S.

Stephan, Page 1

A General Method for the Design of Bolted Connections

for Space Frames

S. STEPHAN, C. STUTZKI

1. INTRODUCTION
The key problem of the design of space frames is the layout of the connections. With regard
to the space frame concept, bolted connections are the prefered choice. For single layer
structures, which are the most appropriate for glazed roofs and facades, the members often
have to be connected by means of more than one bolt in order to increase the bending capacity
of the connection. The design procedure of single bolt connections is well described in [2] [3]
[4] [5], however, a general method for the design of multi-bolt connections is not available.

This paper will present a general design method for single or multi-bolt connections of beams
with arbitrary thin-walled cross sections, suitable for application in computer programs. The
design method is based on the classical strain iteration algorithm for cross sections, which is
described in [6]. In this method, the ultimate capacity of bolted connections will be obtained
using an iterative numerical determination of the elastic-plastic stress distribution in the
connection elements. The numerical method will be derived in two steps – the numerical
determination of the stress distribution in the connection for a given combination of internal
forces and – the determination of the ultimate capacity of the connection. Furthermore
analytical design formulas for a multi-bolt tube connection will be derived. Finally results of
numerical and analytical calculations will be compared with corresponding test results.

2. BASES AND ASSUMPTIONS

For the derivation of both, numerical and analytical design methods, some general restrictive
assumptions have to be made. Basis of the discussion is the bolted connection of a prismatic
beam with a longitudinal axis x and cross section axes y and z. The cross section axes of the
beam do not need to be central axes. Only normal forces and bending moments will be
considered, lateral forces and torsion moment will be ignored.

The connection profile, i.e. the cross section of the beam at the bolted connection, must be
thin-walled. The outline of the connection profile can be open or closed. The wall of the
connection profile is modelled as a set of line elements and curve elements. In the contact
zone of the connection profile only compression forces can be transferred. The bolts are
modelled as a set of point elements. Only tensile forces can be transferred through the bolts.
The connection profile together with the bolts remains planar under full load (hypothesis of
planar cross sections).

Thus the strain equation for any point (y,z) of the planar connection can be written as follows
(for explanation of symbols refer to the notation list at the end of this paper):
ε ( y , z ) = κ z ⋅ y − κ y ⋅ z + εo (1)
 S. Stephan, Page 2

Hence the compression stress (negative) for any point (y,z) of the connection profile can be
obtained using the following formula:
 σ lim ; E ⋅ ε(y, z ) ≤ σ lim

σ(y, z ) =  E ⋅ ε(y, z ); (E ⋅ ε(y, z ) > σ lim ) ∧ (E ⋅ ε(y, z ) ≤ 0 ) (2)
 0 ; E ⋅ ε ( y, z ) > 0

Further the tensile stress (positive) for any bolt can be calculated from the following formula:
 σb lim ; E ⋅ ε(y, z ) > σb lim

σb(y, z ) =  E ⋅ ε(y, z ) ; (E ⋅ ε(y, z ) > 0 ) ∧ (E ⋅ ε(y, z ) ≤ σb lim ) (3)
 0 ; E ⋅ ε ( y, z ) ≤ 0

Finally the normal force and the bending moments at the connection can be determined from:
N = ∑ Ab v ⋅ σb(y v , z v ) + ∫A σ(y, z ) dA (4a)
v
My = − ∑ Ab v ⋅ σb(y v , z v ) ⋅ z v − ∫A σ(y, z ) ⋅ z dA (4b)
v
Mz = ∑ Ab v ⋅ σb(y v , z v ) ⋅ y v + ∫A σ(y, z ) ⋅ y dA (4c)
v
Thus a certain combination of strain parameters κy, κz and εo corresponds with a combination
of internal forces and moments. This interdependence will be used further.

3. NUMERICAL CALCULATION OF MULTI-BOLT CONNECTIONS

For the numerical design method some additional restrictive assumptions should be made.
The wall of the connection profile is modelled as a set of only line elements. Curved sections
must be adequately approximated by polygonal line elements. Any line element (index J) is
defined by two nodes (index i,
Z
k) and a particular thickness tJ
which is constant over the
length of the element (Fig. 1).
Any bolt (index v) has a v
particular thread diameter dv
dv
which determines the J
accompanying stress area Abv.
i
tJ
3.1. Iterative Determination
of Stress Distribution in
the Bolted Connection LJ

First of all it is necessary to

derive an algorithm for the k Y
O
determination of the stress X
distribution in the connection
elements for an arbitrary
combination of internal forces Fig. 1: General scheme of a multi-bolt connection
and moments Norig, Myorig, Mzorig.

This combination of normal force and bending moments will be used as initial values for the
iteration parameters (iteration index it):
it = 0 , = N orig , = My orig , = Mz orig
it it it
n my mz (5)
 S. Stephan, Page 3

With those iteration parameters the strain parameters can be calculated from:
it it it
mz my n
κz = κy = εo =
it it it
, , (6)
E ⋅ Jz E ⋅ Jy E⋅A
Hence the strain distribution of the planar connection (Fig. 2) for the current iteration is
determinable as follows:
ε(y, z ) it = κ z ⋅ y − κy ⋅ z + εo
it it it
(7)

Figure 2 shows the strain

distribution in the connection

Z
for an arbitrary combination of
internal forces and moments.
ε>0
The surfaces of the adjacent
connection profiles will contact
each other only within areas
with negative strain (ε < 0).
The contact zone is limited by
the zero strain line (ε = 0)
ε=0
Compression forces will be
transferred only within the

contact zone. Therefore only ε<0
Y
line elements with negative
O
strain at least in one node must X
be regarded for the
determination of compression stress Fig. 2: Strain distribution in the connection
in the connection profile. The bolts
will be activated only within areas with positive strain (ε > 0). Within those areas there is a
gap between the surfaces of the adjacent connection profiles.

3.1.1. Determination of Compression Stress in the Connection Profile

Figure 3 shows the strain and the stress distribution for a selected line element within the
contact zone of the connection profile. First the element length must be ascertained:
LJ = (y i,J − y k ,J )2 + (z i,J − z k ,J )2 (8)
Additionally the node strains are needed for the further calculation:
ε i = ε(y i,J , z i,J ) , ε k = ε(y k ,J , z k ,J )
it it
(9)
If there is a point with zero strain along the line element, the distance from node i must be
determined:
E ⋅ εi
u0J = ⋅ L J , u 0 J ∈ [0 K L J ] (10a)
E ⋅ εi − E ⋅ ε k
If the limit stress is reached in one point along the line element, the distance from node i can
be obtained in a similar way:
E ⋅ ε i − σ lim
u lim J = ⋅ L J , u lim J ∈ [0 K L J ] (10b)
E ⋅ εi − E ⋅ ε k
 S. Stephan, Page 4

Thus the coordinates of the point with zero strain can be calculated:
y0 J = y i,J + J ⋅ (y k ,J − y i,J ) , z0 J = z i,J + J ⋅ (z k ,J − z i,J )
u0 u0
(11a)
LJ LJ
In a similar way the coordinates of the point with limit stress will be determined:

⋅ (y k ,J − y i,J ) , z limJ = z i,J + ⋅ (z k ,J − z i,J )

u lim J u limJ
y limJ = y i,J + (11b)
LJ LJ

Elements with at least one Z

of those intermediate
points (with zero strain or
with limit stress) must be
split into sub-elements to
simplify the calculation i
of the resulting normal J

force and bending z0 J

moments. During this the zlim J
position of the
intermediate points
must be considered. k Y
O

y0 J ylim J
The arising sub-elements X 
are line elements (index j)
σ
with two nodes and a σlim
constant thickness tj
(Fig. 4). u0 J


u
For further calculations ulim J

only the sub-elements
u
will be used. LJ

The splitting operation

into sub-elements has to Fig. 3: Strain and stress distribution for a selected line element
be executed as follows:
 y
 i ,J
YJ = 
[ y0 J y limJ ]
y k ,J ; u 0 J ≤ u limJ
 y [
i , J y lim J
y 0 J y k , J ; u 0 J ]
> u lim J
(12a)

ZJ = 
 z
 i,J[ z0 J z lim J ]
z k ,J ; u 0 J ≤ u limJ
[
 z i,J z limJ z0 J ]
z k ,J ; u 0 J > u limJ
(12b)

The length of a sub-element (Fig. 4) with its two nodes (index i, k) must be calculated from:
L sub j = (Yi, j − Yk , j )2 + (Z i, j − Z k, j )2 (13)
The strain calculation for nodes of sub-elements is similar to (9). On that basis the node stress
can be obtained using the following formula:
 σ lim ; E ⋅ ε i, j ≤ σ lim

σ i , j =  E ⋅ ε i, j ; ( ) (
E ⋅ ε i, j > σ lim ∧ E ⋅ ε i, j ≤ 0 ) (14)
 0 ; E ⋅ ε i, j > 0

 S. Stephan, Page 5

The same formula can be

Z
applied for σk,j accordingly.

Thus the resulting normal force

and bending moments of a j
sub-element for the current
iteration can be determined. i tj
This will be done using a linear
stress distribution between σi,j
at node i and σk,j at node k.
MZsub j

Hence the arising normal force
k

MYsub j Y

will be obtained from the O
product of the stress trapezoid X σ
area and the element thickness. σ ij
Nsubj
With that the bending moments

Lj
can be determined as the σ kj
product of the normal force and
the corresponding coordinate of Fig. 4: Stress distribution for a sub-element
the centre of gravity of the stress trapezoid:
1
( )
N sub j = ⋅ σ i, j + σ k , j ⋅ t j ⋅ L sub j
2
(15a)

 σ i, j + 2 ⋅ σ k , j 
My sub j = N sub j ⋅  Z i, j +
 ( )(
3 ⋅ σ i, j + σ k , j
)
⋅ Z k , j − Z i, j 

(15b)

 σ i, j + 2 ⋅ σ k , j 
Mz sub j = N sub j ⋅  Yi, j +
 ( )(
3 ⋅ σ i, j + σ k , j
)
⋅ Yk , j − Yi, j 

(15c)

3.1.2. Determination of Tensile Z

Stress in the Bolts
Figure 5 shows a selected bolt v Abv
(index v) with its thread diameter
dv and its stress area Abv. That bolt
is located at the position (yv, zv)
within the tension zone of the
connection. The bolt strain for the
current iteration will be calculated
as follows:
ε v = ε (y v , z v )
it
(16)

MZbv
With that the tension stress in the Y

O
bolt is determinable from:
X
 σb lim ; E ⋅ ε v > σb lim MYbv

 (E ⋅ ε v > 0) ∧ ...

σ
σb v =  E ⋅ ε v ;
 (E ⋅ ε v ≤ σb lim ) N
 0 ; E ⋅ εv ≤ 0 bv

(17) Fig. 5: Internal forces and moments of a bolt
 S. Stephan, Page 6

3.1.3. Determination of Internal Forces and Moments

The resulting normal force in the bolts must be obtained from the product of the tensile stress
and the stress area of the bolt. The bending moments will then be determined as the product of
the normal force and the corresponding coordinate of the bolt position.

Now it is possible to calculate the normal force and bending moments in the connection,
which results from the combination of strain parameters (6) for the current iteration step 〈it〉:
= ∑ Ab v ⋅ σb v + ∑ N sub j
it
N (18a)
v j

= −∑ Ab v ⋅ σb v ⋅ z v − ∑ Mysub j
it
My (18b)
v j

= ∑ Ab v ⋅ σb v ⋅ y v + ∑ Mzsub j
it
Mz (18c)
v j

3.1.4. Check of Convergence

To verify whether convergence is reached in the current iteration, it is necessary to determine
the deviation of the normal force and bending moments from the given original combination
of internal forces and moments Norig, Myorig, Mzorig:
∆N = N orig − N
it it
(19a)
∆My = My orig − My
it it
(19b)
∆Mz = Mz orig − Mz
it it
(19c)
Convergence will be reached, if the following condition is fulfilled:
(∆N it
≅ 0 ∧ ∆My) ( it
) (
≅ 0 ∧ ∆Mz
it
≅0 ) (20)

If condition (20) is not fulfilled, then it will be necessary to execute a new iteration step.
To begin with the new iteration the following iteration parameters must be adjusted:
it −1 it −1 it −1
it = it + 1, n = n + ∆N, my = my + ∆My, mz = mz + ∆Mz (21)
it it it

Afterwards all equations from (6) to (19) has to be calculated again and condition (20) has to
be checked. The iteration must be repeated until condition (20) is fulfilled.

The stress and strain distribution in the connection elements, which is caused by the given
combination of internal forces and moments Norig, Myorig, Mzorig, is thus determined.

3.2. Iterative Determination of the Ultimate Connection Capacity

The above described determination of the stress distribution in the connection elements for
an arbitrary combination of normal force and bending moments will be used now for the
calculation of the ultimate connection capacity.

Two of three parameters N, My and Mz (normal force and bending moments) must be given,
the limit value of the third parameter will be determined. Beginning with zero, the third
parameter has to be increased in steady steps. For each step the procedure described in
pragraph 3.1 has to be carried out. If the convergence condition (20) cannot be fulfilled within
a reasonable number of iterations, then the limit value of the third parameter was obviously
exceeded.

Hence, the previous increase of the third parameter has to be cancelled, the parameter step
size has to be halved and the third parameter will be increased with reduced step size.
 S. Stephan, Page 7

After that procedure 3.1 has to be repeated. If the convergence condition (20) can be fulfilled
now, then the third parameter will be continually increased with reduced step size and
procedure 3.1 will be carried out for each step. If, however, the convergence condition (20)
cannot be fulfilled within a reasonable number of iterations, then the previous increase of the
third parameter has to be cancelled once more, the parameter step size has to be halved again
and the third parameter should be increased with the smaller step size. Then procedure 3.1.
has to be carried out once more.

This process must be repeated until the parameter step size is lower than a small predefined
value. If that condition is met, the limit value of the third parameter is found. The current
combination of all three parameters N, My and Mz is the ultimate capacity of the connection.

The advantage of the presented numerical method is that it can be easily adapted to arbitrary
thin-walled connection profiles with any bolt scheme.

4. ANALYTICAL CALCULATION OF MULTI-BOLT TUBE CONNECTIONS

In this paragraph an analytical calculation method will be presented for a bolted tube
connection as shown in Fig. 6, which has a simple and continuous connection profile. This
analytical method will be used to check the results of the above described numerical method.
Z Z Z
The idea of the above
numerical method was the



iterative modification of
strain parameters until the
resulting internal forces
are equal to the given Y
σ
combination of internal
forces (refer to [6]).
R
The numerical calculation of t
the ultimate connection 

capacity was finally a
stepwise increase of a given
internal force or moment
until the equality of the resulting Fig. 6: Multi-bolt tube connection
internal forces with the given
combination cannot be achieved anymore. Thus, the ultimate capacity of a connection can be
determined only as a result of a double iteration process.

In contrast, the analytical method does not require any iteration. Ultimate strain conditions
have to be defined for the connection profile and for the bolts. Together with assumed
coordinates of the zero strain line this is sufficient to calculate all strain parameters and hence
the resulting combination of normal force and bending moments That combination represents
simultaneously the ultimate capacity of the connection. Modifying the coordinates of the zero
strain line, a limit state interaction of normal force and bending moments can be determined.

Obviously this is an implicit calculation method, since it is impossible to determine the

combination of normal force and bending moments directly - knowing two of three
parameters N, My and Mz. The combination of normal force and bending moments can be
ascertained only from a set of parametric equations based on the strain parameters.
 S. Stephan, Page 8

It is assumed again that the connection profile together with the bolts remains planar under
full load (hypothesis of planar cross sections). In order to simplify the derivation it is assumed
further that the bending moment Mz is zero.

Hence it follows that only two strain parameters are necessary: the coordinate of the zero
strain line z0 and a certain strain value ε1 with its corresponding coordinate z1. Strain ε1 is
either the ultimate strain of the outermost tube wall in the compression zone or the ultimate
strain of the outermost bolt in the tension zone, depending on which of the two is the decisive
criterion. This procedure is described below in paragraph 4.4.

Consequently, the strain distribution for the tube connection (Fig. 6) can be determined:
z − z0
ε(z ) = ε1 ⋅ (22)
z1 − z0

4.1. Determination of Compression Stress σ

in the Tube Wall
Considering equations (2) and (22), the stress
distribution in the tube wall can be obtained σlim
from:
 σ lim ; E ⋅ ε(z ) ≤ σ lim

 (E ⋅ ε(z ) ≤ 0) ∧ ...
σ(z ) =  E ⋅ ε(z ); (23)
 (E ⋅ ε (z ) > σ lim )
lim
yield O


 0 ; E ⋅ ε(z ) > 0

The corresponding stress distribution Fig. 7: Elastic-plastic tube material
is shown in figure 8. Figure 7 shows the elastic
behaviour of the tube material until the yield strain εyield is reached and the plastic behaviour
until ultimate strain εlim is reached. According to Hooke's law the yield strain can be
determined from the
dA
following equation: Z
σlim

yield Z Z
ε yield = (24)
E


Provided that zlim is the dß
coordinate with the yield Z
strain, equation (22) can be ZO
transformed to: ∝O
Zlim
σ
z − z0 ß Y Z1 σlim
ε yield = ε1 ⋅ lim (25) t R
z1 − z0
∝lim

Considering equations (24)
1

and (25), the coordinate with 
the yield strain zlim can be
determined for (-R ≤ zlim ≤ R)
from: Fig. 8: Stress and strain distribution for the tube wall
σ lim
z lim = ⋅ (z1 − z0 ) + z0 (26)
E ⋅ ε1
The geometrical characteristics in figure 8 will be obtained from:
z  z0   z1  z 
β = arcsin  , α0 = arcsin  , α1 = arcsin  , α lim = arcsin lim  (27)
R R R  R 
 S. Stephan, Page 9

As can be seen from figure 8, the area differential of the tube wall is defined as follows:
dA = R ⋅ t ⋅ dβ (28)
The tube wall can be divided in a section with no contact and hence no stress (-R ≤ z < z0),
a section with elastic stress (z0 ≤ z < zlim) and a section with plastic stress (zlim ≤ z ≤ R).

Thus the normal force of the section with only elastic stress will be obtained from:
z lim α lim
sin (β ) − sin(α0)
N e = 2 ⋅ ∫ σ(z ) ⋅ dA = 2 ⋅ ∫ E ⋅ ε1 ⋅ R ⋅ t ⋅ dβ (29a)
z0 α0 sin(α1) − sin(α 0)
cos(α0 ) − cos(α lim ) + (α 0 − α lim ) ⋅ sin (α 0)
N e = 2 ⋅ E ⋅ ε1 ⋅ R ⋅ t ⋅ (29b)
sin(α1) − sin(α 0)
The normal force of the section with only plastic stress will be derived accordingly:
π/2
N p = 2 ⋅ ∫ σ(z ) ⋅ dA = 2 ⋅ ∫ σlim ⋅ R ⋅ t ⋅ dβ
R
(30a)
z lim α lim
N p = (π − 2 ⋅ α lim ) ⋅ σlim ⋅ R ⋅ t (30b)
The bending moment of the section with elastic stress will be derived in a similar way:
z lim
My e = 2 ⋅ ∫ σ(z ) ⋅ z ⋅ dA (31a)
z0
α lim sin (β) − sin(α0)
My e = 2 ⋅ ∫ E ⋅ ε1 ⋅ R 2 ⋅ t ⋅ sin (β) ⋅ dβ (31b)
α0 sin(α1) − sin(α0)
sin (2 ⋅ α lim ) sin (2 ⋅ α0 )
2 ⋅ sin (α 0) ⋅ cos(α lim ) + (α lim − α0 ) − −
My e = E ⋅ ε1 ⋅ R 2 ⋅ t ⋅ 2 2 (31c)
sin(α1) − sin(α 0)
The bending moment of the section with plastic stress will be obtained from:
π/2
My p = 2 ⋅ ∫ σ(z ) ⋅ z ⋅ dA = 2 ⋅ ∫ σlim ⋅ R 2 ⋅ t ⋅ sin (β ) ⋅ dβ
R
(32a)
z lim α lim

My p = 2 ⋅ cos(⋅ α lim ) ⋅ σlim ⋅ R 2 ⋅ t (32b)

σ
4.2. Determination of Tensile Stress in the Bolts
Considering equations (2) and (22), the stress
distribution in the bolts can be calculated as follows: σblim
 σb lim ; E ⋅ ε(z ) > σb lim

 (E ⋅ ε(z ) > 0) ∧ ...
σb(z ) =  E ⋅ ε(z ) ; (33)
 (E ⋅ ε(z ) > σb lim )
 0 ; E ⋅ ε(z ) ≤ 0
 O
byield
blim

The corresponding stress distribution is shown in
figure 10. Figure 9 shows the elastic behaviour Fig. 9: Elastic-plastic bolt material
of the tube material until the yield strain εbyield
is reached and further the ideal plastic behaviour until ultimate strain εblim is reached.
According to Hooke's law the yield strain can be determined from the following equation:
σb
εb yield = lim (34)
E
Provided that zblim is the coordinate with the yield strain, equation (22) can be transformed to:
zb − z0
εb yield = ε1 ⋅ lim (35)
z1 − z0
 S. Stephan, Page 10

Considering equations (34) and (35), the coordinate with the yield strain zblim can be
calculated from the following equation (-R ≤ zblim ≤ R):
σb lim
zb lim = ⋅ (z1 − z0 ) + z0 (36)
E ⋅ ε1
Z Z Z
The bolt area can be


divided in a section with
no stress due to contact in
byield
the tube wall (z0 ≤ z < R), Zblim ZO
a section with elastic σ
stress (zblim ≤ z < z0) and Y
Z1
σblim
a section with plastic
stress (-R ≤ z ≤ zblim).
1

Thus the normal force of
all bolts (index v) will be
determined as follows: Fig. 10: Stress and strain distribution for the bolts
 σb lim ⋅ Ab v ; z v < zb lim

 z − z0
N b = ∑  E ⋅ ε1 ⋅ v ⋅ Ab v ; (z v ≥ zb lim ) ∧ (z v ≤ z0 ) (37)
v  z1 − z0
 0 ; z v > z0
The bending moment of all bolts will be calculated accordingly:
 σb lim ⋅ Ab v ⋅ z v ; z v < zb lim

 z − z0
My b = ∑  E ⋅ ε1 ⋅ v ⋅ Ab v ⋅ z v ; (z v ≥ zb lim ) ∧ (z v ≤ z0 ) (38)
v  z1 − z0
 0 ; z v > z0

4.3. Determination of Ultimate Normal Force and Bending Moment

The normal force and bending moment represent the ultimate capacity of the connection,
since the calculation is based on ultimate strain conditions. The ultimate normal force and
ultimate bending moment of the multi-bolt tube connection will be determined from the
following equations:
N = Ne + N p + Nb (39a)
My = −My e − My p − My b (39b)
The limit state interaction of the normal force and the bending moment can be determined by
a stepwise increase of the zero strain coordinate z0 from –R to R.

4.4. Determination of Ultimate Strain Conditions

For the above described analytical method, a certain strain value ε1 with its corresponding
coordinate z1 has to be assumed. The strain value ε1 is either the ultimate strain of the
outermost tube wall in the compression zone or the ultimate strain of the outermost bolt in the
tension zone, depending on the critical strain conditions. According to [1], the ultimate strain
for mild steel can be assumed as:
εlim = 0.1 (40a)
Obviously, the corresponding coordinate of the outermost tube wall is:
z.R = R (40b)
 S. Stephan, Page 11

Likewise, according to [1] the ultimate strain of high strength bolts (grade 8.8 and 10.9) can
be calculated as follows:
π ⋅ do 2 ⋅ σblim  1.6 4 ⋅ Ls ko ⋅ (Lb − Ls ) + kn ⋅ hn 
εblim = ⋅ + + 4⋅  (41a)
4 ⋅ E ⋅ Lb π ⋅d π ⋅d π ⋅ do 2
2

The corresponding coordinate of the outermost bolt in the tension zone can be obtained from:
z.B = min (z v ) (41b)
The thread strain coefficient has to be determined from the following formula:
 0.2
 0.8 + 0.021 ; grade 8.8
ko =  (42)
0. 1
0.9 + ; grade 10.9
 0.013
The nut strain coefficient has to be calculated as follows:
 0.12
 0.48 + 0.021 ; grade 8.8
kn =  (43)
0.06
0.54 + ; grade 10.9
 0.013
The resulting ultimate strain of the bolts usually lies between 0.02 and 0.06, depending on the
geometric parameters of the bolts (diameter, shaft length and thread length).

Providing that the specific Z Z Z

ultimate strain appears at the
R
lim
outermost bolt in the tension zone, ZR
the resulting strain at the
outermost tube wall in ZO
compression zone has to be


calculated as follows: O O O
z − z0 Y
εR = R ⋅ εb lim (44) ZB
z B − z0

blim
B
Providing, however, that the
specific ultimate strain
appears at the outermost tube
wall in the compression zone, Fig. 11: Two possibilities of ultimate strain distribution
the resulting strain at the
outermost bolt in the tension zone has to be calculated as follows:
z − z0
εB = B ⋅ ε lim (45)
z R − z0
The strain value ε1 depends on which of the two strain distributions is permissible:
 ε lim ; (ε B ≤ εblim ) ∧ (ε R > εlim )
ε1 = 
 ε b lim ; (ε B > εb lim ) ∧ (ε R ≤ ε lim ) (46a)

Hence the corresponding coordinate z1 has to be calculated accordingly:

 z R ; (ε B ≤ εb lim ) ∧ (ε R > ε lim )
z1 = 
 z B ; (ε B > εb lim ) ∧ (ε R ≤ ε lim )
(46b)

Those values are sufficient for the analytical calculation according to 4.1, 4.2 and 4.3.
 S. Stephan, Page 12

5. TENSILE AND BENDING TESTS

The calculated ultimate connection capacity can be verified only by experimental tests.
Usually, these tests will be carried out as single axial load tests either with pure tensile load or
with pure bending load. Multiaxial load tests, i.e. with interaction of normal force and
bending moments, are difficult to realize and very expensive. Every specific test has to be
carried out at least three times. The test results must be evaluated according to relevant codes
or regulations, e.g. BS 5950-1. The objective of the tests is the determination of the
connection capacity for a given load. Another objective is the determination of the
corresponding connection stiffness, which has to be used in the structural model to reflect the
real semi-rigid behaviour of the bolted connection. In order to determine the connection
stiffness, the applied load and the corresponding deflection must be continuously recorded.
The applied load will be gradually increased from zero to the ultimate load (connection failure
or extreme deflections).

Fig. 12: Typical tensile test arrangement

Figure 12 shows a typical tensile test of a multi-bolt tube connection. The tensile force will be
measured directly at the testing machine. The tensile deflection of the connection will be
measured with inductive path-measuring instruments (WA2, WA3 in Fig. 12).

Fig. 13: Typical bending test arrangement

Figure 13 shows a typical bending test of a multi-bolt tube connection. The bending force will
be measured with load cells underneath the crossbeam of the testing machine. The bending
deflection of the connection will be measured with inductive path-measuring instruments
(WA1, WA2, WA3, WA4 in Fig. 13). The applied bending moment is constant between the
two points of force introduction and can be easily calculated due to the symmetric four-point
test arrangement.
 S. Stephan, Page 13

6. COMPARISON OF NUMERICAL, ANALYTICAL AND TEST RESULTS

The above described numerical calculation method was converted to a computer program
by means of the programming language FORTRAN 90. The data model of the connection
profile and the bolt scheme is very flexible and can be adopted to any configuration. The
analytical calculation method for tube connections was programmed by means of the
mathematical software MATHCAD 2000.

Fig. 14: Longitudinal section of the tested 4-bolt connection for Glasgow Science Center

Figure 14 shows a longitudinal section through the 4-bolt connection of the Exploratorium
roof structure of the Glasgow Science Center. Figure 15 shows the corresponding cross
section. This connection was designed
according to the paragraphs 3, 4 and 5.

The 4-bolt connection of the above

structure has the following parameters:
tube diameter 323.9 mm
tube wall thickness 12 mm
tube material S355 J2H
bolt size, grade 4 x M27 – 10.9
pitch diameter 180 mm

The results of the numerical and

analytical calculations as well as the
test results are shown in figure 16.
As can be seen from the diagram
the analytical and numerical results
are close together. These calculations
have been confirmed by test results Fig. 15: Cross section of the tested 4-bolt connection
for the relevant load combinations.
The evaluation of the test results has been done according to BS 5950-1.
 S. Stephan, Page 14

250

200
Bending moment, kNm

150

100

50

0
-5000 -4000 -3000 -2000 -1000 0 1000 2000

Normal force, kN

Analytical Calculation Numerical Calculation Test Results

Fig. 16: Analytical & numerical calculation and test results for Glasgow Science Center

Although the node connection for the roof structure of the Eden Project is a single bolt
connection, it can be designed according to the above described methods.

The results of calculations and tests are shown in figure 17. The connection parameters are:
tube diameter 193.7 mm tube wall thickness 10 mm
tube material S355 J2H bolt size, grade 1 x M33 – 10.9

As can be seen from the diagram the analytical and numerical results are close together and
have been confirmed by the test results for the relevant load combinations.
60

50
Bending moment, kNm

40

30

20

10

0
-2500 -2000 -1500 -1000 -500 0 500 1000

Normal force, kN

Analytical Calculation Numerical Calculation Test Results

Fig. 17: Analytical & numerical calculation and test results for Eden Project
 S. Stephan, Page 15

7. REFERENCES
[1] STEURER A., Das Tragverhalten und Rotationsvermögen geschraubter Stirnplatten-
verbindungen, ETH Zürich: IBK Bericht Nr. 247, Birkhäuser Verlag, Basel 1999,
pp 242 – 244 & 255 – 256
[2] Allgemeine bauaufsichtliche Zulassung Z-14.4-10: MERO Raumfachwerk, DIBt Berlin
[3] KLIMKE H., Developing a Space Frame System, IASS Singapore 1997, pp 439 – 446
[4] STUTZKI C., MERO Plus – Handbuch, Würzburg 1990, pp II.10.34 – II.10.48
[5] KLIMKE H., How Space Frames Are Connected, IASS Madrid 1999, pp B4.13 – B4.19
[6] KINDMANN R. & FRICKEL J., Elastische und plastische Querschnittstragfähigkeit,
Ernst & Sohn, Berlin 2002, pp 411 – 412 & 485 – 499

8. NOTATION LIST

8.1. Symbols
∝0 angle with zero strain (z0) kn nut strain coefficient
∝1 angle with given strain (z1) ko thread strain coefficent
∝lim angle with limit stress (zlim) L, Lsub element length
ß current angle (z) Lb clamping length of bolt
σ compression stress (profile) Ls shaft length of bolt
σlim ultimate compression stress My, Mz bending moments
σb tensile stress (bolt) Mysub, Mysub bending moments
σblim ultimate tensile stress (bolt) my, mz iteration parameters
∆My, ∆Mz deviation of bending moment Myb bending moment of bolts
∆N deviation of normal force Mye, Mze bend. moments of elastic area
κy, κz strain parameters Myp, Mzp bend. moments of plastic area
ε strain in x-direction Myorig, Mzorig given bending moments
εlim ultimate strain N, Nsub normal force
εyield yield strain n iteration parameter
εblim ultimate strain of bolt Nb normal force of bolts
εbyield yield strain of bolt Ne normal force of elastic area
εB strain at outermost bolt Np normal force of plastic area
εR strain at outermost tube wall Norig given normal force
εo strain parameter R tube radius
ε1 given strain t wall thickness
A cross section area u0 offset of zero strain point
Ab stress area of bolt ulim offset of limit stress point
d thread diameter of bolt y, z node coordinates
do diameter of stress area of bolt Y, Z node coordinates
dA area differential y0, z0 coordinates of zero strain point
dß angle differential ylim, zlim coordinates of limit stress point
E modulus of elasticity zB coordinate of outermost bolt
hn height of nut zR coord. of outermost tube wall
Jy, Jz moments of inertia z1 coordinate with given strain

8.2. Indices
i, k node index it iteration index
J, j element index v bolt index
 S. Stephan, Page 16

8.3. Addendum 03.10.2002

Figure 18 shows a longitudinal section through the 6-bolt connection of the foyer roof
structure of the Scottish Parliament in Edinburgh. Figure 19 shows the corresponding cross
section. This connection was designed according to the paragraphs 3, 4 and 5.

Fig. 18: Longitudinal section of the 6-bolt connection for Scottish Parliament Edinburgh

The 6-bolt connection of the above structure

has the following parameters:
tube diameter 406.4 mm
tube wall thickness 25 mm
tube material S355 J2H
bolt size, grade 6 x M36 – 10.9
pitch diameter 220 mm

The results of the numerical and analytical

calculations as well as the test results are
shown in figure 20. As can be seen from
the diagram the analytical and numerical
results are close together. These calculations
have been confirmed by test results for the
relevant load combinations. The evaluation
of the test results has been done according to
BS 5950-1.
Fig. 19: Cross section of the 6-bolt connection
 S. Stephan, Page 17

800

700

Bending moment, kNm 600

500

400

300

200

100

0
-12000 -10000 -8000 -6000 -4000 -2000 0 2000 4000 6000

Normal force, kN

Analytical Numerical Test Results

Fig. 20: Calculation and test results for Scottish Parliament Edinburgh, foyer roof