane CH4) contain one Carbon compare to diesel (C15H32) and gasoline (C8H18).
At atmospheric pressure and temperature, Natural Gas exists as a gas and has low density.
Natural Gas is often stored in a compressed state (CNG) at high pressure stored in pressure vessels.
The CNG as a fuel characteristic is shown in Table 2.
Table 2:- CNG fuel characteristics
Sr.no. CNG Characteristics Value
1 Vapor density 0.68
2 Auto Ignition 7000 C
3 Octane rating 130
4 Boiling point (Atm. Press) -1620 C
5 Air-Fuel Ratio (Weight) 17.24
6 Chemical Reaction With Rubber No
7 Storage Pressure 20.6Mpa
8 Fuel Air Mixture Quality Good
9 Pollution ( CO-HC-NOx ) Very Low
10 Flame Speed m per sec 0.63
11 Combustion ability with air 5 - 15%
4. Potential and Barriers

As of 2008 there are worldwide more than 7 million Natural Gas Vehicles (NGVs) on the
roads, with the largest number of NGVs in Argentina, Brazil, Pakistan, Italy, India, China, and Iran,
with South America leading with a global market share of 48%. An appropriate infrastructure along
with the required support from governments will accelerate the growth of LPG and CNG as alternative
fuels globally. Bottlenecks to slow down the development of both LPG and Natural Gas are the
considerably higher capital costs, a lack of appropriate infrastructure for distribution and refueling.
98
ISBN:9788190937634
5. Comparison Of Energy Contains and Economics

The Gross Heating Value For CNG Is 46-49MJ/kg and for LNG 25 MJ/L. The energy
efficiency of engines running on Natural Gas is generally equal to that of gasoline engines, but lower
compared with modern diesel engines.
In order to draw effective comparisons with gasoline or diesel fuel, it is therefore necessary to
determine the energy content: one kilogram of natural gas has an energy content of 13.16 kWh
(kilowatt-hours), one litre of diesel 9.86 kWh and one litre of gasoline 8.77 kWh. This means 1 kg
CNG contains the energy of 1.33 l diesel or 1.5 l gasoline.
In India CNG costs are at Rs. Rs 31.47 per kg compared with Rs. 55.00 per liter of petrol
(prices as per Aug. 2010 in Mumbai, India.) The cost saving is immense along with reduced emissions
and environmentally friendlier cars.
6. Indian Emission Regulations

Since the year 2000, India started adopting European emission and fuel regulations for four-
wheeled light-duty and for heavy-duty vehicles. On October 6, 2003, the National Auto Fuel Policy
has been announced, which envisages a phased program for introducing Euro 2 - 4 emission and fuel
regulations by 2010. The implementation schedule of EURO emission standards in India is
summarized in Table 3
Table 3. Indian Emission Standards (4-Wheel Vehicles)
Standard Reference Date Region

India 2000 Euro 1 2000 Nationwide
Bharat Stage II Euro 2 2001 NCR*, Mumbai, Kolkata, Chennai

2003.04 NCR*, 12 Cities
2005.04 Nationwide
Bharat Stage III Euro 3 2005.04 NCR*, 12 Cities
2010.04 Nationwide
Bharat Stage IV Euro 4 2010.04 NCR*, 12 Cities
* National Capital Region (Delhi)
Mumbai, Kolkata, Chennai, Bengaluru, Hyderabad, Ahmedabad, Pune, Surat, Kanpur, Lucknow,
Sholapur, and Agra
The above standards apply to all new 4-wheel vehicles sold and registered in the respective
regions. In addition, the National Auto Fuel Policy introduces certain emission requirements for
interstate buses with routes originating or terminating in Delhi or the other 10 cities.
Emissions standards for gasoline passenger cars (GVW 2,500 kg; up to 6 seats) are
summarized in Table 4.(The National Auto Fuel Policy).
99
ISBN:9788190937634
Table 4. Emission Standards for Diesel Truck and Bus Engines, g/kWh
Year Reference CO HC NOx PM

1992 - 17.3-32.6 2.7-3.7 - -
1996 - 11.20 2.40 14.4 -
2000 Euro I 4.5 1.1 8.0 0.36*
2005 Euro II 4.0 1.1 7.0 0.15
2010 Euro III 2.1 0.66 5.0 0.10
2010 Euro IV 1.5 0.46 3.5 0.02
* 0.612 for engines below 85 kW
earlier introduction in selected regions and only in selected regions, see Table 1
Natural gas has a much lower carbon (C) content than diesel or gasoline. For this reason,
combustion of natural gas generates significantly lower quantities of carbon monoxide (CO) and
carbon dioxide (CO2) than in the case of diesel or gasoline. It also produces very substantially lower
levels of nitric oxides (NOX), which leads to a significant reduction in the formation of low-level ozone.
The formation of sulphur-dioxide, soot and other particle emissions is almost wholly prevented.
The CNG vehicles are suitable to meet stringent emission norms. The vehicles operated on
Natural Gas emit substantially lesser amounts of pollutants than petroleum powered vehicles. Non-
methane hydrocarbons are reduced by approximately 50%, NOx by 50-87%, CO2 by 20-30%, CO by
70-95%, and the combustion of Natural Gas produces almost no particulate matter. Natural Gas
powered vehicles emit no benzene which is toxins emitted by diesel powered vehicles.
7. CNG Engines Development

The technology of engine conversion is well established and suitable conversion equipment is
readily available. For petrol engines or spark ignition engines there are two options, a bi-fuel
conversion and use a dedicated to CNG engine.
The bi-fuel conversion of vehicles fitted with fuel-injected engines may utilize the original
engine management system, if it can be modified to control the gas flow and revised ignition timing or
alternatively, be fitted with a standard CNG control system. Most of existing compressed natural gas
vehicles use petrol engines, modified by after-market retrofit conversions and retain bi-fuel capability.
Bi-fuelled vehicle conversions generally suffer from a power loss and can encounter drivability
problems, due to the design and/or installation of the retrofit packages.In performance terms the
converted bi-fuel engine will generally have a 15-20 percent maximum power reduction than that for
the petrol version. When a diesel engine conversion is fuelled on gas more engine power can be
obtained due to the excess air available.
Single-fuel vehicles optimized for compressed natural gas are likely to be considerably more
attractive in terms of performance, and somewhat more attractive in terms of cost. A natural gas-
powered, single-fuel vehicle should be capable of similar power, similar or higher efficiency and
mostly lower emissions than an equivalent petrol-fuelled vehicle. Such a vehicle would have a much
shorter driving range unless the fuel tanks are made very large, which would then entail a further
penalty in weight, space, performance and cost.
7.1 Piping for CNG

Piping for CNG refueling facilities must be compatible with natural gas and must be capable
of four times the rated service pressure without failure. Stainless steel seamless tubing is most
commonly used for CNG piping and piping made from plastic, galvanized steel, aluminum, or copper
alloys Threaded and compression-type fittings that do not use gaskets or sealants are allowed. The
threaded pipe may not be used underground.
7.2 CNG fuel kits

The CNG fuel kit is an assembly, which is fitted on a I.C.engine, in order to allow the engine
to run on the Bi-fuel. The kit required for CNG operation generally contains various valves,
100
ISBN:9788190937634
connectors, and gauges. These kits are approved by the Central Motor Vehicle Rules, 1989. Some of
the kits approved for various cars are Transenergy, Landi Renzo, Vialle, Tartarini, AFS, Tomasseto,
BRC, Autogas and Bedini and Zavoli.
Legend:
1. Engine
2. Radiator
3. Heater
4.Carburetor
5.Gasoline tank
6.Gasoline hose
7.Gasoline solenoid valve
8. CNG Cylinder
9. Cylinder valve
10. CNG pipe
11.CNG loading valve
12. CNG reducer
13. CNG solenoid valve
14. CNG hose
15. High regulator
16. Mixer
17. Water hoses
FIGURE No. 2. The schematic diagram of a bi-fuel gasoline vehicle

This schematic diagram shows a standard conversion of a gasoline vehicle to a bi-fuel
gasoline and CNG system. The driver can simply use CNG by flipping the switch. The gasoline
electro-valve is not energized and the gasoline fuel flow is interrupted. The natural gas flows with high
pressure from the CNG cylinder to the first reducer heated stage, where the pressure is reduced. The
CNG solenoid valve is still not energized and the gas flow is stopped. When the motor is activated the
electronic control energizes and opens the gas electro valve between the second and third reducer
stage, immediately the gas flows with a negative pressure through the gas hose and the high
regulator toward the mixer installed in the carburetor. The gas is then blended with the air at the
same time that is given to the engine according to the power demand.
The CNG reducer should be heated to avoid freezing due to the decompression made in the
first stage. For the heating process, the reducer is provided water by a circuit connected through the
hoses to the engine cooling system. The best connection is the one that is carried out interleaving the
reducer in the vehicle heating system. If the vehicle does not provide heating, this connection will be
made in the hoses that go from the engine to the radiator. When the driver wishes to use gasoline,
flipping the switch back to the appropriate position, the CNG solenoid valve located in the reducer is
not energized. The gasoline solenoid valve will be energized and will let the gasoline flow to the
carburetor, allowing the normal operation of the gasoline system.
8. Advantages of CNG
The compressed natural gas motivated by the economic, emissions and strategic advantages
of alternative fuels.
The absence of any lead or benzene content in CNG.
CNG vehicle have lower maintenance costs and quiet operation.
No evaporation losses.
CNG does not contaminate and dilute the crankcase oil and increased life of lubricating oils.
It is safe in operation.
CNG is a cleaner fuel than either gasoline or diesel as far as emissions are concerned.
Low cost as compared to either gasoline or diesel.
It is odorless, non-toxic and will not contaminate groundwater if spilled.
9 Disadvantages of CNG
101
ISBN:9788190937634
CNG vehicles require a greater amount of space for fuel storage.

Natural gas must be compressed and stored on the vehicle at high pressure - 200 bar and
Much heavier fuel tank.
Low energy density results in low engine performance and loss of efficiency.
Low engine volumetric efficiency because it is a gaseous fuel.
Refueling is a low process compared to petrol and diesel.
CNG gas stations are not widely spread in India.
Higher vehicle capital cost and Short driving range.
10. Conclusions
CNG is a popular and promising environment-friendly alternative fuel due to its clean burning
characteristics. CNG is attractive for five reasons. It is the only fuel cheaper than gasoline or diesel. It
has inherently lower air pollution emissions. It has lower greenhouse gas emissions. Its use extends
petroleum supplies, and there are large quantities of the fuel available in the world. There are several
major problems needed to be solved when using natural gas engines, there is the set point for the
best compromise between emissions and fuel economy is not clear, the optimum airfuel ratio
changes with both operating conditions and fuel properties. Lake of infratructur development.
11. References.
[1] Semin, Abdul Rahim Ismail and Rosli Abu Bakar, Diesel Engine Convert to Port Injection CNG
Engine Using Gaseous Injector Nozzle Multi Holes Geometries Improvement: A Review 2009.
[2] A.K.Purwaha, CNG Developments An Indian Experience. 23rd World Gas Conference,
Amsterdam 2006.
[3] Tom.Palmer, Nicholas.Hill, Johannes.Von Liquid Petroleum Gas and Natural Gas Internal
Combustion Engines June 2009.
[4] Ming Yang and Terry Kraft-Oliver, Compressed Natural Gas Vehicles: Motoring Towards a
Cleaner Beijing. Applied Energy, Vol. 56, Nos 3/4, pp. 395405, 1997.
[5] Tom.Palmer, Nicholas.Hill, Johannes.Von, ENERGY TECHNOLOGY SYSTEM ANALYSIS

PROGRAM- June 2009
[6] Md. Ehsan and Shafiquzzaman Bhuiyan, Dual Fuel Performance of a Small Diesel Engine for
Applications with Less Frequent Load Variations 2010.
[7] Semin, Rosli Abu Bakar, A Technical Review of Compressed Natural Gas as an Alternative Fuel
for Internal Combustion Engines, Am. J. Engg. & Applied Sci., 1 (4): 302-311, 2008. Science
Publications.
102
ISBN:9788190937634
Estimation of Heat Transfer Coefficient over Tube Bundle

using CFD
Nirav R. Bhavsar1*, Prof. A.N.Jejurkar2
1
P.G. student of Parul Institute of Engineering and Technology, Limda-391760, Waghodia,
Gujarat, India
2
Parul Institute of Engineering and Technology, Limda-391760, Waghodia, Gujarat, India
*
Corresponding author (e-mail: er_niravbhavsar@yahoo.co.in)
Shell and tube heat exchangers are the most often used apparatuses in energy and
chemical process engineering plants because of their relatively simple construction
and the multi-purpose application possibilities for gaseous and fluid media in a very
large temperature and pressure range. In recent years, investigations of the flow and
heat transfer processes at the shell side are of special interest in order to improve the
accuracy of prediction of heat exchanger performance and to optimize these heat
exchangers. The analysis of the two-dimensional fluid flow and heat transfer around a
double row of tubes in a shell is performed numerically. Due to its fundamental
significance and practical importance, local and average heat transfer and pressure
drop characteristics of tube bundle layouts have been paid great attention for different
mass flow rates.
1. Introduction
Cross-flow over tube banks is generally encountered in practice in heat transfer

equipments such as the evaporators and condensers of power plants, air conditioners,
refrigerators. In such equipment, one fluid moves through the tubes while the other moves
over the tubes in a perpendicular direction.
Number of experimental and numerical investigations has been conducted on the flow and
heat transfer for a single tube or tube banks (bundles). In case of the experimental studies,
many previous works mainly concerned with overall heat transfer through the banks (Pierson,
1937; Huge, 1937 ; Grimison, 1937). ukauskas (1972) reviewed flow and heat transfer
characteristics for a single cylinder and tube banks. Further Achenbach (1989) measured the
integral and local heat transfer from only one staggered tube bank at high Reynolds numbers
(Re105), and investigated the locations of boundary layer separation and transition to
turbulence. Aiba et al. (1982) measured the heat transfer coefficients, velocity profile and
turbulence intensity around tubes for in-line and staggered arrangements of tube banks in the
Reynolds number of 104 to 6 x 104, and discussed the heat transfer characteristics
concerning to the fluid flow behavior. Kim et al. (2000) experimentally studied the effect of
scale roughness, cylinders spacing and Reynolds number on the heat transfer around only
the third cylinder in the staggered tube banks. Merker and Hanke (1986) performed mass
transfer experiments using the naphthalene sublimation technique for the shell side of tube
banks having oval shaped tubes, but obtained only average Sherwood numbers. Most of the
numerical studies have been carried out at relatively low Reynolds numbers as it is difficult to
predict exact flow and heat transfer around cylinders due to complex flow phenomena. Park
et al (1998) simulated the flow past a circular cylinder at Reynolds numbers up to 160, and
compared their results with the previous experimental and numerical results. Buyruk et al.
(1998) numerically studied flow and heat transfer on a single cylinder as a function of
blockage ratio for Reynolds numbers of 120 and 390. Buyruk (2002) predicted the heat
transfer characteristics in tube banks with tube arrangement and flow condition at low
Reynolds numbers below 4 x 102.
When fluids pass through tube banks, complex flow phenomena such as stagnation,
separation, reattachment, vortex formation or recirculation affect the local heat transfer
characteristics. In complicated flow situations, it is very difficult to measure local heat transfer
coefficients by conventional heat transfer measurements. In the study, water is employed to
103
ISBN:9788190937634
measure the local heat transfer coefficients, and they are converted to their counterpart of
heat transfer process using the heat/mass transfer method. In heat transfer experiments,
measured data generally include conduction and radiation losses. But here, these errors are
eliminated and more detailed data tried to be obtained.
The purpose of this study is to investigate the local and average heat transfer
characteristics at various tube spacing, tube locations and Reynolds numbers for inline and
staggered tube banks in cross-flow. The empirical correlations for average heat transfer are
obtained by integrating the local heat transfer coefficients and they are compared with the
conventional heat transfer correlations.
2. Fundamental Equations
2.1 For Staggered Tube Layout:
As per A. A. Zhukauskas and R. V. Ulinskas:-
Nu = 0.35( ) <2 Eq-1
Nu = 0.4 Re0.6Pr0.33, >2 Eq.2
As per V. K. Migai and E. V. Firsova:-
Nu = 0.312 10.23 2-1.048 Re0.6 Pr0.33 Eq.3

For 2 >1.13 and 1<3
Nu = 0.343 10.23 2-0.864 Re0.6 Pr0.33 Eq.4

For 2 >1.13 and 1<3
Nu = 0.386 10.00 2-0.148 Re0.6 Pr0.33 Eq.5

For 1 >3
In-line tube bundles did not depend on their pitch characteristics. Thus, N.V.
Kuznetsovs formula
Nu = 0.2 Re0.64 Pr0.33 Eq.6
and A.A. Zhukauskas formula
Nu = 0.27 Re0.63 Pr0.36 Eq.7
2.2 Generalized equations
Nud = 1.13Cq Redm Pr0.33 Eq.8
Where,
M = 0.7 + 0.08 tanhX + 0.005 Eq.9
Cq = (1.36 tanhX) [{1.1/(+8)} 0.014] Eq.10
where is the finning ratio, X is the bundle shape parameter that takes into account the
bundle arrangement features and is given by the following expressions for staggered and
inline bundles, respectively:
Xst = - -2 Eq.11
104
ISBN:9788190937634
3 Problem Definition
This problem considers a 2D section of a tube bank. A schematic of the problem is shown in
Figure below. The bank consists of uniformly spaced tubes with a diameter of 1 cm; they are
staggered in the direction of cross fluid flow. Their centers are separated by a distance of 2
cm in the X direction, and 1 cm in the y direction. The bank has a depth of 1 m. Because of
the symmetry of the tube bank geometry, only a portion of the domain needs to be modeled.
The computational domain is shown in outline in Figure. A mass flow rate of 0.05 kg/s is
applied to the inflow boundary of the periodic module. The temperature of the tube wall (Twall)
is 400 K and the bulk temperature of the cross-flow water (Tb) is 300 K. The properties of
water that are used in the model are shown in Figure.
= 998.2 kg/m3, = 0.001003 kg/ms, cp = 4182 J/kgK, k = 0.6 W/mK
Fig. 1 Tube bank Layout
Figure 1 Tube bank Layout
4 Place of ANSYS Performance:
Ansys Lab., Mechanical Engineering Dept. Parul Institute of Engg. & Technology, Limda,
Waghodia.
5 Working Conditions
Here the tube layout has been considered as staggered 2cm x 2cm (Fig. 1). Incident mass
flow rate of shell side fluid (Water) is 0.05kg/s. The inlet and outlet boundaries of the control
volume are considered as periodic flow boundaries as the mass flow of fluid to the shell side
repeatedly flow from cold junction to hot junction over the tube bank.
6 Procedure
First of all mesh generated in Gambit. Then .msh file imported in Ansys and checked the
mesh grid. As the region around the tube is more critical, the quadrilateral elements have
been used for higher precision and remaining region has been containing triangular elements
thus hybrid mesh is generated in the domain. Then made the inlet and outlet boundaries
periodic as the mass flow of fluid to the shell side repeatedly flow over the tube bank. Then I
defined the material of the tube wall and its wall temperature. Then material defined to the
shell side fluid and its bulk temperature.
Then applied the boundary conditions as per the given problem definition.Then I
defined the windows to plot the different required parameters.
105
ISBN:9788190937634
This data is saved as .cas file. Then iterations were initiated. The calculations
converged in 580 iterations for aforesaid condition
Figure 2 Mesh generation
. The graph of the temperature contour of shell side fluid is appeared in Fig. 3 and the
temperature at different locations in control volume is plotted in Fig. 4.
Figure 3 Contour of Static Temperature around tube bank
Figure 4 Iso-surface Static Temperature at distance X= 0.01, 0.02 and 0.03 m respectively.
Likewise the local static temperatures and corresponding static temperature contours are
obtained for different mass flow rates and local Nusselt Number are obtained for the
estimation and prediction purpose.
7 Conclusion
The variation of the local heat transfer coefficients is quite different from the first tube to the
third tube, but they are similar afterwards. The heat transfer decrease can be analyzed and
106
ISBN:9788190937634
observed that heat transfer coefficient variation. Average Nusselt number on second tube
increases more than first tube and on third tube increases more than second tube.
References
1. Fundamentals of Heat Exchanger Design by R.K.Shah.

2. Heat Exchanger Design Handbook by T. Kuppan.
3. Heat Exchangers Selection, Rating, Design by Sadik Kakac.
4. Process Heat Transfer by Searth.
5. A Universal Relation for Calculating Convective Heat Transfer in Transversely
Streamlined Bundles of Smooth Tubes by E. N. Pismennyi (2010).
6. Heat Exchange of a Bank of Tubes in the Transverse Flow by V. Yu. Semenov, A.
I. Smorodin, and V. K. Orlov.
7. A Numerical Study for the Three-Dimensional Fluid Flow Past Tube Banks and
Comparison with PIV Experimental Data by Man Yeong Ha, Seung-Hyeon Kim,
Kyung Chun Kim (2004).
8. Modeling Periodic Flow and Heat Transfer Ansys Tutorial, Case-2
9. Effect of tube pitch on heat transfer in shell-and-tube heat exchangersnew
simulation software by A. Karno S. Ajib
10. A Universal Relation for Calculating Convective Heat Transfer in Transversely
Streamlined Bundles of Smooth Tubes by E. N. Pismennyi (2010)
107
ISBN:9788190937634
ADVANCEMENT IN DESIGN AND DEVELOPMENT OF

EXPANDABLE MOBILE SHELTER FOR DEFENCE APPLICATION
D R Makwana1, A P Khode2, M W Trikande3
1,2,3,
Vehicles Research and Development Establishment,
DRDO, Ministry of Defence, Vahannagar, Ahmednagar - 414 006
(Email: drmakwana@vrde.drdo.in)
In a modern world of international crises, rapid deployment is critical, with portable

shelter playing an increasingly important role. Todays forces need military shelters that
are easy to transport, quick to install, tactical, and re-deployable. The Expandable Mobile
Shelter (EMS) designed by VRDE is engineered to meet these specific needs. Built
within the footprint of an ISO shipping container, the EMS can be easily transported for
quick deployment in affected areas. With the ability to pre-wire and pre-plumb fixed
mechanical and electrical systems, the shelter facilitates rapid on-site set-up. In addition
to this, the EMS is equipped with EMI shielding. The EMS can be expanded up to three
times a normal shelter to provide extra working space to the occupants.
1 INTRODUCTION
Shelter is a container like enclosure which can be used for various roles. Expandable Mobile
Shelter (EMS) offers a comfortable and spacious working environment with ease of transportation,
quick deployment and more working space compared to normal shelter. The EMS is designed with
foldable panel type mechanism on both sides. Proper sealing between the foldable panels enables
the EMS for EMI protection. The EMS with a size of 6m x 2.4m x 2.4m in folded condition could be
very useful for Army and paramilitary forces. EMS is equipped with Air conditioning and BC ventilation
system. The design of components like pallet structure, sandwich panel& expandable floor support is
very vital for protection against EMI. This shelter can replace 3 normal shelters as it can be expanded
up to 3 times the normal shelter.
2 BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF EXPANDABLE MOBILE SHELTER
EMS consists of eight ISO corner blocks located at eight corners. For a normal shelter all the
dimensions are fixed hence internal working space can not be increased during operation.
Considering limitation of normal shelter a new concept of EMS is realised. The idea behind
developing such type of shelter was to create more working space in field & reduce logistics.
Expandable shelter offers a comfortable and spacious working environment. VRDE has designed &
developed EMS which can give almost three times extra working space inside by expanding panels
on both side at the time of working.
Using 5 foldable panels on each side & using foldable panel type mechanism, side expansion
can be carried out. This can be deployed directly on the ground during use. During transportation of
the shelter, in folded condition the shelter is like conventional shelter and loaded on 6x6 class vehicles
chassis. EMS system provides a wide range of solution for mobile infrastructure.
The EMS fabricated out of Aluminium material and sandwich panel construction. Both the
sides are made of foldable side, floor, roof and end panels. These panels after unfolding and locking
can form a room for extra working space. The EMS is having the fixed floor, roof and front and rear
panel. The both side of the shelter has foldable panels which can be unfolded and expanded on both
side of the shelter. In folded condition the shelter will appear like conventional shelter and loaded on
6x6 class vehicles chassis. This can be mounted and demounted on vehicle in short span of time and
transported from one place to other place very easily.
The shelter is having the facility for fitment of equipments, and having air conditioning units,
and air filtration units. This facility provides comfortable environment & protects from dust, storm, sun
& rain.
In collapsed condition the dimension and size of shelter is like an ISO standard shelter and it
can be transported through road, rail, air and ship.
108
ISBN:9788190937634
3 SALIENT FEATURES OF EMS
The dimensions of EMS are 6 m length x 2.4 m width x 2.4 m height in folded condition during
transport. In folded condition the shelter will be like conventional shelter & loaded on 6 x 6 class
vehicle chassis. The same shelter is 6 m length x 5.82 m width x 2.4 m height after deployment.
EMS fabricated out of Aluminium material & sandwich panel construction. The total weight of
EMS without equipments is approx 2.5 ton.
The EMS is having fixed floor, roof, front & rear panel. The both side of the shelter are having
the foldable panels which can be unfolded & expanded on both side of the shelter. The EMS has
lifting mechanism for opening & closing of panels.
This shelter is EMI shielded in expandable condition.
This EMS has MIL grade Air Condition system of 3TR capacity qty 2 nos.
3
EMS has BC protection system 225 m /h qty 2 nos. This BC system can be used for intake of
fresh air through filters to fulfil requirements of approx. 8-10 air changes per hour.
The shelter can be used for various purposes like, Command & control intelligence posts,
Field hospital, Operation theatre, Room & offices, Mobile maintenance facilities, Seminar hall, Radio
station, Radar/weapon control centre, Satellite communication station & Repair shop etc.
4 CONFIGURATION OF EMS
The EMS is divided into two compartments i.e. working compartment (Air Conditioned
compartment) and non-working compartment (non Air Conditioned compartment). The partition panel
is provided in the container to form these two compartments. The working compartment can house all
type of equipments. A superior finishing is maintained by inside colouring, vinyl flooring, flush tube
lights, fans and other fitments in the working compartment. Non-AC compartment will house AC units,
air filtration system and electrical control panels, cables etc.
Working compartment is expandable type. Foldable type panel mechanism is provided on
both the sides. In this type of configuration, the folded panels are unfolded to form roof, sides & floor
by means of hinge and locking arrangement. In closed condition, the panels are folded and locked.
This creates working space in both sides as shown in figure 3.
FOLDABLE
ROOF PANEL
FOLDABLE
SIDE PANEL
REAR DOOR
FOLDABLE FOLDABLE
REAR PANEL FLOOR PANEL
FOLDABLE
ROOF PANEL
NON-WORKING AIR SPRING

COMPARTMENT FOLDABLE
SIDE PANEL
AC SYSTEM
WORKING COMPARTMENT FOLDABLE 1934

NBC SYSTEM
FLOOR PANEL
FOLDABLE
REAR PANEL
REAR DOOR
Figure 1: Sketch of EMS
Expandable shelter consists of integration of various technologies.

i. Pallet Structure
ii. Sandwich panels
iii. Foldable panels mechanism
iv. Support system and stabiliser
v. Locking system for panels
vi. EMI Shielding & Environmental sealing
vii. Mechanism for opening and closing of panels
viii. Air Conditioning system
109
ISBN:9788190937634
ix. BC ventilation system

4.1 Pallet structure
This is one of the most important structures of the shelter. This is actual load carrying
structure of the shelter. All the sandwich panels are connected to the pallet member by using
aluminium angles & hinges. This structure is having eight ISO corner blocks welded at eight corners.
(figure 4)
Figure 2: Pallet structure
4.2 Sandwich panel
Panels form the side of the shelter. These are of sandwich type construction. In this
polyurethane foam insulation along with aluminium grid structure is sandwiched in between aluminium
alloy monolithic sheets. Grid structure is made out of aluminium alloy sections. Sheet is bonded with
grid structure and core material as inner & outer sheet. This construction is called as sandwich panel
construction. The Shelter panel members are of composite material for high strength, thermal
insulation and light weight property.
Figure 3: Sandwich panel
The panels like side panel, roof panel, floor panel, front panels have been made separately
and fixed with pallet structure. These panels are integrated to the pallet by means of screws, rivets
and other fasteners and thus achieve kitable construction of the container. There are different
methods depending upon type of bonding used for creating sandwich panels.
Hot bonding method
Vacuum bag bonding method
Injection moulding method
The monolithic Aluminium sheet along with polyurethane foam (PUF) and grid structure using
the bonding technique will act as integrated load bearing member. (figure 5) The cuts/openings are
provided in these panels for windows, door, fitment of AC units and other requirements.
4.3 Expandable floor support system:
Hinge connections are used between the panels of folding and unfolding operation. In
expandable condition foldable floor panel of shelter is resting on the pallet with hinge support and the
other end of shelter being free. The free end is supported by 3 foldable support arms attached to the
pallet, in addition to the three outriggers and two telescopic arms at the ends.
110
ISBN:9788190937634
Figure 4: Floor support system
4.4 Locking system of panels
Proper locking arrangement provided after expansion of the panel. This locking tightens
enough so that there is no any gap in between panels for achievement of EMI shielding. Locking
provided on this panel when folded during transport mode.
4.5 EMI sealing & environmental sealing
Electronic equipments are prone to extraneous Electro Magnetic Interference (EMI) and
malfunction or get permanently damaged depending upon the electrical field intensity. To protect
these equipments from extraneous EMI and to give a reliable system for field application, the shelter
is protected from EMI. To get the required shielding effectiveness as per MIL STD requirements, the
shelter is made out of 1.6 mm thick Aluminium sheet of continuous length. EMI gaskets all along the
door, honeycomb air vent panels for shielding at the air inlet and outlet, EMI shielded see through
glasses for windows are provided.
The power cables have been routed inside the container through EMI shielded power
connector and EMI filter box.
There are two types of sealing provided in the shelter - EMI sealing & environmental sealing.
An electromagnetic interference shielding shelter basically consists of highly conductive metallic
barrier (EMI sealing) completely surrounding a given space, and covers that presents minimum
resistance to any current flowing through it. Environmental sealing is provided in shelter to protect EMI
sealing through weather conditions.
4.6 Mechanism for opening and closing of panels
Gas spring sustain roof panel during opening condition as well as it helps opening and closing
roof panel.
Winch mechanism is used for closing and opening of foldable floor panels. EMS has
motorised & manually operated winch.
5 FINITE ELEMENT ANALYSIS OF EMS
Finite element modelling and analysis (FEA) is of paramount importance in design of

complicated structures. As EMS involves integration of different mechanical systems like sandwich
panels, hinges, support systems and mechanisms, the EMS design was required to be validated.
FEA of EMS in unfolded and folded condition is carried out. The shelter structural member
sizes are optimised. Hinge pins & support brackets are analysed for its structural adequacy. Following
load cases are simulated.
UD Load and Concentrated Load
Wind load as per IS standard
Lifting of shelter by using eye bolts (45)
Flat drop test
111
ISBN:9788190937634
Figure 5: FE model of shelter
6 OPERATION SEQUENCE OF EMS
Figure 6: Operation sequence of EMS
7 ADVANTAGES OF EMS
This shelter provides more working space approximate 3 times as compared with normal
shelter
This shelter can be transported in foldable condition through rail, road and by air.
Environmental comfort
More economical
112
ISBN:9788190937634
8 TECHNICAL TRIALS
Technical trials of vehicle along with EMS are carried out at National Center for Automotive
Testing (NCAT), VRDE, Ahmednagar to confirm the strength, rigidity and performance of the shelter
after trial.
Technical trials like brake test, gradeability, driving rain test, safe turning speed at minimum
TCD, endurance running were carried out.
After the running trials, the shelter was again operated and confirmed their operational
readiness.
9 FURTHER IMPROVEMENTS
To reduce deployment time EMS can be expanded on the vehicle it self. For this purpose
vehicle stays has been designed and developed. Shelter was successfully deployed on the vehicle.
(Fig 20)
Opening and closing mechanism of foldable floor panel is done motorised which helps in
reducing deployment time.
Also lifters are attached to four corners of the shelter. This arrangement helps in elimination of
the crane while deploying the shelter on the ground.
Figure 7: EMS deployed on vehicle
10 CONCLUSION
Vehicle Research & Development Establishment (VRDE), Ahmednagar has undertaken a

program to develop an Expandable Mobile Shelter for futuristic Defence & other requirements. The
advantage of expandable shelter is that offers high mobility, more working space in field and reduces
logistics. Expandable units offer a comfortable and spaces working environment. The Shelter platform
is designed for as EMI protection. Seals were used between the foldable panel members. The
foldable panels have hinge connection and have a proper support in un-foldable condition to take the
load with minimum deformation.
11 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The author expresses his sincere gratitude to Shri CP Ramanarayanan, Director, VRDE,
Ahmednagar for according permission to present this paper and valuable guidance. Any views
expressed in this paper are those of the authors not necessary those of VRDE, Ahmednagar.
12 REFERENCE
[1] D Pandurengan, Role of vehicle mounted operation theatre complex & wards in Disaster
management, World congress on natural disaster mitigation proceedings, Volume-2, Institution of
Engineers (India), February 2004, p498-505
[2] Davies JM, Light weight sandwich panel construction
[3] ISO standard handbook: Freight container Geneve ISO, Switzerland.
[4] Ashby M.F, Metal Foams: A design guide
113
ISBN:9788190937634
Numerical Analysis of Oil fired furnace flow through

different vane Swirlers
Jignesh R Vala1
P.G Student in Faculty of Technology & Engineering, The M. S. University of

Baroda, Gujarat, India
*
Corresponding author (e-mail: jignesh.r.vala@gmail.com )
The present work reports a computational study of steady flow through van Swirlers for
various vane angles from 15 to 60 in steps of 15. Three-dimensional flow within the flow
geometry and through the swirler have been simulated by means of computational fluid
dynamics (CFD) using the code ANSYS. Turbulence has been modelled using Reynoldss
Stress Model (RSM). Already available experimental measurements have been used for
validating the numerical predictions. It is seen that the predicted results agree quite closely
with experiments. Also it is seen that the RSM seems to be appropriate for swirling flows,
especially for flows with high swirl, as in the case of gas turbine combustors.
1. INTRODUCTION
Swirling jets are used as a means of controlling flames in combustion chambers

and have also found application in various types of spray driers and burners. When rotating
motion is imparted to a fluid upstream of an orifice, the flow emerging from the orifice has
a tangential velocity component in addition to the axial and radial components of velocity
encountered in non-swirling jets. The presence of the swirl, results in the setting up of radial
and axial pressure gradients, which in turn influence the flow field. In case of strong swirl,
the adverse axial pressure gradient is sufficiently large to result in reverse flow along the
axis and hence setting up of an internal re-circulation zone. Swirl flows can be characterized
by means of a non-dimensional number called the swirl number, S. It is defined as the ratio
of axial flux of swirl momentum (G ) divided by axial flux of axial momentum (Gx) times the
equivalent nozzle radius.
S= (G ) / (Gx)*R
Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) is the analysis of systems involving fluid

flow, heat transfer and associated phenomena, such as, chemical reactions by means of
computer- based simulation. The technique is very powerful and spans a wide range of
industrial and non- industrial applications. Design methods based on CFD have the
potential to become truly predictive design tools capable of assessing important
parameters, such as, flow through swirlers in combustors, before a prototype is built.
Such a predictive capability represents the cost-effective step away from the current build
and bust design approach. In the present work, the flow through vane swirlers has been
studied by means of the CFD code ANSYS. Wall static pressure and velocity field
downstream of the swirler have been predicted. The predicted results have been compared
with the available experimental results from the literature.
2. OBJECTIVES
The main objectives of the present study are:

to predict the flow through a vane swirler, with the geometry of the swirler being
modelled and by presenting the boundary conditions upstream of the swirler;
analyze the mean flow field;
to study the effects of vane angle on the flow field; and
to compare the prediction with available experimental results.
114
ISBN:9788190937634
3. COMPUTATIONAL METHODOLOGY
In CFD simulations, consistently accurate results can be obtained only by

applying a complete computational methodology to the problem at hand. The
computational methodology applied here consists of four steps. The four tasks involved are:
(a) Modelling of the geometry;
(b) Meshing the flow geometry;
(c) Solving the flow equations using the CFD software; and
(d) Post processing of the predicted results.
3.1 COMPUTATIONAL DOMAIN
The geometry under consideration for the current study is shown in Figure 1. The
model is a simplified one-fifth scale model of the oil-fired furnace. The model has a square
cross- section 7.87 inch wide. In order to give fully developed jets the model was made of
48.03 inch long pipe and a further 72.04 inch long pipe was attached to prevent any reversal
of flow from the atmosphere into the chamber at high swirl intensities. The entry to the
square cross-section was through a pipe of diameter 3.85 inch and a length of 7.87 inch. At
the end of the pipe a vane swirler was fixed. The vane swirler was designed to give
reasonable overlap7.
Figure 1 Geometry under consideration
Figure 2 Vane design details
The details of the design are shown in Figure 2. There are eight vanes 0.6 mm thick. The
vanes are symmetrical and the trailing edges of the vanes do not lie in the plane of the hub
exit. The angle subtended by a vane at the axis, when viewed in the axial direction is 75.
giving an overlap of 30 between the adjacent vanes. The inlet velocity to the swirler is
12.0 m/s.
3.2 ASSUMPTIONS AND BOUNDARY CONDITIONS
The flow is assumed to be steady, isothermal, incompressible and turbulent.

Buoyancy effects are negligible. The inlet boundary condition chosen is velocity inlet and
was given a fixed value of about 12 m/s and temperature of 300 K. turbulence parameters
like turbulence kinetic energy and turbulence dissipation rate were specified from given
velocity and turbulence intensity of 5%. At the exit, the boundary condition chosen was
pressure outlet with turbulence intensity of 1%. Wall boundary condition has been used for
near wall effects.
115
ISBN:9788190937634
3.3 GEOMETRY AND GRID GENERATION
First a three-dimensional vane swirler was created with appropriate vane angle
using the pre-processor GAMBIT available in the CFD package ANSYS. Along with the
swirler the geometry of flow was also modelled. Three-dimensional unstructured grid was
employed to analyze the flow through the swirler. The mesh was generated using T-grid
option, which created a mesh that consisted primarily of tetrahedral mesh elements in
addition to hexahedral pyramidal and wedge mesh elements. The number of grid cells lies
between 351778 cells and 562170 depending upon the swirl angle.
Grid generation Boundary Condition for inlet
4. RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
The predicted results were compared with the experimental results of Mathur and
Maccallum9. In the figures the solid lines represent the predicted values while the symbols
represent the experimental values taken from reference9.
4.1 Wall Static Pressures
Figure shows the comparison of predicted wall static pressure with measured
values. It can be seen that the wall static pressure peaks at a particular point in the
downstream and then drops.
Wall static Pressure
116
ISBN:9788190937634
As the angle of swirler increases the magnitude of this peak value of the static pressure also
increases and the point where it peaks advances towards upstream with increase in swirl
angle. If the flow field is analyzed carefully, it can be easily noticed that the peak occurs
where the flow start attaching with the wall. With increase in vane angle the flow spreads fast
because of increase in tangential velocity and attachment length from the swirler to
decreases.
4.2 Axial Velocity
The predicted axial velocity distribution has been compared with experimental
results for 15, 30, 45 and 60 vane Swirlers in Figure.
X- axis: Velocity, m/s; Y-axis: Width of Liner, m; : Theoretical; : Experimental
15 Swirler 30 Swirler
With 15 vanes, there is no central re-circulation as velocity magnitude in the central zone
has only positive values of velocity even close to the swirler exit (0.0254 m). In the 30
case, a re-circulation zone with negative velocity, called the central re-circulation zone,
develops which is mainly responsible for flame stabilization. In the 45 swirling flow the width
of the re-circulation zone increased compared to the previous case and the largest width
was for the 60 swirl angle. Thus, the vane angle has the predominant effect on the central
circulation zone.
117
ISBN:9788190937634
4.3 Velocity Vectors
Figure shows the velocity vectors on a plane just at the exit of the swirler
perpendicular to the direction of flow. The swirling actions can be clearly seen in the
figures. The swirling action increases with vane angle. The existence of an annular swirl
region and a central core can also be seen. This core gradually increases with increase in
swirl. In case of very high swirl say 45 and 60 swirlers the annular region, inner core and
outer regions can be seen distinctly, especially close to the swirler exit. It could be seen
that with increase in vane angle intensity of swirl increases which will help mixing and flame
stabilization in gas turbine combustors.
Velocity Vector Flow Field
118
ISBN:9788190937634
The flow field features for 15, 30, 45 and 60 swirl conditions are shown in the
Figure It is observed that there is a small central re-circulation region behind the hub. Also,
corner vortices are seen in the sudden expansion region. For weak swirl, the annular flow
emanating from the swirler merges into a single jet stream and consequently the central
re-circulation zone is not present.
It can be seen that the divergence of flow from the axis is maximum for 60 swirl. It
is very nicely depicted that for weak swirl the central re-circulation is very small whereas it is
large for strong swirl with the existence of a re-circulation bubble. The figures show that
only the hub effect predominates in weak swirls. For the 30 swirler, the central re-
circulation zone extends to a larger distance and flow coming out of the vane slowly
diverges. For strong swirls like 45 the re-circulation bubble is well marked due to flow
divergence, which is expected. This is very important from the view point of flame
stabilization for which a good re-circulation zone is required so that
fuel can be injected and burnt in this zone. As the swirl angle increases the re-circulation
zone increases but so does the pressure losses, as there will be an increase in blockage.
CONCLUSION
Based on the studies carried out and the validation that has been performed it can be
concluded that the present RSM is able to handle swirling flows nicely, especially swirls
caused by high swirler vane angles. On comparison of the cases that were run using RSM
model, i.e., for the 15, 30, 45 and 60 the experimental and predicted values matches
very closely. Hence, it is concluded that RSM can be recommended for analysis of swirling
flows.
REFERENCES
[1] A Rahim, S V Veeravalli and S N Singh. Effect on Inlet Swirl and Dump-
gap on the Wall Pressure Distribution of a Model Can-combustor. Indian Journal of
Engineering and Material Sciences, vol 9, December 2002, pp 472-479.
[2] J E Drewry. Fluid Dynamic Characteristics of Sudden Expansion

Ramjet Combustor Flow Fields. AIAA Journal, vol 16, 1978, pp 313-319.
[3] S Hogg and M A Leschziner. Computation of Highly Swirling Confined Flow with a
Reynolds Stress Turbulence Model. AIAA Journal, vol 27, 1989, pp 57-63.
[4] V Ganesan. Re-circulation and Turbulence Studies in an Isothermal Model of a Gas

Turbine Combustor Chamber. Ph D Thesis, IIT Madras, Chennai, 1974.
[5] P Koutmos and J J McGuirk. Isothermal Flow in a Gas Turbine a

Benchmark Expt Study. Experiments in Fluids, vol 7, 1989, pp 344-354.
[6] S V Patankar. Numerical Heat Transfer and Fluid Flow. Hemisphere Publication, 1980.
[7] K Rao and J Doy. A Note on Turbulent Swirling Flows. AIAA Journal, vol 16, 1978, p
409.
[8] M L Mathur. A New Design of Vanes for Swirl Generation. Semi

Annual Paper Meeting, Institution of Engineers, Banglore July 1974.
[9] M L Mathur and N R L Maccallum. Swirling Air Issuing from Vane Swirlers. Part 1: Free
Jets. Journal of the Institute of Fuel, May 1967, pp 214-225.
119

ISBN:9788190937634
Analysis of downtime cost parameters for plant maintenance
management
Anil Sharma1*, G. S. Yadava2 and S. G. Deshmukh3
1
ITMMEC, IIT Delhi, New Delhi-110016, India
2
Lingayas University, Faridabad-121002, India
3
ABV-IIITM Gwalior, Gwalior-474010 India
*
Corresponding author (e-mail: aniliitd@gmail.com)
Maintenance is viewed as value adding activity in organizations business profit,
instead of bottom less pit for the expenses. In the present paper, downtime cost (DTC)
model has been presented. The contribution of DTC for plant management has been
discussed. The impact of DTC and some critical observations have been made. The
paper concludes with the impact of DTC on maintenance optimization.
1 Introduction
The maintenance is a combination of all the technical, administrative and managerial
actions during the life cycle of an item intended to keep it in, or restore it to a state in which
it can perform the required function, (CEN/TC 319). Maintenance decisions revolve around
the costs and therefore it is necessary to analyse the maintenance related costs. Pascual et
al., [1], proposed a detailed classification of maintenace activity related cost. Author
classified the cost into two groups, i.e. the first one was direct (intervention) costs, which
includes, cost due to maintenance operation, administrative cost, labor cost, material cost,
subcontracting cost and outsourcing cost. The other cost was, lost production cost, which
includes loss due machine failures and inferior quality production, due to malfunctioning of
equpment.
Downtime (DT) defines the time interval during which plant/machine is in a downstate,
linking downtime of the individual to the plant overall functioning. A downstate could be
characterized either by a fault or by possible inability to perform a required function during the
maintenance activity [2,3]. Downtime cost (DTC) is a method of recording and analysing all
costs associated with machine downtime in production, processing or manufacturing facility. It
provides a way to assign time and/or monetary value to stoppages in a complete and true
way that reflect the direct, indirect and approximating lost cost because of plant and machine
failure [4].
Nepal and Park [3], reported the cascading effect of DT. The some important consequqnces
of DT includes the idleness of machines and labour, work disruption, actvity delays and loss
of prodctivity. Edwards et al. [5], developed a model to predict the hourly cost of the DT of
equipment. Moore and Starr [6], discussed the plant asset failure due to inadequate
maintenance and associated DTC factors. Authors have reported DTC factors as lost
production, rework, scrap, labour, spare parts, penalty for late orders and lost orders due to
unsatisfied customers.
120

ISBN:9788190937634
Limited work has been reported on less tangible DTC [7]. There are various cascading effect
of DT and spectrum of these effects varies from plant to plant, as well as from industry to
industry. Not much has been reported about the causes and cascading effect of DT,
spcifically for the plant maintenance management. Different maintenance models have been
proposed to optimize the plant profits. Garg and Deshmukh [8] and Sharma et al. [9], have
presented an extensive review of maintenance models, classification and their applications.
In the present paper efforts have been made to
o Classify the general factors of DT for plant maintenance management
o Identify the known and unknown, consequences of DT for plant maintenance
management and
o Report the impact of DTC factors and their contribution towards maintenance
optimization
After a brief discussion on maintenance, DT and DTC, the next section gives factors
responsible for DTC. The cascading effect of DT and its analysis using flow loop, presented in
the next section. The impact of DTC factors on maintenance optimization, discussed in the
last section.
2 Classification of DT factors
To study the effect of DT factors, for the plant equipment, these factors are classified into the
interrelated similar groups. These groups and are shown In Figure 1. In Figure 1, the double-
headed arrow, represent two-way effect DT factors and single head arrow represents one-
way effect of DT factors. The factors responsible for the DT are: equipment related factors,
plant surrounding related factors, unpredictable factors, work force related factors, inventory
related factors and organization procedures and policies.
Equipment related factors Plant surroundings related factors Unpredictable factors

Age of equipment Poor working condition Industrial accident/accident
Type of equipment Uncertainty of operation Terrorist/communal violence
Quality of equipment Location of the plant Vandalism
Complexity of equipment Tsunami/Earthquake/Volcano
Equipment usage Flood
Downtime and its cascadding effect

Idleness of equipment, Idleness of work force, Work disruption, Activity delays, Production loss,
Lost customer, Damaged reputation cost, Scrap, Penalty for late orders and Rework
Work force related factors Inventory related factors Organizations procedures & policies
Skill level of workforce Availability of maerial Maintenance Strategy
Fatigue Availability of spares Maintenance schedule
Morale Availability of human resources Inventory management and control
Motivation Availability of testing apparatus Procurement system
Skill up gradation training Rental facility Parallel repair-maintenance facility
Figure 1 DT factors and its cascading effect interrelationship
121

ISBN:9788190937634
2.1 Equipment related factors: The factors related to equipment are, its age, quality, type
complexity of operation and degree of usage. From the literature, it has been reported that
the risk of equipment breakdown is directly proportional to the complexity and sophistication
of the equipment. It is therefore; very important for the plant operator to have a in-depth
knowledge about the equipment in terms of its limitation, complexity and technical suitability
for use under the given circumstances.
2.2 Plant surroundings related factors: Some of the basic maintenance requirements, to
avoid the frequent DT of the plant by the operator are: neatness and cleanliness around plant,
strict adherence to the maintenance schedule, maintaining the required temperature,
pressure and humidity levels. In the absence of above, leads to poor working conditions and
uncertainty of operation. These factors may affect the life and performance of the equipment.
2.3 Unpredictable factors: As the name suggests it is unpredictable because the events are
unanticipated by the plant personnel. There are many unpredictable factors and these factors
are industrial accident/accident, terrorist attack, communal violence and vandalism. Some of
the factors that belong to natural calamity are also unpredictable like tsunami, earthquake,
volcano and flood. The unpredictable factor may result in delays in the maintenance of the
equipment and that may affect plant performance.
2.4 Workforce related factors: The work force related factor includes, skill level of
workforce, fatigue, morale, motivation, skill up gradation and training. An operators
knowledge and field of expertise are the most important factors as they affect the operators
performance and direct cost of DT through job efficiency. Any kind of mishandling or misuse
of the equipment, due to negligence or lack of knowledge (information), will contribute
towards increased frequency of DT and enhanced cost of DT. Other factors affecting the DT
are morale, motivation and fatigue of the workforce. This condition may occur when
management attempts to increase the work rate by extensive use of overtime and putting
more work on workforce to minimize the effect of DT. The lack of communication between
managers and workers, adds to DT.
2.5 Inventory related factors: Inventory related factors are availability of material, spare
parts, trained human resource, testing apparatus and rental facilities. Any delay in the time
required for skilled mechanics to arrive, to repair the equipment, might delay the repair work.
Similarly, by installing a parallel production line or shifting the operation on available parallel
production line is another major hindrance for the maintenance people. In addition, the
availability of repairing facility, availability of trained repairing personnel, testing equipment,
rental facility and their level of sophistication have considerable effect on DT.
2.6 Organizations procedures and policies: In this category, companys standard
procedures and policies towards equipments management decision, such as replacement
decision and write-off decisions are covered. It also includes maintenance strategy,
maintenance schedule, inventory management & control, procurement system and standby
repair-maintenance facility. Moreover, all these procedures and policies depend from
organization to organization and from plant to plant. The top management of organization can
assign the resource and do strategic planning from time to time.
122

ISBN:9788190937634
3 Cascading effect of DT and its analysis by flow loop

The cascading effect of DT are: idleness of equipment, idleness of work force, work
disruption, activity delays, production loss, lost customer, damaged reputation cost, scrap,
penalty for late orders and Rework. It is obvious that due to downstate of the plant, no
production, so no revenue generated profit and that DTC negate the profit. Along with these
factors, if we consider its cascading effect then DT factors then it will be much more than the
expected DTC.
The DT factors related with workforce as well as of plant surrounding and its cascading
effects, shown by flow loop diagram, in Figure 2. The immediate effect is equipment idleness
leads to no revenue-generated profit, so if it lasts for extended periods, would slow down the
supply of product in the market. This may leads to two possibilities, the first leads to short
supply of product, you may lose the customer (i.e. lost customer cost) and in turn when this
customer will not recommend to his fellow customer for that product (i.e. damaged reputation
cost). The second possibility, when either there is no production or shortage of the product (if
parallel production is available), the plant maintenance managers (PMM) are under constant
pressure, might be distracted from timely supervision and resort to hasty maintenance. This
distraction tends to produce a low quality maintenance, which then increases the DTC, which
again increases schedule pressure, generating the vicious reinforcing nesting of flow loop,
denoted by F1, in Figure 2.
Equipment Idleness F1
G1
Increases repair time

Downtime
Pressure on maintenance staff Overtime
Timely maintenance Poor quality maintenance F2
F5
Repair time interval Downtime
Poor quality maintenance
Disruption of work sequence

Downtime cost G2
Cost pressure
Learning necessity Morale of crew
F4 F3 Fatigue
Slow work completing rate
*Treat this kind of box as starting point of loop
Figure 2 The cascading effect of DT under flow loop
123

ISBN:9788190937634
On the other hand, DT of critical equipment and/or critical activities increases DTC. As DTC
increases, there is an increased emphasis on costs, which shows up as cost pressure. The
PMM under high cost pressure (due to unexpected DTC), might pay less attention to
maintenance work. As a result, another feedback loop comes up and that is shown by F2 in
Figure 2. A feedback loop causes further cost pressure and can slow down project progress
until the root causes are backtracked and proper remedial action is taken.
Extended and frequent DT can also disrupt the original sequence of work. Disruption of work
may occur in several ways. For example, PMMs may decide to change the sequence of work,
which may introduce new methods or procedures or they may decide to divert the resources
affected by DT to other site operation. If PMMs are not fully aware of the indirect
consequences of their decision, the diverted resources could distract the original production
plan by diluting the experience level of existing workforce and increasing work interference.
The frequent disruption of work can also erode the morale of the workforce. This effect can
also lead to frequent stoppages and the imposition of additional learning requirements for the
workforce, which slows down the repair of the equipment. As a result, the feedback effects
caused by two reinforcing loops, indicted as F3 and F4 in Figure 2, affect the repair process.
On the other hand, a PMM seeks an option to relieve schedule pressure as it builds up.
Schedule pressure could be reduced by the timely maintenance of equipment, by contractual
labour (out sourced worker), as indicated by balancing loop G1.The other common
managerial actions that are often taken to minimize the impact of DT on repair time are the
use of overtime and the placing of pressure on staff to increase the work completion rate.
Overtime can facilitate the speedy repair by increasing working hours, as conceptualized with
the balancing loop G2 in Figure 2. As loop process continues, it can also lower productivity by
causing fatigue in workers.
4 Conclusions
Minimizing the DT leads to maximizing the plant profits. For downtime incidence, analyze the
cascading effect of DT. To minimize DTC, identify the productive processes. For unproductive
processes, find the way to minimize it. Specifically, for the manufacturing and process
industry, the DT and DTC play very critical role for profit optimization, it needs efficient and
economical handling of the process. This qualitative analysis concludes that of DT factors and
its cascading effect on other units makes DTC more critical and vulnerable, from profit
generation point of view.
There are equipment related, plant surroundings related, unpredictable, work force related,
inventory related and organization procedures & policies related factors responsible for DT.
To minimize the downtime, a new emerging philosophy towards maintenance is that
technical-matter and profit-contributor partnership is necessary, for every industry. To avoid
the frequent downtime incidence, every maintenance action should be business driven and
every organizations main aim should be on up time, and quality services. A cost cutting
approach in maintenance activities is net gain in business as well as in production.
124

ISBN:9788190937634
References
[1] R. Meruane Pascual and P.A. Rey, On the effect of downtime costs and budget
constraint on preventive and replacement policies, Reliability Engineering & System
Safety, Vol. 93, No. 1, 2008, pp. 144-151
[2] B. S. Blanchard, An enhanced approach for implementing total productive maintenance

in the manufacturing , Journal of Quality in Maintenance Engineering, Vol.3, No. 2, 1997,
pp. 69-80
[3] Madhav Prasad Nepal and Moonseo Park, Downtime model development for
construction equipment, Engineering Construction and Architectural Management, Vol.
11, No. 3, 2004, pp. 199-210
[4] D. Fitchett and M. Sondalini, True Downtime cost Analysis, 2nd Edition, (e-book), 2003,
UK
[5] D.J. Edwards, G. D. Holt and F. C. Harris, Predicting downtime costsof tracked hydraulic
excavators operating in the UK opencast mining industry, Construction Management and
Economics, Vol. 20, 2002, pp. 581-591
[6] D.J. Edwards, G. D. Holt and F. C. Harris, Financial management of construction plant:
Conceptualizingcost prediction, Journal of Financial Management of Property and
Construction, Vol. 3, No. 2, 1998, pp. 59-73
[7] W. J. Moore and A. G. Starr, An intelligent maintenance system for continous cost-
based prioritisation of maintenance actvities, Computers in industry, Vol. 57, 2006, pp.
595-606
[8] A. Garg, A. and S. G. Deshmukh, Maintenance management: Literature review and

directions , Journal of Quality in Maintenance Engineering, Vol.12, No. 3, 2006, pp. 205-
238
[9 ]Anil Sharma, G. S. Yadava and S.G. Deshmukh, A literature review and future
perspectives on maintenance optimization, Journal of Quality in Maintenance
Engineering, 2011, [In press]
125
th
ISBN:9788190937634
Spray Characteristics in the Flow Fields of a Gas Turbine Burner

Sapna A. Solanki
Faculty of Tech. & Engg., M.S.U., Vadodara 390001, Gujarat, INDIA
E-mail ID: sapana49@gmail.com
This paper presents the spray characteristics in the flow fields of a gas turbine burner with ANSYS CFX
11.0. The main objective is to get the diesel spray simulation. Spray consists of two fundamental and
consecutive steps: the primary breakup and the secondary breakup. The Blob method is used to model
primary breakup and secondary breakup is modeled by Cascade Atomization and Breakup model (CAB).
The trajectory and velocity of generated fuel droplets is determined by Lagrangian Particle Tracking. Fuel
evaporation is modeled by simulating the mass and heat transfer of generated fuel droplet.
1. Introduction
Spray combustion studies are important to investigate flame stability behavior at different load conditions
in order to have continuous flame and also better prediction of pollutants formation.
The spray combustion process can be divided into six important parts: primary breakup, secondary
breakup, droplet motion, droplet evaporation, mixing and combustion. In general, diesel fuel is injected
through an injector nozzle into the combustor and form a spray with spectrum of droplets with different
velocities and sizes. In the atomization region, the liquid fuel disintegrates into droplets. Injector size,
droplet velocity after injector and fuel property such as its viscosity and density are important parameters
in spray formation. Fuel droplets travel through combustor with initial velocity that they have after injector
and they live until they evaporate totally. The evaporated fuel mixes with air. The mixture starts to burn
when the temperature of combustible mixture reaches the ignition temperature and fuel/air mixture ratio is
within the flammability limits.
2. Methodology
Disintegration of liquid continuous phase into dispersed phase of fine liquid droplets is named atomization
and resulting droplet system is called spray. The transformation of liquid to spray is caused due to internal
instabilities such as turbulence within liquid phase, implosion of cavitation bubbles and external
aerodynamic forces resulting from interaction of two phases.
Figure 1 Breakup of a liquid jet
Spray formation of liquid jets and sheets is usually divided into two fundamental and consecutive steps:
the primary and the secondary breakup. The spray should be considered as a two phase flow problem
and should be divided into two major parts: Transformation of liquid to fine droplets and journey of
droplets through their surrounding medium. Transforming liquid phase into vapor phase by using spray is
a fluid dynamic phenomenon.
2.1 Multiphase flow and its Models
Phase in multiphase flow means distinguishable material that has different inertia than flow in which it is
immersed. Spray consists of two phases, gas phase and particle phase (liquid particles). In order to have
126
th
ISBN:9788190937634
a comprehensive model for multiphase flow it is crucial to determine how these two phases interact. In
other words, it is necessary to determine the level of coupling between two phases.
Eulerian model
Langrangian model
2.2 Lagrangian tracking principle
Particle track is determined by integration of individual particles momentum equation. Newtons second
law for particle traveling through flow field is:
(1)
where
FD is drag forces on the particle.
FB is buoyancy force
FR is forces due to rotation of domain.
FVM is virtual mass force.
FP is pressure gradient force
Each term on the right hand side of equation 1 can be linearized with respect to the particle velocity. So
particle velocity can be calculated from integration of momentum equation. Particles are tracked since
they enter calculation domain until they leave the domain or meet other integration limits. For calculation
of interacting forces, flow field variables like density, viscosity and velocity at the location of particle are
needed. This information can be obtained from information of calculation cell where particle is located.
2.3 Primary breakup
Transformation of liquid fuel after injector into fine liquid droplets or particles is called primary breakup. In
order to start studying liquid fuel spray combustion, conditions of fuel particles leaving injector nozzle are
Initial particle size (particle radius)

Initial particle velocity components
Initial spray angle
These conditions are mainly affected by the flow fields inside the injector nozzle such as turbulence and
cavitation as well as instabilities cased by interacting forces between two phases. Depending on the
geometry of fuel injector nozzle; there are two types of primary breakup models in ANSYS CFX 11.0.:
2.3.1 Bolb method
Bolb method is the simplest model to define particle conditions after injector in ANSYS CFX 11.0. In this
approach all particles leaving injector are of spherical shape and with uniform size of injector nozzles
diameter.
(2)
Particle injection velocity can be calculated by conservation of mass since Bolb method assumes no
cavitation inside injection nozzle.
127
th
ISBN:9788190937634
Fig. 2 Bolb Method
(3)
A Nozzle is nozzle cross section area and m is the fuel mass flow through injector.
2.3.2 Enhanced Bolb method
This model considers the effect of possible cavitation that might occur inside the injector nozzle.
Cavitation inside the injector causes to change in effective cross- section area. Decreased injector
effective cross-section means smaller particles with higher velocity. [5j Pressure at contraction can be
calculated by Bernoullis principle:
(4) , where
CC is coefficient of contraction and depend on injector geometry. Cavitation inside injector happens if
static pressure of fuel stream inside nozzle drops below vapor pressure of fuel at injection temperature.
Otherwise this method is identical to Bolb Method and particle velocity is set to U mean
(5)
Fig. 3 Enhanced Bolb Method

2.4 Secondary breakup:
A variety of non-dimensional numbers exist in spray study such as Weber number and Ohnesorge
number.
Weber number is the ratio of the inertia forces to surface tension forces:
(6)
128
th
ISBN:9788190937634
Ohnesorge number is the measure of viscous and surface tension forces and it involves only drop
properties. Sometimes Ohnesorge number is referred to as viscosity number, Laplace number or Z
number.
(7)
Weber number is considered as the independent parameter in this work. Here Reynolds Number is
defined using the fluid particle viscosity.
Around Weber number of unity aerodynamic forces has significant effect on droplet and it starts to
deform. Droplets breakup occurs at higher Weber number. Five distinct breakup regimes determined by
the initial Weber number, illustrated in figure are:
i. Vibrational breakup We 12 iv. Sheet stripping 100 (We 350

ii. Bag breakup 12 ( We 50 v. Catastrophic breakup We ) 350
iii. Bag-and-stamen breakup 50 (We 100
Fig. 4 Breakup regimes
2.5 Numerical models for secondary breakup in ANSYS CFX 11.0
2.5.1 Reitz and Diwakar breakup model
2.5.2 Taylor analogy breakup model (TAB)
In TAB, The droplet deformation from its spherical shape is modelled as one-dimensional, spring-damper
system which is excited by external force. Here aerodynamic force acts as an external force, viscosity as
a damping force and surface tension as a restoring force. Then equation of deformation can be
formulated as:
129
th
ISBN:9788190937634
(8)
2.5.3 Enhanced Taylor analogy breakup model (ETAB)
ETAB distinguishes between Bag breakup and Stripping breakup. It uses the same procedure to explain
deformation of droplets and the time required for breakup, but it assumes that the rate of formation of
droplets is proportional to their number.
(9)
The Constant Kbr , varies by breakup regime according to :
2.6 Turbulence
The Shear Stress Transport (SST) belongs to the class of two-equation models and it is an eddy viscosity
model.
The result is obtained from geometrical configuration, boundary conditions and models specifications.
Geometrical configuration
Fig. 5 A quarter Gas Turbine Burner
Table 1 List of applied models for reference case
Discretization Scheme High resolution

Primary breakup Bolb Method
Secondary Breakup CAB
Turbulence Model SST
Turbulence Mode Descretization Scheme High Resolution
Liquid Phase Lagragian Particle Tracking
130
th
ISBN:9788190937634
Fig. 6 Dimensionless velocity field of burner
Fig. 7 Dimensionless velocity vector field of burner
Fig. 8 Dimensionless temperature field of burner
In Fig. 6 Velocities are dimensionless based on the bulk velocity of the mixing tube outlet.
Figure 7 shows the velocity vector field. If the upper half of the domain is considered, there are four
recirculation zones. Two of them happen before the mixing tube, one after the hood entrance and the
other happens above the mixing tube. The other two recirculation zones happen after the mixing tube,
one directly after the mixing tube at the top corner of the combustion chamber and the other can be seen
after the vortex break up.
Figure 8 shows the temperature field inside the combustor. Temperature decreases before the
combustion chamber since evaporation of liquid fuel needs energy. Fuel evaporation absorbs about 26%
of compressed air energy
4. Conclusion:
By reconsidering the presented results it is clear that physical parameters such as the injector nozzle
diameter, droplet size and working conditions (different fuel and air mass flow, pressure and temperature)
have great influence on the fuel concentration field.
Other parameters such as different model for turbulence and secondary breakup as well as fuel surface
tension have smaller effect on the concentration of fuel. As the temperature field shows that evaporation
of diesel absorbs about 26% of compressed air internal energy, preheating of fuel before injection can
increase engine efficiency considerably.
131
th
ISBN:9788190937634
References
[1] Stiesch, G 2003, Modeling Engine Spray and Combustion Processes, Springer, New York.
[2] I.E.Smith, Combustion &Heat transfer in Gas turbine system.
[3] M.Chrigui, A.Sadiki, F.Z.Batarsen, L.Roisman and Tropea, Numerical & experimental study of spray
produced by an airblast atomizer under elevated pressure conditions , Proceedings of ASME Turbo Expo
: GT 2008 51305.
[4] Andrei Secareanu , Dragan Stankovic, Jonas Holmborn, Experimental Investigation of Airflow and
Spray Stability in an air blast injector of an industrial gas turbine , ASME Turbo Expo June 14-17, 2004
Vienna, Australia.
[5] ANSYS CFX 11.0 help manual.
132
ISBN:9788190937634
Overview of magneto rheological (MR) fluids and its applications in

vibration control
Shivnarayan.D.THAKUR
* P.G. Students, Mechanical Department, L. D. College of Engineering, Ahmedabad, India
E-mail: thakurshivnarayan@gmail.com
Contact No.: +91-9712849803
Prof M.Y.PATIL
Lecturer in Mechanical Engineering Dept., L.D. College of Engg. Ahmedabad, India
Abstract: Magnetorheological (MR) fluids are now well established as one of the leading materials for use in
controllable structures and systems. Commercial application of MR fluids in various fields, particularly in the
vibration control, has grown rapidly over the past few years. In this paper, properties of magnetorheological (MR)
fluids, its applications in suspensions of vehicles, suspension of trains, high buildings cable-stayed bridges have
been discussed. The scope of MR fluids in future, problems and some suggestions are also presented.
INTRODUCTION
MR fluids are considerably less well known than their electrorheological (ER) fluid analogs. Both fluids are non-
colloidal suspensions of polarisable particles having a size on the order of a few microns. Except for a flurry of
interest after their initial discovery, there has been scant information published about MR fluids. Only recently has
resurgence in interest in MR fluids been seen. While the commercial success of ER fluids has remained elusive,
MR fluids have enjoyed recent commercial success. A number of MR fluids and various MR fluid-based systems
have been commercialized including an MR fluid brake for use in the exercise industry, a controllable MR fluid
damper for use in truck seat suspensions and an MR fluid shock absorber for oval track automobile racing. The
magnetorheological response of MR fluids results from the polarization induced in the suspended particles by
application of an external field. The interaction between the resulting induced dipoles causes the particles to form
columnar structures, parallel to the applied field. These chain-like structures restrict the motion of the fluid, thereby
increasing the viscous characteristics of the suspension. The mechanical energy needed to yield these chain-like
structures increases as the applied field increases resulting in a field dependent yield stress. In the absence of an
applied field, MR fluids exhibit Newtonian-like behaviour. Thus the behaviour of controllable fluids is often
represented as a
Bingham plastic having variable yield strength. In this model, the flow is governed by Binghams equations:
=y (H)+ &, y .... (1)
at stresses above the field dependent yield stress y. Below the yield stress (at strains of order 10-3), the material
behaves viscoelastically:
= G , <y . (2)
Where G is the complex material modulus. It has been observed in the literature that the complex modulus is also
field dependent (Weiss, Carlson and Nixon, 1994; Nakano, Yamamoto and Jolly, 1997). While the Bingham plastic
model has proved useful in the design and characterization of MR fluid based devices, true MR fluid behaviour
exhibits some significant departures from this simple model. Perhaps the most significant of these departures
involves the non-Newtonian behaviour of MR fluids in the absence of a magnetic field.
This paper is organized as follows. In the next section, some common MR fluid device design theory is reviewed.
Simple MR fluid figures of merit based on this theory are then presented. Section 3 presents the properties of four
commercially available MR fluids (Lord, 1998). Using some of these properties as a basis, figures of merit of the
four MR fluids are then presented. In section 4, a few contemporary device applications of MR fluids in linear
motion devices are discussed. Conclusions are presented in section 5.
MR DEVICE DESIGN
Most devices that use controllable fluids can be classified as having either fixed poles (pressure driven flow mode)
or relatively moveable poles (direct-shear mode). Diagrams of these two basic operational modes are shown in Fig.
1. Examples of pressure driven flow (PDF) mode devices include servo-valves, dampers and shock absorbers.
Examples of direct-shear mode devices include clutches, brakes, chucking and locking devices. A third mode of
operation known as squeeze-film mode has also been used in low motion, high force applications.
133
ISBN:9788190937634
Figure 1: Basic operational modes for controllable fluid devices: (a) pressure driven flow mode
Direct shear mode

The pressure drop developed in a device based on pressure driven flow mode is commonly assumed to result from
the sum of a viscous component P and a field dependent induced yield stress component P. This pressure
may be approximated by
P = P + P (H) =12 QL + c y(H) L
g3w g
where L, g and w are the length, gap and width of the flow channel between the fixed poles, Q is the volumetric
flow rate, is the viscosity with no applied field and y is the yield stress developed in response to an applied field
H. The parameter c is a function of the flow velocity profile and has a value ranging from a minimum value of 2 (for
P/P less than ~1) to a maximum value of 3 (for P /P greater than ~100). In a like manner, the force
developed by a direct-shear device is:
F = F + F (H) = SA +y(H)A
g
Where S is the relative pole velocity and A=Lw is the shear (pole) area.
PROPERTIES OF COMMERCIAL MR FLUIDS

Magnetic, rheological, tribological and settling properties of four commercial MR fluids are
discussed. The basic composition of these four fluids is given in Table
Basic composition and density of four commercial MR fluids.
Commercial Percen Carrier Densit

MR Fluid t Iron Fluid y
by (g/ml)
Volume
MRX-126PD 26 Hydroc 2.66
arbon
oil
MRX-140ND 40 Hydroc 3.64
arbon
oil
MRX-242AS 42 Water 3.88
MRX-336AG 36 Silicon 3.47
e oil
Rheological Properties
The rheological properties of controllable fluids depend on concentration and density of particles, particle size and
shape distribution, properties of the carrier fluid, additional additives, applied field, temperature, and other factors.
134
ISBN:9788190937634
The interdependency of all these factors is very complex, yet is important in establishing methodologies to optimize
the performance of these fluids for particular applications.
The magnetorheological effect of the four MR fluids was measured on a custom rheometer using a 46 mm
diameter parallel plate geometry set at a 1 mm gap. In the parallel plate geometry, shear rate varies linearly across
the fluid sample with the maximum shear rate occurring at the outer radius. The rheometer is capable of applying
greater than 1 Tesla through the fluid sample. Figure 2 shows the shear stress in the MR fluids as a function of flux
density at a maximum shear rate of 26 s-1. At such a low shear rate, this shear stress data is approximately
equivalent to the fluid yield stress as defined in Eq. (1).At low flux densities, the fluid stress can be seen to exhibit
power law behaviour. The approximate power law index of 1.75 lies in the range of low to intermediate field
behaviour predicted by Contemporary models of magnetorheology. Both linear models and models accounting for
nonlinear magnetic effects such as particle saturation predict quadratic behaviour at very low flux densities
In all MR fluid formulations optimized for a specific application or class of applications, the fluid viscosity in the
absence of a field is most significantly a function of the carrier oil, suspension agents, and particle loading. The
figures-of-merit described earlier are benefited by a low fluid viscosity, but must be balanced with other fluid
requirements such as temperature range and particle resuspendability. Because of both the addition of suspension
agents and changes in magnetic particle microstructure during shear, most MR fluids exhibit significant shear
thinning.
Figure: Fluid shear stress as a function of magnetic flux density at a maximum shear rate of 26s-1. Ascending order
of the plots corresponds to increasing iron volume fraction.
Figure: Viscosity as a function of shear rate at 25C for MRX-126PD, MRX-242AS, MRX-
140ND and MRX-336AG
The viscosity of the four MR fluids was measured on a TA Instruments CS2500 controlled stress rheometer using a
cone and plate geometry (40 mm diameter and 1 cone angle). Figure shows viscosity of the four MR fluids a
function of shear rate. It can be seen that the fluid viscosity does not strictly scale with iron loading. Indeed, the
fluid viscosity is significantly a function of the composition and chemistry of the carrier oils. The MR fluids shown
are seen to exhibit low shear rate power law behaviour with power law indices between -0.75 and -1. At high shear
rates, the rate of shear thinning decreases and will approach an asymptotic value dictated largely by the solids
loading, carrier oil viscosity, and extent of shear thinning of the suspension agents. MRX-336AG exhibits nearly an
order of magnitude greater viscosity at low shear rate as compared to the other MR fluids. This is a result of a
significant zero-field yielding behaviour of this fluid, characterized by a -1 power law index at low shear rates.
Magnetic Properties
Understanding the magnetic properties of MR fluids is important for designing MR fluid-based devices. In many
such devices, the MR fluid represents the largest magnetic reluctance within the magnetic circuit. These magnetic
135
ISBN:9788190937634
properties may also prove useful in providing insight into the character and formation of particle structures within
the fluid.
Figure: Flux density within MR fluids as a function of applied field. Inset: Intrinsic induction as a function of applied
field. Ascending order of the plots corresponds to increasing iron volume fraction.
Magnetic induction curves, or B-H curves, of the four commercial MR fluids are shown in Figure. MR fluids exhibit
approximately linear magnetic properties up to an applied field of
about 0.02/o A/m, where o =4e-7 T-m/A is the permeability of a vacuum. In this region, the differential
permeability (the slope of
B(H)) of the MR fluids is relatively constant. These permeabilities vary between 5 and 9 times that of a vacuum.
The magnetic properties of MR fluids vary significantly from the properties of most bulk ferromagnetic properties in
that ferromagnetic induction can typically be linearized over a much broader range of applied field and the
corresponding permeabilities are several orders of magnitude greater. MR fluids begin to exhibit gradual magnetic
saturation beyond the linear regime. Complete saturation typically occurs at fields beyond 0.4/o A/m.
MRF operational modes
Depending on the fluid flow and the rheological stress there are three different modes of MRF operation: direct
shear mode, valve mode and squeeze mode.
Valve mode
The valve mode as an operational mode is used in dampers, shock absorbers and is shown schematically in
Figure. The pressure drop created in this mode e.g. in a damper is the sum of the viscous (pure rheological)
component Pmr and the magnetic field dependent (magneto-rheological) component Pmr. The value of this
pressure drop is defined using the following approximation:
P = P + Pmr =12QL + fmrL
g3w g
In the viscous component in this equation, g (Pa s) is the dynamic viscosity, Q (m3s) is the flow rate and L, w, g (m)
is the geometric length, width and gap size of the flow channel, and this part of the equation has a theoretical
justification.
In contrast the other part of the equation, the magnetic field dependent component, an empirical approach has
been used, and here mr (N/mm2) is the yield stress developed in response to the applied magnetic field, and L, g
(m) are the same geometric data as in the rheological pressure drop part. The other factor f () (no units) is an
empirical factor and is determined experimentally. It is necessary to explain the difference between the observed
pressure drop P and the pressure drop calculated from rheological principles alone Pr. This is the pressure drop
due to magneto-rheological principles Pmr. It is clearly dependent on the yield stress developed in response to
the applied magnetic field and to the above geometrical data, but there are also other factors which have an effect
on this pressure drop, and the influence of these other factors are represented by the empirical factor f. The factor
is found experimentally to be dependent on the proportion of the purely rheological pressure drop to the total
observed pressure drop.
Fig: Valve mode.

Shear mode
The second operational mode is the direct shear mode. The direct shear mode is used in brakes and clutches. The
total force in the shear mode can be separated into a viscous (pure rheological) component Fr and a magnetic
field dependent (magneto-rheological) component Fmr. The total shear force is defined through the following
approximation:
136
ISBN:9788190937634
F = F + Fmr = [.S.A] = A
g
In this equation g (Pa s) is the dynamic viscosity, S (m/s) is the relative speed, A = L w is the working interface
area and L, w, g (m) are the length, width and gap size of the flow channel. In the magnetic field dependent
component mr (N/mm2) is the yield stress developed in response to the applied magnetic field and A = Lw is again
the working interface area.
Fig: Direct shear mode
Fig: Functional principle of MRF brake

Squeeze mode
This third mode, called the squeeze mode, has not been studied so thoroughly comparing with the direct-shear
mode and the valve mode. This mode of operation is shown schematically in Fig. Some small-amplitude vibration
dampers use this mode. For small motions, this mode seems to offer the possibility of very large forces which can
be controlled by the MRF
effect. In one of the most recent theoretical evaluations of the squeeze-strengthen effect in magneto-rheological
fluids the operation of this mode is described. It is suggested that a yield stress could be achieved which would be
ten times as large as that which is possible with either the direct-shear or the valve mode. The higher yield stress
under magnetic field means a higher ratio between on- and off-states. A stronger MRF effect in combination with
advantages already described above would make MRF technology even more attractive and the technology of
choice for the next generation of many more automotive and industrial applications.
Fig: MRF in squeeze mode.

Application of MR fluid in heavy duty vehicle
Recently a small, monotube MR fluid-based
damper (shown in Fig.) has been
commercialized for use in a semi-active seat
suspension system for large on- and off-highway
vehicles. In this application the MR damper
represents enabling technology for a variety of
semi-active control schemes. This damper has
also served as a
test bed for developing phenomenological device
models.
137
ISBN:9788190937634
Fig: Functional principle of MRF damper
Conclusions
The magneto-rheological-fluid (MRF) technology is one of the old newcomers coming to the market at high
speed. The world is full of potential MRF applications. For every system where it is desirable to control motion
using a fluid with changing viscosity, a solution based on MRF technology may be an improvement in functionality
and costs. Simplicity and more intelligence in the functionality are key features of the MRF technology. Excellent
features like fast response, simple interface between electrical power input and the mechanical power output, and
controllability makes MRF the next technology of choice for many applications. Direct shear mode (used in brakes
and clutches) and valve mode (used in dampers) have been studied thoroughly and several products are already
present in the market. Future developments include an increase in the acceptable lifespan of MRF devices, in
terms of the total energy dissipated from the equipment throughout its working lifetime and fluids with higher shear
regimes.
References
1. Phillips RW. Engineering applications of fluids with a variable yield stress, Ph.D. thesis, University of
California, Berkeley; 1969.
2. Carlson JD. What makes a good MR fluid. In: 8th international conference on electrorheological (ER) and
magnetorheological (MR) suspensions, Nice, July 2001.
3. Carlson JD, Catanzarite DM, Clair KASt. Lord Corporation, Cary, NC 27511 USA, Commercial magneto-
rheological fluid device. In: Proceedings of the 5th international conference on ER fluids, MR Fluids and
Associated Technology, U. Sheffield, UK: 1995; p. 208.
4. Anon., 1995, Brake cuts exercise-equipment cost, Design News, Dec. 4.
5. Carlson, J. D. et al., 1994, "Magnetorheological Fluid Dampers", U.S. Patent 5,277,282. (1994) and
6. "Magnetorheological Fluid Devices", U.S. Patent 5,284,330.
7. Carlson, J. D., 1994, "The Promise of Controllable Fluids", Actuator 94, 4th Int. Conf. on New Actuators,
eds. H. Borgmann and K. Lenz, Axon Technologies Consult GmbH, 1994, 266-270.
8. Carlson, J. D. and K. D. Weiss, 1994, "A Growing Attraction To Magnetic Fluids", Machine Design, Aug. 8
61-66.
9. Carlson, J. D., D. M. Catanzarite and K. A. St. Clair, 1995, 5th Int. Conf. on Electrorheological, Magneto-
rheological Suspensions and Associated Technology, Sheffield, July.
10. Carlson, J.D. and Spencer Jr., B.F., 1996, Magneto-Rheological Fluid Dampers for Semi-Active Seismic
Control, Proc. 3rd Int. Conf. on Motion and Vib. Control, Chiba, JP, Vol. III, pp. 35-40.
11. Carlson, J.D. and Spencer Jr., B.F., 1997, Magnetorheological Fluid Dampers for Seismic Control, Proc.
of DETC97, ASME, Sacramento, VIB4124.
138
ISBN:9788190937634
139
ISBN:9788190937634
The Role of Fuzzy for Selecting the Industrial Vendors:

Framework for Development
N. P. Nirmal1*, H. P. Nirmal2, R. P. Nirmal3
1, 2
Shantilal Shah Engineering College, Sidsar, Bhavnagar-364060, Gujarat, India
O.N.G.C., Maheshana Asset, Maheshana, Gujarat, India
*
nital.nirmal@gmail.com
In this paper attention is given to the fuzzy System helps for finding out potential
Industrial vendor. It required experts view, conversion it into fuzzy term, making 27
rule base Fuzzy System. As a decisive point, conclusions and likely areas of frame
work for development present.
1. Introduction
Like many complex supply chain problems, vendor selection problems are not so well defined
which can be handed over completely to computers, whereas many human characteristics are
also essential to the issues. The vendor selection process has undergone significant changes
during the past twenty years. These include increased quality guidelines, improved computer
communications, and increased technical capabilities, essential changes in the purchasing
(vendor) selection process. Here, the tabular form of literature survey on Vendor Selection
Problem (VSP). [1]
Table 1 Literature survey on vendor selection problem (VSP). [1]
Approach Researchers Research work

Vendor selection decision is the most
Linear weighting common way of rating different vendors on
Wind and Robinson (1968)
method the performance criteria for their quota
allocations.
Proposed multiple criteria vendor service
Selection criteria Monozka and Trecha (1988) factor ratings and an overall supplier
performance index.
A single item LP model to minimize the
LP Model Pan (1989) aggregate price under constraints of
quality, service level and lead-time.
MIP approach with the objective of
minimizing purchasing, inventory and
MIP (Mix Integer Bendor, Brown, Issac, and transportation related costs without any
Programming) Shapiro (1985) specific mathematical formulation and
demonstrated it through selecting the
vendors at IBM.
GP ( Goal Also proposed the use of GP for price,
Buffa and Jackson (1983)
Programming) quality and delivery objectives.
Ghodsypour and O'Brien By integrating the analytical hierarchy
(1998) process with linear programming.
DSS
Lau et al. (2002) Five-stage model for vendor evaluation
Liu, Ding, and Lall (2000)
Presented a data envelopment analysis
and Weber, Current, & Desai
method for a VSP with multiple objectives.
(2000)
VSP Handfield, Walton, Sroufe,
Used the analytical hierarchical process to
and Melnyk (2002) and
generate weights for VSP.
Narsimhan (1983)
140
ISBN:9788190937634
Design of the Fuzzy Inference System for Selecting Industrial Vendor
The goal of a Fuzzy System to take in subjective, partially true facts randomly
distributed over a sample space and builds a knowledge-based expert system to produce useful
decisions [3]. Steps for the vendor selection are as follows.
2.1 Identification and analysis of the problem
As discussed earlier, in many bids of the vendors in different organizations the winner is
selected just by the price factor and other important factors such as QOM, DOM are not
considered. In the present study, multi-criteria considered for finding out the potential vendor.
2.2 Identification of critical factor and membership functions
This survey shows that there are three important criteria for vendor selection which are
of great customer consideration are QOM, DOM and Price as input variables. Linguistic values
for QOM are Defective, Average and Non Defective. For DOM values are Late, In-time and
Before-time. For Price Linguistic values are High, Medium and Low. Here, Net-rating taking as
an Output Variable. Very small, Small, Rather small, Medium, Rather Large, Large and Very
Large are the Linguistic variables for Output variable Net-rating.
2.3 Fuzzy rules construction
Fuzzy Inference DSS makes decisions and generate output values based on knowledge
provided by the designer in the form of IF _condition_ THEN _action_ rules. The rule base
specifies qualitatively how the output parameter Net-rating of the vendor proposal is
determined for various instances of the input parameters of DOM, QOM and Price. As
disused earlier; in the present investigation, the efforts have been made for RDBs Radial Bed.
The number of rules in a fuzzy system r is an exponential function of the number of the
inputs m and the number of linguistic values k that these inputs can take. In most cases, this
exponential function is in the following form (Alexander and Dimitrios , 2005).
r = km ------------------- (Equation 1).

It is obvious from Equation (1) that for a fuzzy system with 3 inputs which can take 3 linguistic
values the number of rules will be 27.
Table 2 Rules Matrix- 1 for RDB
DOM
Before-
Late (1) In- Time(2)
Time(3)
Defective(1) VS (1) VS (1) VS (1) High(1)
QOM Average(2) VS (1) S (2) RS (3) Medium(2) PRICE
Non- D(3) M (4) RL (5) VL (7) Low(3)
DOM
Before-
Late(1) In- Time(2)
Time(3)
Defective(1) VS (1) VS (1) S (2) Medium(2)
QOM Average(2) S (2) RS (3) M (4) Low(3) PRICE
Non- RS (3) M (4) RL (5) High(1)
141
ISBN:9788190937634
Defective(3)
DOM
Before-
Late (1) In-Time(2)
Time (3)
Defective(1) VS (1) VS (1) S (2) Low(3)
Average(2) VS (2) VS (3) S (2) High(1)
QOM PRICE
Non-
RS (3) M (4) L (6) Medium(2)
Defective(3)
Table 5 Integer Table of the Original Fuzzy System for RDB
Input (I/P) Variables NET-RATING

Rule No.
( OUTPUT)
I/P-1 Q.O.M. I/P- 2 D.O.M. I/P-3 PRICE
1 1 1 1 1
2 1 1 2 1
3 1 1 3 1
4 1 2 1 1
5 1 2 2 1
6 1 2 3 1
7 1 3 1 1
8 1 3 2 2
9 1 3 3 2
10 2 1 1 1
11 2 1 2 1
12 2 1 3 2
13 2 2 1 1
14 2 2 2 2
15 2 2 3 3
16 2 3 1 2
17 2 3 2 3
18 2 3 3 4
19 3 1 1 3
20 3 1 2 3
21 3 1 3 4
22 3 2 1 4
23 3 2 2 4
24 3 2 3 5
25 3 3 1 5
26 3 3 2 6
27 3 3 3 7
2.4 Conversion of experts view into the fuzzy range
Before starting the Fuzzification, it is required the fuzzy range for the membership
function. This was possible through the experts view. In the present investigation, for the
conversion of fuzzy number the following table is required. This table is used to convert the
experts view into fuzzy range, which gives detail for the vendors in terms of fuzzy Ranges.
142
ISBN:9788190937634
Table 6 Conversion of Experts View into Fuzzy Ranges
Sr. No. Statement Fuzzy Ranges

1 If expert is strongly agree with the sentence. (0.9 -1)
2 If expert agrees with the sentence. (0.7- 0.9)
3 If expert is neutral with the sentence. (0.2- 0.8)
4 If expert disagrees with the sentence. (0.1- 0.3)
5 If expert is strongly disagree with the sentence. (0-0.1)
Case on conversion of experts views; For example considering 1st case of the QOM, there are 3
experts to give their views for the vendor I, II and III as follows. For the fuzzy conversion (As per
Table 6)
Table 7 Fuzzy Conversions for Individual Experts
Vendor Expert-1 Expert- 2 Expert- 3

V- 1 ( 0.7-0.9 ) ( 0.9-1 ) ( 0.9- 1)
V- 2 ( 0.2- 0.8 ) ( 0.2- 0.8 ) ( 0.2- 0.8 )
V- 3 ( 0- 0.1) ( 0.1- 0.3) ( 0.1- 0.3 )
For the membership function, it is required to get the only one fuzzy range as below; which gives
the entire view of the expert- I, II and III. By considering the lowest value of the expert-I, II and III
fuzzy range; getting the lowest range of fuzzy range and same for the highest value of the
expert-I, II and III fuzzy range; getting the highest range of fuzzy range.
Table 8 Fuzzy Range Conversions
Sr. No. Vendor Fuzzy range ( QOM)

1 V- 1 ( 0.7- 1)
2 V- 2 ( 0.2- 0.8)
3 V- 3 ( 0- 0.3)
2.5 Conversion of Experts view into the fuzzy range
This same methodology is use for converting the experts view into fuzzy range for the Single
item and multi-vendors. Conversion of the experts; views are tabulated in Table 9
Table 9 Conversion of Experts view into the fuzzy range
Quality of Material Delivery of Material Price

Name of the
Vendor
Expert-1 Expert-2 Expert-3 AVG Exp-1 E-2 E-3 AVG AVG
Vendor (V-1) (0.7-0.9) (0.9-1) (0.9-1) (0.7-1) (0.9-1) (0.7-0.9) (0.9-1) (0.7-1) (0.7-1)
(0.2- (0.2- (0.2- (0.2-
Vendor (V-2) (0.2-0.8) (0.2-0.8) (0.2-0.8) (0.2-0.8) (0.2-0.8)
0.8) 0.8) 0.8) 0.8)
(0.1- (0.1-
Vendor (V-3) (0-0.1) (0.1-0.3) (0.1-0.3) (0-0.3) (0-0.1) (0-0.3) (0-0.3)
0.3) 0.3)
2.6 Fuzzification
Fuzzification refers to the process of taking a crisp input value and transforming it into
the degree of fuzziness [3]. vendor selection problem is multi-criteria decision making (MCDM)
143
ISBN:9788190937634
problem involves high degree of Fuzzification.[4] In the present study trapezoidal membership
functions have been used to define the fuzzy sets for the linguistic values. Due to the fact that all
input values are normalized, Fuzzification input will be between 0 and 1. The first step is to take
the inputs and determine the degree to which they belong to each of the appropriate fuzzy sets
via membership functions. In the Fuzzy Logic Toolbox, the input is always a crisp numerical
value limited to the universe of the input variable (in this case the interval between 0 and 1).
Figure 1 Fuzzification of QOM
Figure 2 Fuzzification of DOM
Figure 3 Fuzzification of Price
144
ISBN:9788190937634
Figure 4 Fuzzification of Net- rating
2.7 Fuzzy Inference module system
Fuzzy inference is guided by the fuzzy rules [5]. The standard maxmin inference
algorithm was used in the fuzzy inference process, as it is a commonly used fuzzy inference
strategy. In the maxmin composition fuzzy inference method, the min operator is used for the
AND conjunction (set intersection) and the max operator is used for the OR disjunction (set
union) in order to evaluate the grade of membership of the antecedent clause in each rule [6].
User guide for fuzzy logic toolbox gives three subtopic of Inference module are Application,
Implication and Aggregation.
[1] For selecting the vendor one can consider at least five following selection criteria (DOM,
QOM, Price) as input variables.
[2] Here, experts view must be take, before Fuzzification, Due to this so many factors are in
the picture which make confident to select vendors
[3] The number of rules in a fuzzy system r is an exponential function of the number of the
inputs m and the number of linguistic values k that these inputs can take. In most cases,
this exponential function is r = k .
m
[4] After Diffuzzification, Vendor selectors get Net-Rating in terms of Percentiles (%).
4. Conclusion
The issues of Vendor (supplier) selection have attracted the interest of researchers since the
1960s, and researches in this area have evolved For future research, these two aspects, Vendor
selection criteria and methods, will continue to be the focus[7]. For supplier selection criteria,
combining supply chain performance measurement and supplier selection seems to be an
important area. New methods to simulate the process of human decision making, such as neural
network, seem to be promising, and the computer programming for supplier selection should
also be developed.
References
[1] N. P. Nirmal, Dr. M. N. Qureshi, Fuzzy Expert Decision Support System for Vendor
Selection: A Literature Review & Framework for Development, ISBN 978-93-80026-78-7, 2009,
pp. 274- 282
[2] Vadiee, N., Jamshidi, M., "The Promising Future of Fuzzy Logic." IEEE Expert 9(4):1994 pp.
3638.
[3] Ngai, E., "Design and Development of a Fuzzy Expert System for Hotel Selection", Omega
(The international journal of Management science), 31:2003, pp. 275 286.
145
ISBN:9788190937634
[4] Weber, C., Current, J. and Benton, W., Vendor Selection and Methods, European Journal
of Operational Research 50, 1991, pp. 2-18.
[5] Maryam Ramezani, G. A.Montazer, Design and Implementation of a Fuzzy Expert Decision
Support System for Vendor Selection Case Study in OIEC-Iran (Oil Industrial Engineering and
Construction), Iran, ICEIS 2006, pp. 159-161
[6] Zadeh, L., Users Guide Fuzzy Logic Toolbox for Use with MATLAB, Math Works, Version-
2, 1995, pp. 2-16.
[7] Zhang, Z., Lei, J., Cao, N., To, K. and Ng, K., Evolution of Supplier Selection Criteria and
Methods, European Journal of Operational Research, 4(1): 2005, pp. 335-342.
146
ISBN:9788190937634
EFFECT OF DEEP-CRYOGENIC TREATMENT ON THE

ELECTRODE LIFE OF RESISTANCE SPOT WELDING
Upkar Singh1*, Jatinder Kapoor2
1, 2
Guru Nanak Dev Engineering College, Ludhiana, Punjab, India
*Corresponding Author (e-mail: sidhuupkar@yahoo.co.in/098881-81313)
In this article deep cryogenic treatment technology is applied for the treatment of Cu-0.9Cr
electrodes for spot welding of galvanized steel plates of 0.75mm thickness to improve
electrode life. Electrode life is defined as the number of welds made with a pair of
electrodes, while maintaining weld button diameters above a specified minimum value.
Between one-half and three-quarters of the cost of a spot weld is the electrode cost. Greater
savings would be realized if the electrodes life could be improved. Scanning Electron
Microscopy and X-ray diffraction is used to check the microstructure and element distribution
of deep-cryogenic treated and non-cryogenic treated electrodes. Experiments are performed
to investigate the effect of deep cryogenic treatment on the electrode life of resistance spot
welding. Design of experiments is employed for conducting experiments on spot welding
machine and analyzing the data. The experimental results indicate that the deep cryogenic
treatment of the electrodes causes the grains to rearrange and settle into a more compact
structure. The grain size is also found to be smaller than in non cryogenic treated electrodes.
Electrode life is considerably enhanced after cryogenic treatment.
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
1 Introduction
Resistance spot welding is one of the oldest of the electric welding processes in use by
industry today. The weld is made by a combination of heat, pressure and time. As the name
implies, it is the resistance of the material to be welded to current flow that causes a
localized heating in the part. The pressure is exerted by the tongs and tips. The time is how
long current flows in the joint, which is determined by the material thickness and type,
amount of the current and cross-sectional area of the welding tips and contact surfaces [1].
The resistance spot welding is especially used in automobile industry. Galvanized
chromiding micro-alloyed steel sheets having good weldability and corrosion resistance are
commonly used in electrical resistance spot welding of joints and chassis of automobiles.
Variation in spot weldability of galvanized steel sheet has inhibited its widespread use in
major fabrication industry. Tip life is another important aspect of weldability which varies with
material and process changes [2]. Zn coatings will react with the electrodes to form brittle
brass alloys layer on the top of electrodes, causing electrode sticking due to local bonding
between the electrode and workpiece and thus decrease electrode life. [3]The resistance
spot weldability of bare, hot-dipped, galvannealed, and electrogalvanized sheet steels, who
found that Resistance spot welding, is the main joint method of assembly auto body, but spot
welding of zinc-coated steels is still problematic because of rapid electrode wear and short
electrode life, which had great effect on weld quality [4].
The effects of cryogenic treatment on bearing, gears and
engine components to reduce wear and improve performance have also been reported. The
studies have shown that cryogenic treatment produces metallurgical changes in the
microstructure of the materials and thus the material obtains a superior performance.
Welding of zinc coated steel sheets is difficult than that of uncoated steel sheets. Galvanized
sheets results into a greater wear rate of the electrodes. Increase in wear rate means
decrease in electrode life, which in turn will increase the spot welding cost. Literature review
revealed that many researchers have concentrated on the optimization of resistance spot
welding parameters. However the volume of workdone on the cryogenic treatment of the
147
ISBN:9788190937634
resistance spot welding electrodes is very less, previous literature provides very less
information on:-
a) How the electrode life will vary after going through deep cryogenic treatment?
b) How the length and diameter of the welding electrode will vary after deep cryogenic
treatment?
As cryogenic treatment increases the conductivity of non-ferrous alloys, so in
this article the effect of deep cryogenic treatment on the copper chromium alloy electrode is
studied.
2 Electrode material and its properties

In the present work, deep cryogenic treatment of the copper -chromium alloy is done.
Copper- chromium alloy is one of the most common copper based alloys used for resistance
welding electrodes. Galvanized steel sheets of 0.75mm thickness are used. Composition of
electrodes is shown in table 1.
Table1: - Composition and Properties of electrodes

Material Composition Rockwell Hardness
Chromium-Copper alloy Cu- 98.95% , Cr- .90% 54 RB
2.1 Resistivity Testing

Conductivity has been tested by using the Kelvin Bridge and tested data is shown in
Table 2. The data in table shows that the resistivity changed obviously. The resistivity of the
electrode is decreased and the electrical conductivity of the electrodes is increased
considerably after deep cryogenic treatment.
Table2: - Conductivity as per international annealed copper standard (IACS)

Treatment Before Cryogenic After Deep-Cryogenic treatment
Treatment
Conductivity (%IACS) 76% 83%
2.2 Hardness
The hardness of the electrodes is tested by the Rockwell hardness testing unit.
Testing data is shown in table 3 which shows that deep cryogenic treatment has very small
influence on the hardness of the material. As it is shown in table that the deep cryogenic
treatment has very little effect on the hardness of the material.
Table 3: - Testing data for electrode hardness

Treatment Before Cryogenic After Deep-Cryogenic
Treatment treatment
Rockwell Hardness(HRB) 54 55
3 Analysis of Microstructure of electrodes
3.1 By X-ray Diffraction

X- ray diffraction is done to check the effect on the grain size of Cu-Cr alloy before
and after deep cryogenic treatment. Data is shown in table 4. The change in grain size can
be measured by measuring the width change in the X-ray diffraction spectrum before and
after deep cryogenic treatment. As it is shown in table that grain size reduced from 96 to 66
after deep cryogenic treatment. X-Ray diffraction graph is also shown below in fig1.
Table 4: - Analysis report of the grain sizes of X-ray Diffraction

Testing Parameters Before Cryogenic Treatment After Cryogenic Treatment
148
ISBN:9788190937634
0
28.36 30.46
Testing sample 2 ( C)
Width at half maxima 0.00187 rad 0.1246 rad
Average grain size of 111- 96 66
crystal plane/nm
Fig. 1 X-ray diffraction for cryogenic and non- cryogenic treated electrode material
3.2 By Scanning Electron Microscope
Scanning electron microscopy is used to determine the changes in the microstructure

of the Cryogenic treated and Non-cryogenic treated surfaces. As it is clear from the fig.2 that
the compactness of the particles increased in the material. The microstructure became more
sound.
(a)Before Cryogenic Treatment (b) After Deep Cryogenic Treatment
Fig.2 SEM for Cr-Cu at 100X (a) Before Cryogenic treatment (b) After Cryogenic
treatment
4 Experimentation
The experiment is conducted on single phase resistance spot welding machine. Spot
welding is done on galvanized steel sheets which are 0.75mm in thickness. Equal number of
welds is applied by cryogenic and non-cryogenic treated electrodes and the changes in
dimensions of electrode (electrode tip diameter & electrode length) are compared. Pilot
studies are being performed in order to decide the range and levels of parameters of
resistance spot welding. On the basis of pilot experimentation, critical parameters have been
selected and are analyzed by using Design Expert software. Voltage, 2 levels, 2.5V and
149
ISBN:9788190937634
3V.Time, 2 levels, 2 sec and 3 sec Responses: - a) Change in Diameter b) Change in

Length During spot welding experiments, the input parameters (factors) were voltage and
weld time. The critical parameters are selected from pilot experimentation. The electrode
force is kept constant, therefore, the effect of the electrode force is not considered in the
present work. The water flow through the electrodes is 2.7L/min. Table 4 shows factors and
factor levels assessed in this study. The design of experiments was performed through
Taguchi approach of experimental design. Accordingly, a L12 standard orthogonal array was
employed. All the main effects of factors and two-order interactions were desired to be
considered in this study. The 3D surface graphs obtained from Design Expert software are
shown below
Taguchi OA Design
Name Units Levels L[1] L[2]

Treatment 2 Untreated Treated
Voltage V 2 2.5 3
Time sec 2 2 3
Design-Expert Software Design-Expert Software

Change in Diameter Change in Diameter
Design points above predicted value Design points above predicted value
Design points below predicted value Design points below predicted value
X1 = A: Treatment X1 = A: Treatment
X2 = B: Voltage X2 = C: Time
Actual Factor 0.8 Actual Factor 1.2

C: Time = 2 B: Voltage = 2.5
0.7
1
C h a n g e in D ia m e te r
C h a n g e in D ia m e te r
0.6
0.8
0.5
0.6
0.4
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.2
0.1 0
3 Treated 3 Treated
B: Voltage 2.5 Untreated A: Treatment C: Time 2 Untreated A: Treatment
Fig.3 Effect of voltage and treatment Fig.4 Effect of time and treatment
on change in diameter of untreated
on change in diameter of treated
and treated electrodes
and untreated electrodes
150
ISBN:9788190937634
Design-Expert Software
Length
Design points above predicted value Design-Expert Software
Design points below predicted value Change in Length
Design points above predicted value
X1 = A: Treatment Design points below predicted value
X2 = B: Voltage
X1 = C: Time
Actual Factor 1 X2 = A: Treatment
C: Time = 2
Actual Factor 1.2
B: Voltage = 2.5
0.8
1
C h a n g e in L e n g th
0.6 0.8
L e n g th
0.6
0.4
0.4
0.2
0.2
0
0
3 Treated
Treated 3
B: Voltage 2.5 Untreated A: Treatment A: Treatment Untreated 2 C: Time

Fig.5Effectoftimeandtreatment Fig.6Effectoftimeandtreatment
onchangeinelectrodelengthof onchangeinelectrodelengthof
treatedanduntreatedelectrodes treatedanduntreatedelectrodes
4.1 Tensile shear test
Tensile shear test is conducted on universal testing machine. The specimen were
prepared as per fig. 8 [5].Load taken by the steel sheet is 700N and the load taken by a spot
welded joint is 730N. The purpose of this test is to check the strength of the spot welded
joint. The strength of joint is nearly equal to the strength of the sheet. So the joint is strong
enough to resist the external force.
Fig. 8. The sizes of tensile-shear test specimens [5]
5 Results and Discussion

The results are obtained from experimentation on resistance spot welding machine and
are analyzed with the help of design expert software. Taguchi OA design is used to find
the optimum interactions of the critical parameters. Analysis of variance is used to find
out the significant model. 3D surface graphs plotted for the effect of voltage and
treatment for the change in electrode tip diameter of treated and untreated electrodes.
As it is clear from the fig.3 that when the voltage is 2.5V, the change in diameter of
electrode tip for untreated electrode is 0.3mm whereas for treated electrode, the change
in electrode tip diameter is almost negligible. When the voltage is 3V, the change in
diameter of untreated electrode is 0.74mm where as for treated electrode the change is
only 0.25mm Fig.4 shows the effect of treatment and weld time on the change in
electrode tip diameter. When the weld time is 2sec, the change in diameter of the
electrode tip for untreated electrode is 0.35mm whereas for treated electrode is only
0.12mm. When the weld time is 3sec, the change in diameter of the electrode tip for
untreated electrode is 1.02mm whereas for treated electrode is only 0.6mm. From fig.5
when the voltage is 2.5V, the change in length of electrode for untreated electrode is
0.4mm whereas for treated electrode, the change in electrode length is 0.13mm. When
the voltage is 3V, the change in length of untreated electrode is 0.92mm where as for
151
ISBN:9788190937634
treated electrode the change in length is only 0.22mm. Fig. 6 shows the effect of
treatment and weld time on the change in electrode length. When the weld time is 2sec,
the change in length of the electrode for untreated electrode is 0.42mm whereas for
treated electrode is only 0.1mm. When the weld time is 3sec, the change in length of the
electrode tip for untreated electrode is 1mm whereas for treated electrode is only 0.4mm.
6 Conclusion
The compactness of deep cryogenic treated electrodes is more than that of non-
Cryogenic treated. Chromium particles which are more diffusive became more uniform in
distribution. From X-Ray diffraction, it is found that grains of deep cryogenic treated
electrode are smaller than that of non cryogenic treated electrodes. Electrode life became
almost four times after deep cryogenic treatment.
References
[1]Handbook for Resistance spot welding American Welding society.

[2] Gedeon S.A., Eagar T.W. (1986), Resistance spot welding of galvanized steel material
variations and process modifications, metallurgical transactions , Vol.17B, pp.879885.
[3] Jiasheng Zou, Qizhang Zhao, Zheng Chen (2009), Surface modified long-life electrode
for resistance spot welding of Zn-coated steel, Journal of Materials Processing Technology,
Vol.209, pp. 41414146
[4] Guo Zhong, Finite element analysis of resistance spot welding process (2009), Chinese
Control and Decision Conference (CCDC 2009), pp.5799-5802
[5] NN. Hardness testing of resistance spot, projection and seam welds. IIW-III-66881, IIW-
III-W67-17-81, fourth proposal no.: 1183, 1981
152
ISBN:9788190937634
Experimental Investigations & development of empirical

model in rotary electro discharge machining using Taguchi
method for workpiece of HD11 and Brass Electrode
POPAT MITESH A. 1*, DR. S.S. KHANDARE2, AMIT V. SATA3
1
Research scholar, Saurashtra University, V. V. P. Engineering college, Rajkot.
E-mail: meetpopat@rediffmail.com
2
Principal, B.D. college of engineering, Nagpur.
E-mail: shashikhan_ngp@hotmail.com
3
Lecturer, V. V. P. Engineering college, Rajkot.
This work optimizes the parameters of rotary electro discharge machining for
hole drilling in HD11 tool steel using Taguchi methodology. The empirical
models for prediction of output parameters like Material Removal Rate (MRR has
been developed using regression analysis by applying logarithmic data
transformation. Four independent input parameters of the model viz. current,
pulse on time, diameter and hole depth are chosen as variables at four levels for
evaluating the output parameters. Analysis of the results, by using Taguchis
recommended signalnoise ratio formulae and ANOVA, has been conducted to
identify the significant parameters and their degree of contribution in the process
output. Current of EDM drilling were confirmed to affect at highest level on the
MRR. At the same time Pulse on time has minimum effect on MRR. In addition,
the predictions based on the above developed models have been verified with
another set of experiments and are found to be in good agreement with the
predicted results.
1. Introduction
EDM is among the earliest non traditional manufacturing process, having an inception
50 years ago in a simple die-sinking application. Anyone who have ever seen what happens
when a bolt of lightening strikes the ground will have a fair idea of the process of EDM [1].
The merit of EDM machining technique is most apparent in which have the highest hardness
in reinforcement. The EDM process does not involve mechanical energy, thus hardness,
strength, or toughness of the work piece does not affect the material removal.
Hole making has long been recognized as one of the most important machining
processes. Approximately 50 to 70% of production time is spent in making holes [2].
Because untouched machining characteristic EDM has superiority to small hole machining,
any conductive material with any hardness can be machined by EDM. Blind hole, deep hole,
inclined hole and profiled hole can be machined. In addition, because surface machined by
EDM has a series of discharge caves and there is no spiral trace obtained by ordinary drilling
processing, flow field distribution of liquid or gas flowing through small holes can be improved
greatly. So, EDM can be used as an effective means for small hole machining in some
special applications [3]. Rotary EDM or ED M drilling has vast application like nozzle
manufacturing, initial hole manufacturing for wire edm work, aerospace industries, surgical
components, air went holes in hot forging die for rescue of hot gases and many more.
There are many researchers who have worked in the field of EDM & rotary EDM. Soni and
Chakraverti [4] used rotary EDM to machine titanium alloy. Wansheng et al. [5] & Ghoreishi
et al. [6] have made comparative study for EDM in which they utilized rotary electrode.
Mohan et al. [7] used rotary EDM to machine AlSiC MMC. It was reported that the imparted
rotary motion to the electrode, material removal rate have been improved due to effective
flushing conditions. According to the Koshoy et al. [8] and Mohan et al. [7], the centrifugal
force generated by the rotating tube electrode throws a new layer of dielectric in to the
machining gap. Tzeng et al. [9] have performed experiments with Taguchi technique on edm
and concluded that the most important factors affecting the machining speed of the EDM
process have been identified as pulse on time and applied electric current in low voltage.
K.D. Chattopadhyay et al. [10] developed empirical model for three parameters & three levels
153
ISBN:9788190937634
for rotary edm. Based on model they have achieved near results in further experimentation.
They also found that maximizing MRR & achieving best SR is not possible simultaneously at
one combination of control parameters settings.
Material removal and its mechanism has been one of the main concerns for several
years. Since the development of this process, researchers have explained the material
removal mechanism by developing different thermal models to predict material removal based
on melting and evaporation. They predicted that material removal takes place not only by
vapour ejection but also due to liquid expulsion.
Apart from all these researchers, there are many others who have published their work
represented empirical models on EDM for various materials. M.G. Xu et al. [11] have
concentrated on Material removal mechanism of cemented carbide material for ultrasonic
vibration assisted EDM. Yan-Cherng Lin et al. [12] have found that the MRR of magnetic
force assisted EDM was almost three times as large as the value of standard EDM. K.M.
Patel et al. [13] concluded that surface roughness increases with discharge current and
pulse-on time for Al2O3 ceramic composite. Byung-Kwon Min et al. [14] have demonstrated
that the virtual EDM simulator successfully predicted the geometries of the workpiece and the
tool in the micro-EDM milling processes. Rajesh K. B et al. [15] have studied the effect of
machining parameters on surface roughness & tool wear for SiC composite material and
optimize the parameters. Sanjeev Kumar et al. [16] have investigated the surface properties
of OHNS die steel and found Peak current, Pulse on time, Pulse off time all are significant
parameters.
Among these materials, HD11 finds wide varieties of application used as low material
in many manufacturing industries. Small hole drilling is rather difficult process in most
technological applications [17, 18, 19, 20].
It has been observed that there is very little or no work represented on HD11 & no
model is available to represent MRR. And hence the study is focused on HD11 small hole
drilling with various input parameters like current, pulse on time, diameter and hole depth to
represent MRR. These have been done using Taguchis technique of design of experiments
& multiple regression analysis. Taguchis technique of design of experiments (DoE) is utilized
because the experimental design and analyze of the results can be done with less effort and
expenses. Since the method enormously reduces the number of experiments, quality loss of
results must be taken into account [1].
2 Experimental details:
2.1 Machine Specifications:

To perform the experiments
machine of Sparkonix India Private
Limited, which is a leading manufacturer
and exporter of EDM machines in India
since 1968, is identified. The specification
of machine is as below:
Work Table 400 x 300mm
X Travel 250mm
Y Travel 150mm
Z Travel 300mm
Guide Travel Z2200mm
Electrode Pipe Dia. 0.3 to 3.0mm
Max. Job Height 310mm
Max. Drilling Depth 300mm
Dielectric Fluid Distilled/tap
Pulse Generator 25Amps
2.2 Experimental Conditions: Fig. 1 EDM drilling machine in cutting

In the experiments conducted four input control factors are selected at 4 levels as
shown in the Table 1. Remaining constant parameters are also mentioned in Table 1.
154
ISBN:9788190937634
Table 1 Experimental Conditions

Sr. Control Factors(Units) Level 1 Level 2 Level 3 Level 4
1 Current, I (Amp.) 10 15 20 25
2 Pulse on time, Ton,( s) 7 8 9 10
3 Diameter, D (mm) 1.5 2 2.5 3
4 Hole depth, Dt (mm) 10 15 20 25
5 Pulse off time, s 7
6 Electrode rotation, rpm 50
7 Flushing Pressure, Kg/cm2 5
8 Voltage, V 55
9 Work Material HD11
10 Electrode Material Brass
11 Die electric Fluid Distilled Water
2.3 Experimental Plan:
The fractional factorial method developed by Taguchi is a technique that allows a
process to yield most information using relatively few experiments when there are a large
number of input variables [20]. For this experimental work, four input process parameters
(also called factors) were chosen based on extensive literature survey. Four levels of each
parameter were taken because nonlinear behavior of a process parameter can only be
studied if more than two levels are used. Out of the standard orthogonal arrays available in
Taguchi design, L16 orthogonal array can accommodate four levels of up to four parameters,
so it was selected for this work [20].
Taguchi also recommends that the experiments of an OA should be conducted at
random to minimise the effect of uncontrollable factors [21]. This random nos. will remove
any bias remain in the experimentation.
3 Experimental Results & Data Analysis:
3.1 Response Factors:

Any of the manufacturing process generally measured in terms of surface roughness
achieved and how fast material is removed for minimum tool wear. Hence in the experiments
conducted, MRR, SR & EWR are measured as response factor.
Reduction in weight of work piece (g) is calculated by obtaining weight difference of
work piece, before and after machining using weighing scale fitted with programmable, fully
automatic time and temperature controlled self-calibration system. It has a weighing range of
3
01000g with readability of 0.1 mg. Metal removal rate is calculated (mm /min) for each
cutting condition, by measuring the average amount of material removed and the machining
time by using the following equation:
MRR = Reduction in weight of work piece
Density of work piece x Machining time (1)
However, according to Scott et al.
Main Effects Plot for SN ratios(MRR) [22], no specific combination of EDMed
parameters could be achieved either in
I (A) Ton (s) terms of the optimum productivity,
25
optimum dimensional precision, or
Mean of SN ratios
20
15 optimum surface finish. The requirement
10 of a higher MRR, although possible, also
1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4
produces a very poor surface integrity;
D (mm) Dt (mm) thus, the higher MRR is required only in
25
20 rough finishing.
15 Using standard equations of signalnoise
10 ratio values are derived for MRR to
1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4
identify the level of the most significant
Signal-to-noise: Larger is better
parameters as shown in plotted graph
Fig. 2 Plot for SN ratio for MRR
155
ISBN:9788190937634
3.2 Analysis of Variance (ANOVA):

The basic idea behind analysis of variance is to breakdown total variability of the
experimental results into components of variance, and then assess their significance. The
significance of the variation components associated with factor effects is assessed by
comparing them with the residual. The optimum level of these significant parameters has
been found by examining the level averages of the factors. The standard formulae used to
calculate the terminology degree of freedom (DF), sequential sum of squares (Seq. SS),
adjusted sum of squares (Adj. SS) and adjusted mean sum of square.
Table 2 ANOVA for metal removal rate (MRR)
Source DF Seq SS Adj SS Adj MS F P F0.05,3,15 Remarks
I(A) 3 358.75 358.75 119.58 3.65 0.158 3.29 Significant
Ton(s) 3 64.89 64.89 21.63 0.66 0.629 3.29
D(mm) 3 507.26 507.26 169.09 5.17 0.105 3.29 Significant
Dt(mm) 3 71.05 71.05 23.68 0.72 0.602 3.29
3.3 Data Analysis:

Since these MRR is the prime criteria in the electrical discharge machining process,
peak current and diameter becomes the most significant parameter for further studies. Using
the above ANOVA table to analyse the variances, lists the degree of contribution of each
significant factor. It was found that peak current second most degree of contribution on MRR.
Diameter has the largest degree of contribution on MRR. Pulse on time has least affecting the
MRR.
The degree of contribution of error factor is much less than that of significant factors and
need not to be taken into account. Fig. 2 plots the signalnoise ratio (S/N ratio) vs. four input
parameters for evaluating MRR. Fig. 2 represents that peak current, pulse on time and
diameter at level-4 coupled with depth at level-2, leads to maximum MRR. Thus, the signal-
to-noise ratio confirms the test results for maximisation and minimization for different
machining outputs. And through this analysis we can also find optimization condition
maximisation of MRR.
4 Empirical models of the Process
Minitab 15 statistical analysis software has been used to estimate the parameters of
the above first order model using the data as shown in Table 3. The developed empirical
models for MRR is given below:
a b c d
MRR = A(I) (Ton) (D) (Dt) (02)
By performing multi parameter linear regression analysis on the data regression constants
are calculated which are as given follows
MRR = 0.0418A(I)1.571(Ton)0.3222(D)1.8722/(Dt)0.4598 (03)
Here R2 is 87% and R2adj. Is 82.3%. According to Equation, it can be stated that the
MRR is directly proportional to the peak current, pulse on time & diameter as well inversely
proportional to hole depth. Hence it can be stated that to achieve better MRR highest peak
current & pulse on time must be selected for a given hole diameter and as we drill lower
depth its better for MRR.
156
ISBN:9788190937634
Fig. 3 Graph showing error between actual MRR and predicted MRR.
Fig. 3 compares the actual and predicated values of MRR and verifies the closeness between
actual and predicated curves.
It has been observed that MRR increases with increase in peak current, i.e. MRR is higher at
25 amp. peak current conditions than lower conditions. It is due to higher discharge energy
available at the working gap [24]. The discharge energy for EDM is defined as
(04)
Where E is the discharge energy, V is the discharge voltage within the gap, I is the peak
current during sparking andt is the pulse on time. Higher current density available at the
working gap rapidly overheats the work piece, thus increasing metal removal rate at higher
peak current conditions.
In general to achieve highest MRR is always desirable and for that optimized condition is
25amp current, 3mm diameter, 10s pulse on time & 10mm thickness.
Generally, it has been seen that MRR increases with increase in peak current and pulse on
time while machining with stationary electrode [25,26] Whereas, here MRR decreases with
increase in pulse on time at a particular peak current with a rotating electrode. Generally, the
bigger sized eroded particles are produced at higher energy level. These eroded particles
start accumulating within the gap and reduces the gap size, and may touch the electrode
surface, thus leading to reduction in MRR. Again increase in pulse on time causes expansion
of the plasma channel during rotary electrical discharge machining and this leads to decrease
in energy density. Thus, lesser melting and vaporisation of the work piece takes place, and
MRR gets reduced at higher pulse on time conditions [27].
In the ANOVA table for MRR, peak current and diameter are significant at a 95% confidence
level. Therefore, effects of the control parameters are statistically significant at 95%
2
confidence level. A value for R squared (R ) is 0.87, which signifies that the model can
reasonably explain 87.1% of the variability in metal removal rate. It is stated that the value for
R squared (R2) always increases as we add more terms to the model. Therefore, some
regression model builders prefer to use adjusted R squared (R2 adj). In fact, if unnecessary
terms are added, the adjusted R squared (R2 adj) often decreases [28]. The adjusted R
squared (R2 adj) evaluated for the model is 0.823, which is very close to the value of ordinary
R squared (R2), i.e. 0.87. Thus, it can be stated, that no non-significant terms are included
during empirical model building for MRR. Degree of contribution, as stated in Table 8
developed by using ANOVA Table 4, reveals that peak current, pulse on time diameter and
depth has 35.78%, 6.47%, 50.69% and 7.06% respectively in MRR.
6. Conclusion
In this investigation, modelling of some of the most important technological parameters is
proposed for rotary electrical discharge machining process. Taguchi method is used to
157
ISBN:9788190937634
determine the main influencing factors affecting the selected technological variables such as
MRR. These technological variables have been studied as a function of design factors such
as peak current, pulse on time, diameter and depth. The other factors like pulse off time, duty
factor, electrode rotation, flushing pressure of water etc. remained constant throughout the
experiments. 1st order empirical models were developed for prediction of various output
process parameters during rotary electrical discharge machining, using non-linear regression
with logarithmic data transformation. The proposed models have been successfully applied to
estimate the values of MRR under various machining conditions. Through this investigation of
rotary electrical discharge machining of HD11 with brass electrode, the following conclusions
are summarised below:
1. Optimisation of the rotary electrical discharge machining process is concerned with
maximizing the MRR while minimizing EWR and also producing the optimum surface
roughness. But, these cannot be achieved simultaneously with a particular combination of
control parameters settings.
2. Through the Taguchi analysis for MRR it has been observed that peak current is highest
affecting the MRR and in order diameter, pulse on time & depth respectively are affecting the
MRR. Even it has been seen, through the main effects plots of SN ratio, to achieve highest
MRR within the experimental data range optimized conditions are 25amp current, 3mm dia.,
10s pulse on time & 10mm thickness. Further based on the results of ANOVA analysis it
has been seen that current and diameter are significant factors affecting MRR.
3. The developed empirical formulae can be used to evaluate MRR, produced by rotary
electrical discharge machining, with low prediction error.
7. References
[1] Dr. S. S. Khandare & Mitesh a. Popat (2009), Experimental Investigations of EDM to
optimize Material Removal Rate & Surface Roughness through Taguchis Technique of
Design of Experiments. IEEE explore, ICETET-09, pg 476 482 Print ISBN: 978-1-4244-
5250-7
[2] Benes J (2000) Hole making trends run deep, fast and dry. Am Mach 144(5):97104.
[3] WANG Zhen-long, CHI Guan-xin, DI Shi-chun. Micro ultrasonic EDM of deep, small holes
in titanium alloys. Acta Armam Entar , 2000, 21(4): 346-349.
[4] J.S. Soni, G. Chakraverti, Machining characteristics of titanium with rotary electro
discharge machining, Wear 171 (1994) 5158.
[5] Z. Wansheng, W. Zhenlong, D. Shichun, C. Guanxin, W. Hongyu, Ultrasonic and electric
discharge machining to deep and small hole on titanium alloy, Journal of Materials
Processing Technology 120 (2002) 101106.
[6] M. Ghoreishi, J. Atkinson, A comparative experimental study of machining characteristics
in vibratory, Journal of Materials Processing Technology 120 (2002) 374384.
[7] B. Mohan, A. Rajadurai, K.G. Satyanarayana, Effect of SiC and rotation of electrode on
electric discharge machining of AlSiC composites, J. Mater. Manuf. Process. 124 (2002)
297304
[8] P. Koshoy, V.K. Jain, G.K. Lal, Experimental investigation into electrical discharge
machining with a rotating disc electrode, J. Prec. Eng. 15 (1993) 615.
[9] Y.-F. Tzeng and N.-H. Chiu, Two-Phase Parameter Design for the Optimisation of the
Electrical-Discharge Machining Process Using a Taguchi Dynamic Experiment, Int J Adv
Manuf Technol (2003) 21:10051014
[10] K.D. Chattopadhyay, S. Verma, P.S. Satsangi, P.C. Sharma, Development of empirical
model for different process parameters during rotary electrical discharge machining of
coppersteel (EN-8) system, journal of materials processing technology 209 (2009) 1454
1465
[11] M.G. Xu, J.H. Zhang, Y. Li, Q.H. Zhang, S.F. Ren, Material removal mechanisms of
cemented carbides machined by ultrasonic vibration assisted EDM in gas medium, journal of
materials processing technology 2 0 9 (2009) 17421746.
[12] Yan-Cherng Lin, Yuan-Feng Chen, Der-An Wang, Ho-Shiun Lee, Optimization of
machining parameters in magnetic force assisted EDM based on Taguchi method, journal of
materials processing technology 2 0 9 (2009) 33743383.
158
ISBN:9788190937634
[13] K.M. Patel, Pulak M. Pandey, P. Venkateswara Rao, Surface integrity and material
removal mechanisms associated with the EDM of Al2O3 ceramic composite, Int. Journal of
Refractory Metals & Hard Materials 27 (2009) 892899
[14] SegonHeo, YoungHunJeong, Byung-KwonMin, SangJoLee, Virtual EDM simulator :
Three-dimensional geometric simulation of micro-EDM milling processes, International
Journal of Machine Tools & Manufacture 49 (2009) 10291034
[15] Rajesh Kumar Bhushan & Sudhir Kumar & S. Das, Effect of machining parameters on
surface roughness and tool wear for 7075 Al alloy SiC composite, Int J Adv Manuf Technol
(2010) 50:459469
[16] Sanjeev Kumar & Rupinder Singh, Investigating surface properties of OHNS die steel
after electrical discharge machining with manganese powder mixed in the dielectric, Int J Adv
Manuf Technol (2010) 50:625633
[17] Masuzawa, T.; Kuo, C.; Fujino, M.: Drilling of Deep Microholes using Additional Capacity,
Bull. Japan Soc. of Prec. Engg., Vol.24, No.4, Dec. 1990,275-276
[18] Masuzawa, T.; Tsukamoto, J.; Fujino, M.: Drilling of Deep Microholes by EDM, Annals of
the CIRP, Vol. 38/1/1989,195-198
[19] Toller, D. F.: Multi-Small Hole Drilling by EDM, ISEM 7, 1983,146-155
[20] Phadke MS (1989) Quality engineering using robust design, AT & T Bell Laboratories. P
T R Prentice Hall Inc, New Jersey. ISBN 01374-51679
[21] Ross Phillip J (1988) Taguchi techniques for quality engineering. McGraw Hill Book
Company, New York. ISBN 0-07-053866-2
[22] D. Scott, S. Boyina, K.P. Rajurkar, Analysis and optimization of parameter combination in
wire electrical discharge, Int. J. Prod. Res. 29 (1991) 2189-2207.
[23] Logothetis, N., 2004. Managing for Total Quality: From Deming to Taguchi & SPC.
Prentice-Hall of India.
[24] Wang, C.C., Yan, B.H., 2000. Blind hole drilling of Al2O3/6061Al composite using rotary
electro-discharge machining. J. Mater. Process. Technol. 102, 90102.
[25] Semon, G., 1975. A Practical Guide to Electro-discharge Machining. Ateliers des
Charmilles.
[26] Saito, N., 1998. An Illustrated Guide to Electrical Discharge Machining Details and
Effective Use of Techniques. The Gijutsu Hyoronsha Ltd.
[27] Yan, B.H., Wang, C.C., Liu, W.D., Huang, F.W., 2000. The machining characteristics of
Al2O3/6061Al composite using rotary EDM with a disk like electrode. Int. J. Adv. Manuf.
Technol. 16 (5), 322333.
th
[28] Montgomery, D.C., 1997. Design and Analysis of Experiments, 5 edition. John Wiley &
Sons, New York.
[29] Guu, Y.H., Hocheng, H., 2001. Effects of work piece rotation on machinability during
electrical discharge machining. Mater. Manuf. Processes 16 (1), 91101.
159
ISBN:9788190937634
Enhanced Design Assortment of Aseptic Housing using

CFD Analysis
A. Gaurav V. Patel1*, B. Roshani T. Patel2
1, 2
Institute of Computer and Communication Technology for Woman,
New V.V.Nagar-388121, Gujarat, India
*
Corresponding author (e-mail: ergvpatel@gmail.com)
Abstract-- The opening and closing of Aseptic valve is generally performed either
by a pneumatic actuator or by a manual hand-wheel. Aseptic valve finds its
application in a sterile pharmaceutical environment as well as in food
processing. The main objective of this paper is to select an appropriate design of
aseptic housing based on aseptic valve, serving multiple functions by
determining the flow coefficient (Cv) from pressure drop using Computational
Fluid Dynamic simulation. The study focuses on the investigation of steady and
statistical properties of flow. Initially, based on the given specifications two
diverse conceptual models were developed using AUTOCAD. Later on, the inner
volumes of these models were developed using Pro-Engineer Wildfire 4,
followed by the meshing of volumes using GAMBIT 2.3.16. Then after, the
simulation of the volumes was done using ANSYS FLUENT 6.3.26, of which the
one found to be the most appropriate was nominated. After optimization, the
design proposed in the given paper proves to be beneficial in the field of food
and beverages.
Key WordsAseptic Housing, Flow Co-efficient (Cv), Kappa Epsilon (KE)

model, Pressure drop (p), 3D CFD Analysis.
1. Introduction
Aseptic valve finds its application in a sterile pharmaceutical environment as a

standard process valve, dosing valve, sample valve or as a true aseptic drain valve, e.g. in
combination with a centrifugal pump. Aseptic valve can also be used in the biotech, health
care and cosmetic industries as well as in various food applications for pilot plants, as a
sample valve or as a dosing valve eg. for adding CO2/Nitrogen to beer or flavors to beverages
[4]. The characteristic of the loss coefficient of the flow across the aseptic housing were
analyzed from this study.
CFD is a computer based tool for simulating the behavior of systems involving fluid flow,
heat transfer and other related physical processes inside any domain by the numerical
solution of complex partial differential equations using advanced numerical techniques and
specified boundary conditions [1].
CFD can be used to determine the performance of individual component at design stage
or it can be used for improvement of design of existing components. It makes use of the
governing equations of flow for the solution of flow field in the required flow space called as
flow domain [2]. Specialized software programs like Gambit, Hyper-mesh have been
developed for the purpose of mesh and grid generation, and access to a good software
package and expertise in using this software are vital to the success of a modeling effort [3].
2. Methodology
Initially, two conceptual designs were developed in AutoCAD as per the following
technical specifications.
Working Pressure : 25 to 45 PSI (1.75 to 3 bar)

Inlet & Outlet diameter : 3 inches
160
ISBN:9788190937634
Radius of the stem : R200

Fig 1 and 2 given below shows the two dimensional drawing of the conceptual designs I
and II respectively.
Fig 1 2D drawing (Design 1) Fig 2 2D drawing (Design 2)
Subsequently, the inner volumes of these models were developed using Pro-Engineer
Wildfire 4, as shown below in Fig 3 and 4.
Fig 3 Inner Volume of Conceptual Design I Fig 4 Inner Volume of Conceptual Design II
3. CFD Meshing
In order to analyse fluid flows, flow domains are split into smaller subdomains which are
made up of geometric primitives like hexahedral and tetrahedral in 3D and quadrilaterals and
triangles in 2D. The subdomains are often called elements or cells, and the collection of all
elements or cells is called a mesh or grid. The process of obtaining an appropriate mesh (or
grid) is termed mesh generation (or grid generation), and has long been considered a
bottleneck in the analysis process due to the lack of a fully automatic mesh generation
procedure [5].
Herein, the meshing software GAMBIT 2.3.16 is used for meshing of the designs
according to the following specifications.
Table 1 given below shows the mesh specifications of both the conceptual designs used
for analysis throughout the paper.
161
ISBN:9788190937634
Table 1 Mesh specifications for conceptual designs I and II
DESIGN I DESIGN II
Mesh type = Map Mesh type = Map
=
Type of elements = Tetrahedral Type of elements
Tetrahedral
No: of nodes = 244057 No: of nodes = 331995
No: of tetrahedral cells = 1331057 No: of tetrahedral cells = 1811569
Interior faces = 2617934 Interior faces = 3563518
Wall faces = 61862 Wall faces = 83721
Velocity Inlet faces = 2060 Velocity Inlet faces = 4639
Outflow faces = 2066 Outflow faces = 4641
The figures given below show the meshed inner volumes of conceptual designs I and II.
Fig 5 Meshed Model of Conceptual Design I Fig 6 Meshed Model of Conceptual Design II
4. Boundary Conditions
In order to perform CFD analysis, several boundary conditions need to be applied to the
geometry. Hence, four boundary conditions as shown in the following figures are applied to
each of the conceptual designs.
Since, each of the given designs are symmetrical the inner volume has been reduced to
half to reduce the computational time and expenditure.
162
ISBN:9788190937634
Fig 7 Boundary Conditions (Design I) Fig 8 Boundary Conditions (Design II)
After carrying out the simulations under prescribed conditions of the flow through aseptic
housing, the characteristics of flow-fields and the characteristics of flow coefficient are
analysed.
A. Pressure distributions
For the aseptic housing of 72.6 mm inlet & outlet diameter, the simulation for static
analysis was done with a flow-rate of 300 GPM i.e. inlet velocity of 4.5721 m/s.
Fig 9 Pressure Distributions (Design I) Fig 10 Pressure Distributions (Design II)
From the above Figure 9-10, it is found that in design I, almost closed position causes the
highest value of stagnation point on the surface of stem; therefore it provides the lowest flow
rate in this position.
Conversely, for the same flow rate condition, design II causes the lowest stagnation value
on the surface of stem, therefore it provides the highest flow rate in this position.
B. Velocity distributions
The velocity distribution, in this part will be represented by velocity vectors. This helps to
display the velocity value and the direction of fluid around the aseptic housing. Fig. 1112
shows the velocity distribution of fluid around the aseptic housing for an inlet & outlet
diameter of 72.6 mm.
163
ISBN:9788190937634
Fig 11 Velocity Distributions (Design I) Fig 12 Velocity Distributions (Design II)
In design I, the velocity becomes very high after passing through the stem i.e. at the
initiation of the outlet, whereas in design II, the high gradient of fluid velocity appears at the
amalgamation of inlet and outlet due to the change of curve.
C. Characteristics of flow coefficient in static analysis
The values of pressure drop across the aseptic housing were investigated using
commercial fluid dynamics software FLUENT. They were calculated in order to compute the
dimensionless value of flow coefficient, Cv. Table 2 shows the value of flow coefficient for
conceptual designs I & II.
The flow coefficient (Cv) can be calculated by following equation:
1/2
G
Cv = Q (1)
p
where
Q is the volume flow rate of fluid
G is the specific gravity of fluid
Table 2 Change in pressure-drop (P) & flow coefficient (Cv) for both the conceptual designs
Inlet Velocity Inlet pressure Outlet pressure P Q

Sr. No. Design Cv
v (m/s) Pi (N/m2) Po (N/m2) N/m2 GPM
1 Design I 4.57215 17286.2930 360.2247 16926.068 300 191.4708
2 Design II 4.57215 9052.8135 -100.4120 9153.225 300 260.3716
Figures 13-14 shows the pressure drop and flow co-efficient for both the designs.
164
ISBN:9788190937634
Fig 13 Pressure drop (Design I & II) Fig 14 Flow Co-efficient (Design I & II)
It was found that the flow coefficient is independent of the condition of flow at the inlet but
dependent on the geometry of aseptic housing. As shown in figure 13, the pressure-drop (P)
for design I is more than pressure-drop for design II, due to the change in inclination of the
stem.
In figure 14, the flow coefficient (Cv) for design I is less than flow coefficient for design II,
due to high pressure drop.
6. Conclusion
From the analysis it was found that the pressure drop in Design I was more than in design
II. Moreover the flow co-efficient for design I was less than that for design II, due to high
pressure drop.
For higher efficiency and smooth functioning of a valve, the flow co-efficient should be high
and pressure drop should be low. Henceforth, it is evaluated that from the two conceptual
designs available, Design II is more appropriate in comparison to Design I.
References
[1] Tu J. Y., Yeoh G. H., Liu C, 2008, Computational Fluid Dynamics - A Practical Approach,
Butterworth Heinemann, USA.
[2] Shah N. S., Rajgor P. J., 2008, Analysis and Development of Non-Return Valve by CFD
Simulation and Finite Element Analysis, ADIT, New V. V. Nagar, India.
[3] Roach P. J., 1998, Fundamentals of Computational Fluid Dynamics, Hermosa
Publisher, New Mexico.
[4] Zappe R. W., Smith P., 2004, Valve Selection Handbook, 5th Edition, Gulf Professional
Publishing, USA.
[5] Chaiworapuk W., 2007, The Engineering Investigation of the Water Flow Past the
Butterfly Valve, INSA-Lyon, France.
165
th
ISBN:9788190937634
FINITE SHELL ELEMENT FORMATION AND DEGENERATION
A.Kaushal Bhavsar1* , B.Prof. J.R.Mewada2,C.Ashish Amin
(kaushalbhavsar87@gmail.com)
A,B.: U.V.Patel college of Engineering,Kherva,Mahesana-382711.,Gujarat,INDIA.
C.: SVB Institute of technology,vasan ,Gandhinagar.
ABSTRACT
The linear and nonlinear finite element analysis of plates and shells has attracted much attention
in recent decades. It is necessary to capture the bending-stretching coupling of thin shell behavior.
Hence, one of the motivations for designing new elements is their potential ability to capture the
membrane-bending coupling correctly. So far, there are two ways in which this could be done. One is to
use elements based on specific shell theories (e.g. the Vlasov [VLA49], Flugge [FLU73] theories, etc.).
There are considerable controversies regarding the relative merits and drawbacks of these theories. Each
theory has been obtained by carrying out approximations to different degrees when the 3D field equations
are reduced to the particular class of shell equations.
The second approach is called degenerated shell approach 3D solid elements can be reduced
(degenerated) into shell elements having only mid-surface nodal variables - these are no longer
dependent on the various forms of shell theories proposed and should be simple to use. They are in
factequivalent to a Mindlin type curved shell element (equivalent to a shear deformable theory), With the
standard procedure, a plate or shell theory is used as a basis for the finite element formulation. It begins
with the field equations of the 3D theory and makes various assumptions, lead to the plate or shell theory.
1. Introduction
The solid-shell is a solid element that has incorporated shell features, shear locking and curvature
thickness locking removals, and EAS or RI techniques for other locking effects. In order to better
understand the solid-shell concept, lets start considering some features of the low-order standard solid
element and the obstacles that the solid element is facing. The difficulties when using the well-known
degenerated shell elements are also investigated. Later in the chapter, all the methods that concern the
solid-shell elements: the EAS (formulated in Green-Lagrange strain) [KLI97] and the classical ANS
methods [DVO84] (applied for finite deformation solid elements) are introduced. These methods have
been implemented in a MATLAB code. In this paper separated performances of the Shell elements are
presented with element formulations.
2. Methodology
2.1 : Conventional shell elements:
In this section the conventional shell elements are briefly introduced. Some basic concepts mentioned
here are useful for building the solid-shell elements. We will briefly discuss about disadvantages of the
conventional shell elements compared with the solid-shell elements, such as modified material models,
variation of thickness strains, contradictions of assumptions for shell elements, etc. Basically, the
conventional shell finite elements are developed from one of the two following approaches:
1. Develop the formulation for shell elements by using classical strain, displacement and momentum (or
equilibrium) equations for shells to develop a weak form of the momentum (or equilibrium) equations.
2. Develop the element directly from a continuum element by imposing the structural assumptions on the
weak form or on the discrete equations; this is called the continuum based approach.
166
th
ISBN:9788190937634
2.2. Classical shell theories:
Earlier, a shell was considered as a curved form of a plate and its structural action is a combination of
stretching and bending. It is possible to perform a finite element analysis of a shell by using what is called
a facet representation - i.e. the shell surface is replaced by a flat triangular and/or quadrilateral plate
elements in which a membrane stiffness (membrane element) is superposed on a bending stiffness (plate
bending element). Such a model is understandably inaccurate in the sense that with very coarse meshes,
they do not capture the bending-stretching coupling of thin shell behavior. Hence, the motivation for
designing elements is twofold: mid-surface curvature has to be taken into account and the element has to
capture the membrane-bending coupling correctly. The essential kinematic assumptions in these shell
theories are[1,3,4]:
1. The normal to the mid-surface remains straight and normal (Kirchhoff-Love theory).
2. The normal to the mid-surface remains straight (Mindlin-Reissner theory).
Shell theories, proved that the Kirchhoff-Love assumptions are the most accurate in predicting the
behavior of thin shells. For thick shells, the Mindlin-Reissner assumptions are more accurate because
transverse shear effects become important. Transverse shear effects are particularly important in
composites. Mindlin-Reissner theory can also be used for thin shells. In that case the normal will remain
approximately normal and the transverse shear strains will almost vanish.
The assumptions for Kirchhoff-Love shell theory[1] are:
1) The shell is thin compared to the radius of curvature, i.e. t/R << 1.
2) The linear and angular deformations of the shell are small.
3) The transverse normal stress is negligible: =0.
4) The normals to the reference plane before deformation remain normal, straight and inextensible after
deformation.
Mindlin-Reissner theory is applied for thin to thick shells[2,3]. The kinematic assumptions are:
1. The normal to the mid-surface remains straight throughout deformation.
2. The length of the normal remains unchanged throughout deformation.
3. Transverse normal stresses are negligible =0.
2.3: Degenerated shell elements :
There were various shell elements whose formulations are derived from the degeneration
concept]. The core of this concept is the discretization of a 3D mathematical model with 3D elements and
their subsequent reduction into 2D elements. As classified above, the degenerated shell elements are
built from a so-called continuum based approach (CM). In comparison the CM to shell theory, it is not
necessary to develop the complete formulation, i.e. developing a weak form, discretizing the problem by
using finite element interpolations, etc. The degeneration of this 3D shell element is done by eliminating
the nodes with the same (1, 2) coordinates into a single node located at the mid-surface of the element,
as shown in Figure 1.
The procedure when creating a shell element using the degenerated solid approach is to
eliminate nodes by enforcing different constraints on the behavior of the element. First, nodes on the mid-
surface are removed (nodes 17 to 20, Figure 1), corresponding to assuming constant transverse strains.
167
th
ISBN:9788190937634
Then, opposite nodes (1&9, 3&11, 5&13, 7&15; 2&10, 4&12, 6&14, 8&16) are linked by assuming equal
displacements (u, v and w) and assigning two rotational DOFs ( x and y ) to each pair of nodes.
Finally, the motion of each straight line is described by five DOFs in one node, lying on the reference
surface, Figure 1b.
For the shear deformable shells, the following assumptions are made:
1. The fibers (line connects bottom node with top node) remain straight. The unit vector along each fiber
is called a director vector;
2. The element is in a plane stress state, so =0
3. The elongation of the fibers is governed by conservation of mass and/or the constitutive equation.
Fig.1(a,b) Degeneration of a 3D solid element into a degenerated shell element
2.4: Incompatible Displace Element
Incompatible method, also called assumed displacement method, is derived from the potential energy
variation principle. In the paper the incompatible method is presented as a reference to motivate for the
EAS method. Hence, the incompatible method is briefly introduced and only considered in linear elastic
theory. The standard solid elements pose the following difficulties: locking phenomena for bending and
incompressible problems. By adding incompatible displacements to 3-D isoparametric nodes, the
mentioned difficulties are canceled.
2.5: Finite element formulation
168
th
ISBN:9788190937634
Consider a continuum body occupying a volume V in a space of boundary surface A. Assume that the
body force and the tension force are conservative and the object is in static state. Under the theory of
linear elasticity, the principle of minimum potential energy can be stated as:
(2.5.1)
When the solid continuum is discretized into a finite number of elements, the above variational is rewritten
in the form as:
..(2.5.2)
where Nele : number of elements.
In the finite element formulation the element displacements are interpolated in terms of
nodal displacements that may be at both boundary nodes (Serendipity elements) and internal nodes
(Lagrange elements). Elements can also be formulated by adding to the original element displacements
eu , which are in terms of nodal displacements , higher-order displacements , which are not
expressed in terms of nodal displacements of the boundary nodes. For example, the displacements u
and v for the standard four-node quadrilateral element are based on bilinear interpolation functions.
They are incomplete in quadratic terms, see. Improvement of the performance of a four-node element can
be made by adding terms such that the displacements are complete in quadratic terms. Wilson et al.
[WIL73] suggested the addition of incompatible displacements that vanish at all corner nodes. In these
cases the element strain = D can be expressed as
.(2.5.3)
where
, are compatible strain matrix and incompatible strain matrix, respectively. is nodal displacement
vector and is incompatible mode vector of element:
.(2.5.4)
..(2.5.5)
with N-node is the number of nodes per element; inMod is the number of incompatible modes per
element.
Introducing (2.5.4) into (2.5.5) we have:
(2.5.6)
where:
169
th
ISBN:9788190937634
- The standard stiffness matrix of the element is:
- The incompatible-standard stiffness matrix of the element is defined as:
- The incompatible stiffness matrix of the element is defined as:
- The standard nodal force vector is:
- The incompatible nodal force vector is defined as:
with are the incompatible shape functions.
The incompatible vector consists of internal variables hence it can be condensed out of the variational
formulation by setting in order to get in function of as:
Then, the total potential energy u is rewritten:
where the equivalent element stiffness matrix is
and the equivalent nodal force vector is
Assembling into the global stiffness matrix K and into global nodal vector F , finally, the total
potential energy is:
where: - U is the global nodal displacement vector;
170
th
ISBN:9788190937634
Lets take the first variation of with respect to global displacement vector U and impose it equal to
zero, =0 , the equation for displacement solution is
K.U=F
After the solution process, solving system, all the nodal displacements are known. Other variables, strains
and stresses, are obtained as in the standard manner.
3. Results and Discussion:
3.1 Numerical Results
This section investigates performances of the EAS and ANS elements. In the following tests, the low-
order standard solid element is designated as Q1. While the standard solid element Q1, which employs
the classical ANS technique [DVO84] for alleviating transverse shear locking and curvature locking, is
designated as ANS. The EAS elements are designated as EASx, where x is the number of internal
parameters. The additional letter 2D. stands for elements in 2D, without this additional letter means
elements are in 3D. The ANS, EAS elements used in the following tests are implemented in a MATLAB
code, according to the theories presented in this chapter.
3.2 Membrane patch test
Lets consider a patch test as suggested by McNeal and Harder [MAC85] and originally aimed to check
the membrane behavior of plate and shell elements. In order to adapt to 3D elements, the number of
nodes has been doubled as Vu-Quoc and Tan [QUO03a]. An imposed displacement field at the
boundary nodes is chosen to cause a constant stress field in the plate. ,
Table 3.2: Interior nodal coordinates
Practically, consider a rectangle plate of dimensions LWh = 0.240.120.001. The material parameters
are taken as E = 106 and = 0.25. In the original problem designed for plane stress problems, McNeal
and Harder [MAC85] employed the following boundary conditions:
(3.1)
which lead to the corresponding reference solutions of constant strains and stresses:
Motivated by this result, the above boundary conditions (3.1) are also adopted for the modified doubled-
surface membrane patch test. Additionally, the condition w = 0 has also be imposed to a bottom node,
e.g. node 1, to prevent rigid body motions. Because the plate is too thin, L/h=240, it is possible to assure
a constant stress state in the plate when apply these conditions.
4. Conclusion
Through the tests we see the formation of shell element and also observe that the transverse
shear locking treatment is ideally suited by the method. In the case the Poissons ratio is different from
zero, this method gives less accuracy but always remains too much better than the standard
displacement-based method. The EAS method is also useful to shear locking removal but computational
171
th
ISBN:9788190937634
cost of the EAS method is more expensive than this because the EAS method requires calculation of
internal variables. The volumetric locking is effectively removed by the EAS method.
References:
[1] J. Kindl,K.-U.Bletzinger,J.Linhard,R.WuchhnerIsogeometric shell analysis with kirchhoff-Love

elementsJournal of Computational Methods in Applied Mechanics and Engineering,Vol.198,pp.3902-
3914(year : 2009)
[2]E.Ramm,W.A.WallShell structure- a sensitive interelation between physics and numerics.International

journal for numerical methods in Engineering,vol-60,pp.381-427(year : 2004).
[3]G.M.Kulikov,S.V.PlotnikovaSimple and effective element based upon Timoshenko-Mindlin shell

theory.,Comutational methods in applied mechanics and Engineering,vol-191,pp.1173-1187(year : 2002)
[4]Maurice Petyt(Uni. Of Southampton) Introduction to Finite element vibration AnalysisCambridge uni

press.(2nd edition,pp.148-191)
172
ISBN:9788190937634
Selective Inventory Control using Cost matrix and perpetual

review model: A case study
1
Harshdeep Shergill, 2S.K Gandhi, 3M.S Matharu
1,
Research scholar, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Rayat Institute of Engineering
and Information Technology, Railmajra, Punjab, India
E-Mail- harshdeep.shergill@gmail.com
2,3
Assistant Professor, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Rayat Institute of
Engineering and Information Technology, Railmajra, Punjab, India
2
E-Mail- skgandhi2@rediffmail.com, 3 E-Mail-matharums55@yahoo.com
ABSTRACT: Due to large stocks of materials, untimely supply of material,

imbalanced production line and to keep the product competitive in the market the
manufacturer are under a great pressure not only to provide quality product but also to
earn reasonable profit. In order to overcome this issue, it is necessary to establish an
efficient inventory management system, to reduce the cost associated with raw
material and optimize the profit. In this study a survey has been carried out in a paper
industry on its store management. The total inventory is classified into cost matrix
using ABC and VED inventory control techniques; perpetual review system model is
used to develop a new system. Finally, results are obtained through comparison with
new proposed system and existing system. The solution reveals that the proposed
methodology reduces the inventory level and reduces the investment on inventory.
Key Words: Inventory, Cost matrix, perpetual review model.
1. INTRODUCTION: In todays globalize world the input costs are increasing day by day, thus to keep
the product competitive in the market and earn reasonable profit, the management in any processing
organization has limited options. The main emphasis in such a situation is on cost reduction. Various types
of cost expenditures associated with materials are material cost, carrying cost, ordering cost etc. Through
some measures, if we are able to reduce a fraction of these costs, a lot of saving occurs. Thus, a good
inventory management always aims at reducing various costs tied up with material. Inventory is like a river,
nourishing the manufacturing unit, its depth and width may be represented as the level of inventory and
variety of parts respectively, and length of river indicates the distance traveled from suppliers to
manufacturer. Thus usage of inventory in optimized way is the central goal of the manufacturer. Paper
process industry is a big, complex and material intensive industry suffering from a high level of inertia and
only embracing change when forced with an external threat such as government regulations or the green
movement. [5] Paper industry is a material intensive industry where different types of materials in large
quantity are used. According to American Forest and Paper Association (AFPA), the material accounts
for more than 50% of the total cost of production. [6] Therefore serious attention has to be paid to this
aspect of business management. Thus, the industry input (Raw Materials and Chemicals) and the output
(Paper as finished good) requires special attention. In order to ensure continuous operation of each system
and continuous production of paper it is necessary to supply raw material without any break at any stage. In
the same way, the management of output is also very important in order to avoid accumulation of paper in
line. Apart from raw material and finished products, the spare parts and various maintenance supplies also
play very important role to keep the equipment in order. These are kept to face any untimely breakdown or
malfunctioning of equipment. Although lack of maintenance and other auxiliary functions may not cause
the machine to stop, yet their efficiency will certainly be affected. This will directly affect the quality of the
product and productivity of the system. Therefore, management should always ensure availability of good
quality spare parts and maintenance supplies to achieve efficient production, good quality and profitability
with optimum cost. Thus, a scientific inventory management is an essential requirement for a paper
industry.
LITRATURE REVIEW
Due to the impact of inventory management on the cost of the operations and hence the product, inventory
has been seeking attention of both the academics and practitioners. Some of the work in the past decades
has been reviewed to understand the concept and trends on this issue. Iyengar [1] observed during the year
173
ISBN:9788190937634
1984-85, that in case of 150 manufacturing enterprises, the cost of raw materials, stores and other goods
consumed stood at 61.63% of cost of production and in case of 57 service enterprises, the cost of raw
material, stores and other consumables worked out to 67.45%. The combined figure for both manufacturing
and service enterprises, numbering 207, the cost of materials worked out to 63.45% of the cost of
production. Chong [2] developed procedures for inventory control that vary from company to company
depending on the type of manufacturing, product structure, plant layout and material flow. Simplification of
control procedures such as key eliminating shop orders and using back flushing should be considered.
Denton [3] suggested the top management to be dedicated and committed for inventory control. They
(management) should always talk about the inventory control, its effects and its needs, with the staff, and
should also maintain cross functional close relationship with various departments to acquaint them about
inventory control. Sadiwala [4] has done mathematical modeling and simulation studies of inventory
control in Material Requirements Planning. For a deterministic demand and lead time the master production
schedule (MPS) gives the net requirements and on hand inventory of different components of end product
by MRP systems automatically with the help of computer. The various mathematical models have been
suggested for the deterministic type of demand and lead time variations to solve the problem, how to reduce
the inventories and the investment tied up with them. A simple mathematical model has been developed for
determining the system cost and reorder quantity. The results obtained from the simulation studies have
been presented as the cost of the system for variation in demand and lead-time. The optimum values of
reorder point and reorder quantity have been obtained. The results are very useful for decision-making.
Anwaruddin, conducted ABC analysis to control the inventory cost associated with spare parts used in a
service company. It helped to reduce inventory problem in this store largely due to congestion o spare parts.
The solution is given after classification of spare parts according to their annual consumption value. There
after bin cards are introduced and coding is done accordingly. This resulted in organized inventory and cost
reduction. Szendrovites [6] defined the function of safety stock to meet the requirements during vendor
lead-time variations and unexpected demand variations. By keeping safety stock, the enterprises are also
benefited by increased sales, reduced cost of freight, reduced customerised service and down time. He
gauged the necessity of safety stock for decoupling the various stages in large transfer line. He also
presented a model and a simulation method for determining the safety inventories needed at each stage to
ensure that pre-specified efficiency is met and the carrying cost of the total safety inventory is minimum.
Heyhurst [7] examined the applicability of selective inventory control system in paper industries and
consultative agencies while operating at University of Massachutes. He determined the applicability of
these models as a means of gaining a comparative advantage. The over traditional approach the findings
suggested the importance of inventory control and the successful implementation of this strategy resulted in
increased profitability by 20% and productivity by 15-20% with a reduction in inventory by 45%. It also
focused in a number of ways like subjects perceived expectations, performance evaluations and other
strategic factors measured by using multiple measures in contrast to the traditional approach used by
industries. The results suggested that the facts are very fruitful for the organization profitability in both a
focus and a market share context. Two perpetual review system models have been used to assist the top
managers in deriving improvement strategies.
PROBLEM DESCRIPTION
Shreyans Industries Ltd. Unit Shree Rishabh Papers, Village Banah Distt. SBS Nagar, Punjab has been
chosen for this study, it produces 90 tons of paper per day. The objective for this study is primarily aims at
studying the inventory management system of paper mill and suggesting improvements using HUYHURST
perpetual review model. The reasons for the selection of this model as per the situation in the company are
given below: -
i) Demand is deterministic and uniform.
ii) Lead time is fixed.
Thus, from the presented literature review, it can be observed that deterministic inventory model provides
us efficient and economical solutions in ensuring the right and timely availability of materials at promising
cost.The study of inventory system in Shreyans Industries Limited, Unit Rishabh Papers is divided into
five stages: -
i) Collection of data.
ii) Analysis of data
iii) Formulating cost matrix by combining ABC and VED inventory control technique.
iv) Development of proposed system.
v) Comparison of Data for existing and proposed system and finding out the benefits from the
proposed.
174
ISBN:9788190937634
Data Collection: Data regarding the Raw Materials, Boiler Fuels, Chemicals and MRO, with complete
description and quantity required for the manufacturing of paper is recorded for this study. Rate/Unit,
consumption during the years 2006-2008 along with the demand for 2006-2008 is collected from records
available. Data related to the production of paper/day is also recorded from the record -keeping department
on production floor. Finished Goods Inventory is not considered for the study as the demand has been
normally outstripping the supply and there is no more than one week finished goods Inventory at any
time in the unit.
Analysis of Data: Average inventory of each component during 2006 to 2008 is calculated. Cost of average
inventory, inventory carrying cost and total cost of average inventory is also calculated
Thus it is observed that 435 items are being used during the processing of paper in the selected
organization. Some of them are very costly, some are of moderate cost and some of them are of very low
cost. This inventory contains many low cost items such as bearings, shafts, bushes, wires, switches and
electrodes which are neglected. Thus 80 items are selected which effects the total average inventory cost the
most. Only these 80 items are categorized into cost matrix.
Cost matrix: A cost matrix is developed using ABC and VED inventory control techniques. This table is
shown cost matrix result.
ABC A Items B Items C Items
VED
No. of items Total cost No. of items Total cost No. of items Total cost
(lakhs) (lakhs) (lakhs)
V 6 108.54 2 4.3 0 0
E 6 92.9 13 18.36 8 2.91
D 4 18.8 7 11.41 32 13.34
Total 16 220.24 22 34.07 40 16.25
The items which are difficult to procure as well as having higher annual cost of consumption comes under
the realm of both
i) A and V
ii) B and E
iii) C and D categories.
Mathematical inventory models: Two Heyhurst [7] models for the paper industry, where an optimization
is struck to meet the requirements of paper industry and simplify the complexity of the large items have
been selected and used for this study.
The first two models belong to Perpetual Reviewing System where stocks are continuously reviewed. As
soon as the total stock level reaches Reorder Point (ROP) procurement action is taken for a fixed quantity
equal to EOQ.
Model I (Perpetual Review System for Stock Replenishment)

The decision variables are given as
EOQ = [S(10 x Co/Cu + A) ]
B = r x (S/EOQ) Adl / 48
P = Clmin + r x (S/EOQ) Adl / 48
Where
A = 0.04 Adl r,
Adl= Average daily consumption,
175
ISBN:9788190937634
B = Safety Stock,
EOQ = Economic Order Quantity,
Co= Ordering Cost per Order,
Cu= Unit cost of an item,
Clmin = Minimum Consumption during lead time,
P = Reorder Level,
S = Annual Consumption,
r = Permissible risk of run out i.e. number of years in which one
risk of run out is permitted,
Assumption made
i) Demand and Consumption are fixed over a period of time.
ii) Infinite replenishment rate.
iii) Lead Time is constant.
iv) Stock replenishment or bulk supply takes place.
Model II (Perpetual Review System for Uniform Replenishment)

The decision variables are given as
EOQ = [5RR S (2Co + 0.008 Cu A)/Cu (RR- dd)]
B = [r x (S/EOQ) -2] / 48 x Adl
P = Clmin + [r x (S/EOQ) - 2]/48 x Adl
Where
dd = Average Consumption in Lead Time.
RR = Replenishment Rate,
Assumptions made
i) Demand and Consumption are constant over a period of time.

ii) Material is supplied exactly at regular time
iii) Lead Time is constant
This formula will be used for uniform replenishment.

Both the above Inventory models i.e. Model I for Stock Replenishment and Model II for Uniform
Replenishment have been applied to all Class items.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS:

The total inventory is divided into following groups:
i) a) Raw Materials and Boiler Fuels.
b) Chemicals.
ii) Maintenance Repair and Operating Inventory i.e. MRO
The inventory model has been applied and the related values are taken from the Paper Plant. For Raw
materials and Boiler Fuels, Chemical and MRO which are 12, 24, 44 in numbers respectively, an ordering
cost of Rs 200/order is used. On the basis of past data and discussion with the top management, the
permissible risk of run out is taken as r = 3 years, 5 years and 10 years. The analysis for both Stock
Replenishment and Uniform Replenishment has been done and results are shown graphically in graph 1,
graph 2 and gragh3. Items which are categorized as both A&V items, B&E items and C&D items in cost
matrix are given more attention as highlighted in the cost matrix table.
In the industry under study, the sum total of all the raw materials has got the replenishment rate of 400
450 tons per day. Hence Uniform Replenishment model i.e. time between orders is constant and order size
may vary depending upon the inventory in stock will be more appropriate to apply.
In case of some Chemicals, implementation of uniform replenishment model is not feasible. Safety Stock
for a particular period is maintained and this is reviewed after a certain period. When inventory level
reaches a certain level, order is placed. Stock Replenishment Model i.e. a fixed, predetermined amount is
ordered whenever inventory in stock falls to Reorder point and is more suitable for these types of items.
176
ISBN:9788190937634
4500 Existing
4000
Stock Replenishment
3500
(r=3)
3000
Stock Replenishment
2500 (r=5)
2000
Stock Replenishment
(r=10)
1500
Uniform Replenishment
1000 (r=3)
500
(r=5)
0
Quant ity Ordered (Tons) Avg. Invent ory Cost (in Tot al Inventory Cost (in Uniform Replenishment
0000s) oooos) (r=10)
Graph 1 (For Raw Materials)
A look on the graph shows above, the SRM is preferable over URM in case of Raw Materials and Boiler
Fuels in the unit under study, under all the conditions of r =3, 5 & 10 years. The Total Inventory Cost in
URM is 70.776 (r = 3), 82.775 (r = 5) and 108.006 (r = 10). The corresponding cost in SRM is 60.118 (r =
3), 76.12 (r = 5) and 105.953 (r = 10). This results in a cost decrease of 17.72%, 8.74% and 1.93%
respectively.
As far as the selection of risk of stock out is concerned, comparing the preferred model i.e. SRM values
with the existing one, the analysis of the data reflects that for r = 3 years, the quantity required is 36.24%
less than the existing quantity and further there is a considerable saving of Rs 103.81 lacs in Total Inventory
Cost.
1400
Existing
1200 Stock Replenishment

(r=3)
1000
Stock Replenishment
(r=5)
800
Stock Replenishment
600 (r=10)
Uniform
400 Replenishment (r=3)
Uniform
200
Replenishment (r=5)
0 Uniform
Quantity Ordered (Tons) Avg. Inventory Cost (in 0000s) Total Inventory Cost (in 0000s) Replenishment (r=10)
Graph 2 (For Chemicals)
A look on the graph shows above, the SRM is preferable over URM in case of Chemicals in the unit under
study, under the conditions of r =3 & 5 years. The Total Inventory Cost in URM is 44.394 (r = 3) & 51.035
(r = 5). The corresponding cost in SRM is 41.972 (r = 3) & 50.875 (r = 5). This results in a cost
decrement of 5.77%, 0.31% respectively. For r = 10 years, URM is preferred over SRM. The Total
Inventory Cost in SRM is 69.865 (r = 10) as compared to 62.101 ( r = 10 ) in URM which results in a
decrease by 10.88%. As far as the selection of risk of stock out is concerned, comparing the preferred
model for r = 3 and r = 5 years, the analysis of the data reflects that for r = 3 years, the quantity required is
38.21% less than the Existing Quantity and further there is a considerable saving of Rs 38.09 lacs in Total
Inventory Cost.
177
ISBN:9788190937634
Existing
25000
Stock Replenishment
20000 (r=3)
Stock Replenishment
15000 (r=5)
Stock Replenishment
10000
(r=10)
(r=3)
5000
(r=5)
0
Quantity Ordered Avg. Inventory Cost T otal Inventory Cost
(r=10)
(T ons) (in 000s) (in 000s)
Graph 3 (For MRO)
A look on the graph shown above, the SRM is preferable over URM in case of MRO under all the
conditions of r =3, 5 & 10 years. Total Inventory Cost in URM is 47.662 (r = 3), 59.137 (r = 5) and 86.991
(r = 10). The corresponding cost in SRM is 41.908 (r = 3), 51.309 (r = 5) and 65.354 (r = 10). This results in
decrease of 12.07%, 13.23% and 24.87% respectively.
As far as the selection of risk of stock out is concerned, comparing the preferred model i.e. SRM values
with the existing one, the analysis of the data reflects that for r = 3 years, the quantity required is 49.73%
less than the Existing Safety Stock and further there is a considerable saving of Rs 59.56 lacs in Total
Inventory Cost.
CONCLUSION
The present study has been conducted on a paper mill producing 90 Tons of paper per day. Having come
out of the analysis and discussion phase in which policy and models are selected, the parameter estimation
and the application of the model have been done.In most of the cases i.e. for Raw Materials and Boiler
Fuels, Chemicals and MROs, Stock Replenishment Model (SRM) is found to be more effective alternative
and hence it is preferred. From the risk optimization point of view, the company preferred the one in five
years run out alternative (i.e. r = 5) for all the categories of materials though quantitatively r = 3 was
coming out to be the choice in some of the cases. This is the Management Preference. While carrying out
this study, it was found that the safety stocks kept by Shreyans Unit are quite high.
REFERENCES
1. Iyengar A.V.K (1987) "Profitability through Effective Inventory Management", Industrial Engineering
Journal, Vol. XVI, No. 7, pp 9-13.
2. Chong Philip S. (1989), "Designing an Effective Microcomputer Based Inventory Control System",
Production & Inventory Management Journal, Vol. 21, No. 1, pp 137-141.
3. Denton D. Keith, (1989) "Top Management's Role in Inventory Control", Industrial Engineering, Vol. 8,
August, pp. 26-30.
4. Sadiwala C.M., (1990), "Mathematical Modeling & Simulation Studies of Inventory Control in MRP"
Proceeding of International Conference on Design Automation & Computer Integrated Manufacturing
(DACIM 91) January 7-10, PSG College of Technology Coimbatore, India. pp 399-404.
5. Szendrovites A.Z. & Szabados T (2004), "Least Cost Safety Inventory for Large Transfer Lines", Omega
International Journal of Management Sciences, Vol. 21, No. 4, pp 471-580.
6. Richard, W., White, Miller, and Craig, E. (1992) Reducing Inventories through Inventory Management,
American Production and Inventory Control Society, Vol.26, No. 4, March, pp 595-597
7. Heyhurst, Doug P. (2002), Applicability of Selective Inventory Control in Paper Industries & Consultative
Agencies; Gaining a Comparative Advantage, Computer & Industrial Engineering, Vol. 23, No. 1, pp 1098-
1102.
178
ISBN:9788190937634
Study of Bonding and Interface Formation in AMC Synthesised by

Stir Casting
Hemant N. Panchal1*
1
Metallurgical & Materials Engineering Department, Faculty of Technology & Engineering, The M.S.
University of Baroda, Vadodara-390001, Gujarat, INDIA
*
Corresponding author (E-mail: hnp.15.met@gmail.com)
Present work is to study the bonding mechanism and formed interface between matrix and
reinforcement constituents. The scope of this work aims to share the overview in bonding
and interfacial problems as far as Aluminium Matrix Composite (AMC) is concerned when
ceramic particles are added in it. Through this study, one should get ideas of typical
interfacial reactions and remedial steps to overcome problems when possible. Since
wettability of reinforcement constituents is solely responsible for appreciable interfacial
bonding strength, present study includes the wettability concept when ceramic particles
are added into the aluminium matrix made by stir casting route.
1. Introduction
Aluminium Matrix Composite Materials (AMCs) are important classes of well established
advanced materials. They are being used in many critical applications such as in aerospace and
automobiles. Substantial progress in the development of AMCs has been achieved in recent decades
as they opened up unlimited possibilities for modern material science & development [1]. Particle
reinforced aluminium matrix composite materials (PAMCs) are the most promising because of their
higher specific strength, excellent wear resistance, near isotropic properties and superior high
temperature performance. All such good properties of the composites are solely depending upon the
nature of frontier zone (interface) between matrix and reinforcing constituents. Bonding at frontier zone
is developed from physical and chemical interaction, interfacial frictional stress and thermal stresses
due to mismatch between coefficient of thermal expansion between matrix and reinforcement.
Understanding and control of underlying interfacial phenomena governing transmission of thermal,
electrical and mechanical properties across the whole composite might become of paramount
importance when designing AMCs for particular task. Among the various production techniques
available in manufacturing of PAMC, the stir casting technology is considered to be a potential method
because of advantages like low production cost, simplicity, flexibility and applicability to large scale
production [2].
2. Processing of AMC
Processing of PAMC carried out by stir casting route. In general the stir casting process
involves producing a melt of selected matrix material and stirring it to form a vortex in which the
reinforcement particles are dispersed before casting. Although stir casting is generally accepted as an
economical & viable process for production of PAMCs, there are however technical challenges
associated with the process such as; the difficulty of achieving uniform/homogeneous distribution of
reinforcement in the matrix ; poor wettability and chemical reaction between matrix & reinforcement
materials; porosity in cast MMCs [3,4].
2.1 Stir Casting of AMC
Stir casting as shown schematically in figure 1, involves stirring the melt with solid ceramic
particles and then allowing the mixture to solidify. This can usually be done using fairly conventional
processing equipment and can be carried out on a continuous or semi-continuous basis. A concern is
to ensure that good particle wetting occurs. Difficulties can arise from the increase in viscosity on
adding particles or, especially, fibers to a melt. However, this increase is typically only by a factor of 2
or so with up to about 20 pct. by volume particulate, provided the particles remain well-dispersed. This
viscosity is sufficiently low to allow casting operations to be carried out. Microstructural inhomogeneities
can arise, notably particle agglomeration and sedimentation in the melt. Redistribution as a result of
particle pushing by an advancing solidification front can also be a problem. This is reduced when
179
ISBN:9788190937634
solidification is rapid, both as a result of a refinement in the scale of the structure and because there is
a critical growth velocity, above which solid particles should be enveloped rather than pushed. Stir
casting usually involves prolonged liquid ceramic particles contact, which can cause substantial
interfacial reaction.
Figure 1 Line diagram of stir casting
The uniform distribution of reinforcement particles depends on many factors like vortex
formation, stirrer geometry, position of stirrer, speed of stirring, volume fraction of reinforcement and
viscosity of the melt. In normal practice of stir casting process, the opaque nature of molten metal and
crucible poses problems in observing the process in situ, in order to study the effect of impeller
geometry and position, in dispersing of reinforcement. Hence the process needs to be simulated in
order to optimize the parameters that influence the process. There are four latest methods to stir the
molten composite bath as:
1. Mechanical Stirring by impeller (as in figure 1),
2. Electromagnetic Stirring,
3. Ultrasonic Stirring and
4. Magneto-hydrodynamic Stirring.
Among all four techniques, mechanical stirring technique is more common and cheap. Here one
impeller consisting of three or four blade rotates in melt with predetermined speed, angle and depth.
Electromagnetic stirring consist of stirring of melt by eddy current, same as in induction furnace. This
technique produces more uniform reinforcement distribution in short time at high expense
comparatively. Ultrasonic stirring is carried out by high frequency sound waves directed towards the
molten bath. Magneto-hydrodynamic stirring is most complicated and expensive technique than
previous three.
2.2 Interface of AMC
After synthesis of AMC by stir cast route, frontier zone (interface) was studied. Considering
physical and chemical properties of both matrix and reinforcement constituents, the actual strength and
toughness desired in final AMC, a compromise has to be achieved balancing often several conflicting
requirements. A weak interface will lead crack propagation followed the interface, while a strong matrix
associated with strong interface will reveal crack across both matrix and reinforcements. If however the
matrix is weak in comparison with both the interface and the particle strength, the failure will propagate
through matrix itself. The wettability of the reinforcement materials by the liquid metallic matrix plays
vital role in the bonding formation. It mainly depends on heat of formation, electronic structure of the
reinforcements and the molten metal, temperature, time, atmosphere, roughness and crystallography of
reinforcements.
Surface roughness of the reinforcing material improves mechanical interlocking at interface
through the contribution of the resulting interfacial shear strength is secondary compare to chemical
bonding. Large difference between coefficient of thermal expansion between matrix and reinforcements
should be avoided as they can induce internal matrix stresses and ultimately give interfacial failures.
The major problem for the production of AMC materials is to obtain the wetting of reinforcement by the
180
ISBN:9788190937634
liquid metal, which is very poor [5, 6, 7], and is favored by strong chemistry bonding at the interface [5,
8]. The poor wetting is because of the presence of a film oxide at the surface of the aluminium [5, 9].
The wettability of a solid by a liquid is indicated by the contact angle, as shown in figure 2. The
contact angle () among solid, liquid and gas/vapour can be measured by the Youngs Dupr equation
(A),
(A)
where, is the surface tension of the liquid/vapor metal, is the surface energy of the solid/vapor,
and is the solid/liquid interfacial energy [5, 10]. One of the experimental measurements of wetting is
referred to as sessile drop [11, 12].
The wettability is a complex phenomenon that depends on factors such as geometry of
interface, process temperature and soaks time [11], and it determines the quality of bonding among the
systems [9].
Figure 2 Sessile drop test for contact angle measurement
The wettability is a complex phenomenon that depends on factors such as geometry of

interface, process temperature and soaks time [11], and it determines the quality of bonding among the
systems [9]. Some works show that the contact angles () decrease with the increase of the liquid
metal temperature, addition of alloy elements, such as magnesium, calcium, titanium or zirconia [12,
13]. The major reaction between aluminium and MnO2 is,
22Al + 3MnO2 3MnAl6 + 2Al2O3 (B)
This reaction, if extensive, can be detrimental for the properties of the composites, decreases
the resistance, because forms a weak phase Al2O3 at the interface. However, a strong interface can be
created to promote a metallurgical bonding between aluminium matrix and MnO2 reinforcement by the
chemistry of interdifusion and reaction of third transient element like magnesium.
The magnesium lowers the superficial tension and the contact angle () between aluminium
and MnO2. It acts like a surfactant power that gets the oxygen as in reaction C. The magnesium reacts
with aluminium to form MgAl2O4 spinel at the interface Al/ Al2O3, as shown by the following reaction D,
3Mg(l) + Al2O3(s) MgO(s) + 2Al(l) (C)

3Mg(l) + 4Al2O3(s) 3MgAl2O4(s) + 2Al(l) (D)
Most of mechanical and physical properties of AMCs such as strength, hardness, stiffness,
fracture toughness, fatigue, coefficient of thermal expansion and conductivity, and creep are improved,
provided that the interface quality should be good enough.
3. Experimental Technique
The final AMC were prepared by addition of MnO2 particles stirred by four blade stirrer (300
rpm for 3 min) along with purging N2 gas into commercially pure aluminium. The resulting liquid metal
cast into the metallic mould from resistance heating furnace. About 1 to 3 kg of commercially pure
aluminium containing 99 wt. pct. of aluminium is melted in a clay graphite crucible inserted in the
resistance heating furnace at the desired processing temperature (720 C). A four blade stirrer (45
angled) is used, which is made up of 304 Austenitic Stainless Steel. The stirrer was coated with slurry
of fine MnO2 powder and dried, so that there is no significant dissolution of iron from the stirrer into the
molten metal bath. MnO2 particles were preheated prior to addition into the molten bath at 200 250
C. The Schematic diagram of experimental set up is shown in figure 3.
181
ISBN:9788190937634
1. Temperature /display unit 8. Thermal insulation-Asbestos

2. Movable stirrers stand 9. Kanthal wire-wounded
3. Motor for rotate stirrer 10. Hollow Stainless Steel pipe (N2
4. Turbine type stirrer inlet)
5. Chromel-Alumel 11. Rubber tube
thermocouple 12. N2 cylinder
6. Outer M.S. furnace wall 13. Metallic die
14. Composite melt
Figure 3 Experimental set up
The speed of the stirrer is kept constant, i.e. 300 rpm, which measured by digital tachometer
(Bangalore, India). The position of stirrer into the melt is also kept constant in all experiments. The
temperature of the melt is measured by using digital temperature indicator connected to Chromel-
Alumel thermocouple placed inside the melt. Amount of Magnesium added into the bath after MnO2
addition is (kept constant) 5 wt. pct. Finally prepared composite bath is cast into preheated (150 200
C) metallic die (23x23x6 cm).
The specimen for metallographic study has been prepared by standard metallographic method.
Prior to etching, the resultant composite structure was observed under scanning electron microscope.
The typical distribution of generated particles and various microstructural features of composite were
recorded.
4. Results & discussion
Figure 4 Scanning Electron Micrograph of Al Mg (MnO2) composite at 270 X magnification
182
ISBN:9788190937634
From this experimental study, we can see the distribution of reinforcing constituents in given
matrix as shown in figure 4. This figure is the scanning electron microphotograph of resultant composite
at 270 X magnification. From this microphotograph, one can be cleared that the distribution of added
reinforcement particles (MnO2) as well as in situ generated particles (Al2O3), is very uniform under
above mentioned stirring speed and stirring time at processing temperature (720 C).
Figure 5 indicates the bonding and interface formation between aluminium matrix and Al2O3
Altex particles. From figure 6, it is cleared that at some of the particle interface, the formation of brittle
phase (T phase) are present. Since these are brittle in nature, they are act as a flaw in the matrix
reinforcement bonding. Chances of initiation of the cracks from such brittle phase are likely to be more.
Hence they are not acceptable in resultant structure of composites.
Figure 5 Formation of bonding and interface between aluminium matrix and generated particles (Al2O3
Altex) by addition of magnesium
Figure 6 Formation of bonding and interface between aluminium matrix and reinforcement by addition
of magnesium
5. Summary of work
Aluminium Metal matrix composites (AMCs) include a wide group of materials, which includes
cermets and metallic foams, as well as more conventional particle- and fiber-reinforced metals.
Depending on the types of matrix and reinforcement concerned, various techniques employed for
production of metal matrix composite material and components; these are classified according to
whether the matrix is in the liquid, solid or gaseous state when it is combined with the reinforcement.
Each of these processing routes has advantages and disadvantages. In particular, some are far more
expensive than others. The lowest cost routes are generally those in which particle-reinforced
aluminium is produced using liquid metal handling - particularly stir-casting which is employed in
present work to synthesize Al Mg(MnO2) composite. Material produced in this way represents a
substantial proportion of the AMCs in commercial use today. Study of interfacial bonding carried out in
same composite at mentioned condition. At fixed positioned stirring at fixed rpm speed, formation of
interface varies in thickness. Secondary phase (T phase) which is formed at interface leads to
183
ISBN:9788190937634
embrittlements as it is brittle in nature. MnO2 when added, it is decomposed at 535 0C into manganese
and oxygen. Separated manganese and oxygen react with molten aluminium, which leads to formation
of MnAl6 and Al2O3. Magnesium acts as intermediate agent to increase wettability of the added ceramic
particles towards molten aluminium. Magnesium reacts with aluminium and manganese. This reaction
leads to formation of Al Mg Mn intermetallic which increases the bonding. Since the nature of
interface represents the life of composite materials, weightage to study the same should be more as in
present approach.
Acknowledgement
Author would like to acknowledge Dr. Vandana J. Rao (Met. & Mats. Engg. Deptt., The M. S.
University of Baroda) for providing technical and non technical support throughout this work.
References
[1] D.B.Miracle, Metal matrix composites From science to technological significance, Composites
Science and Technology, 2005, vol.65, pp2526- 2540
[2] B.C.Pai, R.M.Pillai and K.G.Satyanarayana, Structure and Mechanical Properties of SiCP
Reinforced and Al2O3P Reinforced Al Si Alloy Composite, Key Engineering Materials, 1993,
vol.79-80, pp.117-128.
[3] J.Hashim, L.Looney and M.S.J.Hashmi, Metal Matrix Composites: Production by the Stir Casting
Method, Materials Processing Technology, 1999, vol.92-93, pp.1-7.
[4] N.Aniban, R.M.Pillai and B.C.Pai, An analysis of impeller parameters for aluminium metal matrix
composites synthesis, Materials and Design, 2002, vol. 23, pp. 553-556.
[5] T. P. D. Rajan, R. M. Pillai, B. C. Pai, Review Reinforcement coatings and interfaces in aluminium
metal matrix composites, Journal of Materials Science 33 (1998), pp 3491-3503
[6] Len, C.A., Drew, R.A.L. The influence of nickel coating on the wettability of aluminium on ceramics,
Composites A 33(2002), pp 1429-1432
[7] Laurente, V., Chatain, D., Eustathopoulos, N. Wettability of SiC by aluminium and Al-Si alloys,
Journal of Materials Science 22 (1987), pp 244-250
[8] Bardal, A. Wettability and interfacial reaction products in the AlSiMg surfaceoxidized SiC system,
Materials Science and Engineering, A159, (1992), pp 119-125.
[9] Alonso, A., Pamies, A., Narciso, J., Garca-Cordovill, C., Louis, E. Evaluation of the wettability of
liquid aluminium (SiC, TiC, Al2O3) by means of pressure infiltration, Metallurgical Transactions A,
vol. 24A, June 1993, pp 1423-1432
[10] S. K Rhee, Wetting of Ceramics by Liquid Metals, Journal of American Ceramic Society, 54, no. 7
(1971), pp 332-334
[11] Pech-Canul, M.I., Katz, R.N., Makhlouf, M.M., Optimum parameters for wetting silicon carbide by
aluminum alloys, Metallurgical and Materials Transactions A, vol 31A, Feb 2000, pp 565-573
[12] Hashim, J., Looney, L., Hashmi, M.S.J., The wettability of SiC particles by molten aluminium
alloy, Journal of Materials Processing Technology, 119 (2001), pp 324-328
[13] E. Candan, Effect of Alloying Elements to Aluminium on the Wettability of Al/SiC Systems,
Turkish J. Eng Env. Sci., 26 (2002), pp 1-5.
184
ISBN:9788190937634
Effect of Deep Cryogenic Treatment on Tool Steel & Its Applications

A Review
Ms. Hani Chotai
Institute of Diploma Studies, Nirma University, Ahmedabad, Gujarat, India

(email: hani_chotai@yahoo.co.in)
Cryogenic treatment is process of deep freezing materials at cryogenic temperatures (at about
-300 F). It has been proven to increase wear resistance, tensile strength and durability of
material. The process is widely used in tooling industry, racing application, in production of gun
barrels and even in audio industry. The changes occur mainly due to the reasons
transformation of retained austenite into martensite, precipitation of fine eta-carbides and
removal of residual stresses. The article deals with application of the treatment to various tool
steels, study of the results and commercial applications of the treatment.
1. Introduction:
Cryogenic treatment is a onetime, permanent and irreversible process which utilizes ultra-cold
temperatures to modify the micro-structure of metals and other materials. The process of cryogenic
treatment, also known as cryogenic tempering is widely adopted as cost reduction and performance
enhancing technology.
The scepticism regarding the benefits of cryogenic treatment is reducing because the most
important theorized change that occurs during a cryogenic cycle has been verified by non-empirical
methods. The change is the transformation of retained austenite to Martensite in steels. At high heat,
carbon steel enters an austenitic phase, which is essentially a solid solution of iron and carbon. The
conversion of austenite to martensite occurs during a rapid quench. Martensite is harder, has higher
tensile strength and has far better wearing resistance than non-treated steels. After quenching,
martensitic steels are tempered to make them less brittle. Even with best heat-treating, quenching
and tempering cycles there is usually a significant amount of retained austenite left suspended in
material mass, which reduces its strength, hardness and stability. Cryogenic treatment promotes the
additional transformation of retained austenite into martensite. Referring to the various articles related
to the topic, this fact has been accepted by X-ray and SEM analysis of steels before and after
cryogenic treatment. Another reason for wear reduction is that cryogenic treatment increases the
number of fine eta-carbides by approximately 2.5 times. The carbides combine extreme hardness with
low coefficient of friction. Distribution of these carbides is studied to be more responsible for improved
wear characteristics. Following micrographs highlights the same.

Figure 1: Micrograph showing changes during cryogenic treatment
These micrographs were taken by Robin Rhodes of the Cryogenic Institute of New England, Inc.
He remarks: These Scanning Electron Micrographs clearly show two of the three dramatic
transformations that occur to steel that is cryogenically treated. First, the grain structure or crystal
185
ISBN:9788190937634
form of the cryogenically treated is pure as the flaws or imperfections of retained austenite are
transformed to the desired martensite, creating a homogenous microstructure. This produces a more
balanced steel that can be polished to create a reduced coefficient of friction (less drag) and has
better thermal properties for improved heat dissipation. The second transformation is the dramatic
increase in the population of eta-carbides in the cryogenically treated steel. These eta-carbides
dramatically improve the steels resistance to wear. The third transformation, residual stress relief,
(not visible in a micrograph), reduces distortion and warping in steels and enables parts to be
machined to tighter tolerances, reducing walk and creep from the machining operation. The photos
were taken in the research labs at Air Products and Chemicals.
However, there are metallurgists who claim that at very low temperatures, there is not enough
energy present to make any such transformation possible. However Cryogenic Society of America
lists dozens of technical papers that shows test results on various materials for various properties.
This paper gives an overview of test results collected from various papers on various materials to
observe changes in properties. Later part of the article describes the applications in commercial fields.
2. Change in microstructure:
As discussed earlier, the improvement in the properties is the result of conversion of retained
austenite into martensite. The test results collected from various references, for the following cases
clear the idea.
1. Test result on 13Cr2mn2V alloy (actual composition 12.62% Cr-1.89% Mn-1.6% V-2.76%) [3]
2. Test result on alloy tool steel with %wt composition 1.44C, 0.3Si,0.84Mo, 0.43V, 0.022P & 0.008S
[4]
3. Test result on 16Cr1Mo1Cu cast iron [5]
Micrograph of first case prior to cryogenic treatment Micrograph after cryogenic treatment
Figure 2: Change of Microstructure in First Case [3]
Tempered at 453 K without Specimen subzero treated at 223 K Carbide precipitation in specimen
subzero treatment and tempered ultra-zero treated at 93K & tempered
Figure 3: Change of Microstructure in Second Case [4]
186
ISBN:9788190937634
Microstructure for third case when

Microstructure for third case when air-cooled
cryogenically treated
Figure 4: Change of Microstructure in Third Case [5]
3. Graphs showing retained austenite content:
Relative comparison of austenite content with respect to temperature for above three cases is
represented graphically. The austenite content reduced from 20 to 24% to 14 to 15% for the same
temperature range for first case, reduced from 12% to 6% in second case and reduced from 25-30%
to 15% in third case. The austenite content reduces because of its conversion to martensite. However
the treatment is not able to lower the austenite content to very low levels.
Figure 5: Relative Comparison of Austenite Retention for all three cases
4. Effect on wear properties:
The effect on wear properties of the materials were studied which has been presented as follows:
Figure 6: Relative Comparison of Wear Resistance for all three cases
Above figures show that cryogenically treated samples show less wear rate with temperature and
sliding speed than that of non-cryogenically treated samples. The improvement in the wear resistance
is 110 to 600%. Two reasons are considered for improved wear resistance. One is the transformation
of abundant retained austenite into martensite, which offers stronger support for carbides to inhibit its
removal during abrasion course. Other is precipitation of fine carbides and more homogeneous
187
ISBN:9788190937634
carbide distribution as a result of cryogenic treatment. The precipitation of more hard carbides in
cryogenically treated samples can reduce carbon and alloy contents in matrix, which improves the
toughness of the matrix. Moreover, carbides precipitated have lower solubility of austenite. Lower
austenite solubility could increase the degree of work-hardening during abrasion and improve the
wear resistance.
5. Effect on hardness:
Figure 7: Relative Hardness Properties for First and Third Case

Observing the graphs, it can be concluded that cryogenically treated samples have higher hardness
than non-cryogenically treated samples. Similar to improvement in wear resistance, the reasons
attributed are conversion to martensite and precipitation and distribution of fine carbide particles.
6. Applications:
The process is extensively used in machining, automobiles and even in audio industry.
Cryogenic tempering can reduce your annual perishable tooling costs by 25% to 30%, and in some
cases more. In addition, productivity will increase and production costs will go down because machine
downtime and maintenance costs will be dramatically reduced.
Test results in the below table demonstrates the benefits of cryogenically treated tools:
Table 1: Test results demonstrating benefits of cryogenic treatment [8]

Tool Type: Tool Type:
C-2 Micro grain Carbide dovetail Form Tool Carbide Drill Bit (Ultra Tool)
Coated with Titanium Nitrite (TiN) Coated with Titanium Nitrite (TiN)
Machining Specifications: Machining Specifications:
Screw Machine: Acme Screw Machine: Chucker
Feed Rate: .002 to .0025 Feed Rate: .0025 to .003
Speed: (RPM): 1161 Speed: (RPM): 1166
Coolant: Oil Coolant: Oil
Part Material: 12L14 Steel Part Material: 10B21 Steel
Finished O/D 1.0
Test Results Test Results
Normal Tool life before cryogenics: 4000 parts Normal Tool life before cryogenics: 4000 parts
Tool life after cryogenics: 12,500 (+212%) gain Tool life after cryogenics: 7,000 (+75%) gain
Amount material removed to restore tool Amount material removed to restore tool
geometry: geometry:
Before cryogenics: .100 Before cryogenics: .100
After cryogenics: .050 After cryogenics: .030
Percent extended tool life: +212% Percent extended tool life: +75%
188
ISBN:9788190937634
6.1. Automobile industry:
Cryogenic treatment is extensively applied to various engine parts for improved performance.
Cryogenic processing is currently in use in every form of racing imaginable. It is used in virtually
every class of NASCAR racing, IRL, CART, NHRA,IHRA, SCCA, IMSA, and ARCA, not to mention
tractor pulls, go-karts, motorcycles, boats, and even lawn mower racing. The treatment is applied to
various engine parts listed below to improve their performance.
6.1.1. Connecting Rod:

Connecting rods usually fail in fatigue. The lightweight, forged 300M steel connecting
rods use cryogenic processing to resist the forces generated by an engine turning over
9000 rpm.
6.1.2. Ball & Roller Bearings:

Cryogenic processing of ball and roller bearings increases their resistance to contact
fatigue and increases life.
6.1.3. Brake Pads:

Cryogenically processing of brake pads yields a service life 2 to 3 times that of untreated
pads. Race drivers also report better braking action and feel.
6.1.4. Valve Springs:

Valve springs show dramatic improvement in fatigue life and show a smaller loss of
spring constant when cryogenically processed. Vibration characteristics are also
changed.
6.1.5. Piston:
Mark Link of Diversified Cryogenics of Burnsville, Minnesota remarks: The cryogenically
processed piston has a more wear resistant surface, higher yield and ultimate strength.
This alloy will display structural, thermal and metallurgical stability not found in the
untreated condition, as well as significant abrasive wear improvement. The contact and
fretting fatigue will be reduced due to the tightening of the surface microstructure. In
addition, the corrosion resistance to hot reactive gases and moisture in the combustion
chamber will be improved. Below are the microstructures taken by Mark Link.
Non-Cryogenically Treated Aluminium Cryogenically Treated Aluminium

Piston Alloy Microstructure Piston Alloy Microstructure
Figure 8: Microstructures of piston alloy taken by Mark Link
7. Conclusion:
Cryogenic treatment has remarkable effect on improving wear resistance and hardness of
ferrous materials, resulting in improved tool life and cost effectiveness. Study of microstructures
reveals that the effectiveness of the treatment lies in reduction of retained austenite owing to its
conversion into martensite and formation and distribution of carbide particles.
189
ISBN:9788190937634
190
ISBN:9788190937634
References:
[1] Paolo Baldissera, Cristiana Delprete, Deep cryogenic treatment of AISI 302 stainless steel: Part
I Hardness and tensile properties, Materials and Design, Volume 31, Issue 10, 2010, pp.
4725-4730
[2] Paolo Baldissera, Cristiana Delprete, Deep cryogenic treatment of AISI 302 stainless steel: Part
II Fatigue and corrosion, Materials and Design, Volume 31, Issue 10, 2010, pp. 4731-4737
[3] Hong-Shan Yang, Jun Wang, Bao-luo Shen, Hao-Huai Liu, Sheng-Ji Gao, Si-Jiu Huang, Effect
of cryogenic treatment on the matrix structure and abrasion resistance of white cast iron
subjected to destabilization treatment, Wear, Volume 261, Issue 10, 2006, pp. 1150-1154
[4] F. Meng, Role of Eta-carbide Precipitations in the Wear Resistance Improvements of Fe-12Cr-
Mo-V-1.4C Tool Steel Cryogenic Treatment, ISIJ International, Volume 34, 1994, pp. 205-210
[5] Jun Wang, Ji Xiong, Hongyuan, Fan, Hong-Shan Yang, Hao-Huai Liu, Bao-Luo Shen, Effects of
high temperature and cryogenic treatment on the microstructure and abrasion resistance of a
high chromium cast iron Journal of Materials Processing Technology, Volume 209, Issue 7,
2009, pp. 3236-3240
[6] Ahsan Ali Khan, Mirghani I. Ahmed, Improving tool life using cryogenic cooling, Journal of
Materials Processing Technology, Volume 196, Issues 1-3, 2008, pp. 149-154
[7] A. Molinairi, M. Pellizzari, S. Gailanella, G. Straffelini, K.H. Stiasny, Effect of deep cryogenic
treatment on mechanical properties of tool steels, Journal of Materials Processing Technology,
Volume 118, Issues 1-3, 2001, pp. 350-355
[8] http://www.diversifiedcryogenics.com/
191
ISBN:9788190937634
Experimental Investigation of Water Jet Cutting

V. P. Parekh1*, D. B. Gohil2
1,2
S. V. National Institute of Technology, Surat-395007, Gujarat, India
*
Corresponding author (e-mail: viralmech5122@gmail.com)
Water jet cutting is one of the most recent non-traditional method for machine the
intricate shapes on sheet metals. It is widely used in industry to machine the materials
like mild steel, aluminium, glass, hard rock material, composite material etc. An abrasive
water-jet cutting process is the one in which water pressure is raised to a very high value
and forced through a very small orifice to form a very thin high speed jet value to cut any
hard material. No heat affected zone and or mechanical stresses are left on a surface
which is being machined by this method. This report describes on Abrasive-water jet
parameters that were varied include pressure, water flow rate, abrasive flow rate,
abrasive particle size, traverse rate, number of passes and relative hardness.
1. Introduction
Abrasive water jet (AWJ) is a widely used non-conventional machining process introduced in
industrial applications for nearly 30 years ago [1]. In the efforts to reduce costs, engineering and
manufacturing personnel are constantly looking for improvements in the process. The Water jet
process provides many unique capabilities and advantages that can prove very effective in the cost
battle. Abrasive water jet (AWJ) cutting has been widely accepted by the industry after the successful
introduction of 400 MPa cutting systems [2]. Water jets are used in high production applications
across the globe. They compliment other technologies such as milling, laser, EDM, and plasma. No
toxic gases or liquids are used in water jet cutting, and water jets do not create hazardous materials
or vapours. No heat effected zones or mechanical stresses are left on a water jet cut surface. It is
truly a versatile, productive, cold cutting process. Abrasive water jets are preferred for cutting thick
materials beyond the capability of lasers, highly reflective materials such as copper, brittle materials
such as stone and glass, parts that require a good edge quality, parts that cannot have heat affected
areas[3].The water jet has shown that it can do things that other technologies simply cannot. From
cutting whisper thin details in stone, glass and metals; to rapid hole drilling of titanium; to cutting of
food, to the killing of pathogens in beverages and dips, the water jet has proven itself unique. The
technology has many advantages like cutting of wide variety of materials independent of their material
properties and absence of heat affected zone; it is limited by poor accuracy in comparison to other
machining processes like laser, WEDM or milling [4]. Abrasive water jet cutting is gaining popularity
as a means for cutting a wide variety of materials. There are many applications where abrasive water
jet is the superior cutting method. Although water jet should be considered for all applications, it will
not replace conventional cutting methods such as stamping, laser or plasma cutting. The mixing
process of the water jet and the air/abrasive flows begins in the chamber and continues through an
accelerating and mixing tube. Due the momentum transfer from the water jet to the abrasive particles,
a high-speed slurry jet is formed with good cutting capabilities [5]. A water jet cutter is a tool capable
of slicing into metal or other materials using a jet of water at high velocity and pressure, or a mixture
of water and an abrasive substance [6]. In tooling industry, it fails to achieve satisfying accuracy and
quality of the cut. The two causes of inaccuracy are taper of the cut and the striation formation on the
surface of the cut. While the taper can be today successfully compensated by tilting the cutting head
[7, 8]. The water jet is a versatile tool and can be used in applications such as cutting, drilling, milling,
cleaning, forming and coating removal [9]. Water jet machining, one of the most recent non-traditional
methods, is widely used in industry to machine materials. There are essentially two types of water
jets: pure water jet (WJ) and abrasive water jet (AWJ). WJ has been moving onto the scene very
slowly since 1970 and AWJ a bit more rapidly since about 1980 [10, 11].
192
ISBN:9788190937634
2. Process parameters
Figure 1 show different process parameters are used in water jet cutting like pressure, water
flow rate, water jet nozzle diameter, traverse rate, abrasive flow rate, abrasive particle size, number of
passes and abrasive hardness. They are described as follows.
Figure 1 Abrasive water jet nozzle & parameters Figure 2 Effect of water jet pressure
2.1 Effect of water jet pressure
Experimental observations of randomly selected conditions show that the effect of water jet
pressure on the depth of cut is approximately linear, as shown in Figure 1. Also, a critical pressure,
Pc, has been observed to vary in a narrow range (~ 1,000 psi) for a given material. By analyzing the
mixing process, this critical pressure can be related to a critical particle velocity, which is material
erosion characteristic. If the material could be cut with a plain water jet, the critical pressure would be
independent of abrasive and mixing parameters. Both the critical particle velocity concept and the
threshold pressure for cutting with plain water jets have been confirmed experimentally in many
studies on erosion mechanics and on water jet cutting. However, there has been no agreement on the
correlation of this critical pressure to material properties. When a critical pressure has been identified
for a material, an optimum working pressure can be derived for the maximum efficiency of power
consumption. If the depth of cut, h, is expressed as K1 (P-Pc) and the power, E, as K2P1.5, where K1
and K2 are constants for a given h-versus-P line and depend on other parameters, the critical
pressure that satisfies dh/dE = O is 3Pc [12]. This value, however, may be low for deep penetration,
unless high water and abrasive flow rates are used, as can be predicted from Figure 1.
2.2 Effect of water jet nozzle diameter
Increasing the water flow rate increases the depth of cut. When this is accomplished by
enlarging the water jet nozzle diameter, dn, a trend results, as shown in Figure 2. Initially, the depth of
cut, h, varies linearly with dn, but further increases in dn will be associated with only slight increases in
h. For two different abrasive flow rates, m1 and m2, as shown in Figure 2, there exists a nozzle
diameter, de, at which depth of cut results are equal. That happens because, for the lower abrasive
mass flow rate, m1, the abrasive particle velocities are higher and the number of impacts less,
respectively, than they are for the higher abrasive flow rate, m1. For the nozzle diameter, de the effect
of reducing the velocity is counterbalanced with an increase in the number of impacts. Just as there is
a critical water pressure, a critical nozzle diameter exists at which very little, if any, cutting occurs.
Experimental data were limited to the linear range and did not extend to critical nozzle diameters.
Extrapolation of this data, however, indicates that there are critical diameters at which the water
momentum transferred to the abrasives will not be enough to deliver them with velocities higher than
the critical particle velocity required for cutting. On the other side of the curve (Figure 2) where nozzle
193
ISBN:9788190937634
diameters and water flow rates are large, the rate of increase in the depth of cut will be low and
eventually no increase will be observed. This will define another critical nozzle diameter, which can
also be predicted theoretically. The maximum possible abrasive particle velocity in this range can be
obtained from V= Vj/ (1+R) Where R= m/mw. For a high water flow rate, mw (i.e., when large
diameters are used) compared with the abrasive flow rate, m, the loading ratio, R. approaches zero
and the particle velocity V approaches a maximum possible value nearly equal to the water jet
velocity, Vj, assuming that, for simplification, we ignore mixing losses. If the lower portions of the
curves in Figure 2 are assumed to continue linearly to h = 0, the depth of cut can be written as h (dn
- dc). The optimum nozzle diameter satisfying dh/dE = 0.Where E dn2, will be 2dC.
Figure 2 Effect of water nozzle diameter Figure 3 Effect of traverse rate
2.3 Effect of Traverse rate
Increasing the traverse rate will generally reduce the depth of cut (Figure 3). However, the rate
of kerf area generation, hu, will show a peak at a critical traverse rate, uc. Experimental observations
suggest that the relationship between h and u can be approximated as
Where uo is the traverse rate below which no increase in depth of cut occurs, and hmax is the
maximum possible depth of cut achieved when u is equal to u0 [13]. The parameter are a function of
other abrasive-water jet variables. An equation similar to the one above has been developed for plain
water jet cutting. The critical traverse rate, uc, at which the hu curve peaks, can then be determined
using the above equation. However, when we observed the cutting process in transparent materials,
we found this to be an oversimplification of a complex behaviour. There is more than one cutting
mechanism along the kerf that affects the depth of cut to a degree that varies with the traverse rate.
This is likely to produce a complex function for h-versus-u relationships other than the one mentioned
above. The effect of the traverse rate on shifting the mechanism of cutting is a concept that has also
been discussed for plain water jets. For high traverse rates, the abrasive flow rate, as a variable in the
parameter b, does not significantly affect cutting results. For these high traverse rates, the abrasive
water jet performance approaches plain water jet performances, especially for non-metallic materials.
The steadiness of the traverse has been observed to affect cutting results significantly because of the
nature of the cutting process, which continues to develop a kerf in a cyclic manner. An unsteady
traverse will interrupt the cyclic sequence of kerf development, resulting in rough cuts.
2.4 Effect of abrasive flow rate
The approximately linear, initial relationship between the depth of cut and the abrasive flow rate
has been observed to be as shown in Figure 4. However, additional data showed a trend for
194
ISBN:9788190937634
decreasing depths of cut at higher abrasive flow rates beyond a critical one. This trend is expected
because, with an increase in the abrasive flow rate for a fixed water flow rate, particle velocities will
decrease faster than the number of impacts will increase. Based on simple erosion theories, the
depth of cut can be expressed as proportional to the particles' kinetic power mV2, where V is the
particle's exit velocity and can be related to the water jet velocity, Vj, as V ~ Vj/(l + R), leading to
The condition dh/dR =0 occurs when R equals 1, as can be determined from the above equation [14].
Also, the use of the simplified erosion equation (h V2) may be inaccurate. Notice that the lines in
Figure 4 pass through the origin, as no depth will be obtained for zero abrasive flow rate. However,
this is true only for hard materials that cannot be cut with a plain water jet using a nozzle as shown in
Figure 1. Research is needed to determine whether the rate of impacts per unit time or the total
number of impacts is more directly related to the cutting process.
Figure 4 Effect of abrasive flow rate Figure 5 Effect of particle size
2.5 Effect of abrasive particle size
For material, or group of materials, there exists a range of optimum abrasive particle sizes that
produce deeper cuts. This range is wider for brittle materials, such as glass, than for ductile materials,
such as metals (Figure 5). Results, however, have been confusing in terms identifying a general trend
for the shape of depth of cut versus particle size curves. A decreasing h versus dp curve, with dp as
the average abrasive particle diameter, may be convex or concave for the same material being cut,
depending on other parameters. The role of particle size in the area of erosion mechanics needs to
be identified. No studies exist that provide an explanation of the optimum particle size. However, in
abrasive-water jet cutting, this optimum particle size could be related to the efficiency of the mixing
process, if the material removal rate is directly proportional to the abrasive flow rate, as classical
erosion theories and experiments indicate. In other words, for a given mixing chamber configuration,
there exists an optimum particle size for the maximum transfer of the momentum of the water to
abrasives. Consequently, changing the particle size would require a different mixing chamber, so that
comparisons of the effects of particle size could be more accurate and relate only to the material
being cut.
2.6 Effect of Number of Passes
Depending on the traverse rate, trends for the effect of the number of passes on the depth of cut
will differ, as shown in Figure 6. For each of the dashed lines in Figure 6, when u/N = constant, the
total jetting time is equal. The top dashed line shows that the depth of cut can have a maximum value
195
ISBN:9788190937634
at a certain combination of traverse rate and number of passes. The bottom dashed line indicates that
single-pass cutting will always be the most efficient for a certain required depth of cut. The middle
dashed line shows that the number of passes does not increase or decrease the cutting depth for the
same amounts of hydraulic energy and abrasives consumed. It is important to select traverse rates
carefully so that such a plot as Figure 6 can be generated and used for optimization. For high traverse
rates, equal depths result with every pass, at least for the passes at the start of cutting. For low
traverse rates, the depth of cut obtained in the second or third pass is much shallower than that
resulting in the first pass, although dh/dN may seem higher than for high traverse rates. Most
observations of plain water jet multi pass cutting showed that cutting results always improve at a high
number of passes, which is not true with abrasive water jets. For high abrasive flow rates, a single
pass is more efficient, and multi passes are better for low abrasive flow rates at u/N = constant. The
lower curve in Figure 6 shows initial positive (dh/dN) behaviour in contrast to the negative (dh/dN) that
has commonly been observed for both abrasive-water jet and plain-water jet cutting. This peculiar
behaviour occurs when the mixing process is inefficient, producing incoherent jets.
Figure 6 Effect of number of passes Figure 7 Effect of Relative hardness
2.7 Effect of abrasive hardness
Figure 7 shows the trend for the relationship between the depth of cut and the relative hardness
number, Hr. which is defined as the ratio of abrasive particle to material hardness, Ha and Hm,
respectively. The trend indicates that no further improvement in depth of cut can be obtained when
the hardness ratio exceeds a critical value. We have observed that, at the same parameters,
aluminium can be cut with softer abrasives, such as silica sand, as well as with harder abrasives,
such as garnet. Because the cost of abrasives increases with their hardness, it is important to
determine the critical hardness number, Hr. at which dh/dHr = 0. However, changing abrasive
materials also changes other characteristics, such as the specific weight and shape of particles. The
effect of particle hardness alone on cutting results requires additional research. Round particles have
proved to be less effective than sharp-edged particles for both brittle and ductile materials. Both have
similar hardness values. We have observed that particles fragment during the cutting process,
depending on the relative hardness between the abrasive and target materials.
The depth and the quality of cut for material depend on parameters that include water pressure
and flow rate, abrasive particle size and flow rate, mixing chamber dimensions, traverse rate, number
of passes and stand-off distance. Figure 1 is a schematic of abrasive water jet nozzles and
parameters. Because of the large number of parameters, the task of optimizing the jet's cutting
196
ISBN:9788190937634
performance is quite difficult. These areas of research will lead to an understanding of phenomena of
material removal mechanisms.
4. Conclusion
The trends of the effect of different abrasive water jet parameters on depth of cut results have
been summarized. By observing experimental investigation of water jet cutting the effect of water jet
pressure on depth of cut is approximately linear & minimum critical pressure exits. The same effect
observed on depth of cut by the water jet nozzle diameter. The effect of traverse rate on depth of cut
is optimum traverse rate exits for maximum rate of kerf area generation. The effect of abrasive flow
rate on depth of cut is initially linear than after high flow rate may reduce cutting depth. The effect of
abrasive particle size is for different target material there is an optimum size range. The effect of
number of passes is for sometime multi pass cutting is more efficient than single pass cutting. The
effect of abrasive hardness is very little on depth of cut.
References
[1] Andrej Lebar, Mihael Junkar, Alojz Poredos, Mladen Cvjeticanin, Method for Online Quality
Monitoring of AWJ Cutting By Infrared Thermography, CIRP Journal of Manufacturing Science
and Technology 2 (2010) 170175.
[2] A.M.Hoogstrate, T.Susuzlu, B.Karpuschewski, High Performance Cutting with Abrasive Water
Jets Beyond 400 MPa, Annals of the CIRP Vol. 55/1/2006.
[3] D.S. Miller, Micromachining with Abrasive Water Jets, Journal of Materials Processing
Technology 149 (2004) 3742.
[4] H.Orbanic, M.Junkar, I.Bajsic, A.Lebar, An Instrument for Measuring Abrasive Water Jet
Diameter, International Journal of Machine Tools & Manufacture 49 (2009) 843849.
[5] M.Hashsish, Steel Cutting With Abrasive Water Jets, BHRA Fluid Engineering Publishing, 1982,
pp. 465487.
[6] Cristian Corba, Water Jet Cutting, University of Oradea 0743 /183 599.
[7] M. Knaupp, A. Meyer, G. Erichsen, M. Sahney, C. Burnham, Dynamic Compensation of Abrasive-

th
Water Jet Properties Through 3-Dimensional Jet Control, Proceedings of the 16 International
Conference on Water Jetting, BHR Group, France, 2002, pp. 75 89.
[8] J. Zeng, J. Olsen, C. Olsen, B. Guglielmetti, Taper-Free Abrasive Water Jet Cutting With A Tilting
Head, American Water Jet Conference, 2005, pp. 2A 7A.
[9] Janet Folkes, WaterjetAn Innovative Tool for Manufacturing, Journal of Materials Processing
Technology 209 (2009) 61816189.
[10] Mustafa Kemal Kulekci, Processes and Apparatus Developments in Industrial Water Jet
Applications, International Journal of Machine Tools & Manufacture 42 (2002) 12971306.
[11] L. Kahlman, R. Karlsson, C.G. Nilson, Wear and Machining of Engineering Ceramics By
Abrasive Water Jets, American Ceramic Society Bulletin 77 (8) (1983) 2732.
[12] S. C. Crow, "A Theory of Hydraulic Rock Cutting," International Journal of Rock Mechancis &
Mining Science and Geomechanics Abstract, Vol. 10, 1973, pp. 567-584.
[13] M. Hashish, and Duplessis, M., "Theoretical and Experimental Investigation of Continuous Jet
Penetration of Solids", Journal of Engineering for Industry, Vol. 100, pp. 88-94.
rd
[14] I. Finnie, "The Mechanism of Erosion of Ductile Metals," Proceedings of the 3 National
Congress of Applied Mechanics, ASME, 1958.
197
ISBN:9788190937634
198
ISBN:9788190937634
Methodology for Estimation of Modal Parameters using

Experimental Modal Analysis in light of Curve Fitting Technique
N.V.Oza1*, R.I.Patel2, S.S.Pathan3
1. Pursuing M.E. Mechanical Engg. at L.D.College of Engineering , Ahmedabad.
2. Pursuing M.E. Mechanical Engg. at L.D.College of Engineering , Ahmedabad.
3. Sr. Lecturer in Mechanical Engg., at L.D.College of Engineering , Ahmedabad.
*
Corresponding author (e-mail: nigam91@yahoo.com)
In this paper, concept of experimental modal analysis is discussed to derive dynamic

properties of mechanical structures and equipments. Dynamic properties (mode shape,
damping, and resonant frequencies) are calculated using MATLAB program. Amongst
present curve fitting method, Rational Fraction Polynomials (RFP) method is used in the
derivation of modal parameters. Results obtained from this method are compared with
those obtained form experiment and shown in form of standard deviation. This standard
deviation is computed from different experimental FRF values and analytically obtained
FRF values.
Keywords: Experimental modal analysis; Modal parameter extraction; Damping

identification; Polynomial curve fitting
1. Introduction
Vibration has many undesirable and harmful effects on life and performance of mechanical
equipments and other structures. The effects of vibration are due to dynamic interaction between
vehicles and bridges, structural motions due to earthquakes, noise generated by construction
equipment , vibration transmitted from machinery to its supporting structures thereby interfering
with their performance , damage as well as malfunction and failure due to dynamic loading,
fatigue failure, oscillation of transmission lines[1].
The objective of this paper is to emphasis on dynamic analysis of such equipments and
structures by capturing their actual dynamic behaviour during experimentation such that the adversity
arising from vibration effects can be minimised to improve their life and performance.
Dynamic analysis consists of experimental and operational modal analysis. In experimental

modal analysis (EMA), structures are artificially excited by exciters (Impact hammers and shakers). In
operational modal analysis (OMA), structure is analysed while it is operated upon.
For large and heavy structures (civil structures such as bridge and dams), modal analysis
is used to detect damage by ambient (traffic) condition [2] .Recent trends in dynamic analysis
are extremely focused on better performance and life of structures. Self excited vibrations of tool
result in unstable cutting process, poor surface finish, reduced productivity and damage on the
machine itself. By considering spindle geometry (its diameter and length), bearing stiffness, tool
holder geometry and selection of combination of depth of cut and spindle speed from stability lobe
diagrams, machining operation can be made chatter free[3,4]. In vibration of rotating equipments
(such as pump, turbine etc.), dynamic analysis is used to check their health as excessive noise of
these equipments is experienced by personnel in large power plants and refineries due to damage or
failure of seals [5].
2. Methodology
In this paper, EMA is focused upon. EMA is used to characterize resonant vibration in
machinery and structures. In EMA, a mode of vibration is defined by three parameters; modal
frequency, modal damping and mode shape. Modal parameter estimation is the process of
determining these parameters from experimental data. Furthermore, a set of modal parameters can
completely characterize the dynamic properties of a structure. This set of parameters is also called a
modal model for the structure. Modes (or resonances) are inherent properties of a structure.
199
ISBN:9788190937634
Resonances are determined by the material properties (mass, stiffness, and damping properties), and
boundary conditions of the structure. If either the material properties or the boundary conditions of a
structure change, its modes will change. For instance, if mass is added to a vertical pump, it will
vibrate differently because its modes have changed.
All vibration is a combination of both forced and resonant vibration. Forced vibration can be
due to internally generated forces, unbalances, external loads, ambient excitation. Resonant vibration
occurs when one or more of the resonances or natural modes of vibration of a machine or structure
are excited. Resonant vibration typically amplifies the vibration response far beyond the level
deflection, stress, and strain caused by static loading. At certain natural frequencies of the structure
(its modal frequencies), a small amount of input force can cause a very large response [6].
2.1 Types of testing
Two types of Impact and shaker testing are used for EMA. Impact testing is used as it is fast,
convenient, and low cost way of finding the modes of machines and structures. Shaker test is used
for structure with delicate surfaces which cannot be impact tested or because of its limited frequency
range or low energy density over a wide spectrum, the impacting force is not be sufficient to
adequately excite the modes of interest.
2.2 Procedure of Experimental Modal Analysis:
i. Obtain a suitable (admissible) set of test data, consisting of forcing excitations and motion
responses, for various pairs of degrees of freedom of the test object.
ii. Compute the frequency transfer functions (frequency response functions).
iii. Curve fit analytical transfer functions to the computed transfer functions. Determine natural
frequencies, damping ratios, and residues for various modes in each transfer function.
iv. Compute mode shape vectors.
v. Compute inertia (mass) matrix M, stiffness matrix K, and damping matrix C [7].
2.3 Frequency Response Function (FRF)
The FRF is essentially a normalized measure of structural response. That is, it is the ratio of a
response spectrum divided by the spectrum of the excitation which causes the response. Hence, the
FRF is a measure of the dynamic properties between two degrees-of-freedom of a structure; the
excitation point (and direction) and the response point (and direction) [1].
Figure 1 Frequency Response Function (FRF) [8]
200
ISBN:9788190937634
Mathematically, FRF can be represented as
M rA ij
ij () =
r =1
2
r 2 + 2r r j
Where r = Excitation frequencies, =natural frequencies, r = damping loss factor, r =modes
Figure 2 FRF for damping ratio 0.001 Figure 3 FRF for damping ratio 0.1
Figure 2 and 3 show the effect on FRF for different values of damping. At lower value of
damping (0.001), sharp edge of FRF is seen whereas at higher value of damping (0.1), this edge
becomes blunt.
2.4 Curve fitting methods
Curve fitting, or Parameter Estimation, is a numerical process that is typically used to

represent a set of experimentally measured data points by some assumed analytical function. The
results of this curve fitting process are the coefficients, or parameters, that are used in defining the
analytical function. With regard to the Frequency Response Function, the parameters that are
calculated are its so-called modal parameters (i.e. modal frequency, damping, and residue) [9].
Amongst all present methods, Rational Fraction Polynomials (RFP) method is giving better
results for single as well as for multi degree of freedom systems. In this paper, RFP method is used
for modal parameter extraction [10].
Mathematical representation of FRF in RFP method can be shown as,
a k p k ( j )
( j ) = k 0
ns
where bn = 1
b q
k =0
k k ( j )
Where p0( j ) =1, p1( j ) = j , p2( j ) =( j )2 . , pm( j ) =( j )m
q0( j ) =1, q1( j ) = j , q2( j ) =( j )2 ,.. , qm( j ) =( j )n
Poles can be expressed as + i( (1 2 )

Natural frequency= = Absolute value of Poles
Damping ratio= = (real part)/ (absolute value of pole)
201
ISBN:9788190937634
Experimental data in form of FRF was collected from FFT analyser. In this data, as many
modes as can be identified. In this case, five modes were identified .MATLAB signal processing tool
box was used for processing data. Invfreqs and residue function were used to find out poles and
residues. From the real and imaginary parts of poles, resonant natural frequencies as well as
damping ratio for identified modes were found out. Residual between the experimental data curve and
the curve fit were calculated for the analytical and experimental data. Standard deviations were
calculated from this residual.
Table 1 RFP estimated parameters on structure
Local Global
Natural Damping
Mode Standard Standard
Frequency (Hz) Ratio
Deviation Deviation
1 43 0.00100000 0.21454
2 85 0.00083333 0.36879
3 171 0.00046296 0.69839 0.87551
4 256 0.00030864 0.96098
5 259 0.00015432 1.08120
Experiment was carried out on F- type structure specimen as shown in figure 4.
Figure 4 F- type structure
By RFP method, the values of damping ratio and local and global standard deviation are
shown in table 1. This value indicates accuracy of RFP method as exact value of damping ratio
cannot be calculated in real structures.
Figures 5 and 6 indicate FRF plots for experimental data and curve fit FRF data with
RFP method respectively.
202
ISBN:9788190937634
Response vs Frequency Response vs Frequency
Figure 5 FRF for experimental data Figure 6 curve fit FRF data with RFP method
Based on the plot response vs frequency plot, resonance frequencies can be clearly picked
up. This plot clearly indicates what percentage of damping the structure would be carrying. Sharp
edge defines lower damping ratio (below 0.01%). As the edge becomes flat, percentage-damping
ratio increases. This makes curve-fitting method such as half power method unable to pick
neighboring frequencies, as at flat edge, frequencies cannot be distinguished clearly. This makes
RFP method attractive in modal parameter extraction.
The verification of MATLAB program can also be carried out by comparing it with FEA (finite
element analysis) and with ME SCOPE VES curve-fitting software. Using commercially available
FEA packages, the modal analysis can be performed. The mode shapes obtained by MATLAB
program can be compared with those obtained with FEA for the structures of interest. Future work is
focused on the same.
4. Conclusion
EMA is attractive to extract modal parameters. By impact and shaker type of testing, wide
range of frequencies are imposed on a structure which is useful to find its response at different
frequencies particularly resonance frequencies. By EMA, simulation of such structures can be carried
out even before prototypes are made. This is very helpful in early prediction of structures dynamic
properties in design stage itself. Their life and performance can be improved in advance with low cost
and effectiveness.
References
[1] Clarence W. de Silva, Vibration: Fundamentals and Practice , Boca Raton: CRC Press LLC,
2000.
[2] A Cunha, E Caetano Experimental Modal Analysis of Civil Engineering Structures , Sound and
Vibration, 2006.
[3] A Erturka, E Budakb, H.N.O zgu vena, Selection of design and operational parameters in spindle
holdertool assemblies for maximum chatter stability by using a new analytical model
International Journal of Machine Tools & Manufacture 47,2006 , pp14011409.
[4] I. Zaghbani, V. Songmene, Estimation of machine-tool dynamic parameters during machining

operation through operational modal analysis International Journal of Machine Tools &
Manufacture 49,2009, pp947957.
[5] M. M. Onari, P. A. Boyadjis,Solving Structural Vibration Problems Using Operating Deflection

Shape And Finite Element Analysis , Proceeding of the Twenty-Fifth International Pump Users
Symposium, 2009.
203
ISBN:9788190937634
[6] D Formenti, M Richardson, Parameter Estimation from Frequency Response Measurements

Using Rational Fraction polynomials (Twenty Years of Progress) IMAC, 2002, Sage Technologies
Vibrant Technology, Inc. Morgan Hill, California Jamestown, California.
[7] B. J. Schwarz, M. H. Richardson Experimental Modal Analysis, Vibrant Technology, Inc.

Jamestown, California 95327,1999.
[8] J. He, Z. F. Fu, Modal Analysis Butterworth-Heinemann, 2001.
[9] M.H.Richardson, Global Frequency & Damping Estimates From Frequency Response
Measurements Structural Measurement Systems, IMAC, 2000, San Jose, California.
[10] W. A. Fladung, A. W. Phillips, R. J. Allemang, Application of a generalized residual model to

frequency domain modal parameter estimation, Journal of Sound and Vibration 262, 2003,
pp677705.
204
th
ISBN:9788190937634
STL FILE GENERATION BY C LANGUAGE

S.R.Mehta1
1Assistant professor C.K Pithawala Eng college,Surat (Email:shraddharmehta@yahoo.com)
Computer aided designing (CAD) reduces lead time in product design, influencing in visualization of product
for design, analysis and manufacturing. To reduce product development time, reverse engineering is
important task for which deals with generating point cloud of object by various types of scanners. The output
of scanner for further processing requires appropriate format. The present work deals with conversion of
point cloud data into e-file with STL format. The attempt is made to develop C programming for creating STL
file which can be used to interface with any CAD package. The point data converted with STL is verified with
rapid form software for changes of deviation
KEY WORDS:
Point cloud data, STL file format, rapid form, c program.
1. Introduction
STL file is a triangular representation of a 3D object. The surface of an object is broken into a logical
series of triangles. Each triangle is uniquely defined by its normal and three points representing its
vertices. ASCII format of STL is described as below [1]:
An STL file consists of a list of facet data. Each facet is uniquely identified by a unit normal (a line
perpendicular to the triangle) and by three vertices. The normal and each vertex are specified by three
coordinates each, so there is a total of 12 numbers stored for each facet.
Fig1. Surfaces are represented by triangles [2]

ASCII file is presented by this format
Solid name
Where name is an optional string. The file continues with any number of triangles, each represented as
follows:
facet normal n1 n2 n3
outer loop
vertex v11 v12 v13
vertex v21 v22 v23
vertex v31 v32 v33
endloop
205
th
ISBN:9788190937634
endfacet
endsolid
Where n1-n3 (normal) and v11-v33 (XYZ representation) are floating point numbers in sign-mantissa'e'-
sign-exponent format.
Rules for STL format are defined as follows.[3]
i. Facet orientation
The facets define the surface of a 3-dimensional object. As such, each facet is part of the
boundary between the interior and the exterior of the object. The orientation of the facets is
specified redundantly in two ways which should be consistent. First, the direction of the
normal is outward. Second, which is most commonly used now-a-day, list the facet vertexes
in counter-clockwise order when looking at the object from the outside (right-hand rule).
ii. Vertex-to-vertex rule

Each triangle must share two vertices with each of its adjacent triangles. In other words, a
vertex of one triangle cannot lie on the side of
another.
Fig2. The facet orientation and vertex to vertex rule in al STL file (a) orientation of a triangular facet in
STL file; (b) violation of vertex to vertex rule; c) correct triangulation [3]
The STL file generation is an important task if the point cloud to be handled for reverse engineering (RE).
RE refers to the process of creating engineering design data from existing parts. It recreates or clones an
existing part by acquiring the surface data of an existing part using a scanning or measurement device.[2]
When a designer creates a new design using a mock-up, it is necessary to construct the CAD model of
the mock-up for further use of the design data in analysis and manufacturing. The manual operation
involved in RE requires a great amount of time and operator skills and is also subject to error. Coordinate
measuring machines have been used to extract surface data but their data capturing operation is very
slow for parts having complex free-form surfaces. In recent years, the laser scanning technology has
improved significantly, and it has become a powerful tool in capturing the geometry of complicated design
models. [2] In the present work, specific tasks are carried out in these areas: (1) To generate point cloud
data of wooden object using laser scanner (2) development of the methodology to convert massive data
points into numerous connected triangular meshes, (3) determination of unit normal vector for each
triangular mesh facet, (4) output of triangular meshes with normal vectors in STL format (5) development
of C program to automated generation of STL file. The purpose of developing program is for interfacing
point cloud in to any CAD package for further processing
2. EXPERIMENTAL
206
th
ISBN:9788190937634
In the present work, wooden L-shape is prepared. This specimen is painted with white color because
laser scanner gives the best result of reflection with this color. Then, specimen is scanned in LPX-600
laser scanner with different pitch which is shown in fig -3(a) and (b) and the point cloud generated is
shown in fig 3(c). The maximum size that can be scanned in this scanner is 406.4 x 254 mm. The
purpose of scanning is to generate point cloud data of objects. This generated point cloud data is stored
in Tab format, which can be open in EXCEL file as shown 3(c).The present work deals with creation of
STL using C programming language. Recording of point cloud data in e format is also shown by snap in
fig 3(c).
.
(a) LXP-600 (b) Scanned Object
(c)) Point Cloud data
Fig3. Scanning process
Methodology for computer program
Point data from scanner is stored in Excel file and arranged in according to 8 surfaces which highlight
concepts implemented to understand the shape of object, no of faces. It contains and joining sequence of
points to form a triangles. The surfaces of wooden object are not perfectly smooth and hence plane
variation is cared by allowing appropriate deviation. The methodology adopted for creating STL in
program development is shown below.
Methodology for L-shape
STEP 1: Collect point data in form of XYZ coordinate.
STEP 2: Fine value of Zmin, Zmax, Xmin, Xmax, Ymin, Ymax.
207
th
ISBN:9788190937634
STEP 4: Find no of points on Zmin, Xmin,and also find no of point at each value of Z and X .
STEP 5: Arrange values of X and Z in ascending order according to no. of points.
STEP 6: Store all points of X which having second highest no of points (called Xmin-1), all points of Z
which having highest no of points (called Zmin+1).
STEP 7: For Z= Zmin, collect all point data which are having value of Zmin. And store them.
STEP 8 : Arrange these points in ascending order of X.
STEP 9: Keeping X constant, and arrange these point in ascending order of Y.
STEP 10: Now starting for the first point, find point right nearer, upper nearer and cross nearer point to all
point. (Upper nearer) ( cross nearer)
(First point) (right nearer)
STEP 11: Arrange these point in pattern of triangular facet in anticlockwise direction.
STEP 12: Find normal of each triangle and store this data in STL format.
The program gives output as STL file using point cloud data generated at various pitch. The snap of Pro-
E is highlighted in fig 4 based on the output generated by STL file using c programming. Out of
Programming is in ASCII format of STL file as shown as below.
Solid new scan1
Facet normal -9.890302e-01 1.474205e-01 9.298983e-03

Outer loop
Vertex -2.373092e+01 -1.052919e+01 2.000000e+00
vertex -2.373957e+01 -1.052418e+01 1.000000e+00
vertex -1.954727e+01 1.760161e+01 1.000000e+00
endloop
endfacet
-
-
end solid new scan1
208
th
ISBN:9788190937634
Visualization of output of STL file in PRO-E
Fig 4 STL file opened in PRO-E
3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
The output of STL generated was verified by reverse engineering software RapidForm XOR2. The XOR
is capable to handle complex parametric models guaranteed by STL for its closeness with original point
cloud data. The deviation of created model with original positions of points is evaluated in terms of color
variation. The present L-shape block was also opened in RapidForm XOR2 and its accuracy was mapped
0 to 1.8mm in positive direction and 0 to 2.8 mm in negative direction. The software capability of
measuring geometry entities was explored for volume of L-shape and the deviation in plane is reported by
fig 5 at different pitch.
Fig 5 Volume comparison of L shape
209
th
ISBN:9788190937634
CONCLUTION:
The present work deals with artistic state of laser scanning technology to generate point cloud of
object
The C program was developed to convert point cloud to STL file format for its feasible insertion
into CAD package
In order to create feasible object by STL with higher deviation in plane is to be compromised.
The small deviation within plane leads either failure to create proper STL file while high deviation
reflects in accuracy analysis of Rapid Form software.
Closer pitch gives easy formation of STL file and results of volume are more close to actual
object, while high pitch volume reduces possibility of STL file formation and gives less closeness
to volume with actual object.
Initially getting better visualization of flat surfaces, same logic can apply for curve surface with
addition features in future.
REFERENCE
[1] D. Ma1, F. Lin1 and C. K. Chua, Rapid Prototyping Applications in Medicine. Part 2: STL File
Generation and Case Studies, International Journal Advanced Manufacturing Technology, vol.18,
2001,pp.18127.
[2] Gan G.K. Jacob, Chua Chee kai , Tong Mei, Development of new rapid prototyping interface ,
computers in industry, vol.39,1999,pp.61-70.
[3] Alan C. Liny and Shuh-Ren Liang, Rapid prototyping through scanned point data, International
Journal of Production Research ,vol. 40, no. 2,2002,pp. 293-310.
210
ISBN:9788190937634
Design of an Internally Mixed Swirl Annular Atomizer for

Gas Turbine Application
V. C. Joshi1*, Malay Suvagiya2
1
Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel Institute of Technology, VASAD- 388306, Gujarat, India,
2
Faculty of Technology and Engineering, M S University, Baroda-390001, Gujarat, India
*Corresponding Author: (vivekcjoshi@gmail.com)
The present work is the evolution of internally mixed swirl atomizer for the gas
turbines combustors, to provide better spray characteristics over a wide range of
operation. The proposed design is the combination of pressure swirl atomizer and the
internally mixed effervescent atomizer, to extract the advantages of both kind of
atomize. There is annular passage provided for the liquid and the air is injected in-
side-out in radial direction from the central air chamber, swirler is placed downstream
the mixing of air water. Contraction zone is also used of annular to avoid central
cavitation, forming annular flow, due to the centrifugal force produced by swirling;
hence the exit of the atomizer is annular slit. Design is prepared by considering the
parameters of both kinds of atomizer and selecting important parameters among
them by effectiveness of it on fluid flow. The design is prepared for flow parameters
ALR 0 to 0.2, pressure 0 to 800 kPa at room temperature.
1. Introduction:
Atomization is often accomplished by discharging the liquid at high velocity into a relatively
slow moving air or gas stream and alternative approach is to expose a relatively slow moving
liquid to a high velocity sir stream. The latter approach is generally known as twin fluid, air-
assisted or air blast atomization. Internally mixed atomizer lies in class nearly effervescent
atomizer. In effervescent atomizer, atomizing air is supplied at lower velocity or at lower pressure
compared to air blast atomizer, which form two-phase bubbly flow inside atomizer. These bubbles
are rapidly expands through exit orifice, results the formation of fine droplets. As two phase flow
choke at lower velocity, the downstream condition doesnt affect the upstream flow (i.e. the flow
inside the atomizer) and this is one of greatest advantage offered by internally mixed atomizer.
However, an ideal atomizer would possess characteristics, which are as follows.
Ability to provide good atomization over a wide range of liquid flow rates.
Rapid response to change in liquid flow rate.
Freedom from flow instabilities
Low power requirements
Capability for scaling, to provide design flexibility
Low cost, light weight, ease of maintenance, and ease of removal for servicing
Low susceptibility to damage during manufacturing and installation
Low susceptibility to blockage by contaminants and to carbon buildup on the nozzle face
Low susceptibility to gum formation by heat soakage
Uniform radial and circumferential distribution
In twin fluid atomizers of the air-blast type and air assisted types, atomization and sprays
dispersion tends to be dominated by air momentum forces, with hydrodynamics processes
playing only a secondary role. With pressure swirl nozzles, however the internal flow
characteristics are of primary importance, because they govern the thickness and the uniformity
of the annular liquid film formed in the final discharge orifice as well as the relative magnitude of
the axial and tangential components of velocity of this film. It is therefore of great practical interest
and importance to examine the interrelationship that exist between internal flow characteristics,
nozzle design variables and important spray characteristics viz. cone angle and mean drop size.
211
ISBN:9788190937634
2. Swirl atomizer:
Swirl atomizer have a widespread use among system requiring a quick dispersion of liquid
in a gaseous environment, because they are simple and reliable, present good atomization
characteristics, and have a low pumping power requirements. Generally in these types of
atomizer the liquid is injected through tangential or helical passages into a swirl chamber, from
which it emerges with both tangential and axial velocity components to form a thin conical sheet
at the nozzle. This sheet rapid attenuates and finally disintegrating into ligaments and then drops.
In a swirl atomizer, the fuel mass flow rate (l) is determined by the axial flow velocity in the
orifice. The formation of the spray cone and the fuel distribution is dominated by the tangential
velocity component. The fuel enters the swirl chamber either tangentially or axially and then
swirled through vanes. In the adjacent conical part the tangential velocity component of the fuel
increased because, neglecting viscous effects, the swirl, i.e. the product of tangential velocity (vt)
and the local radius (r) inside the conical part is constant. Thus the liquid fuel leaves the final
nozzle orifice with a high tangential velocity. There are extensive literature is available for the
calculation method of swirl atomizer especially simplex atomizer and jet swirl atomizer. There are
two main approaches to the calculation i.e. the principle of the maximum flow (the maximum liquid
flow rate for a given pressure drop) and second one the equation of conservation of momentum.
Both approaches are differing with respect to the methodology used. Main aim of the both
approaches is to develop a relation between the same characteristics dimensions of an atomizer
viz. exit orifice diameter (do), helical passage area (Aa), chamber radius (R), i.e. geometric
constant K, as well as spray parameters discharge coefficient (Cd), spray cone angle () and
filling efficiency (). Apart from the basic parameters, the other parameters considered for the
designing of swirl atomizer are as follows.
1. Diameter of the swirler
2. Depth of the channel in swirler
3. Width of the channel in swirler
3. Internal Mixing Atomizer:
An effervescent atomization technique involves injecting of small amount of gas into the
liquid before it is discharge through final discharge orifice. This kind of atomization method differs
from other kind of twin fluid atomization, atomizing gas is injected into liquid at comparatively low
velocity than air blast and air assisted atomizer. Internal mixing atomizers are more efficient
compare to the other kind of external mixing atomizer i.e. with proper design and same at the
same Air-Liquid ratio (ALR) by mass, the same supply pressure and the same liquid flow rate,
internal mixing air assist atomizers may offer better atomization or fine drop size. The internal
mixing air assist atomizer mainly consists of the mixing chamber and a throat or orifice port for
ejecting an air-liquid two phase jet. Recent study on internally mixed atomizer shows some
interesting result on dependency of spray characteristics on geometric parameters the
advantages offered by internally mixed atomizer drawn attention for its uses in gas turbine
combustor and other combustions applications. Some of the basic parameters important and
taken into consideration for the designing of the internally mixed/effervescent atomizer are
1. Area ratio of aerator holes to final discharge orifice (Ah/Ao)
2. Number, location and diameter of the aerator hole from the final discharge orifice
4. Internally Mixed Swirl Annular Atomizer Designing:
Good atomization and uniform drop distribution can only be obtained with an atomizer that
is accurately made and well finished. It is also important to ensure that nozzle orifices do not get
damaged during installation. As such there is no direct methodology or approach for designing
internally mixed swirl annular atomizer. The calculations and the initial dimensions are considered
for those of jet swirl atomizer and effervescent atomizer, the geometric parameters may vary. As
mentioned before the main focus of the present work is the design, development and testing of
various configurations of novel internal mixed swirl annular atomizer for applications in gas turbine
engines, so the pressure range taken up to 700kPa for designing.
212
ISBN:9788190937634
Most typical atomization process involves a number of variables that may affect the final
results. The most important variables are: Densities and viscosities of both liquid and outside gas
and surface tension between them, Velocities of liquid and gas (axial and tangential), Injection
pressure and gas pressure, Geometric dimensions of the injector, mostly those of the final orifice
and of the swirler, if a tangential velocity is induced in the liquid.
The tangential component of velocity is directly related to the dimensions of the swirler
and injector and to the mean axial velocity components. There are several geometric parameters
to be considered for the efficient and effective design of simple swirl atomizer. Minimal frictional
losses and the method used to impart swirl motion to fluid are major primary consideration in the
design of swirl atomizers. They have two opposing effects on discharge coefficient. First, frictional
losses represent a wasteful dissipation of atomizing energy, which reduces the effective pressure
drop across the atomizer and also the discharge coefficient. Second, by impeding the rotating
flow in the swirl chamber, friction reduces the diameter of the air core and thereby increase
discharge coefficient. The relative importance of these two opposing effects depends mainly on
various geometric features viz. Ratio of swirl chamber diameter to final orifice diameter (Dc/Do)
Length/Diameter ratio of swirl chamber (Lc/Dc) Length/Diameter ration of final orifice (Lo/Do)
Length/Diameter ratio of swirl ports (Lp/Dp) (important parameter especially when swirling motion
is imparting via tangential entry of liquid)
According to ideal theory, in a swirl chamber and especially in the discharge orifice, an
interaction occurs between the unswirled (axial) and swirled jets. The unswirl jet flows with some
particular axial velocity and swirled jet moves along the wall of a swirl chamber with a resultant
velocity in which the dominant role is played by the circumferential components of velocity. In
discharge orifice on the boundary between two jets a turbulent boundary layer develops in which
significant shear stress exist. As a result equalization of the axial velocity components of both jets
occurs and a certain circumferential velocity is set for the unswirled jet. The turbulent processes
cause not only energy exchange but also mass exchange. A theoretical solution does not exist for
these processes, so empirical solutions are used. The following assumptions are made.
Liquid motion inside atomizer has a turbulent nature and therefore, the velocity
distributions are approximately uniform.
A common velocity distribution for both jets in the discharge orifice develops at a
distance shorter than three diameters of the orifice as measured from the point where
the jet meets.
The distribution of circumferential velocity in the discharge orifice satisfies the
equation of a straight line (rigid vortex).
From the basic idea and basic theory of designing atomizer as discuss above one has to
take care of the parameters states above considered for general swirl atomizer and internal mixed
atomizer. Hence some other geometric parameters namely aerator hole diameter, location of
aerator hole from the exit orifice, numbers or aerator hole, swirl number, diameter of mixing
chamber etc. are plays vital role in the designing of internally mixed/aerated swirl atomizer. Apart
from the above mention parameters there are some other parameters that also have been taken
into consideration for the complete designing of internally mixed swirl atomizer viz. exit annular
gap and diametric ratio of insert and final discharge orifice. Hence, one can justify that the
complete dimensions and design detail of the internally mixed swirl atomizer will be carried out by
considering design parameters of swirl atomizer as well as that of internal mixed/effervescent
atomizer.
[1,6,9]
Formulae used to calculate the various parameters are summarized as follows :
.
1. Mass flow rate of fuel/liquid ( m l ):
.
ml = Cd l Ao = Cd An (2 l Pl )
2. Size of swirling groves(a):
a=
A s
n cos
213
ISBN:9788190937634
3. Aerator holes to Final discharge orifice area ratio (Ao/Ah):

A0 Aa = 6.3 ALR
4. Aerator hole area (Ah):
Ah = Aa n (here, n=number of aerator holes)
5. Exit annular gap ():
d o2 di2
= ro ri And Ao =
4 4
4.1 Atomizer model:
1. Aerator tube 2. Outer tube
Atomizer assembly
4. Swirler insert
3. Exit Nozzle
Fig 1. Internally mixed swirl annular atomizer and its components.
Figure 1 shows proposed configuration of atomizer and its various components. It

consists of four major parts: - (1) Aerator tube, (2) Outer tube, (3) Exit nozzle and (4) Swirler
insert. Table 1 below summarizes the various geometric parameters that would be studied for
determining the optimum configuration of the atomizer. Mixing chamber length of the atomizer is
40 mm, inner and outer diameters are 8 mm and 12 mm respectively. The Aerator tube have
holes of 0.5 mm diameter radially 90 apart and at three distinct axial locations at 5mm distance,
total 12 holes. The swirler insert is meant for creating a swirling flow of the two phase flow coming
from mixing chamber. Each swirler has a double start square thread. The length and outer
diameter are 5 mm and 12 mm respectively. All the square grooves have the different angle and
dimensions of the square thread. It has a bore of M8 x 1 at the center for the inner aerated tube of
atomizer to pass through. The exit orifice arranged such that it has to make annular slit exit with
the 1 mm diameter nib of the aerator tube with different size exit holes.
Part of atomizer Parameter Variation

Aerator tube Aerator holes Number of holes(4/8/12) and its mixing length
Exit orifice Outer diameter 1.1/1.2/1.3 (mm)
Swirler Swirling angle 15/30/45
Table 1. Various geometric parameters to be studied
214
ISBN:9788190937634
5. Concluding Remarks and Future Work:
In this paper evolution of the twin fluid internal mixed swirl annular atomizer is outlined.
Objective of the this work is to achieve the better spray structure over the wide operating range of
the gas turbine though the conceptual design presented over here not tested experimentally. In
future the different variants (listed in table 1) of this would be tested and optimized for better
performance. Also the internal flow visualization and the analysis are important in optimization,
which could be done by use of flow visualization techniques. There is no clear design procedure
is available so this is just an effort to make such an atomizer for better performance, and may be
the method of such kind of atomizer would be worked out in future.
References:
[1] A. H. Lefebvre, Atomization and Sprays, Taylor & Francis, 1989.

[2] B. J. Rho, S. J. Kang, J. H. Oh, S. M. Lee, Swirl Effect on the Spray Characteristics of A
Twin-Fluid Jet, KSME International Journal, Vol. 12, Issue 5, 1998, pp. 899-906.
[3] C. E. Brennen, Fundamentals of Multiphase Flow, Cambridge University press, 2005.
[4] J.J. Chin, The Numerics of the swirl atomizer, ILASS 2008.
[5] J. Jedelsky, M. Jicha, Novel Modification of Twin Fluid Atomizer: Performance, Advantages
and Drawbacks, ILASS Euro-2010
[6] J. S. Chin, A. H. Lefebvre, A Design Procedure For Effervescent Atomizer, Journal of
Engineering for Gas Turbine and Power, ASME, Vol. 117, Issue 2, April 1995, pp. 266
[7] J. Karnawat, A. Kushari, Controlled Atomization Using A Twin-Fluid Swirl Atomizer,
Experiments in fluids, Vol. 41, 2008, pp. 649-663
[8] K. Ramamurthi and T. J. Tharakan, Experimental Study of Liquid Sheets Formed in Coaxial
Swirl Injectors, Journal of Propulsion and Power, Vol. 11, Issue 6, 1995 pp. 1103-1109.
[9] L. Bayvel, Z. Orzechowski, Liquid Atomization, Taylor & Francis, 1993.
[10] S. D. Sovani, P. E. Sojaka, A. H. Lefebvre, Effervescent Atomization, progress in energy
and combustion science, Vol. 27, 2001, pp. 483-521.
215
ISBN:9788190937634
Performance modification method used for end suction Centrifugal

Pump
Samir A. Alad1*
1
Mecanical Engineering Department, Faculty Of engineering & Technology, The M S University of
Baroda, Vadodara-390001, Gujarat, India.
*
Corresponding author (e-mail: samiralad2005@gmail.com)
This paper deals with the performance analysis of centrifugal pump. The pump used in
this work is end suction centrifugal pump with overhung, enclosed, backward-swept,
radial flow impeller and single volute casing. Two main component of centrifugal pump
are impeller and casing. The impeller is rotating component and casing is stationary
component. The performance of pump must be modified according to the requirement.
Many methods are available to do so. They are suction throttling, discharge throttling,
bypass regulation, air admission, impeller trimming and variable frequency drive (VFD).
In this present two most efficient methods impeller diameter trimming and variable
frequency drive are experimentally analyzed and their effects on performance
characteristics are also calculated.
1. Introduction
By definition, centrifugal pump is machine. More specifically, it is a machine that imparts

energy to fluid. This energy infusion can cause a liquid to flow, rise to higher level or more. In
centrifugal pump, liquid is forced by atmospheric or other pressure into the set of rotating vanes.
Centrifugal pumps are widely used for irrigation, water supply plant, sewage, oil refineries, chemical
plant, food processing and mines. Moreover, they are extensively used in chemical industries
because of their suitability in practically any service. A typical performance of centrifugal pump can be
expressed in terms of total dynamic head (TDH or H), brake horsepower (P), efficiency (), and net
positive suction head (NPSHR) all plotted versus the flow rate (Q) range of the pump.
A pump transfer mechanical energy from some external source to the liquid flowing through it
and losses occur in any energy conversion process. The energy transferred is predicted by the Euler
Equation. The energy transfer quantities are losses between fluid power and mechanical power of the
impeller or runner. Thus, centrifugal pump may be taken losses of energy.
The affinity laws state that head and capacity produced by centrifugal pump is dependent on
the velocity with which the liquid leaves the impeller, and is referred to as the peripheral velocity.
Therefore the output of the pump can be adjusted by changing the peripheral velocity. This can be
accomplished in two ways, with almost identical results (1) by changing the speed of rotation of the
impeller (2) reducing the diameter of the impeller [1]. In case of impeller trimming, the correction
factor which is used by most of engineers is proposed by Rutschi [2] and Stepanoff [3]. A cut greater
than 25% of the original diameter should not be made.
Many methods can be used to modify the performance of the centrifugal pump, but most
economical methods are the impeller trimming and speed change [2, 4]. Gulich [5] says that the
highest efficiency and the BEP location are affected significantly by volute casing characteristics,
regardless of any modification method employed. Hence, there is a scope of further research.
2. Planning and Setup of experiment
There are different standards that are available for the design of the test-rig. ANSI/HI
standards are chosen as they are the most detailed and comprehensive standards for water
applications. They are acceptable worldwide. The pump used in this work is end suction centrifugal
pump with overhung, enclosed, backward-swept, radial flow impeller and single volute casing. The
pump was manufactured by the Wasp Pvt. Ltd. And design and drawing was also providing by them.
For typical intake geometry and relatively uniform approach flow, data and experience
suggests that the following recommended relationship between submergence (S in Figure 4.5) and
the Froude number corresponds to acceptable design.
S=D (1+2.3Fd)
=0.070(1+2.3 x 1.557)
=0.32 m = 32 cm.
216
ISBN:9788190937634
Where S = Minimum submergence above the centerline of a vertically oriented inlet plane
D = Cone inlet diameter
FD = Froude No. .
Pump specifications
Mfg: Kirloskar Ltd-Wasp
Center supported, separately coupled, end-suction centrifugal pump
Overhung, enclosed, radial flow impeller with 4-backward-swept vanes
Single volute casing
- Suction line ID = 72 mm
Discharge line ID = 40 mm
N = 2840 rpm
QBEP = 200 LPM= 12 m3/h
H = 22 m
NPSHR 4 m
NS = 16.1 (Metric) = 835 (US units)
2.1 Test rig and component design
The figure of the impeller and casing which is used for the end suction centrifugal pump is
shown in figure below.
Figure 1: Schematic diagram of pump Figure 2: Test rig set up and design
Impeller and casing
Various component of test rig are designated as per the HI standard as we have choose it by
default. Initial velocity was first calculated using the flow rate of 300 LPM and suction pipe diameter
72mm, which is around 1.72 m/sec. A baffle plate was used as a partition because the suction line
and the discharge line both were in a single tank. The suction tank used in the test rig is of size 1m x
1m x 1m. Rotameter is used for the measurement of flow rate or discharge. It was also calibrated with
the design of other instruments.
2.2 Impeller trimming method and case study
It has always seemed strange that most pumps are sold with only one impeller. There is
absolutely nothing wrong in selling (or buying) a pump with various impellers of different diameters,
ready to be changed when the needs of production change seasonally. This is the reason that back
pullout pumps exist. Many engineers and operators believe that the back pullout feature is designed
to facilitate maintenance. This is wrong. The back pullout pump exists to facilitate the rapid and
frequent impeller change, adapting the pump to the ever-changing needs of production. Now we will
consider one case study for impeller diameter trimming.
217
ISBN:9788190937634
Figure 3: case study impeller trimming
Reduction of diameter at constant speed.

Original volute used throughout.
Original impeller
-- NS = 1290 US units
Original diameter was 10% trimmed
Curves are drawn for Original, 10% smaller geometrically similar (i.e. identical NS pump with
relevant volute but 10% small in size), and actual 10% trimmed impeller in original volute.
Several volute lines are shown in HQ graph.
Volute line 4 starts at Q = qa* = 0.005 to 0.01(NS /51.64)
Note that the Actual BEP is on the right side of the predicted BEP, in contrast with the case 2. Little
pile-up in curve as in case 2.
actual is less than predicted.
Note the rise in NPSHR3% curve for trimmed impeller.
2.3 Test procedure
HI 1.6 [6] defines two acceptance levels of tests; A & B. Level A is usually applied to those
pumps that are manufactured for specific conditions according to customers requirement. Level B is
usually applied to those pumps that are produced for stock. Thats why Level B test covers a wide
range of operation points. As the present investigation work is comprehensive type rather than related
to few points, Level B is chosen to test the pump.
For acceptance level B test following test procedure is recommended in HI 1.6 [6,p9]. Test
instruments shall be selected so that they can provide measurements with accuracy. Test shall not
start until steady state conditions have been settled down to assure proper operation of pump and
test equipments. Accumulation of test data shall begin only when steady test conditions have been
settled down. Test shall include a sufficient number of points, but not fewer than 5 to accurately define
the HQ, PQ, Q and NPSHRQ curves. Test points shall include a minimum range of 25% to
120% BEP flow rate, plus the shut-off.
Test arrangements shall be free from hydraulic conditions which adversely affect pump
performance. NPSHA shall be greater than predicted NPSHR at all test flow rates during the test,
except during NPSHR testing. During test the test fluid temperature variation shall not exceed 15C.
And variation shall not exceed 1C at each test point. See Table 1. Level B performance testing was
done for speed change method, impeller trimming method.
218
ISBN:9788190937634
Table 1: Test Summary Table

D2 147mm 138mm
2 18o 18o 20o
280 3150-3050 3260-3150
RPM 0 (55Hz) (56Hz)
260 2920-2800 2938-2870
0 (50Hz) (50Hz)
240 2336-2266
0 (40Hz)
220
0
For Speed Change:Pump was tested at constant speeds of 2800, 2600, 2400 and 2200 RPM
using the Vector Speed function of ABB variable frequency drive. 2800 RPM is nearly the design
speed.
From Figure 4 i.e. From H Vs Q curve, for 2600 operation, the actual HQ curve satisfies the
predicted curve very closely. For 2200 and 2400 RPM operations, actual curves are slightly above the
predicted ones i.e. impeller generates more head than predicted. From figure 5, i.e. From P Vs Q
curve, for 2600 RPM operation, the actual PQ curve satisfies the predicted curve very closely. From
Figure 6, i.e. Vs Q, However, for 2400 and 2200 RPM operations, the power prediction is not quite
good. Actual power required is higher than the predicted power.
Figure 4: constant speed Head Vs Discharge
219
ISBN:9788190937634
Figure 5: Power Vs Discharge Figure 6: Efficiency Vs Discharge
Impeller trimming: Impeller modification method is equally advantageous as the speed change
method. Impeller was trimmed in single step.
Original maximum diameter impeller: D2 = 147mm, b2 = 6mm, 2 = 18.
After 1st cut (6% cut): D2 = 138mm, b2 = 6mm, 2 = 20.
Figure 7: Impeller trimming Head Vs Discharge
Figure 8: Power Vs Discharge Figure 9: Electricity Bill
From figure-7, for 138mm-50Hz operation, the actual HQ curve satisfies the true predicted
curve very closely. The curve breaks away after 250 LPM. From figure-8, for all operations, the power
prediction is not quite good. Actual power required is higher than the predicted power. For 138mm-
220
ISBN:9788190937634
50Hz operation, the HQ curve satisfies the predicted curve. The highest efficiency possible is less
than original (147mm, 50Hz) operation. However, the power consumed by the pump may be more.
Figure-9 shows comparison between yearly consumption of electricity bill for various modified
dimension used for impeller and speed change method.
4. Conclusion
Conclusions are limited to low specific speed and low suction specific pumps with radial flow
impeller and single volute casing. From all the methods listed above in the introduction out of that
speed change method and impeller trimming method gives best results in terms of efficiency and
head, if the system has low static head and high friction head. We can also conclude that the pump
performance must be modified in order meet various requirements and to save the money, which we
have already seen in terms of the annual consumption.
Table 2: Overall Summary Table
N 2939 RPM
Q 200 LPM
H 21.99 m
P 1217 watts
59.04 %
NPSHR 3.18 m
NS 16.7 metric units
862 US units
NSS 3680 US units
Both, speed change method and impeller trimming method give similar result in terms of
efficiency. Thus, the impeller trimming method is equally advantageous as the speed change method.
If the system requirement changes on daily basis, speed change method shall be utilized. If it
changes on seasonal basis, impeller trimming method shall be utilized.
References
[1] Ross Mackay, The practical pumping handbook, Elsevier-2004.

th
[2] Karassik, I. J., Messina, J.P., Cooper, P. and Heald, C.C, Pump Handbook, 4 Edition, the
McGraw-Hill Companies, 2008.
[3] Stepanoff, Alexey J. Centrifugal and Axial Flow Pumps: Theory, Design and Application, 2nd
Edition, Wiley, 1957.
[4] Girdhar Paresh and Moniz, Octo Practical Centrifugal Pumps Design, Operation and
Maintenance, Elsevier, 2005.
[5] Gulich, Johann F. Centrifugal Pumps, Springer Verlag, Berlin-Heidelberg-New York, 2008.
[6] ANSI/HI, American National Standard for Centrifugal Pumps, Parsippany, New Jersey.
221
ISBN:9788190937634
DETERMINATION OF TOOL WEAR CONDITION IN CNC BORING

MACHINE USING AE SIGNALS
A.Gurve1(Student, SRKNEC, Nagpur), R.P.Mishra 2(Student, SRKNEC, Nagpur) and Dr Shital

Chiddarwar3(Asst. Prof. SRKEC, Nagpur)
1.
14, Gurunanak Co. Op. Hous. Soc. Nara Road Jaripataka, Nagpur-14
(agtarot@gmail.com)
Abstract
Boring operation is one of the most common operation done in manufacturing industries. A concern in
manufacturing industries today is vibrations included with metal cutting, being one of the most important
problems in machining, chatter vibrations must be avoided as they result in high cutting forces,
unreasonable surface finish and reduction in productivity. This paper develops a methodology which
determines the wear condition of boring tool used in CNC operations using AE signals also it attempts to use
a Back Propagation Artificial Neural Network (BPANN) to model the complex phenomenon of tool wear and
its estimate. For this purpose, AE signals are measured using sound level meter at various cutting conditions
for the boring machine. The root mean square (RMS) extracted from decomposed signals are used to
compute the actual wear/ wear land formed at the cutting edge of the boring tool due to continuous material
removal process. This is further modelled in the Simulink to get a generalized tool for computation of wear
land of the boring tool. The database thus obtained is used to further train a BP neural network so that it can
be used for prediction of wear land. Finally, the results obtained using simulink model and predicted by
BPANN are compared to analyze the performance of both the methods used for determination of tool wear
condition.
1. Introduction
One of the most common operation performed in manufacturing industry to day is Boring operation and a
concern today is the vibrations induced by metal cutting, e.g. turning, milling and boring operations. Turning
operations, and especially boring operations, are associated with serious vibration-related problems. In
machining, Boring is the process of enlarging a hole that has already been drilled (or cast), by means of a
single-point cutting tool (or of boring head containing several such tools), for example as in boring a cannon
barrel. Chatter is the self-excited vibration of the machine tool that reflects the instability of the cutting
process. Chatter is often a serious limitation to achieving higher rates of removal, as it adversely affects the
surface finish, reduces dimensional accuracy, and may damage the tool and machine. Being one of the most
important problems in machining, chatter vibrations must be avoided as they result in high cutting forces,
unreasonable surface finish and reduced productivity. Therefore, prediction of chatter stability can be critical
for these operations as well. Chatter has been investigated extensively; most of the efforts have been
directed toward prediction of chatter rather than its detection. The approaches used for chatter detection
mirror those employed for tool breakage detection, except that analysis is performed primarily in frequency
domain where the effect of vibration is most pronounced. Recent attempts have concentrated on
developments of methods which monitor cutting process indirectly, among such methods is AE is most
effective. The advantage of using AE is that frequency range of AE is much higher. If AE signals are
effectively analyzed tool wear can be detected.
1.1 BORING BAR VIBRATION

Boring operations, are associated with serious vibration-related problems. During an internal turning
operation, the cutting tool and the boring bar are subjected to a prescribed deformation because of the
relative motion between the tool and work piece both in the cutting speed direction and feed direction. As a
response to the prescribed deformation, the tool is subjected to traction and thermal loads on those faces
that have interfacial contact with the work piece or chip. In the metal cutting process, during which chips are
formed, the work piece material is compressed and subjected to plastic deformation. The traction loads vary
since the deformation process in not continuous. When a material yields, the direction and the magnitude of
the dislocation are determined by the state of stress as well as the structure of the material lattice. Work
materials, especially iron alloys, have lattice errors. However, the alloying components will prevent or lock
the dislocations during plastic deformation of a material. The dislocations themselves will also prevent plastic
deformation. The grain size influences the materials yield strength.
1.2 TOOL WEAR MONITORING

In current metal cutting manufacturing practice, a tool will be used for only a fixed amount of time in
accordance with some tool manufacturer recommendation or past experiences. This tool change policy has
two prominent drawbacks, at one end, a worn tool without being exchanged in time will produce out of
222
ISBN:9788190937634
specification parts or even cause catastrophic tool breakage, and at the other tools being thrown away
prematurely over time will incur a huge waste of manufacturing resource.
Tool wear monitoring plays a critical role in detecting the dimensional accuracy of work piece and
guaranteeing automatic cutting process. It is essential to develop simple, reliable and effective tool wear
conditions. They are: Direct tool wear monitoring and Indirect tool wear monitoring. Direct tool wear
monitoring attempts to measure tool wear directly using some optical instrument such as video camera,
which requires cutting operations to be interrupted periodically. Direct tool wear monitoring can be: Optical,
Radioactive and Electrical resistances. Indirect tool wear monitoring deals with indirect signals that are
believed to be influenced by tool wear progression. Indirect tool wear monitoring can be: Acoustic emission
Spindle motor current, Vibration and Cutting force
Acoustic Emission Monitoring

Acoustic emission AE refers to the generation of transient waves during the rapid release of energy from
localized sources within a material. The source of these emissions is closely associated with the dislocation
accompanying plastic deformation and the initiation and extension of fatigue cracks in material under stress.
Advantages of A.E Monitoring is that Frequency level of A.E. Signal is much higher than machine vibration,
Environmental distractions do not affect the frequency level of A.E. signal, Fairly accurate, Comparatively
easier to extract, High sensitivity, Real time, Localization of failure zone by time of arrival measurement, Non
invasive
1.3 ARTIFICIAL NEURAL NETWORK

An artificial neural network (ANN), usually called "neural network" (NN), is defined as a mathematical or
computational model that tries to simulate the structure and/or functional aspects of biological neural
networks. It consists of an interconnected group of artificial neurons and processes information using a
connectionist approach to computation. Human brain provides proof of the existence of massive neural
networks that can succeed at those cognitive, perceptual, and control tasks in which humans are successful.
The brain is capable of computationally demanding perceptual acts and control activities. Human brain is a
collection of more than 10 billion interconnected neurons. Artificial neural networks (ANN) have been
developed as generalizations of mathematical models of biological nervous systems. First wave of interest in
neural networks emerged after the introduction of simplified neurons by (McCulloch and Pitts, 1943). In a
simplified mathematical model of the neuron, the effects of the synapses are represented by connecting
weights that modulate the effect of the associated input signals, and the nonlinear characteristic exhibited by
neurons is represented by a transfer function. The neuron impulse is then computed as the weighted sum of
the input signals, transformed by the transfer function. The learning capability of an artificial neuron is
achieved by adjusting the weights in accordance to the chosen learning algorithm.
NEURAL NETWORK ARCHITECTURES

The basic architecture consists of three types of neuron layers: input, hidden, and output layers. In feed-
forward networks, the signal flow is from input to output units, strictly in a feed-forward direction. The data
processing can extend over multiple (layers of) units, but no feedback connections are present. Recurrent
networks contain feedback connections. The learning situations in neural networks may be classified into
three distinct sorts. These are supervised learning, unsupervised learning, and reinforcement learning. In
supervised learning, an input vector is presented at the inputs together with a set of desired responses, one
for each node, at the output layer. A forward pass is one, and the errors or discrepancies between the
desired and actual response for each node in the output layer are found. These are then used to determine
weight changes in the net according to the prevailing learning rule. The best-known examples of this
technique occur in the back-propagation algorithm, the delta rule, and the perceptron rule. In unsupervised
learning (or self-organization), a (output) unit is trained to respond to clusters of pattern within the input. In
this paradigm, the system is supposed to discover statistically salient features of the input population. Unlike
the supervised learning paradigm, there is not a priori set of categories into which the patterns are to be
classified; rather, the system must develop its own representation of the input stimuli. Reinforcement
learning is learning what to do how to map situations to actions so as to maximize a numerical reward
signal. The learner is not told which actions to take, as in most forms of machine learning, but instead must
discover which actions yield the most reward by trying them.
BACKPROPAGATION LEARNING
The simple perceptron is just able to handle linearly separable or linearly independent problems. By taking
the partial derivative of the error of the network with respect to each weight, we will learn a little about the
direction the error of the network is moving. If we take the negative of this derivative (i.e. the rate change of
the error as the value of the weight increases) and then proceed to add it to the weight, the error will
decrease until it reaches local minima. This makes sense because if the derivative is positive, this tells us
that the error is increasing when the weight is increasing. The obvious thing to do then is to add a negative
value to the weight and vice versa if the derivative is negative. Because the taking of these partial derivatives
223
ISBN:9788190937634
and then applying them to each of the weights takes place, starting from the output layer to hidden layer
weights, then the hidden layer to input layer weights, this algorithm is called back propagation algorithm. A
neural network can be trained in two different modes: online and batch modes. The number of weight
updates of the two methods for the same number of data presentations is very different. The online method
weight updates are computed for each input data sample, and the weights are modified after each sample.
An alternative solution is to compute the weight update for each input sample, but store these values during
one pass through the training set which is called an epoch. At the end of the epoch, all the contributions are
added, and only then the weights will be updated with the composite value. This method adapts the weights
with a cumulative weight update, so it will follow the gradient more closely. It is called the batch-training
mode. Training basically involves feeding training samples as input vectors through a neural network,
calculating the error of the output layer, and then adjusting the weights of the network to minimize the error.
The average of all the squared errors (E) for the outputs is computed to make the derivative easier. Once
the error is computed, the weights can be updated one by one. In the batched mode variant, the descent is
based on the gradient E for the total training set
(1)
Where and are the learning rate and momentum respectively. The momentum term determines the
effect of past weight changes on the current direction of movement in the weight space. A good choice of
both and are required for the training success and the speed of the neural network learning. It has been
proven that back-propagation learning with sufficient hidden layers can approximate any nonlinear function
to arbitrary accuracy. This makes back-propagation learning neural network a good candidate for signal
prediction and system modelling. With this perception in consideration, this project aims to study the Boring
operation and measure the sound intensity with the help of sound-level meter at various cutting speeds and
depth of cuts. Moreover, in order to determine the tool wear condition, wear land of the boring tool is
proposed to determine using theoretical relationship. In this project, three layer back propagation neural
network (BPANN) architecture is designed to predict the wear condition of the boring tool.
2. METHODOLOGY
2.1 INTRODUCTION
The proposed approach of measuring sound intensity (AE Signals) to determine tool wear condition was
implemented to understand the tool wear at various cutting conditions of the CNC boring machine. Research
has shown that AE signals which referred to the stress waves generated by the sudden release of energy in
deforming materials has been successfully used in laboratory test to detect toll wear and fracture in single
point turning operations (Li, 1998). The possible sources of AE in metal cutting can be Plastic deformation
during the cutting process in the work piece, Plastic deformation in chip, Friction contact between tool flank
face and the work piece resulting in flank wear, Friction contact between the tool rake face and the chip
resulting in crater wear, Collision between chip and tool, Chip breakage, Tool edge chipping, Sources of AE
in boring operation.
METHODOLOGY ADOPTED FOR IMPLEMENTATION OF PROPOSED APPROACH
In order carry out experimentation, a CNC boring machine from Mahindra and Mahindra was used. The
specifications of the machine used for this study are as follows: No of products produced before tool gets
wear 70 nos. Tool Geometry SNMA120408, Tool speed 1150 RPM, Cutting Speed 50-400 mm/min,
Depth of cut 0.1 - 1.5 mm, Work peace material Gray cast iron, Length of tool 150 mm, Diameter of the
boring bar 106 mm, Weight of the tool 17 kg, Material of insert Ceramic
Following steps were followed to measure the sound waves generated during boring operation.
1. The non contact type sound level meter was used for the operation.
2. The sound level meter was adjusted to the maximum frequency band so that it becomes sensitive to
the sound decibels.
3. The sound level meter was kept at a minimum distance of 1 meter from the cutting tool.
4. It is necessary that the non contact type sound level meter is kept constant with the respect to the
cutting tool.
5. Surrounding machines were turned off so that no noise disturbance affected the readings of the non
contact type sound level meter.
6. Speed and depth of cut were the two parameters, which were varied to record the corresponding
decibel levels.
7. For the initial set speed was kept constant and for the other set depth of cut was kept constant and
the corresponding decibels levels were noted. The speed was varied from 50 to 400 mm/min. The
depth of cut was varied from 0.1 to 1.2 mm.
224
ISBN:9788190937634
3. OBSERVATIONS
Following observations were made after implementing the methodology explained in the previous section:
Sound level at constant cutting speed and variable depth of cut
Table 1 Measured sound levels at Vc = 50 mm/min

Sr Dept Vc = 50 Vc = Vc = 200 Vc = Vc =
no. h of mm/min 100 mm/min 300 500
cut mm/min mm/min mm/min
(p)
Sound Level (dB)
1 0.1 1.11 3.34 8.91 26.73 53.47
2 0.2 2.22 6.68 13.36 53.47 106.95
3 0.5 5.57 16.71 44.56 133.68 267.37
4 0.75 8.35 25.06 100.26 200.53 401.06
5 1 11.14 33.42 178.25 267.37 534.75
6 1.2 13.36 320.855

40.10
6 320.85 641.71
Sound level at constant depth of cut and variable cutting speed
Table 2
Sr Vc depth of depth of depth of depth of depth

no. (mm/min) cut cut cut cut of cut
=0.1mm =0.2mm =0.5mm =0.75m =
m 1mm
Sound Level (dB)
1 50 1.1 3.34 11.14 25.06 44.56
2 100 2.2 6.68 22.28 50.13 89.12
3 200 4.4 178.2

13.36 44.56 100.26 5
4 300 6.6 267.3

20.05 66.84 150.40 7
5 400 8.9 356.5

26.73 89.12 200.53 0
3.1 COMPUTATION OF WEAR LAND
Wear land the area of the tool that comes in direct contact with the material to be cut. Thus, generally it is
the area, which is directly affected by tool wear. The severity of wear of the boring tool can be determined
from the value of the wear land. Xiaoli and Zhejun (1998) has given following classification to estimate the
tool condition based on the wear land.
Table 3 Tool Wear states classification
225
ISBN:9788190937634
Tool Condition Wear land Classification
Initial Wear 0<wear<0.2mm A
Normal Wear 0.2<wear<0.4mm B
Acceptable Wear 0.4<wear<0.6 C
Sever Wear 0.6<wear D
3.2PROCEDURE FOR COMPUTATION OF WEAR LAND
Xiaoli and Zhejun (1998) has given the following formula for acoustic emission:
RMS V=K x Vc x p x Vp, (2)
Where K=Area density factor, Vc=Cutting speed, p= Depth of cut, Vp= Wear land
The RMS V i.e. RMS voltage is the AE signal which can be converted into decibels
using following relationship.
dB * 1.122= RMS (V) (3)
Hence, in this case, values of RMS V, K, Vc, and p are known from the experimental data. In order to
avoid the repetitive computations of the wear land, this formula for computation of wear land was modeled
using Simulink Toolbox of the MATLAB. The model thus obtained is given in the Fig.1.
Figure 1 Simulink model for computation of wear land
The observations obtained from the experiments were used to determine the wear land. The values of
cutting speed, depth of cut and corresponding sound level was given as input to this Simulink model (Fig. 1)
along with area density factor (= 2.5) in order to determine the wear land. Following results were obtained for
various cutting conditions of the CNC boring machine considered for study.
3.3ANN MODEL FOR PREDICTION OF WEAR LAND

The BPANN architecture shown in the Fig. 4 was used to predict the wear land provided that cutting speed,
depth of cut and sound level are given input to the network. Hence, the input layer consists of these
parameters and output layer consists of wear land. The data used for training this network was taken from
the experimental data. The 70% of total data was used for training of the BPANN network and remaining
30% was used for testing purpose. The best training performance was obtained. The training of BPANN
neural network was done with some set of performance parameters. The values of these parameters are as
follows: No of neurons in hidden layer were 6, Training goal was 0.001, Maximum number of epochs was
75000 and Maximum gradient allowable was 1*10-10It is evident that the training of the network using these
parameters was proper as the regression coefficient is almost equal to one. This indicates that the input and
output relationship is well understood by the BPANN network designed for the prediction of wear land. The
values of wear land were computed using Simulink model explained in the previous section and also were
predicted by designed BPANN for the observations taken from the CNC boring machine.
4. RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
APPLICATION OF PROPOSED APPROACH FOR DETERMINATION OF TOOL WEAR CONDITION
226
ISBN:9788190937634
The proposed approach of using AE signals for determination of tool wear condition was implemented to
understand the wear condition of the boring bar used in CNC boring machine. Following results were
obtained from the experimentations done on the CNC Boring machine.
Figure 2 Sound intensity levels at constant cutting speed and variable depth of cut
Figure 3 Sound intensity levels at constant depth of cut and variable cutting speed
From the experimental results presented in Fig.2 and 3 it can be observed that
1. Speed being constant with the increase in depth of cut, the sound decibel level was increasing.
2. Depth of cut being constant with the increase in speed, the sound decibel level was increasing
3. Tool wear is a combination of parameters that is depth of cut and speed of the material.
4. Therefore, all other factors remaining constant the tool wear of a particular material is directly
proportional to its sound intensity.
5. In the performance report we find that there is an error of 10^ (-4)., between actual and
experimental data, therefore the data used for training is near to perfect.
The results showed that:
1. In the training state, it is found that there is very less deviation within the centre line that validates
the obtained result.
2. The regression fit line is nearly a best fit line, with most of the points lying in the line of best fit.
3. All the reports point to the same conclusion that there is very little difference among the values of
wear land computed by using Simulink and predicted using BPANN designed for wear land
prediction. This proves the accountability of the indirect acoustic emission method.
5. CONCLUSIONS
Following important conclusions can be drawn from the study conducted in this research work:
1. Tool wear monitoring using AE signals is an effective and reliable technique
2. The cutting speed and depth of cut plays an important role in tool wear
3. Application of ANN for generating wear model of boring process is recommendable for prediction of
tool wear
6. REFERENCES
[1] E. Budak, E. Ozlu (2007), Analytical Modelling of Chatter Stability in Turning and Boring Operations: A
Multi-Dimensional Approach, Annals of the CIRP Vol. 56, pp 1-4
[2] Lorenzo Daghini, Andreas Archenti and Cornel Mihai Nicolescu,(2009), Design, Implementation and
Analysis of Composite Material Dampers for Turning Operations, World Academy of Science, Engineering
and Technology, Vol.53, pp 613-620
[3] Tool Design, V C Goold, Cyril Donaldson, III edition pp.350
[4] Avanish Kumar Dubey, Vinod Yadava,(2008), Multi-objective optimisation of laser beam cutting
process, Optics and Laser Technology, Vol.40, pp 562-570
227
ISBN:9788190937634
[5] L. Andren, L. Hakansson, A. Brandt, and I. Claesson,(2003a), Identification of Dynamic Properties of

Boring Bar Vibrations in a Continuous Boring Operation, Journal of Mechanical Systems and Signal
Processing, pp 44-85
[6] L. Andren, L. Hakansson, A. Brandt, and I. Claesson,(2003b), Identification of Dynamic Properties of
Boring Bar Vibrations in a Continuous Boring Operation Correlation to structural properties, Journal of
Mechanical Systems and Signal Processing, pp 44-85
[7] Patri, K. Venuvinod, Wavelet packet transforms of acoustic emission signals for tool wear monitoring,
(un-published
[8] Li Xiaoli and Yuan Zhejun, (1998) Tool wear monitoring with wavelet transform- fuzzy clustering
method, Wear Vol.219, pp 145-154
[9] Ajith Abraham, (2005) Artificial Neural Networks, Handbook of Measuring System Design, pp 901-908
[10] Macready, W.G. and Wolpert, D.H. (1997) The No Free Lunch Theorems. IEEE Transactions on
Evolutionary Computing,1(1), 6782
[11]McCulloch, W.S. and Pitts, W.H. (1943) A Logical Calculus of the Ideas Immanent in Nervous Activity.
Bulletin of Mathematical Biophysics, 5, 115133.
228
ISBN:9788190937634
Application of Criterion Functions to Predict Shrinkage

Porosity for Alloy ASTM B62 (Red Brass)
Amit V. Sata1*, Mitesh A. Popat2, K. B. Sangani1
1
V.V.P. Engineering College, Rajkot 360 005, Gujarat, India
2
Reserach Scholar, Saurashtra University, Rajkot, Gujarat, India
*
Corresponding author (e-mail: ameet_sata2000@yahoo.com)
Shrinkage porosity in castings contributes directly to customer concerns about

reliability and quality. Controlling shrinkage porosity depends on understanding
of its sources and causes. Significant improvements in product quality,
component performance and design reliability can be achieved if shrinkage
porosity in castings can be predicted, controlled or eliminated. To minimize their
occurrence in critical areas of castings, it is necessary to predict before its
occurrence. A comprehensive review of literature shows that it can be predicted
using Criterion Function (CF). It also shows that Criteria Functions (CF) (based
on conservation of mass and momentum for flow through porous media) have
been developed over the last 50 years. They are mainly driven by thermal
gradients, solidification velocity, and cooling rates. All CFs are limited to
particular metal-process combination but there is no threshold value (A
threshold value is the value below which shrinkage porosity likely to occur)
available for the prediction of shrinkage porosity for ASTM B62. In this paper,
threshold values of various CFs have been proposed for ASTM B62 (red brass).
They can be achieved by applying existing CF to industrial casting which
contains shrinkage porosity. The threshold value can be decided by comparing
actual location of shrinkage porosity to the simulated results. Simulation results
can be achieved using finite element analysis solver.
Key terms: Casting, Shrinkage Porosity, Criterion Functions (CFs), Threshold
Value, Quality.
1. Introduction
Metal casting is one of the oldest manufacturing processes and is still considered as
an art, rather than science. The basic principle behind casting process is straightforward.
Molten metal of sufficiently low viscosity flows into cavities and solidifies upon cooling.
However, behind this simple principle, many complicated reactions and phase
transformations lies.
Shrinkage is the term used for impeded fluid flow coupled with a difference in the
specific volumes of liquid and solid metal. As the metal solidifies, molten metal will try to flow
to compensate the liquid/solid volume change; however, the flow may be hindered by the
solidified metal. If a poorly fed region is large and completely cut off from a source of liquid
metal, then a large void (generally greater than 5 mm in maximum length) is formed [6]. The
resulting void is termed `shrinkage porosity'. Porosity may be the most persistent and
common complaint of casting users. Forgings, machined parts and fabrications are able to
avoid porosity with ingot cast feedstock, mechanical processing and automated inspection of
simple shapes.
There are various criterion functions (CFs) are available for the prediction of
shrinkage porosity but they are limited to certain metal-process combination. There is no
unique criterion which will predict the shrinkage porosity for every metal-process combination.
The objective of this investigation is to estimate the reliability of the various criterion functions
in predicting the development of porosity in casting of cu alloy ASTM B62 with the help of
simulation. It can be derived from industrial casting which contains porosity in it.
2. Current Status of Porosity Prediction
229
ISBN:9788190937634
Starting from the middle of 1980s, due to the decreasing cost of computers and
advances in computing methods, computer simulation of foundry process has been
developed and improved by both academic and industry. Studies on porosity have then
stepped forward from experiment-based investigations to computer simulation aided
research. Most research jobs have been done to explore the mechanism of porosity formation
and the ways to predict it. There have been, however, very few publications whose results
can be directly applied in mass production because the results of the studies have not been
confirmed with tests in manufacturing scale.
Computer simulation with solidification software, to which various criterion functions is
integrated, is a useful tool in predicting porosity. Most of casting simulation software is based
on either FEM or FDM [7]. Shrinkage porosity prediction can be made with the help of finite
element method. The outcome (temperature and thermal gradient at each node) of the FEM
or FDM can be inserted into criterion function to predict shrinkage porosity but as mentioned
earlier, CFs are limited to specific metal process combination. Till today, threshold value of
CFs is not available below which porosity is likely to occur in ASTM B62.
3. Criterion Function Method
Research on this topic started at the 50s and the literature contains numerous and
wide range of articles. Since precise description of this studies lies outside of the scope of this
paper. Simply we can say that criteria functions are simple rules that relate the local
conditions (e.g., cooling rate, solidification velocity, thermal gradient, etc.) to the propensity to
form pores. The application of criteria functions to porosity is not new, and can be traced
back as early as 1951, when Bishop et al. extended the idea of porosity prediction using
temperature gradient during solidification of the casting. Since that time, many different
criteria functions have been proposed; some were based upon statistical analysis of
experimental observations, whilst others were based upon the physics of one of the driving
forces.
The existing thermal parameter criteria proposed in literature so far, including
temperature gradient G, are tabulated in Table I. CFs are restricted to sand casting and
specific metal [2,3,5,6,7,9].
4. Experimentation
The alloy used was ASTM B62, widely used in the foundry industry and with well-
known behaviour. The component selected for experiment is considered as an industrial
casting which is prone to have porosity problem regularly. This component is used in
goldsmiths work for making ornaments of gold. Table II shows the nominal chemical
composition of ASTM B62.
Table 1 CFs for porosity prediction (Sand Casting)
Threshold
Author Year CF Metal
Value
Cast bar 1.3 2.6
Bishop et al. 1951 G
Cast steel 0.2 - 0.4
Davies* 1975 G/Vs - -
Niyama et al. 1982 G/(dT/dt)1/2 Steel 1
Lee et al. (LCC) 1990 Gts2/3/ Vs Al alloy 7
S T Kao et al* 1994 G0.38 / Vs1.62 - -
Nomenclature:
G : Temperature gradient Vs: Solidification velocity ts: Local solidification time
dT/dt : Cooling rate *Threshold value is not available to author
230
ISBN:9788190937634
Table II Composition of ASTM B62
Metal % Composition
Zinc 5
Tin 5
Lead 5
Copper Remaining
Figure 1 Industrial casting (All dimensions are in mm)
(a) (b)
Figure 2. Thermal properties of ASTM B62 [10]
4.1 Thermal properties of the ASTM B62:
Representing the thermal properties of the material involved in this casting is one of
the limiting problems of this work. There are few data available for the ASTM B62 alloy and
they are also limited to low temperature. The available data are used and extended to higher
temperature based on the behaviour assumed to be similar to copper. The assumed
behaviour of thermal conductivity is shown in fig. 2(a). The specific heat of alloy B62 is
represented in fig. 2(b). Density, liquidus and solidus temperature and pouring temperature
are as shown in Table III. Interfacial heat transfer co efficient (IHTC) between metal and
mould is assumed as 800 W/ m2 K.
4.2 Thermal properties of the sand:
Silica sand is used with grain fineness of 55-60 (AFS) and resin is used as binder.
The variation in thermal conductivity and specific heat is as shown in fig. 3(a) and (b)
respectively. The density is 1490 kg/m3 and assumed to be constant throughout the
solidification of casting. IHTC is taken as 11.2 W/m2 K.
231
ISBN:9788190937634
Table III Thermal Properties of ASTM B62[10]
Solidus density 8795 kg /m3

Liquidus density 8676 kg /m3
Pouring Temperature 1365 K
Liquidus temperature 1272 K
Solidus temperature 1118 K
(a) (b)
Figure 3. Thermal properties of Sand
4.3 Procedure
The casting is made using wood models, formed in silica sand and resin, and then
poured in gravity. Filter was not put in feeding channels and liquid metal was not treated for
degassing. The metal was melted in arc furnace, allowed to rest and poured at 1365 K.
5. Simulation
To predict the locations where porosity would occur, a judging criterion is needed.
The popular thermal-parameter based criteria from the literature review are summarized in
Table I. The simulations were made with transient thermal analysis and it is done by

commercial software ANSYS . The program is based on finite element method (FEM),
calculates the temperature and thermal gradient as a nodal solution. Analysis is done as an
axi-symmetric case for the sake of simplicity. The output values are used to calculate various
criterion functions (CFs) and thus to locate the zones where the limit values are not
exceeded. In those zones porosity is likely to occur. The following assumptions are made for
the analysis:
i. Contact resistance between the mold and cooling material is negligible.
ii. In practice the temperature difference between the mould surface and surrounding air
is not substantial hence radiation transfer can be ignored.
iii. Mould cavity is instantaneously filled with molten metal.
iv. Outer surface of the mould is initially assumed to be at ambient temperature.
v. The bottom surfaces of the casting are always in contact with the mould.
vi. The vertical surfaces of casting are in contact with the mould i.e. no air gap in
between
Various steps for thermal analysis are as shown in fig. 4 (a) and (b).
5.1 Pre-processing
Modeling can be done with the help of any available CAD software and can be

inserted in ANSYS using geometry transformation. Model can also be generated using

ANSYS . The main aim of the analysis is to get temperature distribution with respect to time.
Element, PLANE 55 is chosen in ANSYS which has capability to solve transient heat transfer
232
ISBN:9788190937634
analysis. In present work, analysis is carried out for the time from pouring temperature to
solidification temperature. Input parameters required for ANSYS model are as follows:
Initial boundary conditions for sand mould, casting and atmosphere air.
Thermal boundary condition is convective heat transfer co efficient.
Material specifications like density, specific heat and thermal conductivity is required
for sand, cast and atmospheric air.
5.2. Processing and Post processing using ANSYS
Processing is carried out by applying proper boundary conditions and material

specifications for the solidification time by selecting proper time steps. Post processor stage
includes collection of results from processing stage. A little consideration is required that the
resultant thermal gradient and temperature should be taken few steps before the solidification
time while collecting results from processor stage because shrinkage porosity criteria are
evaluated near the end of solidification, when solidification is forming. Solid fraction at that
time step should be in between 0.9 to 1 because choice of evaluation temperature can
significantly influence the resulting criteria values. Solid fraction can be calculated by any one
of the available methods. Generally solid fraction can be calculated by fs = Tliq- Tsol / Freezing
range. Temperature distribution of the component is shown in fig. 4 (c).
5. Results
Experimental results of shrinkage porosity are shown in fig. 5. It has been already
discussed that threshold value for ASTM B62 is not available. Threshold value for ASTM B62
is decided from the experimental results (fig.5). Threshold value of various criterion functions
can be calculated by calculating various parameters like solidification time, solidification
velocity and cooling rate at every node of the work piece. They can be calculated as [4,8]
Cooling rate =R = (Tpour Ti / tf ) and Solidification velocity = Vs = G/R,
Where R, Tpour, Ti, tf , Vs, G are cooling rate, pouring temp., instantaneous temp.,
solidification time, solidification velocity and gradient respectively.Threshold value of various
criterion functions for ASTM B62 can be given in table. IV.
(a) (b) (c)

Figure 4 Thermal Analysis using ANSYS
(a) (b)
Figure 5 Experimental results
233
ISBN:9788190937634
Table IV Threshold value of various criterion function
Sr. No. Criterion Function Threshold Value

1. Bishop 13.4
2. Davies 3.4
3. Niyama et al. 0.3
4. Lee et al. (LCC) 9.1
5. S T Kao et al 0.29
6. Conclusions
This is an attempt to develop some systematic approach for shrinkage porosity

prediction using various criterion functions for ASTM B62 (red brass). Most of casting
simulation software is based on either FEM or FDM. Shrinkage porosity prediction can be
made with the help of finite element method. Threshold value of the various criterion functions
for ASTM B62 will be very useful for various casting simulation software which is not available
so far.
7. Future
Niyama, LCC, Davis, Bishop Criteria etc. are for qualitative prediction of the
shrinkage porosity. So they are helpful for only location based prediction. There is
requirement to work on quantitative prediction of shrinkage porosity prediction.
8. Acknowledgement
The author wish to thank proprietor of Dipak metals- Rajkot and Hindustan Brass
works - Rajkot. This work was supported by Dipak metals -Rajkot.
9. References
[1] Dieter Ott " Chaos in Casting: An Approach to Shrinkage Porosity," Gold bulletin
30(1)(1997) 13- 19.
[2] E. Niyama, T. Uchida, M. Morikawa, and S. Saito, A Method of Shrinkage Prediction and
its Application to Steel Casting Practice, Am. Foundrymens Soc. Int. Cast Met. J.,
7(3)(1982) 52-63.
[3] H. F. Bishop and W. S. Pellini, The Contribution of Riser and Casting End Effects to
Soundness of Cast Steel Bars, AFS Trans., 59(1951)171.
[4] Imafuku I, Chijiiwa K 1983: A mathematical model for shrinkage cavity prediction in steel
castings, AFS Transactions , 91:527540.
[5] K.D. Carlson, S. Ou, R.A. Hardin, and C. Beckermann, Development of New Feeding-
Distance Rules Using Casting Simulation: Part I. Methodology, Metall. Mater. Trans. B,
33B(2002) 731-740.
[6] K. Kubo and R. Phelke, Mathematical Modeling of Porosity Formation in Solidification,
Met. Trans B, June 16B (1985) 359-366.
[7] Mark Jolly, " Casting Simulation: How well do Reality and Virtual Casting Match? State of
the art review,"International Journal of Cast Metal,14(2002)303-313.
[8] Nao- Aki Noda , "Predicting Locations of Defects in the Solidification Process for Large-
Scale Cast Steel," Journal of Computational Science and Technology, 3(1)(2009) 1136-
1143.
[9] Pehlke et al. Computer simulation of solidification, AFS transactions, 1975.
[10] Y. W. Lee, E. Chabg, and C.F. Chieu, Modeling of Feeding Behavior of Solidifying AI-
7Si-0.3Mg Alloy Plate Casting.
234
ISBN:9788190937634
SLIDING FRICTION CHARACTERISTICS OF COMPOSITE

MATERIAL-A CRITICAL REVIEW
A. Prasoon Choudhary1*, B. B.M.Sutaria2*
1
P.G.Scholar SVNIT, Surat-395007 Gujarat, India.
*E-mail: prasoonchoudhary@gmail.com
2
Associate professor, SVNIT, Surat-395007 Gujarat, India.
*
E-mail: bms@med.svnit.ac.in
Al-Si alloy and Al-Si matrix composite are most widely used material in tribological components like
clutch, cylinder liner and piston in automobile industry. Various types of tribological test has been
performed on these composites measured by gauging the bore diameter at different points before and
after wear and then finding the change. This type of wear test is useful for long duration having wear
of several microns. Hence a new method based on bearing area curve was used to measure engine
liner particularly for short duration. A replication method is applied in which measurements were made
at different location on cylinder liner before and after each test and replicated surface profile
measured by using optical profilometer.The replica were produced at four different location 900 apart.
Moreover many tribological components are used now-a-days under dry sliding condition without use
of lubricant. It effects the stress distribution and even alter the surface behaviour during the sliding
motion. Studies on dry reciprocating condition is therefore of practical significance and there need
more work to be done on reciprocating wear of metal matrix composite in reciprocating pin-on-plate
apparatus by considering different wear parameter (load, sliding distances, at different temperature).
1. Introduction
The wear process is generally quantified by wear rate, which is defined as volume or mass of material
removed per unit time or per unit sliding distances. Wear in most cases occurs through surface
interaction as asperities and is a complex process influenced by a number of factor including surface
texture, conditions of the components, load, speed, temperature, environment and lubricant. Several
type of wear test is conducted on pistons and cylinder liner made of Al-Si alloy/composites.
Unidirectional sliding wear test of composite is done on pin-on-disc or block-on ring test. However
many components now-a-days are used under reciprocal sliding condition. High wear rate is observed
under reciprocating condition than unidirectional sliding. It is therefore important to understand the
reciprocating sliding wear of these composites. Moreover, many tribological components are used
under dry sliding condition without use of lubricant. It influences the stress distribution between the
sliding surfaces and even alter the surface behaviour during sliding motion. studies on wear
performance under dry sliding condition is therefore of practical significance and there need more
work to be done by considering the effect of different wear operating parameters. Engine liner wear is
a critical issue which affects the performance of the engine. Since it is very difficult to measure the
surface of cylinder bore surface directly, replication method was applied to obtain the surface profile
of bore before and after each test. wear measurement of engine liner measured by a replication
method is applied in which measurements were made at different location on cylinder liner before and
after each test and replicated surface profile has been measured through optical profilometer. The
0
replica were produced at four circumferential location 90 apart i.e. thrust side, anti-thrust side, front
side &back side. cylinder bore wear is even more difficult to measure than ring wear because it occurs
over a much larger surface area and wear rate vary widely at different locations on the bore. Ring
wear can be measured by simply measuring mass loss but bore wear is determined by careful
dimensional measurements at different locations.
235
ISBN:9788190937634
2. Studies on wear of cylinder liner
P.R.GIBSON et al [1] investigated influence of graphite additions on the wear characteristics

of cast Al-Si alloys, produced by compo casting followed by squeeze casting using a pin-on-disc wear
test. In general, an increase in graphite content reduces the coefficient of friction and temperature rise
in the wear pin. It has been shown that a uniform dispersion of graphite particles in Al-Si alloys
improves their galling resistance and that the wear rates for these alloys are lower than those for
similar alloys without graphite. Biswas and Gorbunov independently compared the performance of
cast graphitic aluminium alloy bearings with that of copper alloy bearings and both groups concluded
that the graphitic aluminium alloys were a potential replacement for bronze bearing alloys. Bruni
and Iguera have reported that graphitic Al-Si alloy cylinders used in place of cast iron in various
engines from small two-stroke engine to a sports engine provided increased power outputs and
reduced fuel consumption with remarkably low wear rates.
A pin-on-disc wear test configuration was used by researchers as pins of diameter 6.35 mm
and with a surface finish better than 2m were rubbed against hardened steel discs, finished to better
than R = 0.2m, at sliding speed of 1 m/s. The data obtained from the pin on disc tests were as
follows: (i) the length of wear test pin lost; (ii) the steady state coefficient of friction;(iii) thetemperature
rise in the wear test pin; (iv) the surface textures of wear test pin and disc after the wear test. It was
concluded that at low addition levels (2 wt. %) graphite improves the wear resistance by enabling a
mild rate of wear to be maintained at higher loads. However, at high addition levels (8 wt.%) graphite
so weakens the alloy that yielding occurs and a severe rate of wear is maintained.
Engine liner wear is usually measured by gauging the bore diameter at different points before
and after wear and finding the change. Gauge measurements usually have an accuracy of 1m. Also,
liner distortions, if any, affect the measurement. Such measurements are adequate only for long
duration tests involving wear of several microns.
Rajesh Kumar et al [6] proposes a new method based on bearing area curve to evaluate
engine liner wear volume and wear depth particularly for short duration engine tests. Bearing area
curve was developed to calculate engine liner wear at different points between T.D.C and B.D.C. It is
actually a plot between depth vs. percentage Bearing length as found from 2-D roughness profile. The
method is based on the fact that honing depth is not removed when small amount of wear occurs. It
was considered that 90% point of the bearing area curve is the same before and after wear. Then, the
bearing area curve for the used liner was transformed by the depth difference at 90%.and the area
between the two curves was calculated by numerical procedure. The difference in area between the
two curves represents the material worn from the profile parallel to the cylinder liner axis for
assessment length L during a test. On multiplying this area with the circumferential segment, the wear
volume for a given segment and assessment length can be calculated. The procedure for calculating
the area between the bearing length curves of new and used liner is schematically illustrated in Fig. 1.
The area, is calculated by a numerical procedure and is equal to the area between the curves in
zones I, II and III. These zones are approximated to trapeziums to find the area. The point of
intersection between the zones was obtained by linear regression. As the diameter of cylinder liner is
known, the wear volume for a given segment can be calculated for various zones selected at different
points from T.D.C to B.D.C.
Figure1 Bearing length as % of assessment length
236
ISBN:9788190937634
Rajesh kumar et al [7] developed an improved methodology to characterise running-in and

steady-state wear processes. The experimental study was conducted with En 31 steel specimens on
reciprocating tester with ball-on-flat geometry under lubricated sliding conditions. Numerous
investigations were being conducted to study the running-in and steady-state wear behaviour of
tribological components such studies are important in ensuring efficient operation and long life of the
components. The tests were conducted according to a factorial design. The variables selected were
the load, temperature and surface roughness. After a long duration of steady-state wear there can be
a transition to wear out zone where useful life of the component ends. The present work deals only
with the running-in and steady-state parts of the curve. In this paper, available mathematical
formulation of the running-in and steady state wear was adopted. The coefficients in the mathematical
expression are of non-linear nature.
PRASAD AND RAMESH [9] investigated the effect of heat treatment On tribological
characteristics of Al-Si alloys that has wide application in tribological components like clutch,
cylinder liner and piston in automobile industry because of its good thermal conductivity. The
development of Al-Si alloys consisting of graphite particulates has led to these materials finding
applications where improved features such as wear and seizure resistance are of importance. The
friction and wear behaviour of both heat-treated and unheat treated cast sample were evaluated using
a pin-on-disc wear test rig. The sample pins were of diameter 10mm and height 23 mm. The load
was varied from 20N to100N in steps of 20N while the sliding velocity was varied from 0.42m/s to 2.09
m/s. A hardened steel disc of 60 HRC was used as counter disc. It was observed that heat treatment
of composite results in lower friction coefficient when compared to unheat treated composite at all
sliding distances and load. Further extent of grooving was larger in case of un-heat treated
composites. The transition from mild to severe wear occurred at at a load of 40N for unheat treated
composites while on heat treatment transition load was 60N.
It is observed from published work that is limited work done for measurement of piston ring
and cylinder bore Wear because of the technical difficulties involved in performing the measurements.
Moreover, cylinder bore wear is more difficult to measure than ring wear because it occurs over a
much larger surface area and the wear rates vary widely at different locations on the bore. Cylinder
liner surface roughness and wear measurements were performed through an experimental study of a
single cylinder diesel engine operating at a steady state.
Schneider and Blossfeld [8 ] developed a radiotracer method to measure piston ring and
cylinder liner bore wear rates in a spark-ignition engine, where rings and cylinder bore were made
radioactive by surface layer activation, and both ring and bore wear data were obtained by
accumulation of radioactive wear debris in the lubricating oil. Cylinder bore steady-state wear rates
were very low as compared to the wear generated during initial break in.
L.GARA, Q.ZOU [10] developed a replication method used to evaluate wear and surface
roughness on a cylinder liner, where measurements were made at different locations on the cylinder
liner before and after each test and replicated surface profile were measured by a optical surface
0
profilometer. The replica was produced at four different locations 90 apart around the bore: i.e. thrust
side, anti-thrustside, front side and back side. For each replica surface profile were measured at four
location .Thus, data were collected at 16 locations of the cylinder bore. Cylinder bore wear rates
measured by this replication method were consistent with long-term wear observed in different tests
of diesel engines.
G. Rajaram et al. [11] Investigated the effect of various variables on wear behaviour of
Al-Si/ graphite composite. The trend showed a decrease in wear rate with increase in temperature.
The reduction in wear rate was mainly due to the formation of glazing layer and oxide layer at higher
temperature. This was invariably observed in alloy and composites. Wear behaviour of metals and
alloys at elevated temperature is influenced by wearing conditions. The coefficient of friction is
decreased when the load is increased and the higher the hardness of the mating surface, the higher
the coefficient of friction at elevated temperature.. The hardness of matrix alloy and composite is 97
and110 BHN, respectively as UTS of Al-Si matrix alloy is lower than that of composite as shown in
Figure3. The influences of temperature on wear rate of alloy and composite in identical testing
conditions are presented in Figure 2. It is noted from the results that the wear rate is decreased for
both alloy and composite with increase in temperature. But predominantly the wear rate of composite
237
ISBN:9788190937634
is lower than that of alloy. The AlSi/graphite composite can perform well up to 3000C, but the alloy
can withstand till 2500C.
Figure 2 variation of wear rate with temp Figure 3 Stress-strain curve for Al-Si alloy & composite
V.R.RAJEEV, D.K.DWIVEDI et al[12] investigated the effect of various wear test parameter
on dry wear behaviour of two Al-Si-Sic composites under reciprocating conditions using fractional
factorial design. The SiC reinforced aluminium silicon metal matrix composites (MMC) have been
increasingly used in the automobile industry because of their high strength-to-weight ratio, good
castability and better high temperature strength over the unreinforced alloys. These components have
find application in components such as brake rotors, cylinder heads and pistons that are used in
tribological systems. Various wear studies of these applications have been conducted during the past
decade. Almost all of them were performed using either pin-on-disk or block-on-ring testing machines
where the composite material experienced only unidirectional sliding wear. However, very few of
these tests were reported under reciprocal sliding conditions where the same material may behave
differently compared to that under unidirectional wear conditions. High wear rate has been reported
under reciprocating condition than unidirectional sliding. It is therefore important to understand the
reciprocal sliding wear behaviour of these composites considering the fact that a number of industrial
applications, such as engine cylinders, pistons, etc., involve reciprocal sliding wear. Moreover, many
tribological components are used under dry sliding conditions that influence the stress distribution
between the sliding surfaces. Studies on wear performance under the dry reciprocating condition is
therefore of practical significance. A reciprocating wear test rig (Fig.4) used to investigate the dry
sliding wear characteristic of the composite was fabricated as per ASTM standard. Friction and
reciprocating wear tests were performed using the developed pin-on-plate test rig in which composite
pin of diameter 6mm and length 30mm cut from the heated treated samples was held on a
3
reciprocating grey cast iron plate of size 6015010mm having a hardness of 244VHN. The analysis
of variance was used to investigate which design parameter significantly affects the friction and wear
characteristics. It was found that Increase in sliding distance causes more asperity to asperity contact
time and results in increased real area of contact which in turn lead to the formation of wear debris
and increases weight loss of the composites. Increase in applied load decreases coefficient of friction
of composites significantly and is due to the fact that at lower loads, the transfer film is found to be
more stable than at higher loads, because the transfer film is destroyed at faster rate with increase in
load. An increase in sliding distance and counter surface temperature increases the coefficient of
friction. An Increase of the reciprocating velocity slightly decreases the coefficient of friction. With the
increase in silicon weight percent in AlSiSic composite, the coefficient of friction was found to
decrease.
238
ISBN:9788190937634
Figure 4 Schematic diagram showing front view of reciprocating wear test rig
V.R.RAJEEV, D.K.DWIVEDI et al.[13 ] studied the effect of normal load and reciprocating velocity
on transition from mild to severe wear of A319/15%SiCp, A336/15%SiCp, and A390/15%SiCp
composites. It has been found that an increase in normal load and sliding speed results in transition in
mode of wear from mild oxidative wear (at relatively low load/speed) to severe metallic(at high
load/speed especially dry and boundary lubricated conditions. The load at which transition from mild
to severe wear takes place can be increased by incorporating SiC and A12O3 particles or fibres in the
aluminium matrix.
Figure5 Effect of (a)Load (b)sliding distances(c)reciprocating velocity(d)temp (e)silicon content on

wear rate
3. Conclusion & summary
High temperature wear behaviour of Al-Si alloy and Al-Si/graphite composite are studied. The wear
properties of the Al-Si alloy are considerably improved by addition of graphite particulates. The wear
rate of matrix alloy and composite are decreased with increase in temperature with constant sliding
distances. The Al-Si/graphite composites are able to withstand higher temperature than Al-Si alloy.
Various types of wear test like pin-on-disc, block-on-ring test has been conducted till days by
considering different wear parameters like temperature, sliding distances, composition of material,
applied load, reciprocating velocity where composite material exhibit only unidirectional sliding wear
but now-a-days many industrial application has reciprocal sliding wear such as engine cylinder, piston
etc. so by considering influence of these effects on composite material a new method based on
Reciprocating pin-on-plate apparatus was performed. It was found that sliding distance, load,
reciprocating velocity, weight percent silicon are the controlling factors on wear of composite whereas
the effect of temperature on wear rate is marginal.
4. Summary
Sr. Title Area of Work Conclusion

No.
[1] Wear of cast Al-Si alloys containing graphite Measurement of Wear rate of alloy with
Wear by pin-on-disc graphite is lower than
wear testing that of alloy.
[2] Assesment of engine liner wear from bearing Wear measurement Bearing area curve
239
ISBN:9788190937634
area curves for short duration can be used in

selecting quicker
running in procedure
[3] An improved methodology to characterise Wear test by The wear rate
running-in and steady-state wear processes. reciprocating tester increased with
with ball-on-flat increase in roughness.
geometry
[4] Effect of heat treatment on tribological Wear of both heat Heat treatment of
characteristics of Al-Si alloys treated & unheat composites results in
treated sample were lower coefficient of
measured by pin-on friction as compared to
disc test rig unheat treated
composites.
[5] Measurement of cylinder liner wear by The replica were Average surface
replication method produced at different roughness decrease
location around the with time &rate of
bore. decrease was higher
during running-in-
period.
[6] Effect of various variable on wear behaviour Investigation of There is decrease in
of Al-Si alloys& its composite variation of wear rate wear rate with
with temperature, increase of
temperature.
[7] Effect of various wear parameter on dry Wear testing by Sliding distances,
reciprocating wear behaviour of Al-Si reciprocating pin-on- temperature, load
alloy/composites plate apparatus affects the wear rate
differently.
References
[1] Gibson, A.J.Clegg, and A.A.Das.,Wear of cast Al-Si alloys containing graphite,1984
[2] Y.B.Liu,S.C.Lim and P.K.Rohatgi.,friction and wear of aluminium-graphite composites:the

smearing process of graphite during sliding,1992
[3] A.K.Gondal, P.G.Khanwalkar and S.Singhal.,An improved profilometric technique of wear

measurement and its application in two stroke engine cylinder liners,1993
[4] R.L.Deuis,C.Subramanian and J.M.Yellup.,.,Dry sliding wear of aluminium composites-

Review,1996
[5] Martin. A,Martinez.MA, Wear of sic reinforced Al-matrix composite in the temperature range
20-2000 c,1996
[6] Rajesh kumar, Salil kumar, Braham prakash, A.Sethuramiah., Assesment of engine liner wear
from bearing area curves,2000
[7] Rajesh kumar,Braham prakash,A.Sethuramiah.,A systematic methodology to characterise the

running-in and steady state wear processes,2000
[8] E.W. Schneider, D.H. Blossfeld, Effect of break-in and operating conditions on piston ring and
cylinder bore wear in spark-ignition engines, SAE International. 2004
[9] T.B.Prasad,C.S.Ramesh.,Effect of heat treatment on tribological characteristics of Al-Si-

Graphite composites.,2006
[10] L.Gara,Q.Zou,M.H.Mekari.,Wear measurement of a single cylinder diesel engine using a

Replication Method,2010
240
ISBN:9788190937634
[11] G.rrajaram,S.kumaran,T.srinivasa rao,M.kamaraj.,studies of high temperature wear and its

mechanism of Al-Si/graphite composite under dry sliding condition,2010
[12] V.R.Rajeev,D.K.Dwivedi,S.C.Jain,Dry reciprocating wear of Al-si-sicp comnposites:A

Statistical analysis,2010
[13] V.R.Rajeev,D.K.Dwivedi,S.C.Jain, Effect of load and reciprocating velocity on the transition

from mild to severe wear behavior of AlSiSiCp composites in reciprocating conditions,2010
[14] J.R. Gomes, A. Ramalho, M.C. Gaspar , S.F. Carvalho .,Reciprocating wear tests of Al
Si/SiCp composites: A study of the effect of stroke length.,2010
[15] Deuis RL, Subramanian C, Yellup JM. ,Abrasive wear of aluminium composites-a review.,
241
th
ISBN:9788190937634
Design of Bellows Free Cryogenic Transfer line

Amit Thakkar1 and Mayank I. Vyas2
1
M.E. Student, L.D. College of Engineering
2
A.P.M.E., L.D. College of Engineering
* thakkar_amitmech@yahoo.co.in
Cryogenic transfer line is one of the major components used in any cryogenic system.
This transfer line is used to transport cryogenic liquid from one system to the application
at very low temp. Due to low temp, the cryogenic transfer line tends to contract. To avoid
the thermal stress, bellows are generally used. But there bellows are not very reliable
under the cyclic loads and they are weak points to have leaks. The reliability is essential
in case of space technology and other closed systems which can not be opened easily.
To make the system reliable, bellows free transfer line can be designed, which is now
very challenging task. The design of cryogenic transfer line depends on the three aspects
mainly; Hydraulic design aspects, Mechanical design aspects and Thermal design
aspects. Failing of any of the above aspect can lead to the in efficiency on the transfer
line and the cryogenic system will not work perfectly. This paper describes the design
methodology of bellow free transfer line.
1. Introduction
Cryogenic transfer line is one of the major components used in any cryogenic system. This
transfer line is used to transport cryogenic liquid from one system to the application at very low temp.
During the flow of the cryo-fluid, the transfer line should be well insulated otherwise required condition of
cryo-fluid at the application cant be supplied. The insulation to these cryo transfer line is provided with
the help of static vacuum. Among static vacuum insulated transfer lines, there are many different designs
to choose from including flexible pipe, rigid pipe, internal bellows, external bellows and Invar. The most
reliable transfer line is without bellows; which can be produced by using the INVAR material. Invar
material can lead to bellow free transfer line. The unique feature of a static vacuum bellow free transfer
line is that the performance over time does not change & there is no possibility of leaking. Bellows free
transfer lines are used in small systems having very high reliability and within the constrained space for
installation.
AusteniticStainlessSteel
Invar Piping
242
th
ISBN:9788190937634
Figure1: Difference between the Austenitic line and Invar Transfer line [1]
2. Material
The material has to be selected very carefully for cryogenic applications because of following
reasons (i) The strength of the material changes. (ii) The thermal conductivity of the material changes. (iii)
The material contracts and produces the thermal stress. (iv) Material modulus may change. (v) Many
materials undergo phase changes (i.e. becomes brittle) etc. Hence all the above points should be
checked as per the design criteria to select the proper material. The material should also be selected on
the basis of fabrication, joining with other materials, cost and compliance with regulatory codes.
2.1 INVAR
INVAR is used to make the bellow free transfer lines. Invar, also known generically
as FeNi36 (64FeNi in the US), is a nickel steel alloy notable for its uniquely low coefficient of thermal
expansion (CTE or ). It was invented in 1896 by Swiss scientist Charles douard Guillaume. He
received the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1920 for this discovery, which shows the importance of this alloy in
scientific instruments. "Invar" is a registered trademark of Arcelor Mittal, but FeNi36 is also manufactured
by Japanese companies. Like other nickel / iron compositions, Invar is a solid solution; that is, it is a
single-phase alloy. The name "Invar" comes from the word invariable, referring to its lack of expansion or
contraction with temperature changes. The invar material has different composition as per their
applications.
2.2 INVAR Different Grades
INVAR is used to make the bellow free transfer lines. Invar, also known generically
as FeNi36 (64FeNi in the US), is a nickel steel alloy notable for its uniquely low coefficient of thermal
expansion (CTE or ). It was invented in 1896 by Swiss scientist Charles douard Guillaume. He
received the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1920 for this discovery, which shows the importance of this alloy in
scientific instruments. "Invar" is a registered trademark of Arcelor Mittal, but FeNi36 is also manufactured
by Japanese companies. Like other nickel / iron compositions, Invar is a solid solution; that is, it is a
single-phase alloy. The name "Invar" comes from the word invariable, referring to its lack of expansion or
contraction with temperature changes.
Common grades of Invar have a coefficient of thermal expansion (denoted , and measured
between 20100 C) of about 1.2 106 K1 (1.2 ppm/C). However, extra-pure grades (<0.1% Co) can
readily produce values as low as 0.620.65 ppm/C. Some formulations display negative thermal
expansion (NTE) characteristics. It is used where high dimensional stability is required, such as precision
instruments, clocks, seismic creep gauges, television shadow-mask frames, valves in motors,
and antimagnetic watches.
Table 1: Different Grades of the Invar materials
Grade Ni Co Fe
Invar 36 < 0.4 Remainder
Invar-M93 36 < 0.2 Remainder
Inovar 36 < 0.1 Remainder
Microvar 36 0.25 Remainder
Inovco 33 4.5 Remainder
Hence Invar-36 is used for the bellow free transfer line.
3. Design Methodology
The design of cryo transfer line considers the three aspects i.e. Hydraulic Design Aspects,
243
th
ISBN:9788190937634
Mechanical Design Aspects & Thermal Design Aspects. Any cryo transfer line should consider the above
aspects in terms of optimization also. Then the reliability of the cryo transfer can be maintained. There are
so many parameters to check during design which will be covered during the design of the cryo transfer
line. Each aspect is taken into consideration. Failing of any of the aspect can lead to inefficiency in the
transfer line and more energy of the cryo fluid is wasted towards the system operation.
3.1 Hydraulic Design
This is basis for all other aspects. It decides the flow diameter required, flow regime, flow velocity
and pressure drop. These parameters are very important for the flow of cryogen from the storage area to
the application. All these parameters are decided and then used to calculate other design aspects.
3.2 Mechanical Design
After achieving the hydraulic diameter as per the hydraulic design, mechanical design has to be
done to check different aspects i.e.Critical thickness for Process tube, Critical thickness for Vacuum
jacket, Deflection of process tube, Minimum supporting area to support tube, Contraction of the process
tube. As we know that the transfer line used in cryogenic applications have vacuum jacket over the
process line. Hence Mechanical design has to be done for three components of the transfer line as,
Process line i.e. Inner line, Vacuum jacket i.e. Outer line and Supports i.e. to support inner line from outer
line.
All these parameters has been calculated as per the ASME.
3.3 Thermal Design
This is also important aspect to design of the transfer line. The aim should be to reduce the heat
load coming on the transfer line from the room temperature. It heat load is not reduced then this heat load
will change the quality of the cryo fluid. There are three types of heat loads which exist in case of
cryogenic system, which are as follows:
Radiation heat load (

Qrad )
Qrgc
Residual gas conduction heat load ( )

Q
Conduction heat load from supports ( cond )
Hence the total heat load is the summation of all the three types of heat loads i.e.
Qtotal = Qrad + Qrgc + Qcond
3.4 Cool down time [3]
When any cryogenic application started then the liquid cryogen has to be flow up to the
application. The cryogenic transfer line has to cool down from room temperature to the cryo fluid
temperature. As the cryo fluid starts to flow in the transfer line then fluid becomes two phase. Hence it
can be said that two phase flow always occurs during the cool down of a transfer line. The fluid behavior
is further complicated by the transient nature of the process.
When the fluid enters the line, which is initially at ambient temperature, the liquid is quickly boiled
in cooling the transfer line mass near the tube entrance. As the cool down continues, the liquid front
moves down the line until the entire tube is filled with liquid. When this condition occurs, it means that the
cool down is completed.
4. Problem Formulation
Transfer line is required to cater the liquid from the storage tank to the point of application. Cryo
244
th
ISBN:9788190937634
transfer line can be from few meters to hundreds of meter. But bellow free transfer is generally used in
the small length required by the system, because it is not very economic. But small systems are using
bellow free transfer lines due to its high reliability.
4.1 Technical data required
a. Type of transfer line : Bellow Free

b. Operating pressure ; 2 bar (a)
c. Operating temperature : 80 K
d. Cryo fluid used : Liquid Nitrogen
e. Length of the transfer line : 5m
f. Number of bends : Zero (Only straight transfer line)
g. Mass flow rate : 2000 litres/hour
h. Allowable pressure drop per meter : 50 Pa
i. Insulation : Vacuum & MLI
j. Configuration : Rigid
k. Cryo fluid condition : Sub-cooled
l. Maximum allowable deflection : 1 mm
4.2 Assumptions
a. Single phase liquid i.e. quality of the liquid does not change
b. Configuration of line should be completely straight without any bends
c. Only MLI and vacuum insulated lines are considered. No other type of insulation is
considered.
d. Frictional, entry and exit loss is considered only
4.3 Fluid Properties
Liquid nitrogen is used as the working fluid, which is at the sub-cooled condition. The fluid
properties are taken at 2 bar and 80 K. The following properties are necessary for the design point of
view:
Density : 794.11 kg/m3

Viscosity : 1.45E-04 Pa-sec
Velocity of sound : 825.95 m/sec
Specific heat (Cp) : 2.05 kJ/kgK
Specific heat (Cv) : 1.06 kJ/kgK
Gamma (Ratio of Cp and Cv) : 1.93
5. Results
Table 2: Design Summary and comparison of Process lines designed for INVAR & SS
Sr. No. Parameter Name INVAR Transfer Line SS Transfer Line

1 Hydraulic Diameter 45 mm 45 mm
2 Single phase pressure drop 0.0020 bar 0.0020 bar
3 Critical thickness 0.0409 mm 0.0375 mm
(Std. - 1.65 mm) (Std. - 1.65 mm)
4 Maximum Unsupported Length 4.40 m 4.22 m
5 Bending Stress 28.14 MPa 25.57 MPa
6 Minimum support area required 1.04 m 0.98 mm2
245
th
ISBN:9788190937634
7 Contraction of the process line -1.79 mm -14.79 mm

8 Axial Stress 85.90 MPa 588.00 MPa
9 Bellow / U-Loop requirement NOT REQUIRED REQUIRED
Table 3: Design Summary of Outer Vacuum Jacket
Sr. No. Parameter Name SS Outer vacuum jacket pipe line

1 Inner Diameter 108.76 mm
2 Thickness of the pipe 2.77 mm
3 Outer Diameter 114.3 mm
Table 4: Heat Load Summary
Sr. No. Parameter Name Heat Loads

1 Radiation heat load without MLI 31.39 W
2 Radiation heat load with MLI 1.21 W
3 Residual gas conduction 0.94 W
4 Solid conduction 14.56 W
5 Total heat load without MLI 46.90 W
6 Total heat load with MLI 16.71 W
7 Total heat load without MLI 9.38 W/m
8 Total heat load with MLI 3.34 W/m
Cool down time for INVAR Process Line : 20.48 sec

Cool down time for SS Process Line : 19.63 sec
6. Conclusion
From the above result summary of design & analytically analysis for the cryogenic transfer lines, it
can be concluded that the SS transfer lines can be replaced with INVAR transfer lines to make it bellows
free. INVAR transfer lines do not require any bellow while the SS transfer lines requires bellow or U-loop.
Hence Bellow free transfer line can be made up of INVAR for a suitable application.
References
[1] Realization of Invar Alloy LNG piping by Takehiko Edamitsu; Osaka Gas Co., Ltd. Shuji Yamamoto;
Osaka Gas Co., Ltd. Muneji Ujita; Osaka Gas Co., Ltd.; Taketo Yamakawa; Kawasaki Heavy Industries,
Ltd.; Setsuji Kishimoto; Kawasaki Heavy Industries, Ltd. Keiichi Nakamura; Sumitomo Metal Industries,
LTD. Keiichi Yamamoto; Sumitomo Metal Industries. LTD.
[2] Long, Bellows-Free Vertical Helium Transfer Lines for the LHC Cryogenic s ystem by Gruehagen
H. LHC Division, CERN, 1211 Geneva 23, Switzerland, Posselt H & Weber J. LINDE AG, Linde
Engineering Division, D-82049 Hoellriegelskreuth, Germany., Ahlers H. BABCOCK NOELL NUCLEAR
GmbH, site D-46049 Oberhausen, Germany.
[3] Cryogenic Engineering by R.A. Barron.
[4] ASME Codes for the mechanical design.
[5] Technical Discussion with I.P.R. BHAT Gandhinagar
246
th
ISBN:9788190937634
247
th
ISBN:9788190937634
Feasibility study of micro welding of aluminium foils using

electrochemical discharge (ECD) with experimental and analytical
comparison of temperature distribution of weld zone
Niyati Dave1 Ravindra Daspute2 Madhuri Karnik3*
1,2,3
Department of Mechanical Engineering, College of Engineering, Pune-411005, Maharashtra, India
*
Corresponding author (e-mail: mgk.mech@coep.ac.in)
Electrochemical discharge (ECD) has been effectively used for generating intense localized heat in the
field of unconventional machining, especially when the work material is electrically non conducting. In the
present work, an attempt has been made to investigate the feasibility of micro spot welding of two
0.05mm thick aluminium foils through ECD. The experimental set up has been developed to investigate
the effect of process parameters such as molarity, diameter of tool and depth of the tool in the electrolyte
(H2SO4) on the discharge voltage, using cathodically polarized copper tool and anodically polarized
graphite as electrodes in the ECD cell. By operating the cell at discharge voltage, work piece temperature
(beneath the discharge and 5mm away from discharge) and feasibility of welding have been studied.
These investigations have revealed that the welding of aluminium foils through ECD is feasible at some
combinations of process parameters studied.
Weld strength was found in the range of 7.5 to 8.5 Mpa. The mathematical model is formulated to
determine temperature distribution on work piece surface by using a central difference approximation of
finite difference method. The experimentally measured and theoretically calculated temperatures on the
work piece surface are in good agreement. To develop the process commercially, rigorous experiments
are required to be carried out by maintaining accurate process parameters and shape and surface finish
of the tool.
1. Introduction
Now a days, aluminium is in demand in the industrial applications due to its properties such as light
weight, low cost, corrosion resistance, high thermal & electrical conductivity. Instead of experimenting at
the macro scale, at the onset itself, this work is aimed at micro spot welding of aluminium foils. Micro spot
welding needs highly localized & controlled heat source. The cheap source of heat for such an application
can be ECD. ECD takes place at the tip of the smaller electrode in an electrochemical cell when voltage
exceeds the critical value [1]. Further more, the substrate and the source of heat both are immersed
under the electrolyte. This avoids the oxidation of weld zone. Allesu [1] was the first to show possibility of
micro welding of thermocouple wires through ECD. Sharmishtha Parija, et al. [2] has analytically
determined temperature distribution in the thermocouple bead. It has also been used as a source of heat
in the process of Fused deposition through electrochemical discharge.[3] The spot welding of thin
aluminium foils through ECD has not been investigated so far. Hence the objective of the present work
has been: (1) Study the effect of process parameters on the discharge voltage. The process parameters
under consideration are molarity, tool diameter and depth of tool under the electrolyte level. (2)
Measurement of temperature on work piece surface. (3) Formulation of mathematical model to determine
temperature distribution on work piece. (4) Verification of theoretical temperature estimation with
experimentally measured temperature (5) Measurement of weld strength (6) Study the effect of process
parameters on weld zone (heat affected zone) & weld strength.
2. Experimental
The experimental set-up, the selection of process parameters and the characterization of weld is
elaborated in what follows.
248
th
ISBN:9788190937634
Set up: Figure1 shows experimental setup. The X-axis (13) facilitates seam welding along an axis, while
the Y- axis (12) controls stand of distance (SOD) between the tool tip and work piece surface. The axes
are driven by 2 Kg, 1.80 stepper motors (10) through worm-worm wheel (11) with reduction ratio 40, to get
the resolution of 1.25X10-04 mm/step. The whole setup, except for the gears, has been made up of
corrosion resistant stainless steel 304.
Figure. 1. Experimental setup. (1.ECD cell; 2. Work piece holder; 3. Cathode copper wire (tool); 4. Anode,
graphite rod; 5. Digital storage oscilloscope (DSO) (Tektronix); 6. Resistance, 7. Regulated DC power
supply (0-300V, 0-3A); 8. Regulated DC power supply (0-30V, 0-10A); 9. Controller and driver; 10.
Stepper motor ; 11. Worm-worm wheel pair 12. Y-axis; 13. X-axis; 14. C-frame; 15. Tool/cathode holder;
16. Column; 17. Thermometer holder; 18. Thermometers; 19. Bed; 20. DSO (GwINSTEK); 21.
Thermocouples.
ECD cell (1) is similar to the electrochemical cell with the difference that size of tool electrode has to be at
least 4 times smaller than the other electrode.[1] The cathode is generally selected as the tool (3) as it
does not undergo dissolution. In the present ECD cell, graphite being inert, has been selected as anode
(4) (32X80 mm) and has 100 times bigger surface area than that of the copper wire (diameter 0.3, 0.9
and 1.6mm), selected as the cathode. The cylindrical container of borosilicate glass of 0.8L capacity
contains electrolyte, houses electrodes, work piece and its holder. Sulfuric acid (H2SO4) (400ml) with
varying molarity (0.2, 0.4, 0.6 and 1.2M) has been used as the electrolyte. Two aluminium foils of
25mmX25mmX0.05mm are taken as work piece, which are placed in the slot of work piece holder (2)
made up of Perspex; non conducting, strong and chemically inert. As shown in magnified view of figure.1,
six pieces of perspex are stuck on the work piece holder to hold the foils in contact with each other, in a
plane. The holes of 1.5mm size are drilled through the holder. They are located in such a way that they
are on the center line of the work piece and at every 5mm distance. The thermocouples are placed in
these holes in such a way that they touch the work piece surface.
As the melting temperature of pure aluminium is 660C, which lies within the temperature sensing range
of K type thermocouple (200 C to +1350 C). Thus, the temperature on work piece at the location, just
below the discharge and 5mm away from the discharge has been measured by thermocouple wires (21)
of gage 30. The beads of thermocouples are fabricated through ECD process on same setup and are
calibrated. The process of fabrication and calibration has been explained by Amitabha Ghosh [2]. The
thermocouple wires are individually insulated to protect them from acidic environment. The thermocouple
output voltage is recorded using digital storage oscilloscope (DSO,20) (GwINSTEK 100MHz, 2 channels).
A standard conversion chart is used to convert the voltage in temperature readings.
249
th
ISBN:9788190937634
As shown in figure.1, constant voltage DC power supply (0-300V, 0-3A, made by zeal services,7), is
connected between cathode and anode. A resistance (6) of 1 and 1W is connected in series with
cathode and negative terminal of power supply. A separate DSO (Tektronix, 100MHz, 2 channels,5) is
connected in parallel with resistance to measure the current flowing through the ECD cell. A DC power
source (0-30V, 10A,8) drives the stepper motor through 48 I/O line controller and driver (9).
Special arrangement has been made to measure the shear strength of weld. Two small holes were drilled
along the centerline of the weld zone and on opposite side of the same. A wire of 0.3mm diameter was
passed through the holes to hang one end of the work piece from a hook and to hang a toy bucket at the
other end. Lead shots were added in buckets till the weld breaks. As weld broke, weight of bucket with
lead shots was measured on a digital weighing machine (Contech CT-series,15kg capacity,5mg
accuracy).
Procedure: Before studying the welding process, V-I characteristics of ECD cell for all combinations of
process parameters have been studied. To study the V-I characteristics of ECD cell, the supply was
varied in the step of 5V and the average current was recorded by the DSO. The scheme of experiments
was to vary one parameter at a time to study its effect on current in the cell and the discharge voltage.
The discharge voltage is defined as the voltage at which continuous discharge takes place at the tool tip.
The process parameters studied were tool diameter, molarity of electrolyte and the depth of electrode
below the electrolyte. Each experiment has been performed three times to check the accuracy and finally
the average value of the observation recorded from three experiments was documented.
Table 1 Experimentally measured temperature Welding process: To study the welding process,
at different combinations of process parameters the supply voltage is set at the discharge voltage
(corresponding to the combination of process
parameters) recorded from the previous study.
With supply of set voltage for 5 seconds,
temperature of work piece beneath and 5mm
away from discharge were recorded at the end
of 5 sec. The temperature measurements are
illustrated in table.1. With the above procedure,
welding of aluminium foils was undertaken at
different combination of process parameters.
Along with the previously mentioned process
parameters, stand off distance (SOD) between
the work piece and the tool tip is an additional
parameter to be considered while studying
feasibility of welding.
3. Mathematical Modeling
To obtain the steady state temperature distribution on the work piece, it is discretised into small circular
elements as shown in figure 2, since the temperature is assumed to be varying radially. The heat balance
of each element has then been written. A set of equations in terms of temperature on work piece forms a
tri diagonal matrix. This is solved by writing a program in C. Following assumptions were made to simplify
the analysis.
250
th
ISBN:9788190937634
Figure.2 Discretised work piece Figure 3 plot for 0.4M, D=0.9mm, SOD= 0.3mm
Assumptions:
(1) Single spark (discharge) is produced at a time. (2)Spark is a uniform source of heat of radius 5
micrometer. (3) Heat transferred to the electrode and electrolyte is neglected. (4) The temperature of
electrolyte is 303 K. (5) The thermo-physical properties of the work piece and electrolyte do not change
during the process. (6) After each spark work piece attains the temperature of electrolyte. (7) At r =
10mm; work piece attains the temperature of electrolyte.
Heat balance of element: The energy released by the discharge is in the form of light and heat energy.
The heat energy supplied to ECD cell goes to electrolyte, tool electrode and work piece. For the
simplification we have assumed that the whole of energy released by the discharge is in the form of heat,
and is received by the work piece. For each element, Heat input is equal to heat output.
There will be two separate heat equations one for first element and another for all the other
elements. For the first element heat input is the energy released by discharge. The heat is conducted out
from first element in radial direction to second element and convected to electrolyte in axial direction from
bottom surface. For all other elements heat input is the heat conducted from the previous element. The
heat is conducted out from the element in radial direction to the next element and is convected to
electrolyte in axial direction from top and bottom surface.
For element 1
For any element m:
Boundary condition:
1. Heat input per discharge is q = V * I,

2. At r = 10mm; work piece attains the temperature of electrolyte i.e. Tm = Te.
Properties of Aluminium:
Thermal Conductivity K = 237 W/mK
Specific heat Cp = 903 J/KgK
Density = 2702 Kg/m
Heat Transfer Coefficient of Electrolyte h = 400 W/m2K
Thickness of work piece t = 100 m
251
th
ISBN:9788190937634
Experimental parameters such as supply voltage and the average process current are used to calculate
the temperature distribution. To determine the optimum thickness of elements a grid independence test
has been performed. The optimum thickness of the element is found to be 0.4 m.
4.1 Temperature distribution
The temperature of weld zone depends on the heat received by the aluminium foils; i.e. on voltage and
current at the time of discharge in ECD cell. The theoretically calculated temperature values depend on
the boundary conditions and assumptions made in the model.
The graph in figure 3 compares the theoretical and experimental results at the process
parameters of 0.4M electrolyte, 0.9 mm tool diameter and SOD of 0.3 mm. The temperature of the
discharge affected zone at the center of work piece is 1753.45 K calculated and experimentally measured
temperature is 394 K. At a distance of 5 mm away from discharge the theoretically calculated value of
temperature is 359.86K, while experimentally measured value is 358K.
The difference in theoretical and experimental values of temperature is due to the following
reasons: To derive the mathematical model, it has been assumed that a single discharge takes place at a
time and heat released by it is V*I. The entire amount of energy released is received by the element at
the center of the work piece. It has been observed experimentally that it is impossible to have a single
discharge at a time. Further more, energy released by a discharge is in the form of heat and light. A part
of heat released is conducted by the tool electrode (thermal conductivity of copper is 401 W/mk) and a
part of it is convected away by the electrolyte. This loss of heat is not accounted for in the mathematical
formulation.
The temperature of electrolyte increases during the process. This has been demonstrated by the
thermometers placed in the electrolyte cell at a distance of 10mm and 20mm from the tool. The change in
temperature may lead to the change in thermo-physical properties of the electrolyte such as thermal and
electrical conductivity [4]. This may lead to change in the discharge voltage and ultimately the energy
released per discharge.
The second boundary condition (the work piece attains temperature of electrolyte at r = 10mm)
also affects the calculated temperature distribution on the work piece. Hence the calculated temperature
at r = 10mm is almost equal to the experimentally measured temperature.
The simple design of work piece holder also affects the amount of heat received by the work
piece and actual fusion of the two pieces. There might be a micro gap between the two foils as the thin
foils even vibrate as there is a shock wave associated with the discharge phenomenon. The shock wave
generates turbulence in the electrolyte which makes the foils to vibrate. The foils can not be completely
supported by the holder as the thermocouples are placed at the back of the foils. This makes it difficult to
maintain the aluminium foils in a plane. The micro gap between the foils, can affect the measured value of
the temperature by the thermocouple. The results discussed here after, basically demonstrate the effect
of process parameters on the heat affected area. It has been also studied whether the welding takes
place at these parameters.
4.2 Effect of SOD
The experiments were conducted at a tool diameter of 0.9mm and molarity of 0.6M. The SOD was varied
from 0.1mm to 0.3mm. The heat affected area was studied for each combination of process parameters.
Figure 4 shows the variation of diameter of heat affected area with the SOD. It decreases with SOD as
the heat reaching the work piece decreases with the distance. It has been observed that at 0.1 and
0.2mm of SOD the work piece material actually evaporates owing to the excess heat supply than
required.
252
th
ISBN:9788190937634
Avg.diameteraffectedbyheatVs.SOD,Tooldiameter
&Molarity
Avg.diameteraffectedby
5000
heat*103(mm)
4000
SOD
3000
2000 Tooldiameter
1000 Molarity
0
0.1 0.4 0.7 1 1.3 1.6
SOD/Tooldiameter/Molarity
Figure.4. Effect of stand of distance, tool Figure.5. Image of substrate at 0.3mm SOD and
diameter and molarity on heat affected zone 50x magnification
At 0.3mm SOD, we were successful to obtain welding of foils. Figure 5 shows the heat affected area of a
successful welding. The average diameter of weld is 0.862mm with the strength of 7.71Mpa. At two
locations it also shows two small holes due to the evaporation of metal of the top foil. Table 2 illustrates
the energy supplied by a single discharge at different SODs studied. At the SOD of 0.3mm, 18.85W
energy has been supplied by a discharge. A part of it is absorbed by the tool and electrolyte.
Theoretically, amount of heat required for the aluminium foil of diameter equal to weld zone, to reach
melting temperature, is 0.12W. (melting temp. 6600C, thermal conductivity 900J/KgK) Hence the energy
reaching to the work piece is much less than 18.85W. At other values of SODs the energy supplied by
single discharge is such that the material on the work piece has been evaporated and the machining has
taken place.
Table 2 energy supplied by a single discharge at 4.3 Effect of tool diameter

different SODs
The effect of tool diameter on the diameter of
heat affected area was studied at the SOD of
0.1mm and molarity of 0.6M. The following tool
diameters were studied: 1.6, 0.9 and 0.3mm.
Figure 4 shows the variation of diameter of heat
affected area with the tool diameter.
It depicts that the heat affected area decreases with the tool diameter. In fact, the discharge voltage
decreases with the tool diameter. Hence the heat received by the work piece also decreases, reducing
the heat affected area. At 0.3mm of tool diameter, the heat received by the work piece is so small that the
heat affected area was negligible.
One of the reasons for decrease in discharge voltage with the tool diameter can be the increase in current
density, which leads to heating of electrode itself, and the boiling of electrolyte surrounding it at a
relatively early stage. The boiling of electrolyte generates vapour bubbles which blanket the tool tip
leading to the discharge according to the switching theory [1].
4.4 Effect of molarity
The effect of molarity on the heat affected area was studied by keeping SOD at 0.1mm and tool diameter
to be 0.9mm. The values of molarity studied were 0.2, 0.4, 0.6 and 1.2M. Figure 4 demonstrates the
variation of heat affected area with the molarity. As molarity increases the heat affected area decreases.
This is mainly because the discharge voltage decreases with the increase in molarity and subsequently,
the heat received by the work piece decreases.
5. Conclusion
The primary objective of the experiments was to study the feasibility of spot welding of aluminium foils of
thickness 0.05mm as the work piece. The experiments have revealed that the welding is feasible.
253
th
ISBN:9788190937634
The possibility of welding depends on the amount of heat received. The heat supplied by the discharge
should be such that the foils fuse with each other rather than getting machined. Hence the discharge
voltage, the current in the cell at that voltage and the SOD decide the amount of heat received by the
foils. Though the effect of molarity and tool diameter on the heat affected area has been studied, they
primarily affect the discharge voltage, which in turn decides the amount of heat supplied to the foils.
The study of temperature distribution on the work piece has illustrated (Table 1) that the temperature just
beneath the tool tip reaches up to 729 K which is less than the melting temperature of the aluminium.
Despite this it has been observed that at some combination of process parameters (0.6M, 0.1mm SOD,
0.9mm tool diameter) the aluminium vaporized and the holes were obtained in the work piece. On the
contrary, at the combination of process parameters 0.6M electrolyte, 0.9mm tool diameter and 0.3mm of
SOD, the foils welded to each other with the strength of 7.71MPa. This indicates that the temperature
measurement technique used in the experiments has to be further improved by ensuring the proper
contact of foils with each other. Secondly, the time for which discharge was maintained in the cell,
appears to be important and this factor has not been studied. All the experiments were conducted for 5
seconds.
The experiments illustrate that the further study of effect of shape of the tool tip and surface finish of tool
can help to improve the repeatability of the experiments. The shape and surface finish can also affect the
discharge voltage and focusing of heat to the work piece. The mathematical model developed to find out
the temperature distribution is primary and needs that the heat lost to electrolyte and the tool electrode
itself be taken in account. This may result in to more realistic temperature distribution.
References
[1] Wu..thrich, R. and Fascio, V. (2005) Machining of Non-conducting Materials using Electrochemical
Discharge Phenomenon-an overview, International Journal of Machine tools and Manufacture,
Vol.45,pp.1095-1108.
[2] Ghosh, A., Muju, M. K., Sarmistha, P. and Kanjrathinkal, A. (1997) Micro-welding Using
Electrochemical Discharge, International Journal of Machine tools and Manufacture, Vol.37,No.9,
pp.1303-1312.
[3] M.Karnik, A.Ghosh and R.Shekhar (2009) Fused deposition process combining electrochemical
discharge with high speed selective jet electro deposition, Transactions of the institute of metal finishing,
Vol.87,No-5.
[4] Carl H., Hamann, Andrew Hamnett, Wolf Vielstich (2007), Electrochemistry, page-14.
254
th
ISBN:9788190937634
Analysis of electrically operated overhead crane structure with finite

element method, find out critical part in this structure and optimize it
for material and cross section area.
Ashish R. Amin1
L.D.College of engineering, ahmedabad-380015, Gujarat
(E-mail I.D.:ashish_amin@ymail.com)
Guided by: Prof U.V.shah
L.D.College of engineering, ahmedabad-380015
Abstract:
The paper's purpose is to analysis the stresses and strains state in the strength structure of a overhead
crane, presenting a fast and evaluated computer aided solving method for complex static indeterminate
structures. The analysis of the stresses and strains state of the strength structure of a overhead crane
bridge for increasing its solidity is made using the calculation software with finite elements ANSYS. The
research performed allows the evaluation of the stresses state, pointing out the critical areas and
measures which are imposed in order to increase the solidity and bearing capacity of the strength
structure for the overhead crane. The results obtained allowed us to make up a study about the
dimension optimization of the strength structure in order to design the crane hook. Thus, the material use
could be reduced without exceeding the limits of the most appropriate resistance.
Key-Words: stress-strain, crane hook, analysis, model, strength structure, finite elements, shell type.
Introduction:
Cranes are industrial machines that are mainly used for materials movements in construction sites,
production halls, assembly lines, storage areas, power stations and similar places. Their design features
vary widely according to their major operational specifications such as: type of motion of the crane
structure, weight and type of the load, location of the crane, geometric features, operating regimes and
environmental conditions. However, an appraisal of the available literature reveals that procedural design
of cranes are highly saturated and standardized in various industrial companies and organizations
independent of the crane type. Consideration of the available technology that is mainly based on the
accumulated previous experience is important for better performance, higher safety and more reliable
designs. It is well known that generic features of crane components are similar for various different types
of cranes. Since the crane design procedures are highly standardized with these components, main effort
and time spent in crane design projects are mostly for interpretation and implementation of the available
design standards. Many international and/or national standards and rules are available to guide the crane
designers for that purpose; e.g. BS 357 "Anon (1965)", AISE Standard No.6, "Anon (1966)", CMAA No.70
"Anon (1971)", JIS B8801 "Anon (1974)", DIN-Taschenbuch 44 "Anon (1979)", "FEM Rules" "Anon
(1987)". They offer design methods and empirical approaches and formulae that are based on previous
design experiences and widely accepted design procedures. It is believed that computer automated
access to these standards with pre-loaded interpretation and guidance rules increase speed and reliability
of the design procedures and increase efficiency of the crane designers.
Heavy material handling equipments have been traditionally designed using some standards with factor
of safety included into the design. This can lead to over design of the component. This paper presents a
optimized model of the crane hook determined after the analysis of the whole overhead crane and also
safe with respect to the available standards as well as easy to manufacture.
255
th
ISBN:9788190937634
The Structural analysis was carried out through Finite Element Method using ANSYS for a 5T Lifting
Beam that had Electric Overhead Travelling (EOT) Cranes of 5T capacity to lift loads in tandem.
The analysis consists of three major components of the Crane:
Girder and Beam assembly
Crane hook
This analysis for each of the above three components has been carried out for the loads as specified by
relevant crane standards. The analysis also involved redesign of the structure wherever needed to meet
requirements of stresses and displacements. Online change in design is an advantage not available to
this particular industry. The designers also sought to reduce weight at locations wherever the material
saving was possible.
Solid and finite element modeling of the strength structure
The analysis with finite elements for such a complex structure as of an overhead travelling crane with the
lifting capacity of 50 KN, lifting height of 6 m with a gauge of 6 m and the distance between axes of 4,25
m, is a very difficult problem. The difficulties are given by the geometrical configuration of the strength
structure and its dimensions. In these conditions, in order to perform a complete analysis with finite
elements which is able to point out all the aspects regarding the stress-strain state distribution from the
structure, there is required the use of a carefully elaborated calculation model able to eliminate the
approximations which appear in the elaboration of the geometric model and to allow the use of some
finite elements suitable as type, number and implicitly as size.
There is presented the analysis with finite elements of the stresses and strains state from such a strength
structure, but where the problem solving is done using finite elements of beam type with rigid nodes
(BEAM 3D). Such an approach allows a general study of the structure mode of behavior, but without
making evident the aspects concerning the phenomena of stress concentration or a detailed studying of
the stress-strain distribution. Taking into account the constructive requirements and the solutions chosen
for the design of the overhead travelling cranes, there was required the use of the shell type finite
elements according to the theory with moments.
The model has been prepared on the pro-engineer software and extracts that assembly in the ANSYS
software for the analysis. After completing the analysis of the crane structure the maximum stress has
been observed on crane hook and after that the crane hook analysis has been performed for the further
analysis.
The crane hook analysis has been performed for three different materials and three different sections for
the analysis and optimization of the material.
Results
The analysis of the strength structure of the overhead crane using finite elements have been calculated
the stresses, displacement of the finite elements.
256
th
ISBN:9788190937634
Figure 1 Von-misses stress of Overhead crane assembly
Figure 2 Maximum shear stress of Overhead crane assembly
Figure 3 Deformation of Overhead crane assembly
257
th
ISBN:9788190937634
After performing the analysis of the overhead crane, the value of von-misses stress, maximum shear
stress and deformation is mentioned in the figure 1 to the figure 3. Maximum von-misses stress
generated on the overhead crane assembly on crane hook part and the value is 163.33 N/mm2. Same
way maximum shear stress and the deformation are also maximum at the crane hook. So, the analysis of
the crane hook is performed with the different cross section and different material.
Figure 4 Von-misses stress on the crane hook.
Figure 5 Maximum shear stress on the crane hook.
258
th
ISBN:9788190937634
Figure 6 Total deformation on the crane hook.
The analysis of the crane hook is performed for three different sections are trapezoidal, elliptical and the
rectangle section. After the crane hook analysis is performed for three different materials are carbon
steel, forged steel and the material ASTM-A48.The result of the trapezoidal section with forged steel
material are mentioned in the figure 4 to figure 6. According to these figure 4 to figure 6 the von-misses
stress is 159.47 N/mm2, maximum shear stress is 81.932 N/mm2 and the total deformation generated on
the crane hook is 0.58029mm.
Conclusion
After completing the all exercise with numerical and analytical work following results are obtained.
Table 1. Analysis of crane hook with three different materials
Forged Carbon
Steel Steel ASTM A48
Von-Misses stress ( N/mm2 ) 159.47 161.95 111.29
Shear Stress ( N/mm2 ) 81.93 83.921 57.813
Deformation (mm ) 0.5803 2.3195 0.39252
Analysis of the crane hook with three different sections with ASTM-A48 material is mentioned in the
Table 2.
259
th
ISBN:9788190937634
Table 2. Analysis of crane hook with three different sections with ASTM-A48.
Round Rectangle Trapezoidal

Section Section Section
Von-Misses stress ( N/mm2 ) 126.41 124.45 111.29
Shear Stress ( N/mm2 ) 65.888 62.738 57.813
Deformation (mm ) 0.56481 0.53455 0.39252
Forged steel is used in current application, and it is manufactured from the trapezoidal section. For
reducing the stress generated in the crane hook, the analysis is performed with the three different
materials.
By the use of three different materials as mentioned in the table 1, the stresses and deflection are less in
the ASTM-A48 than forged steel and carbon steel.
Then the crane hook is checked with the three different sections as mentioned in the table 2. From the
study of the different sections trapezoidal section is better than another two round and rectangle section.
According to the study of the table 1 and 2, the ASTM A48 material is best from another two materials
and trapezoidal sections is best than the round and rectangle section.
Reference:
[1] Takuma Nishimura, Takao Muromaki, Kazuyuki Hanahara, Yukio Tada, Shigeyuki Kuroda, and
Tadahisa Fukui, Damage Factor Estimation of Crane-Hook (A Database Approach with Image,
Knowledge and Simulation)4th International Workshop on Reliable Engineering Computing (REC 2010).
[2] Dilip K Mahanty, Satish Iyer, Vikas Manohar, Dinesh Chaterjee, Design Evaluation of the 375 T
Electric Overhead traveling crane
[3]Ansys theory manual.
[4] design data, PSG College of technology, Coimbatore.
[5] Camelia Bretotean Pinca, Gelu Ovidiu Tirian, The analysis of the stresses and strains state of the
strength structure of a rolling bridge for increasing its solidity, The 2nd WSEAS International Conference
on engineering mechanics, structures and engineering geology.
[6] Henry C. Huang and Lee Marsh, SLACK ROPE ANALYSIS FOR MOVING CRANE SYSTEM, 13th
World Conference on Earthquake Engineering, Vancouver, B.C., Canada, August 1-6, 2004, Paper No.
3190
260
th
ISBN:9788190937634
261
ISBN:9788190937634
Mathematical Modeling & Simulation of Multi-Utility Car by

using MATLAB/SIMULINK
Ashish O Jain 1*, Suketu Y Jani 2** , Darshit R Shah2**
1*
Student, L.D.C.E. & 2** Lecturer Auto. Engineering Dept., I.I.T.E-Abad
*
Corresponding author e-mail: ashishmechengg@gmail.com, suketu.jani@gmail.com,
darshit99@yahoo.com
In present work modified control theory is developed for semi active control of
suspension system for MU (Multi Utility) cars. A mathematical model for full car
model is developed for passive suspension system. Modified control theory for
control of damping coefficient for variable damper is included. Full car model is
developed on MATLAB/SIMULINK for results comparison for passive and semi
active controlled suspensions system. Response of Passive Suspension System
and Semi Active Suspension System for defined road test profile are compared
from which it is conclude that Semi Active Suspension System give best result. It
can be test for different type of road profile also. Maximum acceleration goes in
Passive Suspension System is half then in Semi Active Suspension system
which comes into range of Shock Tolerance of Human Body for Comfort.
1. Introduction
In automobiles main functions of suspension system are to carry the vehicle and its
weight, maintain correct wheel alignment, control the vehicles direction of travel, keep the
tyres in contact with the road for safety, and reduce the effect of shock forces to isolate the
body from long and short wave vibrations for improve riding safety and comfort. Improving
ride safety it required hard suspension but to improve ride quality and comfort it required soft
suspension. Also a suspension system with fixed characteristics (damping and stiffness) can
be optimally designed only for a particular road excitation, which is the result of the condition
of the road surface and the speed driven. If the road surface or the speed driven differs, either
comfort is diminished to an unnecessary extent or possible safety is not achieved or both.
Semi active suspension system is optimal solution for this [5]. This paper discusses about
semi active suspension system. it is necessary to classify suspension system according to the
existence of control input. Suspension system can be classified according to the existence of
control input as follow [4]:
Conventional or Passive Suspension System

Active Suspension System
Fully active suspension system
Partially active suspension system with respect to load
Partially active suspension system with respect to frequency
Partially active Pneumatic or hydro pneumatic suspension system
Semi Active Suspension system
The Semi Active Suspension System uses a varying damping force as a control force.
For example, in a hydraulic Semi Active Damper, varies the size of an orifice in the hydraulic
flow valve to generate desired damping forces. An electro-rheological (ER) Damper or a
magneto-rheological (MR) Damper applies various levels of electric field or magnetic field to
cause various viscosities of the ER or MR fluids. On the other hand, the fully active
suspension system produces the control force with a separate hydraulic/pneumatic unit.
Therefore, the cost and the weight of a fully active suspension system are much higher than
those of a Semi Active one. Semi Active suspension systems are getting more attention
because of their low cost and competitive performance to the fully active ones [2].
262
ISBN:9788190937634
2. Full Car Modelling of Multi Utility Car.
A 7 degree of freedom (DOF) mathematical model of a complete vehicle is developed.

The coordinate system was defined as follows:
Positive x-axis pointing to the front of the vehicle.
Positive y-axis pointing to the drivers left.
Positive z-axis pointing up.
Positive angles are defined by the right-hand rule.
Dynamic model (see fig. 1) of a full car represents the whole vehicle. The model is
having spring mass and damper system. The model has
Pitch, Roll and bounce motion for the chassis mass.
Both front and rear axle has bouncing motion.
Both tyres and suspensions are represents with spring and damping system.
Both front and rear axle represents with each single masses.
Pitching motion is considered at the C.G. of the chassis mass.
Figure 1. A Dynamic Full Car Model of Multi Utility Car
Free body diagram shows the different kind of forces acting on the body mass, front
left, right and rear left, right axle masses. Here all masses motion is considered in z
direction. And pitching motion is also considered in z direction but about +y direction. In this
model upward and anticlockwise direction is considered as positive.
z1 , z2 , z3 , z4
are the road inputs for front left, front right, rear right and rear left
z ,z
respectively. 3 4 are delayed by 1 2 (a +a ) z ,z x
from 2 1 respectively. 1 , 2 and 3 are the
x x
vehicle mass displacement, motion in -z direction. Inertia forces of the masses are acting in
the opposite direction. is pitching angle. Pitching happens because of the unevenness of
the
z1, z2
and
z 4 , z3 . is rolling angle. Rolling happens because of the unevenness of the
z1, z4 z ,z
and 2 3 . In above free body diagram all masses, stiffness and damping values are
known. Also, road input values are known and all the acceleration, velocities, displacement
and angles are unknown.
263
ISBN:9788190937634
Table 1. Parameters (simulation data) [6] & [7]:
kt 134 kN/m
ct 700 N.s/m
mun 31.6 kg (right font) 30.6 kg (left font) 30.0 kg (right rear) 30.0 kg (left font)
W 10.77 kN
xs 0.847 m (front axle) -1.51 3 m (rear axle)
ys -0.692 m 0.692 m -0.689 m 0.689 m
(right front) (left front) (right rear) (left rear)
ks 18.78 kN/m (right front) 18.78 kN/m (left front)
cs1 4192 N.s/m (front) 2448 N.s/m (rear)
Fs2 832 N (front) 319 N (front)
vs -0.260 m/s (front) 0.260 m/s (front)
ks1 32.31 kN/m
ks2 45.87 kN/m
Z1 0.103 m
Z2 0.138 m
xd 0.273 m (driver) 0.273 m (passenger)
yd 0.33 m (driver) -0.33 m (passenger)
kd 230.2 kN/m (driver) 230.2 kN/m (passenger)
cd 1087 N.slm (driver) 1087 N.slm (passenger)
md 57 kg (driver) 64 kg (passenger)
xe 1.037 m
ye 0.056 m
ke 470 kN/m
ce 3500 N.s/m
me 163 kg
m 775 kg
Ixx 2500 kg. m2
Iyy 2100 kg. m2
Ws 3830 N (front) 1580 N (rear)
pt 1.9 kgf/c m2
wt 175 mm
Mathematical model developed from the figure 1 are as under.
I y&& = a1 k f ( x x1 a1 + b1 ) + c f ( x& x&1 a1& + b1&) + k f ( x x2 a1 b2 ) + c f ( x& x&2 a1& b2&)

a2 k r ( x x3 + a2 b2 ) + cr ( x& x&3 + a2& b2&) + kr ( x x4 + a2 + b1 ) + cr ( x& x&4 + a2& + b1&)
----- (1)
I x&& = b1 k f ( x x1 a1 + b1 ) + c f ( x& x&1 a1& + b1&) + kr ( x x4 + a2 + b1 ) + cr ( x& x&4 + a2& + b1&)

+b 2 k f ( x x2 a1 b2 ) + c f ( x& x&2 a1& b2&) + kr ( x x3 + a2 b2 ) + cr ( x& x&3 + a2& b2&)
----- (2)
mx&& = k f ( x x1 a1 + b1 ) + c f ( x& x&1 a1& + b1& )
+ k f ( x x 2 a1 b2 ) + c f ( x& x& 2 a1& b2& )
+ k r ( x x3 + a 2 b2 ) + c r ( x& x& 3 + a 2& b2&)
+ k ( x x + a + b ) + c ( x& x& + a & + b & )
r 4 2 1 r 4 2 1
----- (3)
264
ISBN:9788190937634
Figure 2. Free Body Diagrams of Chassis
Figure 3. Free Body Diagrams of front suspension for full car model
x1 = k f ( x x1 a1 + b1 ) + c f ( x& x&1 a1& + b1&) ktf ( y1 x1 ) ctf ( y&1 x&1 ) ---- (4)
m fl &&
x2 = k f ( x x2 a1 b2 ) + c f ( x& x&2 a1& b2&) ktf ( y2 x2 ) ctf ( y& 2 x&2 ) ---- (5)
m fr &&
Figure 4. Free Body Diagrams of rear suspension for full car model
x3 = kr ( x x3 + a2 b2 ) + cr ( x& x&3 + a2& b2&) ktr ( y3 x3 ) ctr ( y&3 x&3 ) ---- (6)
mrr &&
x4 = kr ( x x4 + a2 + b1 ) + cr ( x& x&4 + a2& + b1&) ktr ( y4 x4 ) ctr ( y& 4 x&4 ) ---- (7)
mrl &&
265
ISBN:9788190937634
3. Modified Skyhook Theory for Semi Active Suspension System.
Control system for semi active suspension system is based on Modified skyhook
control theory. As per this theory, semi active controlled suspension system damping
coefficient is controlled by equation as mention below.
Where, Cv = variable damping coefficient, Chard = upper limit of damping coefficient,

Csoft=lower limit of damping coefficient, =coefficient of modified skyhook damper.
The optimum value of is 0.3 [1]. In this paper lower (Csoft) and upper (Chard) limit of front and
rear dampers damping coefficients are set at 0.2 and 0.5 damping ration .
4. Simulation results comparison of passive and semi active suspension by using

MATLAB/SIMULINK for evaluation of comfort.
Full car model is developed in MATLAB/SIMULINK is shown in figure 5(a). Sub system
of front and rear suspension for passive suspension system is shown in figure 5(b). Same as
Sub system of front and rear suspension for semi active suspension is shown in figure 5(c).
Controller for variable damper is developed which work on modified skyhook control theory
discussed in section 3 which is included in semi active damper in figure 5(c).
A common test road profile and constant vehicle speed 90 km/h is use for comparison
of passive and semi active suspension system comfort levels. Road profile developed in
MATLAB for testing purpose has half sine wave bump profile [3] start from 5 m distance,
having height 10 cm and length 25 cm. Different road profiles can be use for testing speed at
different speed. Sampling time is set at 0.001 s. Responses of designed systems are taken
from centre of gravity (C.G.) in form of acceleration.
266
ISBN:9788190937634
(a) Full car model of suspension system
(b)Model of Passive suspension system (c) Model of Semi active suspension system
Figure 5. MATLAB/SIMULINK models.
Figure 6. Sprung mass C.G. response comparison of semi active vs passive

suspension system for full car model with vehicle speed 90 km/h.
Simulation results are shown in figure 6. In this figure acceleration of sprung mass C.G.
for passive and semi active suspension systems are compared. When vehicle passing over
defined bump with speed 90 km/h, maximum acceleration of sprung mass with passive
suspension system is 7.83 m/s2 and that is for semi active suspension is 5.42 m/s2.
5. Conclusion
Passive suspension has limitation that it has fix damping coefficient, so design of
passive suspension can be optimized for particular road condition. To improve ride quality
and vehicle handling performance over wide range of road condition, semi active suspension
systems were introduced. In this paper semi active suspension system is evaluate for full car
model for multi utility car, based on modified skyhook theory. As shown in figure 4 sprung
mass C.G. response of semi active suspension is nearly half then passive suspension which
shows that semi active suspension system gives more comfort. From figure 4 it is also
concluded that damping of bump disturbance is done in 2.32 sec for semi active suspension
267
ISBN:9788190937634
system when in passive suspension system it is 2.59 sec which shows that semi active
suspension system is more stable then passive suspension system.
References
[1] Kitching, K.J. and Cebon, D. and Cole, D.J. Performance of a semi-active damper for
heavy vehicles. Transactions of the ASME: Journal of Dynamic Systems Measurement
and Control, 122 (3), ISSN 0022-0434, 2000, 498-506.
[2] Keum-Shik Hong Hyun-Chul Sohn, J. Karl Hedric. Modified skyhook control of semi-
active suspensions: A new model, gain scheduling, and hardware-in-the-loop tuning.
transactions of ASME,124, March 2002, 158-167.
[3] T R Gawade, Dr. S Mukherjee, Prof D Mohan. Wheel lift-off and ride comfort of three-
wheeled vehicle over bump. IE(I) Journal-MC, Vol: 85, July 2004.
[4] H. Chen, Z. Y. Liu, P. Y. Sun, 2005. Application of control to semi active suspension
systems on half-car models. Journal of dynamic systems, measurement, and control,
sept. 05, Vol: 127, 345-354.
[5] Thomas D. Gillespie. Fundamentals of vehicle dynamics. Publication of Society of
automotive engineers, Inc, 2002.
[6] Paulo C. Greco, Jr., Clovis S. de Barcellos and Aristteles da Rosa Neto, A Numerical
Model for Passenger Car Ride Comfort Studies SAE 2001-01-0039, 2001.
[7] D. Moline, S. Floyd, S. Vaduri, and E. Harry Law, 'Simulation and Evalution of Semi-
Active Suspension', SAE 940864, pp 1120-1130, 1994.
268
ISBN:9788190937634
Effect of Twist and Rotation on Free Vibration of Delaminated

Pre-twisted Angle-ply Composite Conical Shells
Sudip Dey1*, Amit Karmakar2
1, 2
Jadavpur University, Kolkata, West Bengal, India
*
Corresponding author (e-mail: infosudip@gmail.com)
This paper work aims to determine the combined effects of twist and rotation on free vibration
characteristics of delaminated graphite-epoxy angle-ply composite pre-twisted conical shells.
Theoretical formulation is based on Mindlins theory considering an eight noded isoparametric
plate bending element. A generalized dynamic equilibrium equation is derived from
Lagranges equation of motion neglecting coriolis effect for moderate speeds. The multipoint
constraint algorithm is applied to ensure the compatibility of deformation and equilibrium of
resultant forces and moments at the delamination crack front. The QR iteration algorithm is
utilized for solution of generalized eigen value problem. Finite element codes are developed
to enumerate the natural frequencies of angle-ply conical shallow shells. Parametric studies
are performed for different cases by varying the twist angle and non-dimensional rotational
speeds considering delaminations as well as the stacking sequences and boundary
conditions.
Keywords: angle-ply, conical shell, delamination, finite element, vibration
1. Introduction
Pretwisted conical shells are significantly used as turbo-machinery blades. Rotating

pretwisted conical shells with low aspect ratio can be idealized as turbo-machinery blades. In
weight sensitive applications, composite materials are advantageous because of their light
weight, high stiffness and strength. The increasing demand of composite shells is due to their
high strength to weight ratio with high compliance to design aspects as well as their cost-
effectiveness. In order to ensure the safety of operation, a profound understanding of the
dynamic characteristics of composite pretwisted conical shells is essential for the designers.
The first established work on pretwisted composite plates was carried out by Qatu [10]
to determine the natural frequencies of stationary plates using laminated shallow shell theory
using Ritz method. Liew [7] investigated on pretwisted conical shell to find out the vibratory
characteristics of stationary conical shell by using Ritz procedure and by using the same
method, the first known three dimensional continuum vibration analysis including full
geometric non-linearities and centrifugal accelerations in composite blades was carried out by
McGee [12]. Likewise, rotating composite blades using plate model was analysed for
vibration characteristics including geometric nonlinearity [13]. Regarding delamination model,
two worth mentioning investigations were carried out. It included analytical and experimental
determination of natural frequencies of delaminated composite beam by Shen Grady [8] and
the second one dealt with finite element treatment of the delaminated composite cantilever
beam and plate by Krawczuk [9] for free vibration analyses. J. J. Lee [5] exhibited the
vibration analysis of twisted cantilevered conical composite shell by using finite element
method based on the HellingerReissner principle. Later on, Karmakar [1] analyzed the free
vibration characteristics of delaminated composite cylindrical shells.
To the best of the authors knowledge, only a limited number of investigations have
been carried out related to laminated composite cantilever conical shells with initial twist and
subsequently the research findings are very limited and scanty. The present analysis aimed
at an exhaustive study on the free vibration behavior of angle-ply pretwisted composite
conical shells having delamination without taking care of the effect of dynamic contact
between delaminated layers.
269
ISBN:9788190937634
Figure 1: Conical Shell Model Geometry Figure 2 : An Arbitarily oriented Lamina
2. Mathematical Formulation
A shallow shell is characterized by its middle surface which is defined by equation [3],
1 x2 xy y 2
z =

2 Rx
+ 2
Rxy
+

Ry
(1)
where Rx, Ry and Rxy denote the radii of curvature in the x and y directions and radius of
twist, respectively. The radius of twist (Rxy), length (L) of the shell and twist angle () are
related by the expression
tan = - L / Rxy (2)
The dynamic equilibrium equation for moderate rotational speeds is derived employing
Lagranges equation of motion and neglecting Coriolis effect the equation in global form is
expressed in the form as [2]
[M]{} + ([K]+ [K]) {} = {F(2)} (3)
{F(2.)} is the nodal equivalent centrifugal forces. [K] depends on the initial stress distribution
and is obtained by the iterative procedure upon solving [14],
([K] + [K]) {} = {F (2)} (4)
The natural frequencies are determined from the standard eigenvalue problem [6] which is
represented below and is solved by QR iteration algorithm.
[A] { } = {} (5)
Where, [A] = ( [K] + [K] - 1 ) [M]
= 1/ 2 (6)
Non-dimensional frequencies [ = n L2 (h/D)] for conical shells having a curvature

ratio (b/Ry) of 0.5 and a thickness ratio of (s/h) of 1000 are obtained corresponding to different
270
ISBN:9788190937634
non-dimensional speeds of rotation () = 0.0, 0.5 and 1.0 and relative distance, d/L=0.5.
Material properties of graphite-epoxy composite [11] considered as E1 = 138.0 GPa, E2 = 8.96
GPa, = 0.3, G12 = 7.1 GPa, G13 = 7.1 GPa, G23 = 2.84 GPa. Eight noded isoparametric plate
bending element of five degree of freedom is considered with equal angular speed at
delamination crack tip. The total number of active degrees of freedom involved in the
computation is 600, since for a cantilever conical shell, the 13 nodes at the cantilevered end
have all their degree of freedoms restrained. Convergence studies are also performed using
uniform mesh divisions of (6 x 6) and (8 x 8) and the results are found to be nearly equal, with
the difference being well within 1%.
3.1 Validation of Results
Based on the present finite element modeling as discussed above, computer codes are
developed and the results obtained are validated with those in the open literatures as
furnished in Table 1 and Table 2.
2
Table 1: Fundamental natural frequencies = n L (h/D) of three layered [, - , ]
graphite-epoxy twisted plates, L/b=1, b/h=20, =30
Fibre Orientation Present FEM Qatu et al. [10]

angle ()
15 0.861845996 0.8759
30 0.679008029 0.6923
45 0.473257861 0.4831
60 0.323413811 0.3283
Table 2: Non-dimensional fundamental natural frequencies [ = n L2 (h/D)] of an

isotropic rotating cantilever plate, L/b=1, h/L=0.12, D=Eh3/ {12(1-2}, =0.3
Non-dimensional Present FEM Sreenivasamurthy and

Speed () Ramamurti [14]
0.0 3.417481856 3.43685
0.2 3.493374601 3.51858
0.4 3.71105892 3.7528
0.6 4.045879857 4.12875
0.8 4.469014586 4.56786
1.0 4.954955467 5.09167
3.2 Parametric Study
Parametric studies are performed in respect of location of delamination, fibre orientation,

rotational speed and twist angle on natural frequencies of angle-ply conical shells. The fibre
orientation angle () is varied from 0 to 90 with a step of 15. The principal material axes of a
lamina are presumed to lie along and transverse to the fibre direction. For a particular layer
when fibres are oriented at an angle with respect to the x-axis, the off-axis elastic constant
matrix of the lamina is obtained from the on-axis elastic constant matrix by appropriate
transformation.
3.3 Effect of Twist at Stationary Condition
In general, at stationary condition frequency parameter decreases with the increase of twist
angle. From Table 3, it is noted that at stationary condition non-dimensional fundamental
frequencies of both undelaminated and delaminated shells are observed to attain the
271
ISBN:9788190937634
maximum value at =15 (for =0 and 15) and at =30 (for =30 and 45) and in both the
cases frequencies gradually decrease to a minimum value at =90.
Table 3: Variation with Twist at Stationary Condition :: Non-dimensional fundamental

natural frequencies of four (04) Layered Angle-ply [/-//-] at stationary condition with
h=0.004, s/h=1000, a/s=0.7, =0.3, = 0.0, o=45, v =20.
Twist Fibre
Angle () Orientation Non-dimensional fundamental natural frequencies
Angle () Without Delamination With Delamination
0 0.4007 0.3525
15 0.4621 0.3846
0 30 0.3734 0.3729
45 0.2451 0.2448
60 0.1818 0.1817
75 0.1558 0.1557
90 0.1489 0.1489
0 0.2498 0.2273
15 0.2737 0.2455
15 30 0.2703 0.2444
45 0.2121 0.1999
60 0.1639 0.1570
75 0.1368 0.1305
90 0.1236 0.1175
0 0.1485 0.1365
15 0.1625 0.1482
30 30 0.1727 0.1546
45 0.1538 0.1386
60 0.1255 0.1145
75 0.1007 0.0920
90 0.0856 0.0789
0 0.0968 0.0909
15 0.1023 0.0952
45 30 0.1077 0.0980
45 0.1001 0.0897
60 0.084 0.0754
75 0.0657 0.0594
90 0.0544 0.0499
It is also identified that at stationary condition, maximum reduction in percentage from

undelaminated to delaminated frequencies is observed at =15 corresponding to = 0, 15
and at =30 for = 30 and =45 for = 45, respectively.
3.4 Effect of Twist at Rotating Condition
A typical trend is observed by employing equal corresponding rotational speed in both

delaminated and undelaminated cases. The combined effect of twist and rotation along with
variation of fibre orientation angle on non-dimensional fundamental natural frequencies are
furnished in Table 4. From Table 4, it is to be noted that considering equal speed of rotation
at rotating condition, non-dimensional fundamental natural frequencies of delaminated conical
shells are predominantly reduced compared to undelaminated non-dimensional fundamental
frequencies. Further, at rotating condition, maximum delaminated non-dimensional
fundamental natural frequencies are identified at =30 corresponding to = 0, 15, except
30 and 45 where it is identified at =0 and =45 respectively (for =0.5). In the contrary,
272
ISBN:9788190937634
for =0.5 maximum undelaminated non-dimensional fundamental natural frequencies are

observed at =45 corresponding to = 0, 45 and at =30, 15 corresponding to = 15,
30 respectively. On the other hand, for =1.0, maximum delaminated non-dimensional
fundamental natural frequencies are identified at =0 corresponding to = 0, 30, except
15 and 45 where it is identified at =45 and =60 respectively. In the contrary, for =1.0,
maximum undelaminated non-dimensional fundamental natural frequencies are observed at
=0 corresponding to = 0, 15 and at =15 corresponding to = 30, 45 respectively.
Table 4: Variation with Twist at Rotating Condition :: Non-dimensional fundamental

natural frequencies of four (04) Layered Angle-ply [/-//-] at rotating condition with
h=0.004, s/h=1000, a/s=0.7, =0.3, o=45, v =20.
Non-dimensional Rotational Speeds

Twist Fibre *=0.5 =1.0
Angle Orientation Without With Without With
() Angle () Delamination Delamination Delamination Delamination
0 0.3119 0.2446 0.6602 0.6344
15 0.3258 0.1096 0.6306 0.6289
30 0.3939 0.3925 0.4593 0.4519
0 45 0.4175 0.3388 0.2792 0.2546
60 0.1619 0.1607 0.3922 0.3879
75 0.0316 0.0399 0.2899 0.3235
90 0.3012 0.3012 0.3107 0.3089
0 0.3281 0.2048 0.4802 0.3118
15 0.2594 0.1375 0.4209 0.3004
30 0.4766 0.3445 0.4316 0.2858
15 45 0.3216 0.2387 0.4046 0.5074
60 0.4634 0.1652 0.0723 0.4698
75 0.0834 0.1396 0.3334 0.2090
90 0.0884 0.0774 0.3100 0.3022
0 0.1342 0.3128 0.2112 0.3935
15 0.3872 0.2364 0.3741 0.2443
30 0.3036 0.2337 0.2815 0.2556
30 45 0.2889 0.1480 0.3180 0.2037
60 0.3322 0.0767 0.3236 0.1992
75 0.2090 0.1045 0.2868 0.2274
90 0.1054 0.2015 0.1861 0.1360
0 0.2406 0.042 0.2290 0.1343
15 0.2206 0.0925 0.4469 0.1867
30 0.2450 0.1218 0.3985 0.2100
45 45 0.4231 0.7172 0.0965 0.1988
60 0.1918 0.1451 0.2305 0.3117
75 0.1763 0.1465 0.1776 0.0656
90 0.1416 0.0956 0.0169 0.1867
* = / o ( = Actual angular speed of rotation, o = Fundamental natural frequency of
a non-rotating shell)
4.0 Conclusions
In general, at stationary condition, non-dimensional fundamental natural frequency

decreases with the increase of twist angle. The fundamental natural frequencies for
delaminated composite twisted rotating shells exhibits a typical trend with the increase of
rotational speed, irrespective of the fibre orientation. The non-dimensional fundamental natural
273
ISBN:9788190937634
frequencies obtained are the first known results which can be served as reference solutions for
all future investigators.
Acknowledgement
Prof. D. K. Maiti and Prof. B. N. Singh, Department of Aerospace Engineering, Indian Institute
of Technology Kharagpur, India and Prof. P. Bhattacharya, Department of Civil Engineering,
Jadavpur University, India are gratefully acknowledged for their valuable comments and
suggestions.
References
[1] A. Karmakar and K. Kishimoto, Free Vibration Analysis of Delaminated Composite,

JSME International Journal, Series A, 49, No. 4, 2006, pp. 492-502.
[2] A. Karmakar and P. K. Sinha, Failure Analysis of Laminated Composite Pretwisted

Rotating Plates, J. Reinforced Plastics and Composites, 20, No.15, 2001, pp.1326-1357.
[3] A. W. Leissa, J. K. Lee and A. J. Wang, Vibrations of Twisted Rotating Blades, Journal of
Vibration, Acoustics, Stress, and Reliability in Design, Trans., ASME, Vol.106, No.2,
1984, pp.251-257.
[4] C.K. Gim, Plate Finite Element Modelling of Laminated Plates, Computers &
Structures,52, 1994, pp.157-168.
[5] J. J. Lee, C. H. Yeom, I. Lee, Vibration analysis of twisted cantilever conical composite
shells, J. Sound and Vibration, 255, Issue 5, 2002, pp. 965-982.
[6] K. J. Bathe, Finite Element Procedures in Engineering Analysis, Prentice Hall of India,
New Delhi, 1990.
[7] K. M. Liew, C. M. Lim and L. S. Ong, Vibration of pretwisted cantilever shallow conical
shells, I. J. Solids Structures, Vol. 31, 1994, pp. 2463-74.
[8] M.H.H. Shen and J. E. Grady, Free Vibrations of De laminated Beams, J. AIAA, 30,
No.5, 1992, pp.13611370.
[9] M. Krawczuk, W. Ostachowicz and A. Zak, Dynamics of Cracked Composite Material

Structures, J. Computational Mechanics, Vol.20, 1997, pp.79-83.
[10] M. S. Qatu and A. W. Leissa, Vibration studies for Laminated Composite Twisted
Cantilever Plates, I. J. Mechanical Sciences, 33, No. 11, 1991, pp. 927-940.
[11] M. S. Qatu and A. W. Leissa, Natural Frequencies for Cantilevered Doubly-Curved

Laminated Composite Shallow Shells, Composite Structures, 17, 1991, pp. 227-255.
[12] O. G. McGee and H. R. Chu, Three-Dimensional Vibration Analysis of Rotating

Laminated Composite Blades, J. Engineering for Gas Turbines and Power, Trans.
ASME, 116, 1994, pp.663671.
[13] R. Bhumbla, and J. B. Kosmatka, Behavior of Spinning Pretwisted Composite Plates

Using a Nonlinear Finite Element Approach, AIAA Journal, Vol.34, No.8, 1996 ,
pp.16861695.
[14] S. Sreenivasamurthy and V. Ramamurthi, Coriolis Effect on the Vibration of Flat

Rotating Low Aspect Ratio Cantilever Plates, J. Strain Analysis, 16,1981,pp. 97-106.
274
ISBN:9788190937634
[15] V. Tripathi, B.N. Singh, K.K. Shukla, Free vibration of laminated composite conical
shells with random material properties, J. Composite Structures, Vol.81, Issue 1, 2007,
pp. 96-104.
275
ISBN:9788190937634
Opportunity for Diesel Emission Reductions Using Emulsified Fuel

A Review Paper
H.V.Mandalia 1*, B.H.Mehta 2, A.B.Mistry3
1
P.G. Student, Mechanical Department, L. D. College of Engineering, Ahmedabad
2
3
Lecturer, Mechanical Department, L. D. College of Engineering, Ahmedabad
*
Corresponding author (e-mail: hvmandalia@gmail.com)
Abstract
In this paper, attempts have been made to review the present status of emulsified fuels and
explain the importance of emulsified fuels in detail. Emulsions of diesel and water are often promoted
as being able to overcome the difficulty of simultaneously reducing emissions of both oxidises of
nitrogen (NOx) and particulate matter from diesel engines. which are both health hazardous, and
reduction in fuel consumption due to better burning efficiency. An important aspect is that diesel
emulsions can be used without engine modifications. This review presents the influence of water on
the emissions and on the combustion efficiency. Whereas there is a decrease in emissions of nitrogen
oxides and particulate matters, there is an increase in the emissions of hydrocarbons and carbon
monoxide with increasing water content of the emulsion. The combustion efficiency is improved when
water is emulsified with diesel. This is a consequence of the microexplosions, which facilitate
atomization of the fuel.
Key words: Emulsified fuel; Diesel engine Performance; Pollutant emissions;
1. Introduction
Diesel engines have been used in heavy duty applications for a long time; it is only during the
past decade that it has become popular in light duty application due to their higher fuel efficiency.
Higher fuel efficiency in the diesel engine is achieved due to the high compression ratios along with
relatively high oxygen concentration in the combustion chamber.
However, Over the past ten years, increasingly more stringent, heavy duty on-highway engine
emission regulations have led to the development of engines in which nitrogen oxide (NOx) and diesel
particulate matter (PM) emissions have been reduced by as much as 70% and 90% respectively. [1]
The mechanism of formation of NOx and particulate matter in the combustion chamber of
diesel engines are contradictory and the simultaneous reduction of both is very difficult [2].
Researchers have attempted to reduce the emission and improve the fuel conversion efficiency of
diesel engines. One promising method may be the use of water emulsified diesel which can
economically accomplish both of these goals. In the water emulsified diesel, the droplet size of the
emulsion fuel is one of the most important factors determining the subsequent combustion
characteristics [3]. The proven benefit of the water emulsified diesel is that the heat absorption by
water vaporization causes a decrease of local adiabatic flame temperature and therefore reduces the
chemical reaction in gas phase to produce thermal NO [4].
In view of the foregoing, it is important to note that there is a technology that reduces the
gaseous and the solid emissions of fossil furthermore, since it fundamentally alters the combustion of
fossil fuels in a favorable manner, this technology can also increase efficiency. The technology that
can deliver this triple-crown of dual emission reduction and enhanced fuel efficiency is emulsified
technology (EFT). In this paper, we shall consider EFT from several viewpoints. First we shall
consider the constitution, production characteristics of emulsified fuels. Then we shall consider the
combustion of such fuels and the environmental benefits that can accrue their utilization.[7]
2. Emulsion and Combustion of Emulsified fuels

2.1 Constitution of Emulsified Fuels
An emulsion is a mixture of two immiscible (i.e., not able to be blended) substances. In an

emulsion, one substance - the dispersed phase - is uniformly distributed throughout the second
276
ISBN:9788190937634
substance - the continuous phase. For example, a fuel oil emulsion features water globules - the
dispersed phase uniformly distributed throughout the fuel oil the continuous phase. An emulsion
takes on the characteristics of the continuous phase. Hence, fuel oil emulsions exhibit characteristics
of fuel oil NOT water.
Fig.1 Photomicrograph of Water Particles in a Diesel Oil Emulsion [5]
2.2 Surfactants
The function of emulsifier or surfactant as commonly named is mainly to stabilize water in

diesel mixture, which cant be maintained by natural mixing of diesel with water, because of their
different densities and forces of surface tension exist at the separation zone of the two substances,
surfactant reduce surface tension forces, so that permit two different densities liquids to mix with
stable chemical com position, that aid the formation and retention of emulsion. [6]
Fig.2 Mixture of diesel and water (left) without surfactant (right) with surfactant
2.3 Characteristics of Emulsified Fuels
While emulsified fuels take on the primary characteristics of the continuous phase material,
emulsified fuels differ significantly in some respects from their base constituents. For example, light
(diesel) oil emulsions appear white in color as compared to the amber color of base diesel oil.
However, diesel oil emulsions do feel oily to the touch thus preserving some of the base
characteristics of the continuous phase. In contrast, heavy oil emulsions appear black in color like
their bas oil but flow liberally at a somewhat lower ambient temperature than do their base
(continuous phase) fuel oil. This lower viscosity aspect of fuel oil emulsions provides added savings in
energy usage for their service as combustibles since less power is needed to pump fuel oil emulsions
from storage tanks to burner fronts and less heat is also needed to preserve fuel oil emulsions in a
proper pumping state within plant storage tank farms.
277
ISBN:9788190937634
Fig.3 Regular Fuel Oil Combustion [7]

2.4 Combustion of Emulsified Fuels
Traditional combustion of hydrocarbon fuels in an engine requires the fuel to be first atomized
to breakup the fuel into small droplets that can be more readily ignited. Once these small fuel droplets
enter the high temperature combustion zone of the engine at the exit plane of the fuel nozzle, they
begin to burn in a charring fashion, i.e., from the surface inward to the core of the droplet. Normally,
this char burning of the fuel droplet is not completed within the high temperature combustion zone of
the engine. As a result, unburned fuel products (particulates) are expelled from the combustion zone
and transported in the flow of exhaust gases from the combustion zone to the stack exit of the engine.
Simultaneous with this generation of particulate emissions, the generation of gaseous
emissions proceeds from the exposure of fuel-borne nitrogen and the nitrogen in combustion air to the
high temperature refining atmosphere of the combustion zone. Depending upon the completion of the
attending combustion, various concentrations of oxides of nitrogen (NOX) as well as carbon oxides
(CO and CO2) exit the combustion zone and proceed to the stack exit plane. An illustration of this
process is shown in Figure 3. [1]
The basic explanation for the reduced particulate formation is attributed to a phenomenon
known as microexplosion. Micro-explosions in water blend diesel fuel (diesel fuel continuous
emulsion) are the result of instantaneous vaporization of the water droplets within the fuel droplet as
the fuel is exposed to increasing in cylinder temperature during injection. Once the mean temperature
of the fuel droplet increases above the boiling point of water, the water quickly and violently
evaporates, breaking the droplet into smaller droplets, which results in a more complete vaporization
and turbulent mixing of the fuel. [7]
Fig.4 Emulsified Fuel Combustion [7]
Each micro-explosion of a water droplet is accompanied by a significant increase in volume

of the here-to-fore surfactant-encased water droplet and a subsequent shattering of the surrounding
fuel oil medium into numerous auto-ignition centers of combustion. It is akin to the bursting of a
balloon and the fracturing of the balloon surface into numerous pieces of balloon surface material.
Each piece of balloon surface material immediately becomes a burning center and causes the
surrounding medium to ignite. As such, the surface area of the surrounding material subject to
278
ISBN:9788190937634
burning is greatly increased and a more complete combustion of the surrounding material the
continuous fuel oil phase of the fuel emulsion is generated. Hence, the chance of unburned particles
of fuel oil escaping from this burning atmosphere is significantly decreased and thus the production of
particulate emissions is stifled. An illustration of this process is shown in Figure 4.
3. Experimental setup:
To perform this experiment a single-cylinder, 4-Stroke, water-cooled diesel engine of 5 hp rated

power is considered. The engine is coupled to a rope brake dynamometer through a load cell. The
schematic layout of the experimental set up is shown in Fig. 4.1.1.
1. Engine 2.Dynamometer 3.Fuel tank for diesel 4.Fuel tank for emulsified diesel 5.Flow meter
6. Three way valve 7.Air box 8.Manometer 9.Airflow direction 10.Exhaust analyzer
Fig.5 Experimental set up
Along with engine 1 Dynamometer 2 is used to for measuring force, moment of force (torque),
or power. Fuel tank for diesel 3, 4 is used to store the diesel and emulsified diesel, a simple and
accurate flow meter 5 utilizes a pipette of 50 ml capacity for engine of small and medium size. Three
way valves 6 are used to control the flow of diesel and emulsified diesel from tank to engine. A Rota
meter along with air box 7 is used to measures the flow rate air. Exhaust gas analyzer 10 is used to
measure the emissions from the engine.
4. Effect of emulsified fuel on engine emissions
The water emulsification has a potential to slightly improve the brake efficiency and to significantly
reduce the formation of thermal NO, soot, hydrocarbons and PM in the Diesel engine as shown in the
figure. [3] The addition of water to diesel fuel lowers particulate emissions by serving as diluents to the
key combustion intermediates that lead to particulate formation. The incorporation of water also
reduces NOx emissions by lowering the peak combustion temperatures through high heat of
vaporization. [1]
279
ISBN:9788190937634
Fig. 6 Relative reductions of specific fuel consumption (SFC) and of exhaust emissions of nitrogen
oxides (NOx), hydrocarbons (HC) and soot. [8]
5. Summary
The use of water emulsified diesel fuel has a potential to improve the performance and
emission characteristics of diesel engine. The test results show good agreement with previous study
for emulsified fuel referred in the literature. Switching to emulsified fuel combustion does not require
any engine modification. The corrosion of engine components due to water presence in the emulsion
could be a problem in long run operation of the engine. But, Kweonha Park [5] argued that water in
the oil was quickly evaporated by micro-explosion into extremely tiny droplets; this would make the
water droplets not to reach directly to the combustion chamber wall, so there would be no corrosion
on the cylinder surface.
References
[1] Brown Kevin, John Chadderton, Daniel T. Daly, Deborah A. Langer, David Duncan (2000)
Opportunity for Diesel Emission Reductions Using Advanced Catalysts and Water Blend Fuel
SAE technical paper series - 2000-01-0182.
[2] Jamil Ghojel, Damon Honnery, Khaled Al-Khaleefi.(2006). Performance, emission and heat
release characteristics of direct injection diesel engine operating on diesel oil emulsion. Applied
Thermal Engineering. 26: 2132-2141.
[3] Jae, W.P., Y.H. Kang and H.P. Kweon,(2000), Experimental study on the combustion
characteristics of emulsified diesel in a RCEM. Seoul 2000 FISITA World Automotive
Congress. June 12-15, Seoul, Korea Paper No. F2000A073.
[4] O.Armas, R. Ballenseros, F.J. Martos, J.R. Agudelo.(2005) Characterization of light duty diesel
engine pollutant emissions using water-emulsified fuel. Fuel. 84: 1011-1018.
[5] Park Kweonha, Inseok Kwak The Effect of Water Emulsified Fuel on a Motorway-Bus Diesel
Engine KSME International Journal, Vol. 18 No. 11, pp. 2049~2057.
[6] Sayel M. Fayyad, Suleiman Abu-Ein, Ghazi Al-Marahleh, Waleed Al-Momani ,

Muntaser Al-Momani, Zaid Abulghanam, Omar Badran and Taiseer Abu-Rahmah,
2010 Experimental Emulsified Diesel and Benzen Investigation Research Journal of
Applied Sciences, Engineering and Technology 2(3): 268-273, 2010).
[7] Alternative Petroleum Technologies (2005) Optimal Control of Particulate Emission in

Diesel Engines, Nevada 89502.
[8] Anna Lif a, Krister Holmberg, (2006) Water-in-diesel emulsions and related systems
Advances in Colloid and Interface Science 123126.Pg.no. 231239.
280
ISBN:9788190937634
JOURNAL BEARING (Tri-metal) FOR AN IC ENGINE CRANK SHAFT
K.M. BHUPTANI1*, Dr. J.M. Prajapati2

1,
Lecturer in Mech. Engg.VVP Engineering College, Rajkot-360002, Gujarat, India
2
Dr. J. M. Prajapati, Reader in Mech. Engg. Dept., M.S. University, Baroda, India
*
K.M. Bhuptani (e-mail: bhuptanikm@indiatimes.com)
Abstract
The IC engine crankshaft bearings, especially at the crankpin journals, are very loaded elements. For
their proper designing and functioning it is necessary to define carefully the working conditions. From
the aspect of the working conditions of journal bearings it is important to ensure a minimum change in
oil viscosity in a wide IC engine operating range. Also selection of lubricating oil which has an
important place in the area of reducing friction losses in journal bearing and increasing IC engine
efficiency. A continuous effort on new design, materials and manufacturing technologies is being
made in order to limit the wear and secure reliable operation of slide bearings. This paper presents
the state of the art of the three-layer bearings used for main and crank bearings of internal
combustion engines.
1. INTRODUCTION
Hydrodynamic bearings, where the load carrying oil layer is formed as a result of journal and
shell relative motion are used as crank mechanism bearings of IC engines. Thanks to the wedge
lubrication gap around journal, a spontaneous hydrodynamic uplift can be created.
The main and crank bearings of modern engine crankshaft are produced as removable steel
shells covered with various bearing alloys. At present, engine bearings are manufactured almost
exclusively as thin two or three layer shell, shells of in homogenous structure of bearing layer, so
called shells of fine-grained bearing layer with evenly spread soft matrix (so called sputter bearings).
In recent years, major efforts have been made to come up with a more accurate expression of real
bearing performance, by incorporating state-of-the-art structural analysis techniques into the
calculation process and reducing the number of simplifying hypotheses employed. The model that
forms the topic of this paper allows for computation, not only of the bearing as an isolated component,
but also of the integrated performance of the crankshaft-bearing unit under dynamic conditions. The
model can be used in diverse applications, such as the study of main bearing edge loading or the
calculation of the fatigue safety factor in the case of a multicylinder engine crankshaft.
2. METHODOLOGY
Nowadays produced so called bilayer shells are made of a steel strip covered with a thin layer
of bearing alloy. Often they are additionally covered with another thin layer of a soft alloy of good
frictional properties (trimetal shells), separated from the basic bearing material with a nickel
intermediate layer, which prevents diffusion into e.g. lead bronze and formation of new compounds at
the bronze and third layer contact area. Besides, other protecting overlays are used, e.g. those made
of tin or copper, placed on the outer surface of the shell that prevent the housing seizure, ease the
heat transfer and protect the shell against corrosion. Fig. 1 illustrates the construction of multilayer
shell. Hydrodynamic bearings, where the load carrying oil layer is formed as a result of journal and
shell relative motion are used as crank mechanism bearings of IC engines. Thanks to the wedge
lubrication gap around journal, a spontaneous hydrodynamic uplift can be created.[1]
The main and crank bearings of modern engine crankshaft are produced as removable steel
shells covered with various bearing alloys. At present, engine bearings are manufactured almost
exclusively as thin two or three layer shell, shells of inhomogeneous structure of bearing layer, so
called Rillenlager, or shells of fine-grained bearing layer with evenly spread soft matrix (so called
sputter bearings).
281
ISBN:9788190937634
Applied big-end bearing load is relatively simple to compute, since it depends on known
factors, such as the inertia of moving parts and gas pressure forces exerted on the piston.
Calculation of the reaction forces on the main bearings can be approached via two procedures:
the first assumes the crankshaft to be isostatic which, while sacrificing accuracy, allows for a
determinate method to be applied; the second assumes the crankshaft to be statically indeterminate
and uses an indeterminate procedure to compute the reaction forces.
3 TRIMETAL BEARINGS
A number of layers, kind of material used and the way of production influence the total cost of
bearing manufacturing. In a case of trimetal bearing the cost of production merely exceeds that for the
traditional bimetal bearings due to that this kind of bearings is most often applied to the engine
crank mechanisms. Rillenlager and sputter bearings are far more expensive, therefore they are
applied only to highly loaded sport car engines [1].
The Glacier Vandervell Europe produces slide bearings for IC engines in 6 European countries.
Table 1 presents materials for trimetal bearings; however Fig.1 presents cross-sections of a MBA
bearing materials for trimetal and Rillenlager bearings [2].
Table 1
Selected materials for trimetal bearings made by MIBA Gleitlager AG [4]
Bearing alloy Support Bearing Intermediate Overlay Remarks
material material layer
White metal steel lgSn85CuNi Ni PbSn18Cu2 electroplated
(babbit)
Lead bronze steel CuPb22Sn2 Ni PbSn18Cu2 electroplated
CuPb20Sn4
steel CuPb24Sn Ni PbSn18Cu2 electroplated
CuPb22Sn4
steel CuPb22Sn2 Ni PbSn10TiO electroplated
2
steel CuPb10Sn10 Ni PbSn18Cu2 electroplated
CuPb15Sn7
steel CuPb22Sn2 Ni lgSn85CuNi cast
CuPb20Sn4
steel CuPb22Sn2 Ni PbSn10TiO electroplated
2 rillenlager
steel CuPb22Sn2 Ni AlSn220Cu sputtered
steel CuPb22Sn2 Ni PbSn18Cu2 electroplated
bearing rillenlager
steel CuPb10Sn10 Ni CuPb30 electroplated
steel CuPb22Sn2 Ni CuPb40 electroplated
Aluminum steel AlSn6CuNi Ni PbSn18Cu2 electroplated
steel AlZn4SiPb Ni PbSn18Cu2 electroplated
steel AlZn4.5SiPb Ni PbSn10TiO electroplated
2
steel AlSn6CuNi Ni PbSn18Cu2 electroplated
rillenlager
steel AlZn4SiPb Ni PbSn18Cu2 electroplated
rillenlager
steel AlZn4SiPb AlSn20Cu sputtered
282
ISBN:9788190937634
Figure 1 Bearing Cross section
Fatigue strength is one of the most important properties of bearing material. The fatigue
failures result from dynamic loads of the crank mechanism especially dangerous at elevated
temperatures. Application of the third layer, as it is practiced in trimetal shells [1], can improve the
fatigue strength. The study [3] presents a probability of bimetal bearing failure caused by scuffing or
fatigue of the overlay, respectively. The example of typical trimetal bearing and the Rillenlager failure
probability has been presented in Fig. 2. A definitely longer life of the Rillenlager with a worn sliding
surface in comparison to the trimetal bearing can be seen in the diagram.
Figure 2 Failure probability of a trimetal bearing
1- Tribological limit for bearing with overlay

2- Tribological limit for bearing with worm overlay
283
ISBN:9788190937634
3- Lining fatigue strength corresponding to the load level

4 MAIN BEARING LOAD CALCULATIONS:
Applied big-end bearing load is relatively simple to compute, since it depends on known
factors, such as the inertia of moving parts and gas pressure forces exerted on the piston.
However, the loads appearing on the main bearings react on the crankshaft in opposition to
big-end bearing load and are more complicated to calculate. The reason for this is that the crankshaft
is a flexible structure which is statically indeterminate, so that the reaction in any given main bearing
will depend on the load exerted on the structure as a whole, with the influence coefficients being
unknown a priori. Furthermore, such loads are variable in magnitude and direction throughout the
engine cycle.
Calculation of the reaction forces on the main bearings can be approached via two
procedures: the first assumes the crankshaft to be isostatic which, while sacrificing accuracy, allows
for a determinate method to be applied; the second assumes the crankshaft to be statically
indeterminate and uses an indeterminate procedure to compute the reaction forces.
5. MODEL FOR DETERMINING MOVEMENT PARAMETERS OF A CRANKPIN IN THE BEARING:
Figure 3 Physical Model of crankpin-bearing
284
ISBN:9788190937634
A physical model of crankpin-bearing system, along with all the relevant parameters, is
shown in the figure 3.[5] The most important parameters for defining the working condition of bearing
and crankpin journal are:
- Oil pressure distribution in the bearing

- Oil temperature in the bearing and
- bearing eccentricity
According to physical model shown in the above figure 3 for the calculation of these parameters some
preconditions were introduced:
- Oil is viscous Newtonian fluid with constant viscosity at the appropriate moment,
- The flow is laminar and non-inertial,
- Journal bearing surfaces are smooth and absolutely hard.
By using the equation about mass and momentum maintenance for the fluid flow of the bearing
gap, with mentioned preconditions we can produce a well-known Reynolds equation of journal
hydrodynamic behavior. Due to constant oil viscosity on one hand and unreliable boundary conditions
on the other hand in these models we do not use usually energy equation in the original form for the
calculation of currant oil temperature. The appropriate approach in this model is setting balance at
both bearing inlet and outlet, where the heat produced by friction in the bearing is released through oil
(Neglecting heat release through bearing and crankpin journal.
The loading of crankpin journal was calculated for the specific case of diesel engine at the rotation
2
speed of n=2200 rpm and kinematics oil viscosity at the bearing inlet v=23.6 mm /s and at maximum
power.[6]
Figure - 4
With the referent literature[7] as the basis for correlation, the analysis of the oil viscosity (v)
on the bearing inlet as independently flexible value, which can be regulated in the engine by cooling
the oil, on the functional parameters of journal bearing was also performed. Relative bearing
clearance () was also varied and analyzed by its influence on minimum oil film thickness (hmin). The
result of values calculation of minimum oil film thickness in the function of oil viscosity at the bearing
inlet and relative clearance are shown in the figure 4 (A and B) for the bearing of crankshaft.
Considering the bearing oil inlet temperature, the oil inlet viscosity is within the limits of v=16-
25 mm2/s. The bearing oil viscosity depends on a clearance between bearing and crankpin journal
(journal bearing in the figure 4). This parameter directly influences the minimal bearing oil layer (hmin),
the decrease of viscosity and the increase of mechanical losses. This indicate the fact that the
lubricating oil viscosity in the engine is very important parameter the point of defining working
conditions as well as from the point of regulating mechanical losses in an engine.
All these results show a decrease in values of minimum thickness of oil film (hmin) with
reduced viscosity or, in other words, with increased oil temperature at the bearing. Apart from oil flow
characteristics in front of the bearing (flow, temperature) oil viscosity also depends on regimes of
285
ISBN:9788190937634
speed and engine load as well as physical oil properties
6. Conclusions
Development of the fatigue cracks of the IC (Internal Combustion) engine slide bearing
lining, that can limit the life and load carring capacity of the engine, is still the problem that needs to
be fully explained and solved. Fatigue damages can appear when the stress and strains in the sliding
layer are reaching their critical level depended not only on the type of the material but also on bearing
geometry (e.g. clearance, bearing lining to steel backing thickness) and other parameters including
physical and chemical effects of the lubricating oil (especially the influence of lubricant active
additives) on the bearing fatigue.
The complexity of the fatigue processes is the main reason that the experimental
investigations with the use of laboratory testing devices are regarded as bearing the basic sources of
information needed for the real bearing load carrying capacity predictions. A number of new materials
for individual layers spread over the steel support have been introduced in recent years. The efforts
concentrate on an improvement of overlay fatigue strength, because fatigue failures are the serious
problem for operation of an engine crank mechanism. Another way to expand the bearing life is an
application of inhomogeneous bearing material (Rillenlager) or sliding surface sputtered with AlSn,
which is much more expensive and applied only to the bearings of highly loaded engines.
Bearing materials used for production of trimetal bearing shells presented in this paper are
the examples of variety of possible compounds covering the steel support and applied as bearing
sliding surface. Unfortunately, this review of materials is very limited as the information concerning
both materials and technologies are strictly confidential and unavailable to the common user.
.
7. References:
[1] Miba Bearing Manual Bearing Group Miba, CD-ROM 2000.

[2] http://www.gvbearings.com
[3] Krzymie A., Krzymie P.: Development of Bimetal Bearings for Engine Crank
Mechanism. Journal of KONES International Combustion Engines, Vol.8, No.1-2.
2001, s. 116-121, Warsaw - Gdynia, 2001, Poland.
[4] http://www.miba.co.at
[5] Filipovic I. Dolecek V. : Optimal journal bearing operating conditions defined by using
Computer, 4th Symposium DENSING96, OPATIJA, 1996.
[6] Ivan Filipovic, Dzevad Bibic, Impact of oil viscosity on functional parameters of journal
Bearings in I.C. engines. Goriva I maziva, 49,4: 334-351, 2010
[7] Lang., Steinhilper W. : Gleitlager Springer-Verlag, Berlin, New York,1998
***********************************************************************
286
ISBN:9788190937634
Effect of Time Varying Mesh Stiffness of Gearing for Dynamic

Characterization
R.I. Patel 1*, N.V. Oza 2, S.S. Pathan3
1. Pursuing M.E. Mechanical Engg. L.D. College of Engineering, Ahmedabad.
2. Pursuing M.E. Mechanical Engg. L.D. College of Engineering , Ahmedabad.
3. Sr. Lecturer in Mechanical Engg. L.D. College of Engineering , Ahmedabad.
*
Corresponding author (e-mail: rip111176@yahoo.com )
In this paper, concept of experimental modal analysis is discussed to derive dynamic

characteristics of gearbox. Dynamic properties (time varying mesh stiffness, natural
frequency, mode shape and resonance) are calculated using MATLAB program for un-
damped gear system. The dynamic simulation model is developed using equation of
motion. Frequency Response Function (FRF) method is used in the derivation of modal
parameters. Time varying mesh stiffness, FRF and change in natural frequencies are
plotted. It is observed that variation in mesh stiffness for meshing gear pairs plays
significant role in functional behaviour of gears. Results obtained are predictions of
functional behaviour of dynamic properties. Mesh stiffness variation, the change in
stiffness of meshing teeth as the number of teeth in contact changes, causes parametric
instabilities and severe vibration in gear systems. The effects of mesh stiffness
parameters, including stiffness variation amplitudes, mesh frequencies, contact ratios,
and mesh phasing, on the gears are analytically identified. Mesh stiffness variation is
approximated by Fourier series.
Keywords: Modal analysis; Time Varying Mesh Stiffness; Modeling and simulation.
1. Introduction
The undesirable noise and vibration caused by gears in a large variety of machine has
motivated the research to uncover the fundamental sources. Accurate dynamic mathematical model
of a power transmission system is essential for simulating reliably the dynamic characteristics. Such a
model would allow in improving the dynamic design at the computer level resulting in an optimized
design apart from savings in terms of money and time.
Vibration and noise reduction is a major concern in power train and gearing applications.
Gear analysis is required for improved performance requirements, such as high load capacity, high
endurance, low cost, long life and high speed. It is very important to compute the dynamic
transmission errors to predict gear vibrations and increase gear life. A primary source of gear
vibration and noise is the dynamic excitation from the changing stiffness of the meshing teeth. The
mesh stiffness associated with elastic tooth bending varies as the number of teeth in contact
changes. The parametric excitation from the time-varying mesh stiffness causes instability, loss of
contact and severe vibration under certain operating conditions. Furthermore, mesh stiffness variation
directly affects tooth deflections and transmission error. The varying mesh stiffness depends on
number of instantaneous contact and location of corresponding contact point [1].
The objective of this study is to analyse the operation parameters in two mesh multi gear
system. The two meshes can have different mesh frequencies, amplitudes of mesh stiffness variation,
contact ratios, and mesh phasing. The two-stage gear systems and mesh stiffness modelling are
introduced first.
Gearbox vibration monitoring for fault detection and diagnosis is one of the important tasks in
industries. Recent trends in dynamic analysis are extremely focused on better performance and life of
power transmission system [2].
Dynamic modelling of gearing is useful tool to study the vibration response of geared system
under the influence of various gear parameters and operating conditions. An approach is given here
in order to explore the importance of time varying mesh stiffness.
EMA has become an attractive tool to extract modal parameters. Mathematical modelling and
simulation of such systems gives dynamic behaviour on hand prior to making prototypes. This type of
287
ISBN:9788190937634
analysis helps designers in early prediction of dynamic properties of transmission system in design
stage itself. Their life and performance can be improved simultaneously cutting down the cost. Gear
system is a complex non-linear model and needs more research work in this area. Increasing use of
power transmission by gears in industries requires reduced noise and vibrations for human comfort
and efficient performance of plants.
2. Methodology
EMA is used to determine resonant vibration in gear system. In EMA, a mode of vibration is
defined by three parameters; modal frequency, modal damping and mode shape. A set of modal
parameters can completely describe the dynamic behaviour of a gear structure. This set of
parameters is known as a modal model for the structure. Modes (or resonances) are inherent
properties of a structure. Resonances are determined by the material properties (mass, stiffness, and
damping properties), and boundary conditions of the structure. If either the material properties or the
boundary conditions of a structure change, its modes will change. For instance, if mass is added to a
vertical pump, it will vibrate differently because its modes have changed.
All vibration is a combination of both forced and resonant vibration. Forced vibration can be
due to internally generated forces, unbalances, external loads, ambient excitation. Resonant vibration
occurs when one or more of the resonances or natural modes of vibration of a machine or structure
are excited. Resonant vibration typically amplifies the vibration response far beyond the level
deflection, stress, and strain caused by static loading. At certain natural frequencies of the structure
(its modal frequencies), a small amount of input force can cause a very large response.
2.1 Mathematical Model
Two stage gear trains have three-gear and four-gear configurations as shown in figure 1. Only
rotational vibrations 1 , 2 and 3 relative to rigid body gear rotations are considered. The input shaft
has torsional stiffness kL0 and is anchored with body rotating at constant speed such as driving motor.
The intermediate shaft connecting gears 2 and 4 is assumed rigid, which is reasonable for the typical
case of gears 2 and 4 being immediately adjacent or made from one piece. The tooth meshes are
modelled as linear springs with stiffness kL1, KL2 [1].
Figure 1 Two-stage gear system with Figure 2 Dynamic model for meshing gear pairs
[2]
(a) four gears and (b) three gears chains [1]
The gears have base radii ri, i =1, 2, 3, 4. The equivalent masses are m1=I1 /r12, m2=I2 /r22, and
m3= I3 /r32, where Ii are the moments of inertia of the gears and their connected shafts, =r4/r2 for
four gear chain and =1 for three gear chains. The equivalent stiffnesses are k0=kL0 /r12, k1=kL1, and
k2= kL2. The shaft/gear rotations are measured by the base radius deflections x1= 1 r1, x2= 2 r2,
2
and x3= 3 r3 / [1]. The stiffness of gear meshing pair basically depends on three components, gear
body, tooth and contact zone. The effect of gear body remains constant. While bending of tooth,
shear deformation and axial compression at contact area are varying. Hence there is a periodic
variation in meshing stiffness. Mathematical model for gear pair meshing is developed considering a
spring of varying stiffness between gears teeth contact as shown in figure 2 [2].
288
ISBN:9788190937634
The system stability is governed by the free vibration equation

Mq&& + [ K 0 + K v (t )]q = 0
T
Where q=[x1, x2, x3] and M=diag [m1, m2, m3] is the inertia matrix. The stiffness matrix is
represented by a mean value K 0 and a variational part K v (t ) as
k g1 + k 0 k g1 0 k v1 k v1 0
K0 = k g1 k g1 + k g 2 kg2 K v (t ) = k v1 k v1 + k v 2 kv 2
0 kg2 kg2 0 kv 2 kv 2
Where k gi and kvi (t ) are the mean and time varying component of the mesh stiffnesses.
ki (t ) = k gi + kvi (t )
The variational part k vi (t ) are periodic at the mesh frequency i and expressed in Fourier
series as
kvi (t ) = 2k ai (ai( s ) sin si t + bi( s ) cos si t ),

i =1, 2 [1].
s =1
Where 2kai is the peak to peak amplitude of stiffness kvi . The mesh frequencies 1 and 2
are related by 1 = R 2 , where R = 2
Z and Z2 and Z4 are the number of teeth on gear 2 and 4.
Z4
Note when R=1, 1 = 2 for three gear systems. Meshing frequency is a product of angular speed
and number of teeth on teeth on gear. Mesh stiffness variation is obtained through measurement,
calculation or simple specification such as sinusoidal or rectangular wave [1]. A mathematical model
for tooth is shown in figure 4. Change in contact stress during gear mesh causes stiffness variation.
For spur gears, rectangular waves are often used to approximate the mesh stiffness alternating
between n and n+1 pair of teeth in contact [1]. In this study, the k vi , are specified as rectangular
i
waves with variational amplitudes k ai , period Ti = , contact ratio ci, and phasing angles piTi as
2
shown in figure 3. Thus,
sin[s (ci 2 pi )]sin(sci ),

2
ai( s ) =
s
= cos[s (ci 2 pi )]sin(sci ) .
2
bi( s )
s
For s=1, 2, 3n. without loss of generality, mesh phasing can be specified as p1=0 and p2=h. In
practice, the first three or four terms of Fourier series can reasonably approximate the mesh stiffness
variation. Here in this study, first four terms are used to approximate the variation in stiffness [1].
Figure 3 modelling of varying mesh stiffnesses [1] Figure 4 modelling of tooth [3]
For time invariant case, the eigenvalue problem associated with motion equation is
K 0i = i2 Mi , Where, i are the natural frequencies.
289
ISBN:9788190937634
The vibration modes i are normalised as,

T = ; T = , [5, 6]
Where = [1 ,2 , 3 ] , = 0 + v (t ) and applying modal transformation q = u
The mass normalised eigenvectors are obtained which are designated as having the particular
property. Using the relationship between the mass normalised mode shape for mode i, i.e. [i ] and its
more general form [ i ] is considered. A modal model is constructed using the orthogonality principle
[5,6].
The frequency response function (FRF) is calculated by solving the equation
( ) = ([K ] 2 [M ])
1
.
Where, is an excitation frequency.
2.2 Assumption for MATLAB simulation
Varying mesh stiffness is approximated considering Fourier series rectangular waveforms.

Two stage speed reduction with four gear system is used.
Damping is neglected.
2.3 Procedure
Obtain a suitable (admissible) set of test data.

Compute the time varying mesh stiffness using Fourier series.
Compute Global Stiffness Matrix.
Using Global stiffness and Mass matrix derive Eigen-values and Eigen-vectors.
Repeat the procedure for suitable iterations.
Determine natural frequencies and mode shape vectors.
Tabulate time varying mesh stiffnesses versus time.
Tabulate natural frequencies versus time.
Compute Frequency Response Function (FRF).
Plot Varying mesh stiffness versus time.
Plot Frequency Response versus frequency on log-log scale.
Plot natural frequencies versus time.
Table 1 Parametric Data of Gear system used in computation
Sr. no Parameter Value

1 Equivalent masses m1= 1.0, m2 = 1.5, m3 = 3.5 kgs.
2 Average Mesh Stiffness Kg1= kg2 = 1000 N/m
3 Anchor Shaft Stiffness ko= 500 N/m
4 Contact Ratio c1= c2= 1.4
5 Mesh Phasing p1= 0, p2 =h=0.5
6 Peak to Peak Amplitude ka1 = ka2 =250 N/m
7 Mesh Frequencies 1 = 3014.4 2 = 1507.2 rad/sec
3. Results & Discussion
Dynamic modelling is done and MATLAB simulation is used to predict the dynamic
characteristics of a gearbox. Time varying mesh stiffness is plotted. Mesh stiffness variation with
relate to time is significant against average mesh stiffness. Due to continuous change in contact
position of gear teeth during the actual operation, there occurs change in load position, tooth bending
and elastic deformation of contacting teeth. Previous research suggested various parameters which
affects the mesh stiffness. Contact ratio and mesh frequencies are important from subject point of
view. Adjusting contact ratio can eliminate or reduce the size of parametric instabilities regions [1, 3 -
4].
290
ISBN:9788190937634
From the plot of FRF it can be seen that second and third natural frequencies are more affected
by the variation in stiffness. Rotational speed of the gearbox should be tuned properly such that the
natural frequencies are sufficiently away from the excitation frequencies to avoid resonance. As
properties of the system under consideration are continuously varying with time, care should be taken
to design governing parameters. Impact of force and loss of contact during motion of gears are key
factors for noise and vibrations of gears. Present numerical analysis suggests that geometric
parameters of gear system play an important role in dynamic performance. Mode shapes
corresponding to natural frequencies help to determine the critical area of vibration and help the
designers to predict the early fault detections and remedies.
time varying mesh stiffness for gears pair 2

varying mesh stiffness for gears pair 1
300
300
200
200
100
100
0
0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35
Kv(2)
Kv(1)
-100 -100
-200 -200
-300 -300
-400 -400
time time
(a) Meshing of gears pair 1 (b) meshing of gears pair 2

Figure 5 plot of Varying mesh Stiffness versus time
(a) Time t=11.1sec where 3 =minimum (b) time t=14.4 sec where 3 =maximum
Figure 6 Frequency Response Function Plot
In the study of two stage speed reduction using four-gear systems, there are three degrees of
freedoms. The system has three natural frequencies and mode vectors, shown in figure 6. Natural
frequencies for various configurations are plotted against time. Figure 7 shows that second and third
natural frequencies are relatively changing more rapidly as compared to first natural frequency.
Second and third natural frequencies vary in the range of 24 to 30 rad/sec and 39 to 53 rad/sec. The
variation of these frequencies is noticed as periodic. This shows that speed of gearbox should be so
tuned that there should be no occurrence of resonance which may create excessive vibrations.
291
ISBN:9788190937634
natural frequencies Vs time
60.0000
50.0000
Wn1(rad/sec)
40.0000
Wn2(rad/sec)
Wn(i) rad/sec
Wn3(rad/sec)
30.0000
20.0000
10.0000
0.0000
0.0 5.0 10.0 15.0 20.0 25.0 30.0 35.0
time(sec)
Figure 7 Plot of Natural Frequencies versus time
Table 2 Range of natural frequencies:
Frequency (rad/sec) n1 n 2 n3
Maximum 7.5669 30.3028 52.5120
Minimum 6.6652 24.0051 39.8486
Average 7.2184 27.5662 47.7300
Frequency with In-variant Stiffness 7.2959 28.0029 47.7667
Periodic variation imparts excessive vibration due to change in load and contact of tooth area,
which is generally ignored during static design, but in actual practice there, always resides significant
contact variation during operation of gears. Gears, which are prone to fatigue loading, can get
detrimentally affected in wear and tear of gear tooth-profile lead to loss of accuracy. Dynamic
instability causes separation of tooth contact, which generates impulse and consequently rattles
noise, which is reported in literatures.
4. Conclusion
Modelling of a three stage gearbox is done. Prediction of natural frequencies of an undamped

gearbox is presented by considering the effect of time varying mesh stiffness using MATLAB. Due to
variation in mesh stiffness of the mating teeth, there occurs variation in natural frequencies. These
frequencies are varying periodically. Periodical variation of frequencies can be estimated using
Fourier series. Experimental work will be done in future to validate the model. The change in stiffness
of meshing teeth as the number of teeth in contact changes causes parametric instabilities and
severe vibration in gear systems. To visualize the effects of mesh stiffness parameters, i.e. stiffness
variation amplitudes; mesh frequencies; contact ratios; analytical identification is done for the
gearbox.
References
[1] Jian Lin, Robert G Parker, Mesh Stiffness Variation Instabilities in Two-Stage Gear
Systems, ASME Journal of Vibration and Acoustics JANUARY 2002, Vol. 124, pp 68-76
[2] Sejoong Oh, Karl Grosh, James R. Barber, Energy Conserving Equations of Motion for Gear
Systems, ASME Journal of Vibration and Acoustics APRIL 2005, Vol. 127, pp 208-212
[3] H-H. Lin, R.L. Huston, J. J. Coy, On Dynamic Loads in Parallel Shaft Transmissions: Part I-
Modelling and Analysis, ASME Journal of Mechanisms, Transmissions, and Automation in
Design JUNE 1988, Vol. 110, pp 221-225.
292
ISBN:9788190937634
[4] H-H. Lin, R.L. Huston, J. J. Coy, On Dynamic Loads in Parallel Shaft Transmissions: Part II-
Parameter Study, ASME Journal of Mechanisms, Transmissions, and Automation in Design
JUNE 1988, Vol. 110, pp 226-229.
[5] T R Chandrupatla, A D Belegundu, Introduction to Finite Elements in Engineering, 3rd
Edition, PHI Learning Pvt. ltd., 2009
[6] S.S. Rao, Mechanical Vibrations, 4th Edition, Pearson education Pvt. ltd. 2006
293
ISBN:9788190937634
Prediction of Dimensional Accuracy of Fused Deposition Modeling

(FDM) Built Parts using Fuzzy Inference System and comparison
With Experimental Results
B.D.Parmar1* ,N.G.Parmar2,B.C.Khatri3
1,2,3
L.D. College of Engineering Ahmedabad-380015, Gujarat, India
*
Corresponding author (e-mail: bdpar@yahoo.com)
Rapid Prototyping(RP) technology is being widely used in diverse areas. Fused Deposition
modeling (FDM) is one of the key technology of RP.Dimensional accuracy of FDM produced part
is major constraint. This paper presents experimental investigations on influence of important
process parameters viz. Layer thickness, part orientation, air gap and raster width on dimensional
accuracy of Fused Deposition Modeling (FDM) processed PC (PolyCarbonate) part. It is
observed that shrinkage is dominant along length and width direction of built part, but positive
deviation from the required value is observed in the thickness direction. Optimum parameters
setting to minimize percentage change in length, width and thickness of standard test specimen
have been found out using Taguchis parameter design. Experimental results indicate that optimal
factor settings for each performance characteristic are different. The FDM process is highly
complex one and hardly any theoretical model exist for the prediction purpose. The process
parameters influence the responses in a highly non-linear manner. Therefore, prediction of overall
dimensional accuracy is made based on fuzzy approach.
Keywords:-RP, FDM, layer thickness, raster width, air gap, fuzzy inference system.
1. Introduction
Fused deposition modeling is one of rapid prototyping system that produces prototypes from plastic
materials such as PC (Polycarbonate),ABS (Acrylonitrile butadiene styrene)etc, by laying the tracks of
semi-molten plastic filament onto a platform in a layer-wise manner from bottom to top. The present
work attempts experimental investigations to study influence of important process parameters viz.,
layer thickness, part orientation, air gap and raster width on dimensional accuracy of Fused
Deposition Modeling (FDM) processed part. The part produced from FDM machine does not match
with dimension of CAD model due to presence of shrinkage. However, shrinkage is more prominent in
length and width direction but a positive deviation is observed in thickness direction. It is essential to
study the effect of each parameter on responses such as percentage change in length, width, and
thickness of specimen. A design of experiment (DOE) is used to study the effect of process
parameters on responses.[1] Optimum parameters setting to minimize percentage change in length,
width and thickness of standard test specimen have been found out using Taguchis parameter design.
Experimental results indicate that optimal factor settings for each performance characteristic are
different.[2] There are number of techniques available for predicting responses using input parameters
e.g. genetic algorithm, artificial neural network, fuzzy inference system (FIS) etc. But present work
uses Fuzzy Inference System (Mamdani Fuzzy logic) to predict the dimensional accuracy in part
produced by FDM machine. This method is capable of taking into account the uncertainty and
impreciseness in measurements which is commonly encountered in shop floor. The model uses all
input and output variables in linguistic terms enabling it convenient for practitioners. The inference
engine in Mamdani type FIS uses rules which are obtained with help of design of experiment
technique (DOE).
2. Experimental Plan
Four factors viz., layer thickness (A), part build orientation (B), raster width (C) and raster to raster
gap (air gap) (D) each at three level, as shown in Table 2, are considered. Others factors are kept at
fixed level as shown in Table 1, 3D solid model of test part is modeled in PROE software and
exported as STL file. STL file is imported to FDM software (Insight). Test specimen as shown in fig. 1
are fabricated using FDM 360 mc [3]. The material use for part fabrication is Polycarbonate. Three
readings of length, width and thickness are taken per sample. Dimensions are measured using
Mitutoyo vernier caliper having least count of 0.01 mm. Measured values show that there is shrinkage
294
ISBN:9788190937634
in length (L) and width (W) but thickness (T) is always more than the CAD model value. Percentage
change in dimension is calculated using this equation (1).
DX%= ((X-XCAD)/XCAD)*100. (1)
Where X is the measured value of length or width or thickness, XCAD represent the respective CAD
model value and % DX stands for percentage change in X.
Fig. 1, showing the Dimensions of test specimen in mm [2]
Table 1, Process Parameters at Fixed level
Factors Value Unit

Part fill style Perimeter/ -
raster
Contour width 0.3556 mm
Part interior style Solid normal -
Visible surface Normal raster -

XY &Z shrink factor 1.007 -
Perimeter to raster air gap 0.0000 mm
Table 2, Process parameters to be controlled
Factors Symbol Level Unit

1 2 3
Layer A 0.1778 0.2540 .3302 mm
thickness
Orientation B 0 45 90 degree
Raster C 0.457 0.568 0.679 mm
width
Air Gap D -0.004 0 0.004 mm
Table 3, L9 Orthogonal array with S/N ratio Data for Experimental plan
Factors SN Ratio SN Ratio SN Ratio
Exp No A B C D %change in %change in %change in

L W T
1 1 1 1 1 22.3259 4.8807 -7.0436
2 1 2 2 2 23.6836 2.9634 -12.0411
3 1 3 3 3 27.8586 6.0060 -10.8813
4 2 1 2 3 18.6802 3.8740 -13.0642
5 2 2 3 1 26.5882 2.5387 -15.9176
6 2 3 1 2 15.3233 7.9900 -17.5012
7 3 1 3 2 16.4669 11.5034 -9.5424
8 3 2 1 3 28.5808 8.7547 -10.8813
9 3 3 2 1 14.8739 13.6354 -10.2376
295
ISBN:9788190937634
3. Methodology
3.1 SN Ratio
It is used to determine the influence and variation caused by each factor and interaction relative to the
total variation observed in the result. S/N ratio uses a single measure, mean square deviation (MSD),
which incorporates the effect of changes in mean as well as the variation (standard
deviation)[4].Results behave linearly when expressed in terms of S/N ratios. Aim of experimental plan
is to reduce the percentage change in length (%DL), width (%DW) and thickness (%DT), respectively.
Hence, smaller the better quality characteristic is considered. S/N ratio ( ) is determined
= -10log10 (MSD) .(2) , MSD = ( Yavg Yo) ^2 /n.(3)
Where, Yavg is average value of n data points and Yo is target value (Zero in our case).
3.2 Normalization
Experiment conducted provide data in SN ratio (smaller the better) but this data should be normalized
using the formula as shown below in equation (4). The normalization is carried out to give values in
range of 0 to 1 for all responses. [5] so that rule box to be created with help of Fuzzy tool box in
MATLAB could be easily done, and therefore it shall help in prediction of Dimensional accuracy in
more accurate way.
Yi= (Y Ymin)/(Ymax Ymin)(4)
Where Yi is normalized value of either %DL,%DW,%DT.
Y is corresponding value of SN ratio of either %change in L,%change in W,%change inT from Table 3.
Ymax and Ymin are the maximum and minimum values of SN ratio of 9 trials shown in Table 3.
3.3 fuzzy inference system

In general two most popular fuzzy inference systems are available: Mamdani fuzzy model and
Sugeno fuzzy model. The selection depends on the fuzzy reasoning and formulation of fuzzy IF-THEN
rules[6] Mamdani fuzzy model is based on the collections of IF-THEN rules with both fuzzy
antecedent and consequent predicts. The benefit of this model is that the rule base is generally
provided by an expert and hence to a certain degree it is translucent to explanation and study.
Because of its ease, Mamdani model is still most commonly used technique for solving many real
world problems.
The methodology for development of fuzzy prediction model in MATLAB involved the following steps:
3.3.1 Selection of input and output variables

Inputs and the output were taken in the form of linguistic format which displayed an important role in
the application of fuzzy logic. For example, Layer thickness = {VS,S,M,L,VL}, Orientation =
{VS,S,M,L,VL}, raster width = {VS,S,M,L,VL}, air gap = {VS,S,M,L,VL}, The output variables were
similarly divided into %change in length(%DL) = {VS,S,M,L,VL}, %change in width(%DW)=.
{VS,S,M,L,VL}, % change in thickness(%DT)= {VS,S,M,L,VL}, A linguistic variable is a variable whose
values are words or sentences in a natural or man-made language. Where S is small, VS is very
small, M is medium, L is large, VL is very large.
3.3.2 Selection of membership functions for input and output variables

Linguistic values were expressed in the form of fuzzy sets. A fuzzy set is usually defined by its
membership functions [7]. In general, triangular and trapezoidal membership functions were used to
normalize the crisp inputs because of their simplicity and computational efficiency .The triangular
membership function is used to convert the linguistic values in the range of 0 to 1.
296
ISBN:9788190937634
Fig.2 membership functions for input and output variables
3.3.3 Formation of linguistic rule base

The fuzzy rule-based system uses IFTHEN rule-based system, given by, IF antecedent, THEN
consequent. The rules are formed according to problem statement and the work is carried out in
Fuzzy logic toolbox of MATLAB. [8]with the four inputs, and three outputs five fuzzy subsets are
assigned to inputs and outputs as shown in Fig. 2, Nine fuzzy rules are derived directly based on the
fact that smaller is the S/N ratio, the better is the performance characteristics.
3.3.4 Defuzzification
Defuzzification means the fuzzy to crisp conversions. The fuzzy results generated cannot be used as
such to the applications, hence it is necessary to convert the fuzzy quantities into crisp quantities for
further processing. This can be achieved by using defuzzification process.
4. Analysis and Results
Effect of various parameters on % change in L, % change in W and %change in T in terms of S/N

Plots are obtained using Minitab15 software, as shown below.
Fig.3,SN ratio plot for % change in length (DL) Fig. 4,SN ratio plot for % change in Width (DW)
The best combination for minimization of % change in length are medium layer thickness (A2),
orientation (B3), minimum raster width (C1), and zero air gap (D2). For minimizing the % change in
width, it requires medium layer thickness (A2), orientation(B1)medium raster width(C2)and maximum
air gap (D3 ) .and for lower thickness it requires medium layer thickness (A2), orientation (B2) ,
maximum value of raster width (C3) and negative air gap (D1).
297
ISBN:9788190937634
Fig. 5,SN ratio plot for % change in Thickness (DT)
Table 4, Error % calculated between Fuzzy inference systems (FIS) and the Experimental results
(Exp).
Error = Modulus of [(Experimental results Predicted results (FIS))/Experimental results]
Factors SN SN SN SN SN SN Error Error Error

Ratio Ratio Ratio Ratio Ratio ratio
(FIS) (FIS) (FIS) (Exp) (Exp) (Exp)
Exp No % % % % % % % % %
change change change change change change DL DW DT
in L in W in T in L in W in T
1 0.5000 0.2500 1.0000 0.5437 0.2111 1.0000 0.08 0.18 0.00
2 0.7500 0.5000 1.0000 0.6427 0.3830 0.5221 0.17 0.31 0.92
3 1.0000 0.2500 0.7500 0.9473 0.3125 0.6330 0.06 0.20 0.18
4 0.2500 0.0000 0.5000 0.2777 0.1203 0.4242 0.10 1.00 0.18
5 1.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.8546 0.0000 0.1514 0.17 0.00 1.00
6 0.0000 0.5000 0.0000 0.0328 0.4913 0.0000 1.00 0.02 0.00
7 0.0000 1.0000 0.7500 0.1162 0.8079 0.7610 1.00 0.24 0.01
8 1.0000 0.5000 0.7500 1.0000 0.5602 0.6330 0.00 0.11 0.18
9 0.0000 1.0000 0.7500 0.0000 1.0000 0.6945 0.00 0.00 0.08
298
ISBN:9788190937634
Fig.6 Graphs for Experimental Results Versus Predicted Results by FIS

5. Conclusion
The results obtained by Taguchi method shows that the shrinkage is dominant along the length and
width of test part whereas thickness is always more than desired value. Study on observed results
shows that there are large number of conflicting factors independently or interaction with others may
influence the dimensional accuracy. The dimensional accuracy was predicted using the Fuzzy
inference system (FIS) and error was calculated between the experimental results and predicted
results. The graphs between experimental results and Predicted results shows the strong linear
relationship between them,The low percentage error shows that the results predicted by Mamdani
fuzzy logic were highly accurate and precise.
6. Acknowledgement
The authors are thankful to the management of INDO-GERMAN TOOL ROOM, GIDC PHASE IV,
Vatva, Ahmedabad for their permission and co-operation to conduct experiments on Stratasys.FDM
360mc machine.
7. References
[1] Khan ZA, Lee BH, Abdullah J. Optimization of rapid prototyping parameters for production of
flexible ABS object. Journal of Material Processing Technology 2005;169:5461.
[2] Sood, A.K., Ohdar, R.K. and Mahapatra, S.S., (2009), Improving dimensional accuracy of Fused
Deposition Modelling processed part using grey Taguchi method ,Journal of material and design , Vol.
30(9) ,pp. (4243-4252)
[3] J. Weinmann, H. Ip, D. Prigozhin, E. Escobar, M. Mendelson, R.Noorani, Application of Design of

th
Experiments (DOE) on the Processing of Rapid Prototyping Samples, in: Proceedings of the 14 Solid
Freeform Fabrication Symposium, The University of Texas atAustin,August 46, 2003, pp. 340347.
[4] R. Anitha, S. Arunachalam, P. Radhakrishnan, Critical parameterinfluencing the quality of

prototype in fused deposition modelling, Journal of Material Processing Technology 118 (2001) 385
388
.
[5] Montgomery, D.C. (2001), Design and Analysis of Experiments, 5th edition, John Wiley & Sons,
Inc, New York.
[6] Mahapatra, S.S., Nanda, S.K., Prasanna, K. and Garg, S. (2010), Prediction of Erosion Wear
Rate of Cement By-pass Dust Filled Hybrid Composites using Fuzzy Logic, Journal of material and
design, Vol. 30(8), pp. 2791-2801.
[7] Byun Hong-Seok, Lee Kwan H (2006). , Determination of the optimal build direction for different
rapid prototyping processes using multi-criterion decision making, Robot Computer Integrated
Manufacturing, Vol. 22, pp. 6980.
[8] Introduction to fuzzy logic using MATLAB by Sivanandam S.N, Sumathi S. and Deepa S.N
[9] Stratasys, FDM-360mc modeling machine, system documentation, web site:

http://www.stratasys.com.
299
ISBN:9788190937634
300
ISBN:9788190937634
An Experimental Study on Reusable type Wire EDM of HcHcr steel

based on Taguchi Methodology
N.G.Parmar 1*, B.D.Parmar2 ,B.C.Khatri3
1,2,3
L.D. College of Engineering , Ahmedabad-380015, Gujarat, India
*
Corresponding author (e-mail: ng_parmar@yahoo.co.in)
Electrical discharge machining has proved valuable and effective in machining of super
tough, hard, high strength and temperature resistance of conductive material. These metals
would have been difficult to machine by conventional methods. Wire EDM is in use for a
long time for cutting punches and dies, shaped pockets and other complex shaped parts.
MRR mainly depends on many parameters used during process. In the present research,
experimental investigations have been conducted to establish relationship of Material
Removal Rate, surface finish and kerf width with current, pulse-ON and pulse-OFF time.
Molybdenum wires of diameters 0.18 mm were used. Material tested was HcHcr steel
material. Today, the most effective machining strategy is determined by identifying the
different factors affecting the WEDM process and seeking the different ways of obtaining
the optimal machining condition and performance. Result of confirmation experiments
shows that the MRR increases with current and pulse on-time but machined surface
becomes rougher and MRR decreases with increase in pulse-OFF time. The study
demonstrates that the WEDM process parameters can be adjusted to achieve better metal
removal rate, surface finish and cutting width simultaneously.
Keywords: WEDM. Metal removal rate, Surface finish, Kerf width, Taguchi Method.
1. Introduction
WEDM is a thermoelectrical process in which material is eroded from the workpiece by a series of
discrete sparks between the workpiece and the wire electrode (tool) separated by a thin film of
dielectric fluid (deionized water) that is continuously fed to the machining zone to flush away the
eroded particles. Wire electrical discharge machining (WEDM) is a specialized thermal machining
process capable of accurately machining parts with varying hardness or complex shapes, which have
sharp edges that are very difficult to be machined by the main stream machining processes. At
present, WEDM is a widespread technique used in industry for high-precision machining of all types of
conductive materials such as metals, metallic alloys, graphite, of any hardness [1]. The selection of
optimum machining parameters in WEDM is an important step. Improperly selected parameters may
result in serious problems like lower MRR,short-circuiting of wire, wire breakage and work surface
damage which is imposing certain limits on the production schedule and also reducing productivity. As
Material Removal Rate (MRR), Surface Roughness (Ra) and kerf width (k) are most important
responses in WEDM; various investigations have been carried out by several researchers for
improving the MRR, Surface Finish and kerf width [2]. However, the problem of selection of machining
parameters is not fully depending on machine controls rather material dependent. For the optimal
selection of process parameters, the Taguchi method has been extensively adopted in manufacturing
to improve processes with single performance characteristic [3]. Mahapatra[4] studied the
relationships between various control factors and responses like MRR, SF and kerf by means of
nonlinear regression analysis, resulting in a valid mathematical model. Finally, genetic algorithm, a
popular evolutionary approach, is employed to optimize the wire electrical discharge machining
process with multiple objectives. The study demonstrates that the WEDM process parameters can be
adjusted to achieve better metal removal rate, surface finish and cutting width simultaneously [5].
2 Experimental method
The experiments were performed on Reusable type CNC WEDM, manufactured by Jiang nan saitec
NC Co. Ltd.The machine is having mechanism for recirculation of wire wounded on drum. The
electrode material used was a 0.18 mm diameter molybdenum wire. A small gap of 0.011 mm is
maintained between the wire and work-piece. The high energy density erodes material from both the
301
ISBN:9788190937634
wire and work piece by local melting and vaporizing. The di-electric fluid (de-ionized water) is
continuously flashed through the gap along the wire, to the sparking area to remove the debris
produced during the erosion.14mm long cut were performed for each experimental run and time was
observed to calculate MRR.
2.1 Work Material
HcHcr steel i.e. High carbon high chromium tool steel, having 13.5 mm thickness was used for the
present investigation. The table 1 shows the chemical composition of HcHcr material. It is an ideal
steel to use for punch and dies or injection mould tools. It is a difficult material to machine
and requires a special wheel for surface grinding after heat treatment.
Table 1 Chemical composition of HcHcr Tool steel
Chemical C Molybdenum Vanadium Silicon Cromium Mn
composition 1.5 0.8 0.9 0.3 11.8 0.5
Wt%
2.2 Process parameters and design

The parameters as shown in Table 2 below were fixed on the machine during cutting.
Table 2 Fixed Parameters

Dielectric De-ionized water
Dielectric conductivity 38 mohs
Wire Tension 900 grams
Wire velocity 11.2 m/s
Wire diameter 0.18 mm
Wire material Molybdenum
Workpiece material HcHcr
Workpiece thickness 13.5 mm
Workpiece hardness 56 HRc
Input process parameters such as Peak Current (A), Pulse-on time (B), and Pulse-off-time (C) used in
this study are shown in Table 3 These parameters and their levels were chosen based on the review
of literature, experience, significance and their relevance as per the few preliminary pilot
investigations. The smallest standard 3-level Orthogonal Array L9 is chosen for this case.
Table 3 Process parameters

Symbol Control Unit Level 1 Level 2 Level 3
Factors
A Current Amp 3 5 7
B Pulse-on Time s 16 32 48
C Pulse-off Time s 4 8 12
2.3 Taguchi Approach

Taguchi method is a powerful tool for the design of high quality systems. It provides simple, efficient
and systematic approach to optimize designs for performance, quality and cost. This method focuses
on minimizing the effect of causes of variation. The process performs consistently on target and is
relatively insensitive to uncontrollable factors. In comparison with a traditional full factorial design of
experiments, Taguchi methods in general, provide a significant reduction in the size of experiments,
thereby speeding up the experimental process [4]. Taguchi method is efficient method for designing
302
ISBN:9788190937634
process that operates consistently and optimally over a variety of conditions. Two important tools
used in Taguchi design are orthogonal arrays and signal-to-noise (S/N) ratios. Orthogonal arrays
(OAs) were originally developed by Taguchi to control experimental error. OAs are constructed in
such a way that, for each level of any one factor, all levels of other factors occur an equal number of
times thereby giving a balanced design [11]. Orthogonal arrays allow researchers or designers to
study many design parameters simultaneously and can be used to estimate the effects of each factor
independent of the other factors. Therefore, the information about the design parameters can be
obtained with minimum time and resources. The signal-to-noise ratio is a quality indicator by which
one can evaluate the effect of changing a particular design parameter on the performance of the
process [8,12].
2.4 Selection of Orthogonal Array

The optimal process parameters are determined by analyzing the characteristic data acquired by
using Orthogonal Arrays (OA). The total number of degrees needs to be computed to select an
appropriate orthogonal array for the experiments. The degrees of freedom are defined, as the number
of comparisons that needs to be made to determine which level is better [9]. Since each three-level
parameter has two degrees of freedom (number of levels-1), the degrees of freedom (DOF) required
for three parameters, each at three levels, is 6 (3 x (3-1)). Hence an L9 OA was selected for this
study. The layout of this L9-OA is shown in Table 2.
Table 4 shows the nine experimental runs with the assigned levels of the process parameters
according to the selected L9 orthogonal layout.
Table 4 L9 orthogonal array

Exp. No. Control Factors Time MRR SR(Ra) Kerf
Current T-on T-off Min mm3/min m mm
1 3 16 4 14.17 2.8277 2.45 0.212

2 3 32 8 15.0 2.6712 2.50 0.212
3 3 48 12 14.5 2.8415 2.53 0.218
4 5 16 8 12.87 3.0252 2.00 0.206
5 5 32 12 9.25 4.6177 2.80 0.226
6 5 48 4 5.32 8.1000 2.93 0.228
7 7 16 12 10.67 3.7375 2.20 0.211
8 7 32 4 3.83 10.8790 2.90 0.234
9 7 48 8 4.10 11.5473 2.97 0.236
In this study most important output performances in WEDM such as Material Removal Rate (MRR),
Surface Roughness (Ra) and kerf width (k) were considered for optimizing machining parameters.
The surface finish value (in m) was obtained by measuring the mean absolute deviation, Ra (surface
roughness) from the average surface level using a Computer controlled zeiss surface roughness
tester. The Kerf width was measured using the profile projector. The Material Removal Rate (MRR) is
calculated as,
MRR = k t v mm3/min
Where, k is the Kerf width (mm), t is the thickness of work piece (mm) and v is the Cutting speed
(mm/min).The cutting speed has been evaluated under each cutting condition by dividing the cutting
length( 14 mm) with the required cutting time.
3.0 Analysis and Discussion of Experimental Results
In the Taguchi method, a loss function has been defined to gauge the deviation between the
experimental value and desired value of a performance characteristic. The loss function is further
transformed into a signal-to-noise ratio (S/N ratio)[5,6]. Three categories of performance
characteristics are usually used in the analysis of the S/N ratio, i.e., the lower-the-better, the higher-
the-better, and the nominal-the-best. In this analysis, the higher MRR and lower surface roughness
and cutting width are the indication of better performance. The analysis was made using the software
MINITAB 15, specifically used for design of experiment applications. Fig. 1-3 shows the effect of
control factor on measured performance.
303
ISBN:9788190937634
Fig.1 Effect of control Factors on MRR Fig.2 Effect of control Factors on SR
Fig.3 Effect of control Factors on Kerf Width
Table 5 Analysis of MRR data

Source DF SS MS F P
A: current 2 53.452 26.726 20.19 0.047
B: T-on 2 27.108 13.554 10.24 0.089
C: T-off 2 21.215 10.607 8.01 0.111
Error 2 2.648 1.324
Total 8 104.422
R-Sq = 97.46%
DF: Degree of Freedom, SS: Sum of Square, MS: Mean Square
Table 6 Analysis of Surface Roughness data

Source DF SS MS F P
A: current 2 0.05847 0.02923 0.52 0.658
B: T-on 2 0.62487 0.31243 5.56 0.153
C: T-off 2 0.13580 0.06790 1.21 0.453
Error 2 0.11247 0.05623
Total 8 0.93160
R-Sq = 87.93
Table 7 Analysis of Kerfwidth data
Source DF SS MS F P
A: current 2 0.0002540 0.0001270 2.74 0.267
B: T-on 2 0.0005287 0.0002643 5.71 0.149
C: T-off 2 0.0000847 0.0000423 0.91 0.523
Error 2 0.0000927 0.0000463
Total 8 0.0009600
R-Sq = 90.35%
Analysis of the MRR result leads to the conclusion that factors at level A3,B3 and C1 gives maximum
MRR, factors at level A1,B1 and C3 gives less SR and factors at level A1,B1 and C3 gives less Kerf
width.
304
ISBN:9788190937634
4.0 Optimization using Grey-Taguchi Method

Through the grey relational analysis, a grey relational grade is obtained to evaluate the multiple
performance characteristics. As a result, optimization of the complicated multiple performance
characteristics can be converted into the optimization of a single grey relational grade.
Table 8 S/N ratio values and normalized S/N ratio values

Exp. Control Factors S/N ratios Normalized S/N ratios
No.
Current T-on T-off MRR SR Kerf MRR SR Kerf
1 3 16 4 9.0286 -7.7833 13.473 0.0389 0.5132 0.2112
2 3 32 8 8.5341 -7.9588 13.473 0.0000 0.5643 0.2112
3 3 48 12 9.0710 -8.0624 13.231 0.0422 0.5944 0.4165
4 5 16 8 9.6150 -6.0206 13.723 0.0850 0.0000 0.0000
5 5 32 12 13.2886 -8.9431 12.918 0.3739 0.8509 0.6816
6 5 48 4 18.1697 -9.3373 12.841 0.7578 0.9657 0.7464
7 7 16 12 11.4516 -6.8484 13.514 0.2294 0.2410 0.1764
8 7 32 4 21.2496 -9.2479 12.615 1.0000 0.9396 0.9374
9 7 48 8 20.7318 -9.4551 12.542 0.9593 1.0000 1.0000
Table 9 Grey Relational Co-efficient and Grey relational Grade

Exp. No. Control Factors Grey Relational Co-efficient Grey Grade
Current T-on T-off MRR SR Kerf
1 3 16 4 0.3422 0.5067 0.3879 0.4123
2 3 32 8 0.3333 0.5343 0.3879 0.4186
3 3 48 12 0.3429 0.5521 0.4614 0.4522
4 5 16 8 0.3533 0.3333 0.3333 0.3400
5 5 32 12 0.4440 0.7703 0.6109 0.6084
6 5 48 4 0.6736 0.9358 0.6634 0.7576
7 7 16 12 0.3935 0.3971 0.3777 0.3895
8 7 32 4 1.0000 0.8923 0.8887 0.9270
9 7 48 8 0.9246 1.0000 1.0000 0.9749
Table 10 The main effect of factors on Grey Relational Grade

Control Level 1 Level 2 Level 3 Max-Min
Factors
A: current 0.4277 0.5687 0.7638* 0.3361
B: T-on 0.3806 0.6513 0.7283* 0.3477
C: T-off 0.6990* 0.5778 0.4834 0.2156
* Optimum Level
5.0 Confirmation Experiment

The confirmation test for optimal parameters with its selected levels was conducted to evaluate the
response characteristics for WEDM of HcHcr tool steel. The comparison is shown in table 11.
Table 11 Optimization results

Orthogonal Array Grey Theory Design % Improvement
Level A3 B3 C2 A3 B3 C1
MRR 11.5473 12.2747 6.29 %
SR 2.97 2.83 4.71 %
Kerf width 0.236 0.231 2.12 %
6.0 Conclusion
This study experimentally investigated the relationship of response parameters like Material Removal
Rate, surface finish and kerf width with current and pulse on and pulse off time on WEDM of HcHcr
tool steel. Some of the findings are as below.
305
ISBN:9788190937634
1. With increase in current, response parameters Material removal rate, surface roughness and
kerf width increases.
2. With increase in pulse time on, material removal rate, kerf width and surface roughness
increases due to more material removal per discharge.
3. With increase in pulse off time MRR, surface roughness and kerf width decreases.
4. Results show that Ratio of pulse ON and Pulse OFF time is very significant in WEDM. Higher
ratio increases the MRR.
5. The optimal process parameters based on Grey Relational Analysis for the Reusable wire EDM
of HcHcr tool steel are 7 amp current , 48 s T-on time and 4 s T-off time. By using Grey-
Taguchi method, the MRR, Surface roughness and Kerf width improves by 6.29 %, 4.71%
and 2.12% respectively.
7.0 References
[1] K.H. Ho, S.T. Newman, S. Rahimifard, R.D. Allen, State of the art in wire electrical discharge
machining (WEDM), International Journal of Machine Tools and Manufacture 44 (2004) 1247-1259.
[2]Ahsan Ali Khan, Munira Bt. Mohd Ali and Norhashimah Bt. Mohd Shaffiar, Relationship of Surface
Roughness with Current and Voltage During WEDM, Journal of Applied Sciences 6 (10): 2006
[3] Ch. V. S. ParameswaraRao, M. M. M. Sarcar,,Experimental Investigation and Development Of

Mathematical Correlations Of Cutting Parameters, Journal of Mechanical Engineering, Vol. ME 40,
No. 1, June 2009 Transaction of the Mech. Eng. Div., The Institution of Engineers
[4] S.S. Mahapatra, A. Patnaik, Optimization of WEDM process parameters using Taguchi method,
The International Journal of Advanced Manufacturing Technology 34/9-10 (2007) 911-925.
[5] H. Singh, R. Garg, Effects of process parameters on material removal rate in WEDM, Journal of
Achievements in Materials and Manufacturing Engineering, VOLUME 32, ISSUE 1, January 2009.
[6] Y.S. Liao, J.T. Huang, Y.H. Chen, A study to achieve a fine surface finish in Wire-EDM, Journal of
Materials Processing Technology 149 (2004) 165171.
[7] Chana Raksiri, Pornchai Chatchaikulsiri, CNC Wire-Cut Parameter Optimized Determination of the
Stair Shape Workpiece, World Academy of Science, Engineering and Technology 70 2010
[8] Niladri Mandal, P Saha, K Ramesh Kumar, DR Yadav, Study on Machining Parameter
Optimization for WEDM of Nimonic C263 - A Taguchi Approach, Proc. of the 3rd International
Conference on Advances in Mechanical Engineering, January 4-6, 2010, S.V.N.I.T, Surat.
[9] Murali M. Sundaram, Ganesh B. Pavalarajan, and Kamlakar P. Rajurkar, A Study on Process
Parameters of Ultrasonic Assisted Micro EDM Based on Taguchi Method, Journal of Materials
Engineering and Performance, 210Volume 17(2) April 2008.
[10] R.A. Mahdavinejad, Optimisation of electro discharge machining parameters, Journal of

Achievements in Materials and Manufacturing Engineering, volume 27, Issue 2, April 2008.
[11] Y.M.Puri and N.V.Deshpande, simultaneous optimization of multiple quality characteristics of

WEDM based on fuzzy logic and Taguchi technique, Proceedings of the Fifth Asia Pacific Industrial
Engineering and Management Systems Conference 2004,14.18.1
[12] Muthu Kumar V, Suresh Babu A, Venkatasamy R, Raajenthiren M, Optimization of the WEDM
Parameters on Machining Incoloy800 Super alloy with Multiple Quality Characteristics, International
Journal of Engineering Science and Technology , Vol. 2(6), 2010, 1538-1547
306
ISBN:9788190937634

Variable Compression Ratio Engine: One Of The Method

For Improvement In The Operating Characteristics Of
Internal Combustion Engine -Review Paper
J. R. Patel1*, K. P. Trivedi2
1
2
Assistant Professor, Mechanical Department, L. D. College of Engineering, Ahmedabad
*
Corresponding author (e-mail: jigishapreksha@gmail.com)
Abstract
Vast developments are taking place in the field of internal combustion engine
especially to improve the fuel economy and to reduce the emission percentage.The
ever increasing demand for the petroleum based fuels and their scare availability has
lead to extensive research on internal combustion engines. A better design of the
engine can significantly improve the combustion quality and in turn will lead to better
break thermal efficiencies and hence savings in fuel. Variable Compression Ratio
(VCR) technology has long been recognised as a method for improving fuel economy
of I.C. engines. There are several ways of doing this; various patents have been filed
and designed for varying the compression ratio. This paper reviews the geometric
approaches, and solutions used to achieve (VCR) and forecast the benefits of
(VCR).
Key words: I.C. engines, variable compression ratio (VCR), thermal efficiency, fuel economy.
1. Introduction
The need for developing high specific power output accompanied by good reliability and
longer life self evident [1, 2]. Everyone wish to have an engine with infinite power density. However all
methods of increasing power output of an engine bring with them a host of problems. Like increasing
RPM of engine imposes dynamic load on engine and thus increases frictional losses and pumping
losses as well. Turbo charging develops very high pick cycle pressure and gives high thermal loads.
Increase in compression ratio increases detonation and knocking tendencies of engine. In fact, the
reason for exploring this technology is used to meet the different situation on road use and maximize
the fuel economy. For example, at low engine speed, the speed of car usually low, air intake is
Inefficient. The engine has to increase its compression ratio so that the power output is higher due to
high pressure produced from combustion process. If the Compression ratio is too high at high engine
speed the combustion chamber will get hotter at the same time, the fuel may burn itself and cause
knocking and the engine get hurt. In order to prevent this, lower compression ratio is required to lower
the temperature of combustion chamber. To satisfy both conditions, we have to use variation in
compression ratio [5].
The main features of VCR engine is to operate at different compression ratios depending on the
vehicle performance need. A VCR engine can continuously changing the compression ratio by
varying the combustion chamber volume. At low power levels the VCR engine operates at a higher
compression ratio to capture high fuel efficiency benefits, while at high power levels the engine
operates at low compression ratio to prevent knock. The optimum practical VCR engine has long
been a challenge to automobile industry [4].
A spark ignition engine can be used as a VCR engine. However the concept of variable
compression ratio can be more suitably used with turbocharged diesel engines because of two
reasons: first, the VCR concept is beneficial only at part load and the part load efficiency of the diesel
higher than that of the gasoline engine. Secondly, the diesel engine has better multi fuel capacity [2].
2. Methodology
There are several approaches which are discussed below [3].
307
ISBN:9788190937634

2.1 Moving the cylinder head
SAAB has developed a new engine concept called SVC (SAAB Variable Compression), this new
engine concept enables fuel consumption to be radically cut, but without impairing engine
performance. The SVC engine has variable compression i.e. variable size of the clearance volume.
This alone adds a new control input that affects every aspect of engine control. The engine is also
equipped with a compressor for supercharging, with some additional associated control inputs [6].
One challenge with this new concept is that the compression ratio SAABs moving head concept has
been widely publicized. By combining head and liners into a semimonobloc construction which pivots
with respect to the remainder of the engine, SAAB have enabled a tilting motion to adjust the effective
height of the piston crown at TDC [3].
Part throttle operation 14:1 CR

Figure 1 The SAAB VCR engine
Full throttle operation 8:1 CR

Figure 2 The SAAB VCR engine
2.2 Variation of combustion chamber volume
Typically, the volume of the combustion chamber is increased to reduce the CR by moving a
small secondary piston which communicates with the chamber.
Ford type
Figure: 3 shows the Ford patent for compression adjustment using a secondary piston or
valve. The device is presented primarily as a means of controlling knock as its dormant state is the
high CR condition. It is suggested that the piston could be maintained at an intermediate position,
corresponding to the optimum CR for a particular condition, however this would require a finite length
bore in which the piston could travel which raises further questions of sealing, packaging and
durability.
308
ISBN:9788190937634

Figure 3 The Ford VCR Head
Volvo/Alvar Type
Figure: 4 shows the Alvar engine concept in which each secondary piston moves
continuously at half crankshaft speed and could, potentially, share drive with a camshaft. Phase
variation between the secondary pistons and the crankshaft assembly enables the required variation
in CR.
Figure 4 The Volvo / Alvar VCR Engine

These systems have the potential benefit of containing all the major hardware changes within
the cylinder head assembly which reduces the impact on engine manufacture however there are
obvious drawbacks:
Introduction of additional elements within the crowded combustion chamber environment
threatens to compromise ideal geometry and layout of the valves and ports
Engine-out emissions performance is likely to be undermined by additional crevice volumes which
obstruct complete burning, increasing hydrocarbon emissions
The VCR device is subjected to full firing pressure
In those examples where the device is driven continuously at some function of crank speed an
additional parasitic loss will be incurred which will reduce the efficiency gain of VCR [3].
2.3 Variation of piston deck height
Variation in compression height of the piston offers potentially the most attractive route to a
production VCR engine since it requires relatively minor changes to the base engine architecture
when compared to other options (Figure: 5). Unfortunately, it requires a significant increase in
reciprocating mass and more importantly, a means to activate the height variation within a high speed
reciprocating assembly. This is typically proposed by means of hydraulics using the engine lubricating
oil, however reliable control of the necessary oil flow represents a major challenge.
309
ISBN:9788190937634

Figure 5 Ford VCR Piston
2.4 Modification of connecting rod geometry (usually by means of some intermediate

member)
Connecting Rod Linkages

A popular approach has been to replace the conventional con rod with a 2 piece design in
which an upper member connects with the piston while a lower member connects with the crankshaft.
By constraining the freedom of the point at which the two members join, the effective height of the con
rod can be controlled and, hence, the compression volume. Figures 6 and 7 illustrate the approach
taken by Nissan and Peugeot Citroen, respectively.
In Figure: 6 Nissan VCR Engine Nissan claimed to have reduced secondary vibration to a
level below 10% of primary vibration by careful attention to the geometry, despite the use of a short
con rod.
Figure 6 Nissan VCR Engine
310
ISBN:9788190937634

Figure 7 Peugeot VCR Engine
2.5 Moving the crankpin within the crankshaft (effectively varying the stroke)
Several systems have been proposed which either carry the crankshaft main bearings in an
eccentric assembly or move the crankpins eccentrically to effect a stroke change at TDC.
Figure: 8 shows the Gomecsys VCR engine in which moveable crankpins form an eccentric
sleeve around the conventional crankpins and are driven by a large gear. The arrangement suits a
parallel twin cylinder or wide angle V4 layout. Applications involving staggered crankpin geometry
would be less elegant, requiring multiple gear drives [3].
Figure 8 Gomecsys VCR Engine
3. Why VCR?
There are some important benefits of the VCR Engine can be summarizing as follows:
1. Optimum combustion efficiency in the whole load and speed range.
2. Low fuel consumption and low exhaust emissions.
3. High fuel flexibility with optimal combustion efficiency.
4. Very smooth idle and full load accelerations are achieved.
5. Provides better indicated thermal efficiency then that of FCR Engines.
6. Allows for a significant idles speed reduction because of reduced misfiring and cyclic
irregularities resulting in low vibration levels.
7. Reduction in low frequency noise because of constant peak pressures.
8. Cold starting emissions can be reduced greatly by early catalyst warm up in the catalytic
convertor.
9. Improvement in the low end torque of petrol engine without the risk of detonation.
10. Good idling performance at low ambient temperatures
11. Constants frictional losses owing to almost constant peak pressures.
4. Summary
The VCR engine has great potential for improving part load thermal efficiency and power output. As
VCR is a geometric approach to improve all existing engine strategies, it is potentially one of the
profitable sources to investigate for the automotive industry. Variable compression ratio promises
311
ISBN:9788190937634

more efficient operation, the ability to compact the size of engine, multi fuel flexibility. The major
difficulty experienced in developing VCR engine is to develop a mechanism for providing variable
compression ratio as per the load on the engine.
References
[1] V. M. Domkundwar, A courses in Internal Combustion Engine, Dhanpat Rai & Co., 2009.
[2] M.L. Mathur and R.P.Sharma, A Courses in Internal Combustion Engine, Dhanpat Rai & Co.,
2009.
[3] Martyn Roberts, Benefits and Challenges of Variable Compression Ratio (VCR), Society of
Automobile Engineering, Paper No. 03P-227, 2002.
[4] Milind S. Yadav., P. A. Wankhade, Improvement in the operating characteristics of internal

combustion engine using variation in compression ratio, International Journal of Recent
Trends in Engineering, Vol. 1, Issue No. 5, 2009, pp. 35-40.
[5] Amjad Shaik, N Shenbaga Vinayaga Moorthi and R Rudramoorthy, Variable compression
ratio engine: a future power plant for automobiles an overview, Proc. IMechE, Part D:
Journal of Automobile Engineering, Vol. 221, 2007, pp. 1159-1167.
[6] Andreas Bergstrom, Torque modeling and control of a variable compression engine, Masters
Thesis, Linkoping, 2003.
312
ISBN:9788190937634
EFFECT OF MATERIALS AND PROFILE ON BEHAVIOUR OF

ULTRASONIC HORNS
S. S. Soni1*, A. B. Pandey2, U. R. Thakkar3
1,2
Faculty of Technology & Engineering, M.S. University of Baroda, Vadodara-390001,Gujarat, India
3
Industrial Training Institute, Tarsali, Vadodara, Gujarat, India
*
Corresponding author (e-mail: shuklasheetal2@gmail.com)
The transfer of ultrasonic energy to the point of application requires design

and manufacturing of special tooling which can work at resonating
frequencies without fatigue failure. Proper design and manufacturing of
velocity transformer or horn can be used to amplify the vibration amplitude
where required. In this work, three shapes are selected for study namely,
step cylindrical, conical taper and catenoidal. Horns are manufactured with
three acoustic materials aluminium alloy, mild steel and brass. Designed
dimesions are obtained using the software CARD. Actual manufacturing is
carried out and the manufactured velocity transformers are tested on
ultrasonic machine for tuning to resonance frequency as per design. It is
observed that for a given material, the shape which yields greater gain tunes
at a lower frequency while the profile giving lower gain tunes at higher
frequency. Step cylindrical profile give maximum gain while for aluminium
horns gain observed highest.
1. Introduction
The applications of ultrasonic processes keep increasing by the day. The trend also exists in
manufacturing where, in addition to basic and well-known applications of welding and machining
many other direct and indirect uses of the ultrasonic principle have been developed. The acoustic
velocity transform or sonotrode or horn is one such component in the acoustic system. It serves the
purpose of bridging the physical gap between the transducer and the work. By proper design, it can
also be used to amplify the vibration amplitude where required.
Yadava & Deoghare [1] noted that cutting performance of an ultrasonic machining machine
depends primarily on the ability of the design of the acoustic horn (also known as concentrator or tool
holder). They developed a finite element method (FEM) design procedure for the design of a horn for
rotary ultrasonic machining (RUM). The double conical horn shape was taken as a domain with a hole
at the tip for the cooling purpose. They analysed the various stress components in the horn domain.
They found that stresses at the middle of the horn were maximum due to the sudden change in the
area of the horn but within the allowable stress of the horn material. They also studied the stresses on
the horn for various frequencies and concluded that at resonance condition the stress is minimum.
S.G. Amin [2] et al developed a computer-aided design procedure for horn profile and material based
on finite-element analysis. Y. C. Chen [3] et al derived equation related to overhang of the tool,
material properties and frequency of vibration. The resonant frequency is obtained by tuning the
output voltage of power unit via adjustment of the inductance setting of unit before the start of
machining process. Experiments on drilling of Inconel 718 superalloy are conducted to verify the
derived equation and the developed controller. S. Sherrit [4] et al. designed and manufactured novel
horn designs to drill, abrade and core rock samples including hard basalts for power ultrasonics. Z.C.
Li [5] and others have used rotary ultrasonic machining for drilling holes on ceramic matrix composites
(CMC) for the first time. They studied MRR, cutting force, hole quality (chipping dimensions).
2. Material considerations in horn design`
The work focuses on developing understanding for the manufacturing of the velocity
transformers for ultrasonic machine tools. It is necessary to identify that the material for these
313
ISBN:9788190937634
sonotrodes has to be possessing characteristics such as low acoustic loss and absorption and high
fatigue strength.
The common understanding of acoustic materials refers to materials used for sound-proofing or
sound damping which are high absorption materials. However, for developing sonotrodes, the
functional requirement demands that maximum sound energy is transmitted from one end to the
other. For this functional requirement, the sonotrode material should have low sonic loss or absorption
and should operate under resonance condition to avoid generation of harmonics which lead to
acoustic energy loss. In order to transmit sonic energy at high (ultrasonic) transimission frequency,
the material should be able to sustain cyclic change of pressure and hence, should possess high
fatigue strength. The materials generally used for developing velocity transformers include Aluminium-
Titanium alloys, titanium, steel, brass, monel etc.
For studying the effect of material properties on the velocity transformer materials selected
are aluminium, mild steel and brass. Maintaining manufacturing feasibility and cost within manageable
limits for the selected materials. Table 1 below gives important material properties for the selected
materials required to design the horn.
Table 1 Material properties of Aluminium, Steel and Brass

PROPERTIES ALUMINIUM STEEL BRASS
Thin Wire Wave Speed
5180. 5334 3504.
at 24C (m/sec)
Modulus of Elasticity (GPa) 74.5 218.2 104.0
Density (Kg/m3) 2777 7668 8480
Poisson's Ratio 0.33 0.33 0.32
Q 100000 24000 10000
Ultimate Strength (MPa) 483 580 441
Yield Strength (MPa) 345 320 249
Fatigue Strength (MPa) 160 200 106
3. Common profiles of horn
The velocity transformers in ultrasonic machines are designed for mainly two functions
i) To bridge the gap between the converter and the work or point of application and transfer the
ultrasonic energy to the point of application. The converter cannot be designed for each individual
application due to cost considerations. Hence, acoustic velocity transformers are essential for
each application.
ii) The amplitude of vibrations for some applications like machining and metal welding is not
sufficient as generated by the converter. In such cases, the amplitude of the vibrations has to be
amplified by designing the velocity transformer with specific gain. As per the principle of
propagation of sound waves through solids, the amplitude is inversely proportional to the cross-
section of the solid through which it is propagating. Also the sound absorption is a function of the
square root of the ratio of Youngs Modulus and material density which is termed as the thin wire
wave propagation speed.
Considering these functional requirements it becomes clear that the sonotrode has to have a
reducing cross-section from the converter end to the application end. Various taper functions can be
implemented to obtain this. The most common taper functions are
i) conical (linear taper),
ii) exponential (exponential taper),
iii) catenoidal (hyperbolic taper),
314
ISBN:9788190937634
iv) double cylindrical (step cylindrical)
Other special taper functions include mathematical functions like Gaussian taper, Fourier
shape etc. However, the most commonly employed shapes are step cylindrical, conical, exponential
and catenoidal due to the ease of manufacturing of step cylindrical and conical shapes and availability
of standard functions for exponential and catenoidal shapes in CNC controllers. Other profiles are
generally combinations of these four profiles. Horns of special profiles like Gaussian horn and Fourier
horn are rarely used due to difficulties in manufacturing and amplification ratio of these special profiles
not being more than the basic profiles.
For the sake of studying the effect of shapes on velocity transformers, the basic profiles are
considered. The step cylindrical, conical and catenoidal shapes are designed for the ultrasonic
machine available in the department. The exponential shape is not considered since it has lower
amplitude magnification for same diameter ratio and lengths as compared to catenoidal profile and
has similar manufacturing implications.
4. Design and manufacturing of horn

`
The determination of dimesions is done using free evaluation version of widely used software
Computer Aided Resonator Design (CARD) for each of the nine velocity transformers. The software
requires inputs related to the machine specifications and some material properties.
The manufacturing of velocity transformers faces three major challenges. Firstly, the entire
velocity transformer should be perfectly coaxial. The reason for this requirement is that any out of axis
vibration due to absence of perfect coaxiality will lead to sideways dispensation of ultrasonic energy
and lead to heavy losses. Under such condition, the velocity transformer draws more power from the
ultrasonic generator and tends to overload the generator. This can lead to failure of the generator
which is a costly subsystem. In order to avoid this, most machines have overload protection and
would cut-off the ultrasonic generator is there is excess power drawn from it. Hence, with such a
velocity transformer, which overloads the generator, the transmission of the energy is not possible.
Further, a velocity transformer which has sideways vibrations due to absence of coaxial
manufacturing, will also pose the threat of cracking or fracturing the piezo-converter since these are
fatigue resistant only along the mechanical axis and cannot resist vibrating and fatigue loads along
other axes.
Second requirement of manufacturing a good velocity transformer is that it should and have a
high degree of dimensional accuracy. The variation in dimensions would change the designed gain
and operating frequency of the velocity transformer. This would lead to non-resonating operation and
loss of energy due to harmonics. This can also overload the generator due to excess energy
absorption. The machine allows a variation of 500 Hz on the nominal frequency of 20 KHz for
accommodating manufacturing tolerance. If the dimensional error throws the resonance frequency of
the sonotrode out of the zone of 21.5 KHz to 19.5 KHz it overloads the generator due to non-matching
of the frequency. This is typically termed as non-tuning of the sonotrode.
Third requirement is of a good surface finish. Since, the sound waves are surface waves, it is
essential to have a very good surface finish on the sonotrode surface. This avoids the loss of sound
energy during propagation through the sonotrode.
The experiments were performed on 2.0 KW ultrasonic plastic welding system Power Ultrasonic
USP 2500 / MPS 2 controller. In order to test the sonotrodes, they were mounted on the stud at
the lower end of the booster by means of the tapped hole machined at the bottom. The amplitude
output was set to the lowest value of 70% in order to prevent any damage in case of overloading.
After securing the velocity transformer in place, a test pulse was given to the acoustic stack and the
machine generator was checked for overload signal. If the velocity transformer did not overload the
generator, the test was repeated at 80%, 90% and full amplitude outputs. The results reported in the
table are for checks at 100% amplitude output for all sonotrodes.
315
ISBN:9788190937634
The Table 2 below indicates the designed data from CARD software and resultant frequency at
which the various manufactured velocity transformers tuned to work in resonance with the available
machine.
Table 2 Design data of Horns form CARD

D d L Largest Freq.
STEEL Angle Gain
mm mm mm Axial Stress Hz
Conical 30 10 146.83 3.90 2.56 1.61MPa at 86.0mm 19950
Step Cylindrical 25 15 143.34 - 2.58 2.60MPa at 80.5mm 19675
Catenoidal 30 15 128.73 - 2.1 2.04MPa at 74.0mm 20100
Largest
ALUMINIUM D d L A Gain Frequency
Axial Stress
Conical 23 10 135.21 2.75 2.21 0.62MPa at 76.5mm 20200
Largest
BRASS D d L A Gain Frequency
Axial Stress
Conical 30 10 96.02 5.95 2.6 1.25MPa at 42.0mm 20100
It is observed from the table that the diameters of the rods on the larger end could not be
tuned with the maximum size for all profiles and materials. The lengths also differ as per the design.
This is attributed to different thin wire wave speeds of sound in different materials and the different
amplitude gain factors for different profiles.
5.1 EFFECT OF MATERIAL
It is seen that the thin wire wave speed for steel material is highest and that brass is lowest
while that for aluminium is intermediate. Correspondingly the lengths required for tuning the velocity
transformers of these materials within the frequency range of 20.5 KHz to 19.5 KHz varies. The
lengths for steel horns are found to be maximum while those for brass are minimum and aluminium
are in between the values for steel and brass.
The conical horn with same diameter ratio of 30:10 (i.e. 3) for steel has a tuning length of
146.83 mm while that for brass has 96.02 mm which is nearly 35% less. This is directly due to the
variation in the thin wire wave speed which governs the wavelength and hence the frequency through
he medium. For resonance this hence, causes a change in the length. Since the gain mainly depends
on the diameter ratio, it is found that the gain predicted by CARD for both these velocity transformers
is nearly identical being 2.56 for steel and 2.6 for bronze.
This is also verified comparing step cylindrical and catenoidal velocity transformers for steel
and brass. The step cylindrical velocity transformer having a diameter ratio of 1.667 also shows a
316
ISBN:9788190937634
reduction in tuned length of nearly 35% when compared for steel and brass while the gain is nearly
2.6 for both. For catenoidal sonotrode with diameter ratio of 2 again the reduction in length for tuning
brass sonotrode is nearly 35% when compared to steel sonotrode of same diameter ratio and profile.
The gain for both is nearly 2.1.
For the same gain, however, the stress predicted in steel is observed to be higher than that
predicted for brass. While tuning frequency, within the range, is found to be relatively higher for brass
as compared to steel.
For the case of aluminium sonotrodes, it is observed that the length and frequencies for
tuning are found in the intermediate zone as compared to steel and brass, but the gain is found to be
higher than both steel and brass. This can be explained due to the fact that the weight of aluminium
horns is minimum for the same tuning frequency. Hence, the amount of energy drawn by the horn is
relatively less and larger amplitude can be delivered at the application end of the horn.
5.2 EFFECT OF SHAPE
It is found that for same diameter ratio, the gain for catenoidal horn is higher than conical horn
for given material. However, the gain for catenoidal horn with diameter ratio exceeded 3 and such
horn did not tune on the machine but indicated overload condition. This was due to the fact that a
horn with such high gain drew more power than the power rating of the machine of 2KW.
The gain obtained by step cylindrical is found to be highest but due to stress concentration
and difficulties in manufacturing the step accurately, the horn with high diameter ratios and gains did
not tune on the machine. The diameter ratio and gain had to be reduced for this reason to values less
or close to 3. For this reason the sonotrodes with step cylindrical profile have been manufactured with
lower diameter ratios. The peak stress for step cylindrical is observed at the change of diameter
location on account of sudden change in cross section.
Due to smooth transition of cross-section in catenoidal profile the stress distribution is found
to be a smooth curve and the frequency is found close to 20 KHz.
6. Conclusion
The attempt to design and manufacture and tune horns with different materials and shapes and
tune them to the 20 KHz frequency led to following conclusions:
1. For the ultrasonic machine available with given rating, the maximum gain achievable using
velocity transformer is limited by the power rating of the machine. In this case, this gain limit is
found close to 3.
2. The properties of material for velocity transformer affect the design and manufacturing of the
same. A higher thin wire wave speed leads to longer length for resonance design while lower
thin wire wave speed necessitates a lower length due to adjustment of wavelengths as
observed from the case of steel and brass.
3. Gain is found to be mainly affected by diameter ratio and taper function. It is found to be
independent of the length.
4. Higher gain causes the sonotrode to tune at lower frequency in permissible range and vice
versa.
5. The gain offered by catenoidal shape is higher than conical shape for the same diameter ratio
and that for step cylindrical is found to be maximum.
6. The manufacturing ease for the sonotrodes can be ranked in order as conical being easiest
followed by step cylindrical and the by catenoidal.
7. The stress distribution for catenoidal velocity transformer is found to be most regular.
References
[1] Vinod Yadava & Aniruddha Deoghare, Design of horn for rotary ultrasonic machining using
the finite element method, Springer-Verlag London Limited 2007.
317
ISBN:9788190937634
[2] S.G. Amin, M.H.M. Ahmed, H.A. Youssef, Computer-aided design of acoustic horns for
ultrasonic machining using finite-element analysis, Faculty of Engineering, Alexandria
University, Alexandria, Egypt.
[3[ Y.C. Chen, Y.S. Liao and J.D.Fan, Autoresonant Tuning and Control in Ultrasonic Vibration
Assisted Drilling Process, Roosevelt Rd, Department of Mechanical Engineering, National
Taiwan University, 106, Taipei, Taiwan, R.O.C.,1.Sec, 4.
[4] S. Sherrit, M. Badescu, X. Bao, Y. Bar-Cohen, Z. Chang, Novel Horn Designs for Power
Ultrasonics, Jet Propulsion Laboratory, California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, CA.
[5] Z.C. Li, Y. Jiao, T.W. Deines, Z.J. Pei, C. Treadwell, Rotary ultrasonic machining of ceramic
matrix composites: feasibility study and designed experiments, Department of Industrial and
Manufacturing Systems Engineering, Kansas State University, KS, USA & Sonic-Mill,
Albuquerque, NM, USA.
318
ISBN:9788190937634
Design & Performance Study for Sample Concentrating Parabolic

Trough Collector
A. B. Pandey1, S. L. Prajapati*2
1,2
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Faculty of Technology & Engineering, The Maharaja
Sayajirao University of Baroda
*
Corresponding author (e-mail: shailesh4ur@gmail.com)
Solar energy is continuous on earth and is a renewable energy source. Sun throws rays
in form of radiation. This solar radiation energy is converted to different forms of energy
by using different methods & technology. Concentrating solar power is one of them.
Concentrating solar power (CSP) is a renewable generation technology that uses mirrors
or lenses to concentrate the suns rays to heat a fluid, e.g., water, which produces steam
to drive turbines. CSP differs from solar photovoltaic (PV) technology, which directly
converts the suns ultraviolet radiation to electricity using semiconductors. CSP is a
proven technology with more than 350 megawatts (MW) of installed capacity operating
commercially in the Mojave Desert since the 1980s and several smaller new plants
brought on line since 2006. The current worldwide installed capacity is more than 500
MW. CSP technology uses solar energy which does not affect the environment & does
not pollute atmosphere, also reducing effect of global warming etc. Typical CSP
installation includes solar chimney, power tower, solar dish & parabolic trough. Parabolic
trough technology is most commonly used recently. Parabolic trough can be used for
power generation, heating & cooling. The collection and concentration of solar thermal
energy on the object can be done with the help of Parabolic Trough Collector (PTC) for
o
the temperature range 400-600 C.
NOMENCLATURES
A =area. Auxiliary T1 = Inlet temperature
Ac =collector area. T2 = Outlet temperature

CR = concentration ratio t =Difference between outlet and inlet temperature
f = focal length = angle between surface normal & beam radiation
I = Solar radiation = angle, latitude
m = mass flow rate thermal =Thermal efficiency
T = absolute temperature o =Optical efficiency
1. Introduction
Renewable energy sources are sources that are continuously replenished by natural
processes. For example, solar energy, wind energy, bio-energy - bio-fuels grown sustain ably),
hydropower etc., are some of the examples of renewable energy sources A renewable energy system
converts the energy found in sunlight, wind, falling-water, sea-waves, geothermal heat, or biomass
into a form, we can use such as heat or electricity. Most of the renewable energy comes either
directly or indirectly from sun and wind and can never be exhausted, and therefore they are called
renewable.
The sun is the most continues and environment friendly source of energy that is provided all
over the world in the most affluent abundance. It is at present the only source of energy that is
capable of satisfying the ever increasing energy demand of humankind whose coverage with
conventional energy sources is becoming more and more difficult the earth and its atmosphere;
depend ultimately on the sun for its energy supply. The fossilization of organic and inorganic
(degradable) substances on the earth provides an indirect supply option for energy. The latent heat
and sensible heat transfers involved in the change of state of water also contribute to the energy
states. The radiant energy from the sun is absorbed by the earth and the atmosphere and is partially
redeployed as emission in the infra-red wavelength region, which controls the entire activity of all
319
ISBN:9788190937634
living organisms. This radiant energy also becomes the primary cause for driving the atmospheric
heat engine to operate and sustain the atmospheric circulations and the ocean currents. The energy
exchanges triggered by the solar heating of the earth-atmosphere system govern the weather at any
given place.
Energy from solar radiation can be derived by thermal conversion wherein the heat generated
due to irradiation is used to operate a system and by direct conversion into electrical energy by solar
photovoltaic methods. A solar energy collector has a sun-facing surface and when irradiated by the
solar irradiance gets heated up. The heat is then transferred partly to a working fluid in contact with
the absorber. To reduce the heat losses to the surrounding and to make it work at optimum efficiency,
a glass sheet covers the absorbing surface. However, losses due to convection and radiation cannot
be eliminated totally. The radiation climatology of India is depicted in Figure 1.
Figure 1 Radiation Climatology of India
2. Solar Energy Collectors
A solar collector is a device for collecting solar radiation and it transfers the energy to a fluid
passing in contact with it. Utilization of solar energy requires solar collectors. These are generally of
two types:
(i) Non- concentrating or flat plate type solar collector.
(ii) Concentrating (focusing) type solar collector. (CSP)
320
ISBN:9788190937634
Figure 2 Comparision of Flat Plate Collector and Parabolic Trough Collector

A comparative graph showing thermal performance of flat and parabolic collectors is shown in
Figure 2. Concentrating / Focusing collector is a device to collect solar energy with high intensity of
solar radiation on the energy absorbing surface. Such collectors generally use optical system in the
form of reflectors or refractors. Various types of concentrating collectors are shown in Figure 3.
i) Parabolic trough collector (P.T.C)
ii) Mirror strip reflector
iii) Fresnel lens collector
iv) Flat plate collector with adjustable mirrors
v) Compound parabolic concentrator (C.P.C.).
Figure 3 Concentrating Collectors
Typical applications for collectors include hot water heating for large-scale domestic uses at
military barracks, hospitals and prisons, cooking, pasteurization of milk and beverages, vegetable
frying, heating of metal processing tanks, heating of reaction vessels or distillation columns at
chemical, bio fuels or pharmaceutical operations, and sterilization and cleanup at food processing
plants. Steam generation wherever steam is used as the heat transfer medium in the food, chemicals,
petroleum refining and other industries. Other important application is space heating and cooling
(using an absorption chillers) for any large occupied space such as retail establishments, college
campuses, large office and manufacturing buildings. Hot air generation for drying operations in the
mining and chemical industries. Enhanced Oil Recovery whereby hot water or steam is injected into
petroleum reservoirs to recover previously abandoned oil reserves or as the primary method of
recovery from heavy oil formations. Desalinization using thermal energy as an alternative to the use
of electricity for reverses osmosis. Preheat energy for high temperature processes, such as boiler
feed water preheating in power plants or air preheat in combustion or processing operations. Inlet air
cooling of gas turbines used for electricity production to eliminate the decline in power output at high
ambient temperatures.
3. Parabolic Collector Design & Performance
It is a principle of geometry that an aluminum parabolic reflector pointed at the sun will reflect
parallel rays of light to a focal point of the parabola. A parabolic trough is a one-dimensional parabola
that focuses solar energy onto a line. Physically, this line is a pipe with flowing liquid inside that
321
ISBN:9788190937634
absorbs the heat transmitted through the pipe wall and delivers it to the thermal load. Principle of
parabolic trough collector is shown in Figure 4.
Figure 4 Principle of Parabolic Trough Collectors
The parabola is an intriguing geometric shape with important practical uses including
concentrating sunlight. The curve of a parabola is such that light traveling parallel to the axis of a
parabolic mirror will reflect to a single focal point from any place along the curve. Because the sun is
so far away, all light coming directly (excludes diffuse) from it is essentially parallel, so if the parabola
is facing the sun, the sunlight is concentrated at the focal point. A parabolic trough extends the
parabolic shape to three dimensions along a single direction, creating a focal line along which the
absorber tube is run. The equation of the parabola, in terms of the coordinate system shown in Figure
5 is
y = 4fx
Figure 5 Mathematical Equation of a Parabola

A sample case of a parabolic trough collector is discussed for the input data given in Table 1.
Table 1 Input Data for Sample Parabolic Trough Collector
LENGTH OF PARABOLA (L) 1220 meter

WIDTH OF PARABOLA (W) 760 meter
COLLECTING AREA (AC) 0.9272 meter2
RIM ANGLE (R) 91.81
322
ISBN:9788190937634
ABSORBING FLUID WATER

The angle is the rim angle, described by AFB, and is given by
f
8 a
= tan 1 = sin 1 a
2r
( )
16 f 1
2

a
Where rim angle = 91.810, r = a/2 = absorber area = 0.9272 m2)
f =0.1551meter
For concentration ratio the equation is
(a D)
C.R =
D
C.R = (760-16)/(50.266)
C.R = 14.80
The data derived out of these calculations is listed in Table 2.
Table 2 Derived Data
FOCAL LENGTH 155 mm

PARABOLA HEIGHT 154.9 mm
DIAMETER OF RECEIVER TUBE 16 mm
CONCENTRATION RATIO 14.80
The observations on the manufactured parabolic trough collector are listed in Table 3 and the
thermal calculations are listed in Table 4.
Table 3 Performance Data for Sample Parabolic Trough Collector

Sr.No: Time Temperature Time for 1 Solar Wind
IST litre Fluid radiation Speed
T1 0C T2 0C Tambient flow (I) w/m2 m/s
0
C (sec)
1. 11:00 47 50 39 45 785 0.5
2. 11:04 46 49 39 50 790 1.3
3. 11:08 45 50 39 80 802 1.0
4. 11:10 45 54 39 150 810 2.3
Table 4 Thermal Energy Calculations for Parabolic Trough Collector
SR.NO. m T Qi=I*A Qo=mcpT T/I thermal thermal

0
(kg/sec) C W W m2/W =Qo/Qi (%)
11:00 AM
1 0.022 2 727.852 186.088 0.0025 0.2556 25.56
2 0.02 4 732.488 334.96 0.0051 0.4572 45.73
3 0.0125 5 743.6144 261.68 0.0062 0.3519 35.19
4 0.0066 9 751.032 251.22 0.0111 0.3344 33.44
The heat input to the parabolic trough solar collector can be calculated by considering the
solar radiation flux (I) on the aperture area of the collector (A).
Aperture area of the collector (A) =0.9272 m2
Q i = I x A, W = 802 x 0.9272 = 743.61 W
Heat output from the parabolic trough collector can be calculated by considering the mass
flow rate of water, temperature difference and specific heat of Water.
323
ISBN:9788190937634
Qo = m x cp x (To Ti) = 0.025 x 4187 x 1 = 104.67 W

Thermal efficiency is the ratio of heat out put to heat input.
thermal = Qo /Qi
= 104.67/743.61
= 0.1407 i.e. 14%
Figure 6 Thermal Efficiency Versus T
4. Results and Discussions
The graph in Figure 6 shows that the thermal efficiency of a parabolic trough collector is
increasing with fluid temperature initially. After the fluid temperature reaches around 45C to 49 C,
the thermal efficiency again decreases. This is due to higher convection losses at more temperature
difference between fluid and ambient.
It is also observed that rse in efficiency with time is higher in to north-south orientation as
compared to east-west orientation. NORTH-SOUTH orientation is more suitable for higher
temperature rise & for higher efficiency. The maximum thermal efficiency is ranging in between 20 to
25%.The temperature gain is higher in north-south position as compared to east-west position of the
parabolic trough solar collector. Due to small aperture area of solar collector heat loss & optical
losses are more & also owing to manual tracking the efficiency of the collector decreases.
5. Conclusions
Design and development of Parabolic Trough Collector and subsequent experimental work
carried out on this setup during the course of this work leads to the following clear conclusions.
(i) The thermal efficiency of a parabolic trough collector generally shows increasing trend with
increase in temperature difference of fluid initially but then shows decrease.
Efficiency of parabolic trough is decreasing due to heat losses & leakages.Thermal efficiency
parabolic trough collector can be increased by using automatic solar tracking mechanism & by proper
designing.
References
[1] Rai, G.D., Non-Conventional Energy Sources, Standard Publishers Distributors, 2006, ISBN
8186308296
[2] Kalogirou, S., Solar Energy Engineering - Processes and Systems, Elsevier Inc. USA, 2009,
ISBN 9780123745019
324
ISBN:9788190937634
[3] Solar radiant energy over India by Ministry of New & Renewable Energy (MNRES),
Government of India
325
ISBN:9788190937634
Replication of Human Hand Wrist Movement into Robotic

Configuration Using Sensors and Microcontrollers
Akash Pandey1*, Bhavik Patel2, Aaditya Gala3
1, 2, 3
Faculty of Technology, The Maharaja Sayajirao University of Baroda, Gujarat, India
* Akash Pandey (e-mail: akashpandey@gmail.com)
A method which detects and senses the human wrist movements (i.e. roll, pitch
and yaw) using sensors so that it can replicate the same is discussed. Instead of
controlling robotic arms by switches or various controls the mechanism built will
be able to directly replicate the human wrist joint so that controlling the robot
would become really easy and no special knowledge to learn the machine
becomes mandatory.
1. Introduction
Hand is the end-effector for the humans in the terminology of robotics. Position and
orientation, touch or grasp give to the human the contact with the exterior. It is a direct
connection between the exterior world and the brain. I. Kant (German philosopher) defined
the hand as an extension of the brain. Wrist joint is a major manipulator in hand movements.
A method and mechanism to copy the movements of the wrist joint is developed. The
principal motives for researching and designing such a mechanism are:
i) Study of human wrist joint
ii) Simulating the motion into an actual mechanism
iii) Using sensors to sense the human wrist motion along various axis
iv) Interpreting the data using microprocessors & microcontrollers
v) Using the data to run the actual mechanism
Such device can be very helpful in typical applications like:
i) Controlling an actual robotic arm of a space vehicle for various purposes like testing
of soil, rocks etc.
ii) In the operation theatre, the robot can be used to carry out the operation of the
patients. Hence, the doctor can be physically anywhere and still carry out the
operation the way he actually does, and the contamination problem due to the germs
and bacteria on hand can be totally avoided.
iii) The mechanism can be used to control big machines like excavators, bulldozers,
cranes etc. without the need of the operator being present at the site which helps in
enhancing the human safety.
iv) The mechanism can also be used in hazardous environment like nuclear reactors,
bomb disposal etc.
2. Mechanical Design
The CAD model of the mechanical design to simulate roll, pitch and yaw movement of
the human wrist is shown in Figure 1. Three motors are used to define the three degrees of
freedom of the robotic arm. These motors are driven by the microcontroller. The desired
position of the robotic arm is obtained by the combined motion of the three motors. The
structure of robotic arm is made of acrylic which is mounted on a wooden base.
The yaw motion is affected by a 12V, 1A, 7 Kg-cm stepper motor. It carries the load of
the remaining two motors and the structure driven by them. The pitching arm is driven by a
12V, 0.5A, 2 Kg-cm stepper motor which is in-turn connected to the previous motor by a belt
and pulley mechanism. A 12V, 0.5A, 2 Kg-cm stepper motor is mounted on the pitching arm
to obtain the rolling motion.
326
ISBN:9788190937634
Figure 1 CAD Model of the Robotic Configuration

The design of few critical links and parts is described hereunder. All the links in the
model are made up of acrylic glass whose mechanical properties are as follows:
Density = 1180 kg/m3
Modulus of Elasticity = 2800 MPa
Permissible stress = 69 MPa
2.1 Design of ARM-3
The link shown in figure has a rectangular cross section of height 30mm and width
6mm.
Weight per unit length = 0.2124 kg/m
ARM-3A ARM-3B
Figure 2 Links Consisting ARM-3
i) DESIGN OF ARM-3A:
-3
Max Bending Moment = 7.312 X 10 kg-m
-8 4
Moment of Inertia = 1.35 X 10 m
Bending stress = 331.27 Pa << 69 MPa
ii) DESIGN OF ARM-3B:

Max Bending Moment = 0.01565 kg-m
Moment of Inertia = 1.3392 X 10-8 m4
327
ISBN:9788190937634
Bending stress = 0.0687 MPa << 69 MPa
2.2 Design of PIN
Max Bending Moment = 0.04083 Nm

Moment of Inertia = 490.87 X 10-12 m4
Bending stress = 0.4158 MPa << 69 MPa
2.3 Selection of Motor
i) MOTOR-1:
i. Torque required = (Weight of arm-2 + arm-3 + motor-2 + motor-3) X
(Distance of C.G. from axis)
= 0.844 kg X 7.00121 cm
= 5.909 kg-cm
Hence, the motor with rating 7 kg-cm was selected.
ii) MOTOR-2:
i. Torque required = (Max. bending moment acting at link)
= 1.565 kg-cm
Hence, the motor with rating 2 kg-cm was selected.
iii) MOTOR-3: It was selected on the basis of its compact size, weight and torque.
3. Interfacing & Control
The circuit diagram for the simulation of human wrist joint through robotic structure
described is shown in Figure 3.
Figure 3 Interface Diagram for the Human Wrist Simulation

The 8051 series AT89S52 controller is connected to three stepper motors through
appropriate drivers like ULN (for pitch and yaw motors requiring 0.5 A or less per phase) and
power transistors (for yaw motor requiring higher current per phase). The actual movement of
the wrist is sensed by an accelerometer mounted on the human wrist and calculations are
carried out in microcontroller to evaluate the angular displacements required on the robotic
manipulator to acquire same angular displacements. The corresponding number of pulses
are given to the respective stepper motors. This control logic is shown in Figure 4.
328
ISBN:9788190937634
Figure 4 Sensing and Simulation of Wrist Motion
It is observed that the accelerometers need careful calibration and interfacing before
exact wrist motions in all the three senses namely roll, pitch and yaw can be determined from
the accelerometer outputs. The angular displacements of human wrist has to be converted in
terms of the angular rotations of the individual motors and the number of pulses required to
get the desired rotation in each direction is to be determined. These pulses have to be sent to
each of the motors to achieve the exact angular motion of the motors to copy the actual wrist
motion.
4. Conclusion
The development of robotic system to replicate the human wrist motion requires
development of a three degree-of-freedom system with angular motion control. A precise
correlation has to be developed between the accelerometer output and the actual wrist
motions and the angular displacement of the motors required to replicate the same. Such a
system can be useful for many applications.
References
[1] Mazidi, M. A., Mazidi, J. G., McKinlay, R. D., The 8051 Microcontroller And Embedded
Systems Using Assembly And C, Pearson Education India, 2007, ISBN 8131710262
[2] Ayala, K. J., The 8051 Microcontroller, Cengage Learning, 2004, ISBN 140186158X
[3] http://www.atmel.com/dyn/resources/prod_documents/doc1919.pdf
[4] http://www..freescale.com/files/sensors/doc/fact_sheet/MMA7660FCFS.pdf
[5] http://www.semicon.toshiba.co.jp/docs/datasheet/en/LinearIC/ULN2803AFWG_
ULN2804APG_ en_datasheet_101203.pdf
[6] http://www.fairchildsemi.com/ds/LM/LM7805.pdf
329
ISBN:9788190937634
Evaluation of Working Spring Rate of Metallic Bellows
Hemant R Thakkar1, Dr. P M George2, Dr. M Y Vaijanapurkar3.
1
G H Patel College of Engineering & Technology, Vallabh Vidyanagar 388 120
Corresponding Author: hemant_hrt@rediffmail.com
2
Prof. & Head, B V Mahavidyalaya, Vallabh Vidyanagar 388 120
3
Retd. Prof., B V Mahavidyalaya, Vallabh Vidyanagar 388 120
Thermal expansion and contraction of long piping is very usual problem for piping design
engineers. Expansion joints are used in the piping to take deviations occurs because of
temperature and pressure variations.[4] These deviations may be axial, lateral or angular.
Expansion joints acts as compensating device to absorb these deviations.
Bellow is a critical element of an expansion joint assembly. Design of bellow is very much
critical, as there are many geometric parameters and many design factors involved. The
bellows should be flexible in order to get desired axial, lateral or angular movement. The
flexibility can achieved by selecting minimum material thickness, height of convolution, pitch
of convolution, and modulus property of bellow material. The bellow should also strong
enough to resist the pressure and temperature variations. This conflicting requirement makes
design of bellow very critical.
Flexibility is a desirable parameter for the bellow. Axial stiffness of bellow can be workout
either experimentally or analytically for initial condition. However, practically the actual
stiffness of the bellow differs for the installed condition. It can be considered as working
spring rate of bellow. Normally working spring rate is higher than initial spring rate. This paper
discusses methodology to evaluate working spring rate and its importance in design
procedure. Expansion Joints Manufacturers Association (EJMA)[1] has established the codes
for design of bellows considering initial axial spring rate. The present work is focuses on
working spring rate of bellows.
Key words: Expansion joints, bellow, axial spring rate, working spring rate.
1. Introduction
Expansion joints are used in the long piping to avoid high stresses due to
temperature and pressure variations. The function of expansion joint is to provide flexibility in
the piping. Bellow is the main important part of an expansion joint. The bellows should be
able to absorb axial, lateral and angular movements or motions. The motions are because of
differential variation in pressure and temperature inside the piping. Many times shocks are
developed due to sudden stop and start of fluid flow in the piping. Therefore, bellow should be
capable of absorbing many combined movements.
Bellows consists of various geometrical parameters. They are shape of convolutions (U, V,
toroidal etc), height of convolutions, pitch, inside diameter, and mean diameter. There are
various design parameters like type of material, thickness of material, treatment of raw
material, plies of material, etc. By selecting various combinations of parameters, bellows can
be designed for required flexibility. This leads to customized design approach of bellows for
[1]
individual applications. This approach is also recommended by EJMA . Important geometries
are in the figure 1.
330
ISBN:9788190937634
Figure 1 : Geometry of a bellow
The axial spring rate is the ratio of load to axial unit deflection of bellow. Many researchers
have contributed their work in the evaluation of stiffness (axial spring rate) of bellows. Their
analysis are based on type of theory referred, like considering bellow as beam element, shell
model considering strength criteria, classical plate model, a plate cylindrical shell model and
shell model based on classical shell theory. There are many relationships developed to
evaluate flexibility. However, there are many variations because of type of theory used and
variations in geometry considered.[4]
Bellows may be have various geometries, considering the shapes of convolutions like square,
V type, U shape, S shape etc. For the U shaped bellows, Hamada et al have employed a
computerized finite element method to solve thin shell equations for mechanical behavior of
the bellows. Their Important parameters were = 0.3, h/b ratio = 1.6 to 2.4)
Berliner and Vikhman[2] have reported experimental data on flexibility of four axially loaded U
shaped steel bellows. The geometries of bellows were in terms of b/R, h/b, t/R, , and
parameters.
Figure 2: Geometric features of U shape convolution
J F Wilson[2] has made a critical survey of all previous analysis and compared their results as
per theories referred. He has made comparison of results with non-dimensional parameter
like modulus ratio E/E and flexibility parameter . This flexibility parameter is proportional to
E/E. This is expressed as a function of a minimum number of non-dimensional quantities as
mention below.
Rt
Flexibility parameter = - (1)
b2
331
ISBN:9788190937634
Spring rate of bellows:

The spring rate of bellow is the ratio of force required to deflect a bellow to its deflection. The
force required to deflect a bellow is a function of the dimensions of the bellows and the
materials property. The curve of force versus deflection for most bellows indicates motion
extending linearly within elastic range. Since material thickness is selected very less, in order
to get higher flexibility. Bellow is deformed beyond the elastic range i.e. in to the plastic range.
The bellow will possess stiffness due to its flexible feature. Initial spring rate determination of
a bellow is based on its geometric parameters like material thickness, its modulus property,
height of convolution, shape of convolution, etc. A mathematical formulation developed by
EJMA to evaluate initial axial spring rate is as following.
3
Dm E b t p n
Bellows elastic axial spring rate = fiu =1.7 - (2)
w3 C f
Figure 3 : General curve of Bellows Force vs Deflection

Figure 3 shows the curve of force versus deflection. Initially the deflection curve is in elastic
region (Line A). It can be refer that for most bellows motion extends beyond elastic range i.e.
into the plastic range. The first portion of the curve is a straight line (Line A) as the bellows is
deflected through its elastic range. (Hookes law). As bellows deflection continues and
extends into plastic range, the force vs deflection relationship becomes non-linear until the
point of maximum deflection is reached. (line B)
When the restraining force is released, the curve again becomes linear until the applied force
is zero at which point the residual deflection of the bellows still has a positive value. To return
the bellows to its initial position, a restoring force must be applied in the opposite direction as
shown by the curve below the abscissa. This phenomenon is forming a hystersis loop.
Line A represents theoretical initial elastic spring rate, which can be determined analytically
with reasonable accuracy. The line B represents actual working spring rate of the bellow.
Evaluation of Initial Spring Rate:
Table 1: Geometric dimension of a bellow
Db Dm q tp w Lb
n N
(cm) (cm) (cm) (cm) (cm) (cm)
190 195.3 5 0.06 3 10 3.5 50
Modulus of Elasticity, Eb=1886497 kg/cm2

Mean diameter, Dm = Db + w + (n x t) = 190 + 3.5 + (3x0.6) = 193.68 mm
332
ISBN:9788190937634
Bellow is expected for x = 1 cm axial compression.

Each convolution movement ex = x / N = 1 / 10 = 0.1 cm
3
Dm E b t p n
Bellows initial axial spring rate (ASR) = fiu =1.7 = 5568 kg/cm/convolution
w3 C f
Evaluation of Working Spring Rate:
Table 2: Evaluation of working spring rate
Sr. Pressure Static Force Axial Force Total Force Bellow W S R Increase
No. Kg/cm2 F1 (kg) F2 (kg) F, (kg) (kg/cm ) in ASR
1 0.1 2994 557 3551 35510 6.377

2 0.2 5988 557 6557 65570 11.776
3 0.3 8982 557 9539 95390 17.131
4 0.4 11977 557 12534 125340 22.510
5 0.5 14971 557 15528 155280 27.887
6 0.6 17965 557 18522 185220 33.265
2
Static Force, F1 = Pressure x Area = 0.1 x Dm = 0.1 x (193.68)2 = 2994 kg
4
Axial Force due to axial movement, F2 = Initial spring rate x movement of each convolution
= 5568 (kg/cm/conv.) x 0.1 (cm/conv.) = 557 kgs.
The working spring rate is based on total force developed on the bellow. Force due to static
pressure and axial force due to deformation of convolution.
Total force = F1 + F2 = 2994 + 557 = 3551 kg.
Working Spring rate, (fw) = Total Force / Total deflection = 3551 / 0.1 = 35510 kg/cm/conv.
Results and Discussion:
1. It is observed that the working spring rate (fw) of bellow is always higher than initial
spring rate of bellow.
2. The working spring rate (fw) is depends on the amount of axial deformation made by
each convolutions and static force of inside fluid. Increase in convolution movement
and static pressure is leads towards higher working spring rate.
3. It is also observed that working spring rate of bellow is a continuously varying
parameter. Whenever the working spring rate is beyond elastic capacity, then
permanent deformation takes place.
4. The working spring rate is useful to evaluate the total axial force acting on the piping
anchor. While deciding the force on anchor, the working spring rate (fw) should be
considered instead of initial spring rate.
References:
[1] Standards of Expansion Joints Manufacturers Association, EJMA, New York.
[2] J F Wilson; Mechanics of Bellows: A critical Survey; International Journal of
Mechanical Science; Volume 26, No. 11/12, pp 593-605, 1984.
[3] Laupa A. and Weil N A; Analysis of U shaped Expansion Joints; Journal of Applied
Mechanics, Trans of the ASME, pp. 115-123; March 1962.
[4] K P Singh and Alan I Soler; Mechanical Design of Heat Exchangers; Arcturus
Publishers, Cherry Hill, NJ 08003; 1984.
[5] Kellog M W; Design of Piping Systems; Wiely ; 1956.
333
ISBN:9788190937634
Micro milling strategies for machining of micro EDM

electrodes
A. Bhattacharyya Pulakesh 1*, B. Sam Jesson G.2

1, 2
Production Dept.Indo German Tool Room, P-31 MIDC Industrial area
Aurangabad M.S-431006
*
Corresponding author (e-mail: pulakesh_b05@rediffmail.com)
The thin and miniature component with precise dimensional tolerances is always
a changeable promise towards the enhancement of micro machining process.
The three-dimensional electrodes which difficult to fabricate in terms of its
complicated shape and a very precise dimensional tolerances. Recent advances
micro machining techniques is a tangible process in those directions. Tungsten-
copper sintered composite material is used to produce microelectrodes for
electrical discharge machining. In this paper, a milling strategy accounting a tool
path-planning concept is introduced by the overall CAD/CAM considerations.
Series of experiment are conducted to achieve desired dimensional accuracy in
microelectrodes. A statistical model is developed for dimensional accuracy by
considering the feed, rpm, and axial depth of cut for finish programming of those
electrodes.
1. Introduction
Microelectrodes are potentially used through electrical discharge machining to

produce micro injection mouldings, microchanells, tooling inserts etc. Tungstencopper
sintered composite material (WCu) is well suitable electrode materials [1]. Admittedly, they
are known for microstructural inhomogenities, which have a bad influence on the subsequent
cutting process if products with very fine structures shall be made. The achievable surface
roughness and the dimensional and shape accuracy are affected by the WCu specifications
properties of the material [2]. Micromilling with a hard metal micro end mill is the most flexible
and economical machining process in the small and medium lot sizes for performing real 3D
geometries, also for ferrous materials. The most important application of micromilling is the
manufacturing of micro-sized dies and moulds. Due to the tool problems, the work piece
quality is not satisfying requirements in terms of burr formation, surface quality and form
accuracy. There are several reasons for the poor performance of micro end mills, such as
unsuitable tool geometry, unknown cutting conditions, lack of knowledge in machine tools,
machinability of work piece material, and wrong milling strategies [3]. It was reported that
The error in depth of cut led to tool breakage. On the one hand, because of the scaling effect,
the micro cutting tools become vulnerable to excessive cutting conditions; big cutting force
will break the tool directly from first contact. On the other hand, the process parameters for
micromilling of hardened tool steel are unknown. There is no handbook available for
Micromilling as a reference [4]. At this moment the selection of cutting parameters are mainly
from the recommend values by tool suppliers, which are mostly based on trial and error
practice. So comply with to those reasons still no alternative to fabricate
electrodes.expimentals evidences are found that graphite and etp copper are not suitable as
Wcu electrodes material to producing microelectrodes. S Dimov et al study the advantages
and disadvantages of using different machining strategies for micromilling and then verify
their capabilities experimentally and proposing an approach for storing and re-using expert
knowledge about micromachining strategies associated with different feature types [5]. Eckart
Uhlmann, et al first time demonstrates that the micro milling of tungstencopper sintered
composite materials with end mills is possible if suitable machine tool equipment is available
and the cutting speed as well as the feed per tooth is adjusted correctly [6]. But there is little
research done on the milling strategies to producing micro electrodes of WCu sintered
composite material. The aim of the work to find out the appropriate milling strategy to
producing microelectrodes evolving a tool path concept through CAD/CAM considerations
334
ISBN:9788190937634
and also deriving a mathematical model for dimensional accuracy with the interaction of
rpm,feed,and axial depth of cut .
2. Experimental procedure
Figure 1 3d model of specimen micro EDM electrodes
Figure 2 specimen micro EDM electrodes after machining
The material for microelectrode machining is Tungstencopper sintered composite

materials of grade WCu 75/25.The 3 dimensional electrodes have the all over profile
dimension of 100 m (vertical wall and two projections) and the dimensional accuracy in
order of 5 m unilaterally in positive direction. the machining of the electrode is carried out in
v33 Makino VMC, which have the highest RPM of 20000.and positioning accuracy of
0.1 m .Diameter 1mm solid carbide end mill is used in finishing programming of
microelectrodes. ZEISS CMM (Coordinate Measuring Machine) of least count.05m is used
to check the dimensional accuracy of the profile.
2.1 The overall cad/cam consideration for tool path generation
There are some requirements, which required to be fulfilled designing the milling
strategy of microelectrodes as follows
1. Use FEA method to validate the electrode model accounting to dynamic flexibility, natural
frequencies and shape mode to consider the cutting forces to compensate for deflection of
the cutting tools and their paths as well as for fixturing of microelectrodes.
2. To avoid the data translation error, electrode should be designed in same software that is
used for CAM. While the separate software may not heal importing the part geometry if gap of
.01mm arises of two adjacent surface and it may generate unreliable tool path that can
damage the microelectrodes. Integrated CAD/CAM software curtails the risk of happening to
such type of inaccuracy maintaining the integrity of that part.
2. While generating the CAM programme it often require that some sort of part geometry
modification in accordance tool path generations. The software must enable to do those
modifications maintaining the tangency and continuity of the related surfaces of
microelectrodes.
3. The software should support tool path calculation with tolerances down to 0.1 and should
be capable enough to post processing of those tool paths considering the machine tool
motion control and feed back system.
335
ISBN:9788190937634
5. Divide the method as roughing, semifinishing and finishing operation and use the in
process workpiece or knowledge of remaining stock for sequential operation. For more
slender electrode use semifinishing and finishing method in single operation.
6. The feed rate to be smoothed and adjusted to avoid the sharp tool motion.
7. Set the motion output as nurbs or circular-perp to TA for better accuracy of a tool path.
8. Verify the generated tool path and check for in process work piece, excess material and
gouges and set the tolerances.
9. Put the value of the spindle speed, in such a way that it minimizes the chatter. And Feed
rate and depth of cut, that it does not violate the tolerance level for tool deflection.
2.2 Design of experiment
The experiment was conducted to analyze the effect of spindle speed (N), axial depth
of cut (Ae), and feed rate (Vf) on the dimensional accuracy (d). Each factor was set to the low
and high levels as defined in table1
Table 1 2 level factorial design
Parameter High Low

Cutting speed(N) 20000(rpm) 8000(rpm)
Feed(Vf) 400(m/min) 100(m/min)
Axial depth of cut(Ae) .2mm .025mm
The selected experimental design is 23 full factorial designs and the design matrix is shown in
Table 2.
Table 2 Design Matrix
Axial Dimensional
Standard Spindle Feed
Depth of accuracy
Order Speed(RPM) Rate(M/MIN)
Cut(MM) (mm)
(N) (Vf)
(Ae) (d)
1 8000 0.025 100 0.005
2 20000 0.025 100 0.012
3 8000 0.2 100 0.015
4 20000 0.2 100 0.013
5 8000 0.025 400 0.017
6 20000 0.025 400 0.018
7 8000 0.2 400 0.021
20000
8 0.2 400 0.022
9 14000 .125 250 0.016
According to the half-normal plot in Fig.3, feedrate (C) contribute the highest effect on the
dimensional accuracy, followed by axial depth of cut (B) in that order. This result is confirmed
by thebasis of the analysis of variance (ANOVA) in Table3
336
ISBN:9788190937634
Half Normal Plot of the Standardized Effects

(response is d, Alpha = 0.05)
Effect Ty pe
Not Significant
Significant
99.98
F actor N ame
A N
B Ae
C Vf
Percent
98
95
C
85
80
B
50
20
0
0 10 20 30 40
A bsolute Standardized Effect
`
Fig.3 Half-normal plot of effects.

Table 3 Analysis of variance (ANOVA) for dimensional accuracy.
Sum of D Mean F value

Source Prob > F
squares f square
Regressio 0.0002101 7 0.0000300 414.671 0.0377946
n
N 0.0000229 1 0.0000229 316.40 0.035752

6 0
Ae 0.0000329 1 0.0000329 454.332 0.0298452
Vf 0.0000367 1 0.0000367 507.01 0.028254

0 4
N*Ae 0.0000191 1 0.0000191 263.25 0.039187

0 4
N*Vf 0.0000100 1 0.0000100 138.17 0.054027

8 7
Ae*Vf 0.0000112 1 0.0000112 154.319 0.0511370
N*Ae*Vf 0.0000101 1 0.0000101 139.852 0.0537050
Error 0.0000001 1 0.0000001
Moreover the interaction effects of (Ae, NVf, AeVf) are exist because they are
very closure to p-value (.05).the regression model for dimensional accuracy (d) is
d = -0.00783129 + 8.92857E-007 spindle speed + 0.114337 axial depth of cut + 5.90476E-
005 Feed rate - 5.71429E-006 spindle speed * axial depth of cut - 2.02381E-009 spindle
speed * Feed rate - 0.000228571 axial depth of cut * Feed rate + 1.42857E-008 spindle
speed * axial depth of cut * Feed rate
The Summary of above model is
S = 0.000269069, R-Sq = 99.97%, R-Sq (adj) = 99.72%, PRESS = 0.0000445261
337
ISBN:9788190937634
R-Sq (pred) = 78.82%The above summary can be explicated as The R-Sq statistic, which is
the measure of the proportion of total variability explained by the model, is equal to 0.9997 or
close to 1, which is desirable. The adjusted R-Sq is also utilized to consider the model
significance since it is useful when comparing model with different number of terms. The
results show that the adjust R-Sq (0.9972) is not significantly different from the ordinary R-Sq
(0.9997). Another statistic, the prediction error sum of squared (PRESS), is used as a
measure of how accurate the model will predict new data.
Main Effects Plot for d

Data Means
N Ae
0.025
0.020
0.015
0.010
ean
0.005
8000 14000 20000 0.025 0.125 0.200
M
Vf
0.025
0.020
0.015
0.010
0.005
100 250 400
Fig.4 main effects plot for dimensional accuracy
In te r a c tio n P lo t f o r d
D a ta M e a n s
0 .0 2 5 0 .1 2 5 0 .2 0 0 100 250 400
0 .0 2 0 N
8000
N
0 .0 1 5 14000
20000
0 .0 1 0
N
8 0A0e0
0 .0 2 0
10 4.002050
0 .0 1 5 20 0.102050
Ae
0 .2 0 0
0 .0 1 0
Vf
Fig.5 interaction plot for dimensional accuracy
From fig4 it can observe that feed rate (Vf) has the highest effect on dimensional accuracy
followed by axial depth of cut (Ae) and spindle speed (N).fig. 5 shows how the interaction of
spindle speed (N), axial depth of cut (Ae) and feed rate (Vf) effect on dimensional accuracy.
Contour Plot of d vs Vf, N

4 00
d
< 0 .006
3 50 0.006 0 .008
0.008 0 .010
0.010 0 .012
3 00
0.012 0 .014
0.014 0 .016
0.016 0 .018
Vf
2 50
> 0 .018
Hold Values
2 00
Ae 0.025
1 50
1 00
10 000 125 00 150 00 1750 0 2 0000
N
338
ISBN:9788190937634
Fig.5 contour plot of dimensional accuracy Vs feed rate and spindle speed
Contour Plot of d vs Ae, N

0.20
d
< 0.006
0.006 0.008
0.008 0.010
0.15 0.010 0.012
0.012 0.014
> 0.014
Ae
Hold Values
0.10 Vf 100
0.05
10000 12500 15000 17500 20000

N
Fig.6 contour plot of dimensional accuracy Vs axial depth of cut and spindle speed
These contours plot indicates that the a precise dimensional accuracy can be maintained in
microelectrodes at low feed rate where your spindle speed and axial depth of cut is set to low
level.
4. Conclusion
The purpose of the study to develop a milling strategy for fabrication microelectrodes with
cad/cam consideration. The factorial design is used to find out the best cutting condition
which directs to give maximum dimensional accuracy using the cutting parameter spindle
speed, axial depth of cut and feed rate. The half a normal plot and ANOVA analysis show that
the feed rate (Vf) most significant followed by depth of cut (Ae) and spindle speed (N). The
regression model developed proves to be accuracy and has the competence to calculate the
value of response within the limits of factors investigated. The RSM and Taguchi design can
be employed as powerful methodologies to develop an empirical model and optimize the
dimensional accuracy of microelectrodes. Furthermore dedicated software for micromilling
with CAD/CAM considerations will help to increase the productivity of microelectrodes.
References
[1] E. Uhlmann, S. Piltz, U. Doll, Fabrication of micro channels in extensive forming tools by
micro electrical discharge grinding (_-EDG) ,5th International Conference on Progress of
Machine Technology, Beijing,2000.
[2] Eckart Uhlmann, Sascha Piltz, Kai Schauer Micro milling of sintered tungstencopper
composite materials, Journal of Materials Processing Technology 167 (2005) pp. 402
407
[3] Bissacco G, Hansen HN and Chiffre LDe. Improving axial depth of cut accuracy in
micromilling, Proceedings of the Fourth Euspen International onference, UK, 2004, pp.
386-387.
[4] P. Lia, P. Aristimun, P. Arrazola, A.M. Hoogstrate, J.A.J. Oosterling, H.H. Langen, R.H.
Munnig Schmidt, A study of factors affecting the performance of micro square end mills
in milling of hardened tool steels,4Mconference, 2008
339
ISBN:9788190937634
[5] S Dimov, D T Pham, A Ivanov, K Popov, K Fansen, Micromilling strategies: optimization

issues, Journal of Engineering Manufacture, Volume 218, Number 7 / 2004,pp731-736
[6] Eckart Uhlmann, Sascha Piltz, Kai Schauer Micro milling of sintered tungstencopper
composite materials, Journal of Materials Processing Technology, Volume 167, 2005,
pp402-407
340
ISBN:9788190937634
Universal Exclusive Computerized Technique to Rate Simple

Jointed Planner Kinematic Chains
Nikunj.Yagnik1*, Dr. Anurag Verma2
1
P.G.Student, Birla Vishvakarma Mahavidyalaya , Engineering College,V.V.Nagar-388120,
Gujarat, India
2
Principal, G.H.Patel College of Engineering & Technology, V.V.Nagar-388120, Gujarat, India
*
Nikunj Yagnik (e-mail: yagniknikunj09@gmail.com)
The meticulous knowledge of the kinematic chain is essential for the designer in
mechanical engineering and importunate effort has made to know about
kinematic chain as much as possible. The existing research papers and
literature shows that methods have been reported to detect isomorphism and
type of degree of freedom among kinematic chains and mechanism. In the
present investigation a methodology is proposed based on the influence of type
of links, type of joints and type of loop present in a kinematic chain to predict the
performance of kinematic chains without carrying out the dimensional synthesis.
This paper shows the proposed method implemented on 8-link 1 degree of

freedom simple jointed kinematic chains.
Key words: Kinematic Chain, Degree of Freedom.
1. Introduction
Detection of distinct kinematic chain really becomes significant only when the
designer is able to predict the behavior of the chain based on its kinematic structure. For
example, one should know which of the chains would generate a function more accurately
once its dimensional synthesis is completed.[2] It is, of course, know that a chain with greater
number of links will generate specified motion more accurately because more design
parameters like link ratios are available to the designer, but out of distinct chains consisting of
same number of links it is not known how the type of link and their layout affect the
dimensional behavior of the chain in the sense of structural error.[5]
As the number of linkages, increases at the same time the possible configuration
increases i.e. more number of distinct kinematic chain are possible hence predicting the
performance of a given category of kinematic chain is difficult. A methodology has developed
and it has illustrated by taking examples for predicting performance of given kinematic chain
without actually carrying out the dimensional synthesis [14].
A proposed methodology uses of link assortment, joint value, primary Hamming
number, secondary Hamming number & loop value of chain for predicting the performance.
The methodology has divided in two parts. The first part involves finding link assortment, joint
value, primary Hamming number, secondary Hamming number [18]. Second part involves,
finding loop value of chain, types of links in an individual loops and their values.
2. Methodology
341
ISBN:9788190937634
The method is dividend in two parts for the convenience. In the part 1 the definition
and terminology with their abbreviation of link assortment, Joint Values and Family used to
form primary and secondary Hamming matrix. In the Part 2 definition and terminology of
Loop, Link Value, Independent Loop, Sub Loops, Loop Size, Loop value of chain, Loop value
of a Link used for the further process.
The 8 link 1 degree of freedom simple jointed kinematic chain having 16 numbers of possible
configuration but in this paper only one configuration selected to show methodology.
3. Method Part 1
The given below configuration used for the further calculation.
Figure 1 8 link 1 degree of freedom Note that Figure 1 is abbreviated
The connectivity of Figure1 is given below.

1 - 2, 8
2 - 1, 3
3- 2, 4, 8
4- 3, 5, 7
5- 4, 6
6- 5, 7
7- 4, 6, 8
8- 1, 3, 7
Step 1: Generating Connectivity Matrix
342
ISBN:9788190937634
Step 2: To get Link Assortment and joint value from the connecting matrix.
1. Sum of the elements of each row of matrix 1 which gives the type of link.
e.g. 1st link of matrix is binary (2) and
3rd link of the matrix is ternary (3)
Now, as per the definition of link assortment the type of link in a given kinematic chain gives
the link assortment hence link assortment of the Fig. 1. is 4(2), 4(3).
2. Joint Value
At the simple joints only two links are joined and the summation of the type of link of the two
is joint value.
e. g. In the matrix the first link is binary and which is connected with second link which is also
binary and first link is connected with eighth link which is ternary ,hence, joint value of that
joints are (2+3) and (2+2). Count the joint value of all the joints in the given kinematic chain.
So, the joint value for the given Figure 1 is 2(2+2), 4(3+3) ,4(2+3).
Step 3: Generating Primary Hamming Matrix and Primary Hamming Number
The Primary Hamming matrix is generated form the connectivity matrix. The element of the ith
row has considered as the binary code representing ith link. For example in our matrix.
Link 1: 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 1
Link 2: 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0
Step 4: Generating Secondary Hamming Matrix and Secondary Hamming Number

The Secondary hamming matrix is generated form the primary hamming matrix. The
elements in the ith row of primary hamming matrix may be considered as its hamming code for
example the element of link 1 and 2 of matrix 2 are,
Link 1: 0 4 1 5 4 4 3 5
Link 2: 4 0 5 3 4 4 5 1
4. Method Part 2
343
ISBN:9788190937634
Step 1: To Fill the Elements in the Rows of Independent Loop
Table 1
Step 2: To Fill Elements in the Rows of Sub Loop
Consider the row of sub loop [1-2] of Table -1. For filling the first element of the sub loop [1-2],
add the first element of the independent loop [1] and [2]. If the sum is not equal to zero but
less than the link value of link 1, the first element of the sub loop [1-2] is 1. If the sum is zero
or equal to or greater than the link value the first element of the sub loop [1-2] is 0.
Step 3: Loop Size

It has defined as the size of the loop it indicates the number of links participating on the
periphery of any loop. In order to calculate loop size add all the elements of the rows of Table
1 of Figure. 1. The loop size are shown if Table 1 for the given configuration.
Step 4: Loop Value of Chain

It is defined as the summation of all the loop size of a given kinematics chain for Fig.1. The
loop value of chain is 40.
Step 5: Loop Value of the Link (L.V.L)
It has defined for link as the summation of the size of loops in which it is participating.
Step 6: Independent Loop Value

It has defined by summation of loop value of a link, which is participating in formation of
independent loop.
In a given table-1 the independent loop-1 is form by link [1, 2, 3 & 8] hence sum the link value
of loop of same link.
Loop 1 = 1-2-3-8 = 124
Loop 2 = 3-4-7-8 = 144
5. Rating Scheme
Now, based on method 1 and 2 the data generated are used to evaluate simple
jointed kinematic chains. The following table gives rating of 8 link 1 degree of freedom with
proper order based on the following scheme.
Step 1: All the chains of a particular category of simple jointed planner kinematic
344
ISBN:9788190937634
chains are arranged in ascending order of their link assortment.
Step 2: All the chains of a particular category of simple jointed planner kinematic
chain are arranged in ascending order of their joint value.
Step 3 : In a given family the chains which are having same link assortment and same
joint value then, the chains are arranged in ascending order of followed by
primary Hamming number followed by secondary Hamming number and
lastly by their loop value.
Table 2: Rating for 8 Link 1 Degree of Freedom

6. Flow Chart
The computer coding based on the rating is also possible but is not feasible to display
over here. So, the flow chart based related to coding is given below.
7. Conclusion
345
ISBN:9788190937634
A new tactic is reported for the rating of simple jointed planner kinematic chains without
carried out dimensional synthesis and which can be easily computerized. The methodology is
generic and can be implemented on n-link, f- degree of freedom chain with slight modification.
The method is compatible for the digital computer.
References
[1] Hartenberg, R. S. and Denavit, J., Kinematic Synthesis of Linkages. McGraw-Hill, New
York, 1964.
[2] Gruebler, M., Getriebelehre. Berlin, 1917.
[3] Crossley, F. R. E., Transactions of ASME Journal of Engineering for Industry, 1964, 1-8.
[4] Alt, H., Die zehngliedrigen zwanglaufigen kinematischen Ketten. Eine noch hie
veroffentlichte Sammlung.
[5] Crossley, F. R. E., Antriebstechnik, 1964, 3, 181.
[6] Crossley, F. R. E., Journal of Mechanisms, 1966, 1, 165-170.
[7] Davies, Th. and Crossley, F. R. E., Journal of Mechanisms, 1966, 1, 171-183.
[8] Kiper, (3. and Schian, D., VDI-Z, 1975, 117, 283-288.
[9] Kiper, G. and Schian, D. VDI-Z, 1976, 118, 1066.
[10] Hwang, W. M. and Hwang, Y. W., Mechanism and Machine Theory, 1992, 27(2), 189-
199.
[11] Manolescu, N. L, Revue Roumaine Sci, Tech., Mecaunique Appl, 1964, 9, 1:763-1313.
[12] Manolescu, N. I., Mechanism and Machine Theory, 1973, 8, 3-22.
[13] Mruthyunjaya, T. S., Mechanism and Machine Theory, 1984, 19(6), 497-505.
[14] Mruthyunjaya, T. S. and Balasubramanian, H. R., Mechanism and Machine Theory.
1987, 22(2), 131-139.
[15] Crossley, F. R. E., in Developments in Theoretical and Applied Mechanics, Vol. 2.
Pergamon Press, 1965, pp. 467-486.
[16] Dobrjanskyj, L. and Freudenstein, F., in Transactions of ASME Journal of Engineering
for Industry, 1967, 153-158.
[17] Freudenstein, F., Journal of Mechanisms, 1967, 3, 275-290.
[18] Varada Raju, D., Nagarajakumar, E. and Rao, A. C., ASME, Mechanisms Conference,
Minneapolis, U.S.A., 1994.
346
GHPatelCollegeofEngineering&Technology
DepartmentofMechanicalEngineering
4thNATIONALCONFERENCEonEmergingTrendsinMechanicalEngineering(ETME 2011)
March1819,2011

SummaryofReceivedPaper
Within Outside
Sr.No. Group Total Student Faculty Industry
Gujarat Gujarat
1 Design 22 11 33 17 14 02
2 Production 17 15 32 14 16 02
3 Thermal 27 10 37 21 15 01
Total 66 36 102 52 45 05

Received papers from Iran (1), IIT Roorkee (1), IIT Delhi (1), NIT Surat (5), MSU Baroda (13), Industry (5)

StateWiseSummaryofReceivedPapers
Area
States Total
Design Production Thermal
Gujarat 22 17 27 56
Maharashtra 05 06 03 14
Punjab 04 01 05
UttarPradesh 02 01 02 05
MadhyaPradesh 02 01 03
AndhraPradesh 02 01 03
Rajasthan 01 01
Orissa 01 01
Tamilnadu 01 01
Kerala 01 01
Iran(Country) 01 01
WestBengal 01 01 02
Total 33 32 37 102

SCRUTINYRESULT
Sr.No. Group Total Accepted Rejected
1 Design 33 25 8
2 Production 32 22 10
3 Thermal 37 22 15
Total 102 69(68%) 33(32%)
347
GLIMPSES OF ETME-2008
348


349

350

ETME 2011 e Proceeding Proc. of The 4th National Conference On Emerging Trends in Mechanical Engineering, March 18 19, 2011

Transféré par

Informations du document

Titre original

Copyright

Formats disponibles

Partager ce document

Partager ou intégrer le document

Options de partage

Avez-vous trouvé ce document utile ?

Ce contenu est-il inapproprié ?

Droits d'auteur :

Formats disponibles

ETME 2011 e Proceeding Proc. of The 4th National Conference On Emerging Trends in Mechanical Engineering, March 18 19, 2011

Transféré par

Droits d'auteur :

Formats disponibles

Proc.

Prof. V A Deshpande Mr. M M Gor

"The Man who wins, is the Man Who Thinks He Can"

No. Committee CommitteeMembers

Performance Modification Method Used for End Suction Centrifugal Pump

Determination Of Tool Wear Condition in CNC Boring Machine Using AE Signals

Mathematical Modeling & Simulation of Multi-Utility Car by using MATLAB/SIMULINK

Effect of Twist and Rotation on Free Vibration of Delaminated Pre-twisted Angle-ply

Journal Bearing (Tri-Metal) for an IC Engine Crank Shaft

PERFORMANCE AND EMISSION CHARACTERISTICS OF A DIESEL

S.S.Ragit1, S.K.Mohapatra2, K.Kundu3

Fuel property Hemp Diesel ASTM EN 14214

Density (gm/cc3) 0.888 0.830 - 0.860-

2.2. Experimental set up or C.I. engine procedure

Figure 1 BTE Vs BMEP

3.2.2. Specific fuel consumption

Figure 2 SFC Vs BMEP

3.2.3. Exhaust gas temperature

Figure 3 EGT Vs BMEP

3.3. Exhaust emission analysis

Figure 8 NOx Vs BMEP

3.3.2. Unburned hydrocarbon

Figure 9 UBHC Vs BMEP

3.3.3. Smoke opacity

BMEP : Brake mean effective pressure

FEA & Experimental Investigation Of Spring-Back Effect In Rotary Draw

1. Theory of Rotary Draw Bending

Fig. 1.1 Schematic Representation of Rotary Draw tube Bending Machine

2. Defects in Tube Bending

Variation in Wall Thickness

3. Some Measures to reduce the defects in tube:

The advantages of using axial pull are listed below.

The work involves:

2) Results and Conclusion.

After carrying out analysis following are the results of analysis:

Bending Spring back

6.2.3 Calculation Of Bend Radius

Bending Spring back

Fig 6.2 Graph of Bend angle Vs Spring.

Problem Identification and Modification of Gravity Conveyor

For material handling equipment selection it is not possible to suggest a common

1.1 Existing Condition

1.2 Aims and Objective

To avoid operator fatigue

2. Case problem description:

In an assembly section of a leading farm equipment manufacturing industry, while

Fig 1. Cause and Effect Diagram

2.1 Production Flow Analysis

Fig 2. Layout of Varying Touch Unit

2.2 Problem Definition

3.1 Specification of existing conveyor

Gravity given 5 inch per 10 feet

3.2 Data collection

Table 1. Difference in the heights of the points

Point Lengt Inner Outer Differenc

1 1.91 1.188 1.170 0.018

3.3 Problem Areas

At curved section: improper joints, gradient, height,

3.4 Problem Identification

3.5 Preparing CAD model for existing conveyor

Fig 5. CAD Model for Analyzing Problem areas

ANALYSIS OF CREEP MODELS OF PP NANOCOMPOSITES WITH

The assumptions made in our modelling are as follows