Introduction

(( Charon taraf mrigtrishna se ghiri tupti marubhumi mein

jeevan ki, ek jeevant sanskriti ki neev rakhte samay is
samaj ne pani se sambandhit choU se choti baat ko dekha
parkha hoga. Pani ke mamley mein har vipreet paristithi
mein usne jeevan ki reet khojne ka praytna kiya aur
mrigtrishna ko jhuthlate huey jagah - jagah tarah -
tarah ke praytna kiye. "
-Anupam Mishra

(Translation: This society surrounded by mirage and heating sands from all the
sides, must have kept every small and significant fact about the water in mind
while laying the foundations of a vibrant social system. It has defied all the
adverse conditions in matter of water, to live and find the traditions (riti) of life
and have done diverse ~fforts at different places to let the miragefail.

Such are the people of this land, who have lived through the ages in harmony
with nature, utilizing every drop of water, making careful arrangements so not
to spill even a single drop. The society itself was taking care of water
management, without depending upon any outer source. Such community-based
efforts have again come to fore when a short stint with the processes of modem
developments has failed. The society has awakened, initiating the old traditions
and culture again with its own members, to keep the vibrancy of its
colorfulness.

This study aims at locating the shift in the approaches to conserve the
natural resources like water from the State-centric to people's centric, through
Introduction

reviving the traditions and cultural traits, carried over ages by the local people.
There have been new developments in this area in Rajasthan, where for about
last two decades; the civil society is engaged in the efforts to revive traditions
through people's initiatives. This study has primarily focused on three efforts
which are unique if put together in the perspective of shifting paradigms of
development with initiatives from the civil society. The first effort of Tarun
Bharat Sangh of Rajendra Singh is Gandhian in nature, promoting self-reliance
and people's participation. The second effort of Jal Bhagirathi Foundation of
Maharaja Gaj Singh is similar to that of Rajendra Singh, but has unique element
of integration of traditional authority and charisma with democratic ethos of
development. The third effort of Rajasthan Patrika is the story of Media's role
of a social catalyst, which is usually read in theory books about the media but
not found in today's media environment, heavy with the air of the market and
consumensm.
But these three efforts have one point III common - reviving the
traditional methods of water conservation with the involvement of common
people. They are emphasizing the role and significance of traditions and culture
of considering water to be a gift of God and utilizing it with rational and
wisdom. The main questions of focus of this study have been: What are those so
talked about traditions and cultures, which have made this society survive for
such a long period? What is their status now? How are they using these
methods? What are their methods? What is their impact? Are they successful?
Will this blend of three different tools with common goal make a dent on the
common consciousness? How significant are the traditional methods of water
conservation in contemporary socio-political and economic settings? What are
the alterations they have made to the traditional methods? What is the role of
women in these efforts? What is the role of existing institutions of caste and
kinship in these efforts?
The study has taken into consideration the fact that, earlier there has
been consciousness about the environment and the natural resources in the
traditional societies. As Anupam Mishra has suggested in another of his works,
Radiant Raindrops of Rajasthan, "It is thanks to the local society and

2
Introduction

the public to get the air of the so-called modernity and development. This
attitude of the rulers, to an extent saved the tradition and culture of the region
from getting affected from the processes like westernization, which covertly
helped society to keep them intact. But after the independence, with the
modernization and technological advances, the society also came under
influence of the processes, which followed it like, urbanization, industrialization
and others. They made the society to whither away these traditions and cultural
traits, knowingly and unknowingly.
The State of Rajasthan is the largest state in the country covering an area
of 3.42 lakh square kilometers, which is more than 10% of the total
geographical area of the country. About 5% of the total population of the
country resides in the State and it has more than 15.7 million hectares of land
suitable for agriculture. The State of Rajasthan is one of the driest states of the
country and the total surface water resources in the State are only about 1% of
the total surface water resources of the country. The surface water resources in
the state are mainly confined to south and southeastern part of the State. The
rivers of the state are rain fed and identified by 14 river basins. There is a large
area in north-western part of the State, having no defined drainage basin of its
own and is designated as 'outside basin'. It is dependent on the Rabi-Beas-
Sutlej waters. The rainfall in the state is not only scarce but has highly uneven
distribution both in time and space.
The ground water also plays an important role especially in agriculture
and drinking water supply. The situation of ground water exploitation is also not
satisfactory as in areas where surface irrigation is provided there is a tendency
of not using ground water for agriculture, which creates problem of water table
rise and even water logging. On the contrary, in large areas of the State, ground
water is being over exploited and the water table in some areas is going down
every year at an alarming rate.
In matter of water management and conservation, people started relying
upon the State for their water supplies and maintenance of the resources, which
was earlier a function of the community. This dependence on the other made
their lives happy for a few years or decades, but then the attitude of the public

4
Introduction

and the State changed and so the conditions. Water became a big issue and there
was nobody to solve it. A few years ago, some experiments started about the
conservation and management of water resources.
The first one was the experiment of Waterman Rajendra Singh in the
Mewat region, which covers the districts of Alwar, Sawai Madhopur and Jaipur.
His organization Tarun Bharat Sangh started taking care of the traditional
Johads, to harvest the rainwater with people's initiative and continuous efforts
in the region. Rajendra Singh got famous Magsaysay award for this effort.
Impressed from the work done by Rajendra Singh, Maharaja Gaj Singh
of Jodhpur invited him to give direction to the community to mitigate the water
crisis in his erstwhile state ofMarwar, which covers around seven districts. He
founded Jal Bhagirathi Foundation in Jodhpur with inspiration and help from
Raj endra Singh.
In year 2005, Rajasthan Patrika, a leading Hindi Daily in Rajasthan,
started a similar campaign in small towns and cities in Rajasthan. The
difference is that while the first two were mainly focusing on the rural areas and
needs of the villages for agriculture and drinking water, Rajasthan Patrika
focused on the urban and semi - urban spheres. The traditional water structures
like talabs (tanks or ponds), baories, jhalras and kunds in the urban settings
were going dead and out of use after the arrival of taps in the homes and people
started forgetting them. They were becoming garbage dumps for the
surrounding communities. Rajasthan Patrika started publishing articles on their
wrath and pathetic condition and to sensitize the common public about their
significance and the need to conserve and save them along with the concerned
authorities. But it didn't limit itself to the lip service and intellectual activism, it
also started public campaigns to clean them and put them back to use. It
mobilized the school children, different associations of the professionals like
Journalist associations, Teacher's association, Traders associations and others.
It has generated a huge momentum in these towns and cities to desilt and clean
these structures. It has generated consciousness about the importance and
significance of these structures in these times of crises.

5
Introduction

argument. He has explored the strengths and weaknesses of their accounts in

relation to two aspects of environmental politics: the creation of institutional
alternatives to contemporary capitalism; and the role of democratic theory and
democratic institutions in creating a more environmentally sustainable society.

Milton, Key (1996) Environmentalism and Cultural Theory, London:

Routledge.
The book argues that the cultural theory can contribute to an understanding of
environmental issues depending on the idea that culture plays an important role
in human-environment relations. Milton develops this idea, first by explaining
what anthropologists mean by culture and cultural theory, and then by
considering how anthropologists have related the concept of culture to human
ecology. Here, he establishes a working definition of 'environmentalism' and
discuss its status as a 'CUltural' phenomenon. He presents an analysis of existing
social-scientific studies on environmentalism and compares perspectives on the
environment from a range of cultural contexts, including both industrial and
non-industrial societies. The comparison is centered on a popular
environmentalist 'myth', the assertion that non-industrial societies possess a
degree of ecological wisdom which has been lost in the process of industrial
development.
Milton wants to argue with this book that anthropology has a long way
to go in establishing its role in environmental discourse, and in convincing other
participants of the value of that role. The arguments presented in this book have
implications for three main areas of interest. First, within anthropology, the
exploration of ways in which the discipline might contribute to the
environmental discourse has generated ideas which have consequences both for
cultural theory in general and for the analysis of contemporary human culture.
Second, the identification of a role for anthropology brings into focus its
relationship with other social sciences and raises questions about the
development of interdisciplinary approaches. Finally, there is the potential
influence of cultural analysis on environmental discourse itself; the messages
anthropology holds for environmentalism.

7
Introduction

Pepper, David (1996) Modem Environmentalism: An Introduction, London:

Routledge.
Pepper presents a comprehensive introduction to environmentalism, the history
of Western attitudes to nature and environment, and how these ideas relate to
modem environmental ideologies. Examining key environmental 'ideas within
their social and historical context, he outlines in this book, the radical
environmentalist approaches to valuing nature, to economics, Third World
developments, technology, eco-feminism and social change.
The author surveys pre-modem ideas about nature and humankind's
relationship to it, the developments in science during the Enlightenment and the
roots of radical environmentalism in nineteenth- and twentieth- century
movements. The main influences include Malthus, Darwin and Haeckel, utopian
socialism, romanticism, and organic and holistic system thinkers. Science is
placed at the heart of the nature-society debate, as the major constituent of our
cultural filter. The book explains how postmodern ideas of subjectivity and the
breakdown of scientific authority have developed, and scientific 'truths' about
nature have become divorced from their social and ideological context. Pepper
offers a comprehensive understanding of environmentalism and the
environment debate, and of different approaches to establish the desired
ecological society.
Guha, Ramchandra (2000) Environmentalism: A Global History, Delhi:
Oxford University Press.
It details the major trends, ideas, campaigns, and thinkers within the
environmental movement worldwide. The author distinguishes between the first
wave of environmentalism-the initial response to the onset of industrialization-
and a second wave, when a largely intellectual response was given shape and
force by a groundswell of popular support. These two waves are separated by an
'age of ecological innocence', the period immediately followed the Second
World War, when environmental concerns retreated to the margins of public
discourse.
As a comparative history of the environmental movement, he picks up
examples from all over the globe. Among the thinkers its profiles are John

8
Introduction

Muir, Mahatma Gandhi, Rachel Carson and Octavia Hill; among the
movements, the Chipko Andolan and the German Greens. It documents the flow
of ideas across cultures, the ways in which environmental movement in one
country has been invigorated or transformed by infusions from outside. It
interprets the different directions taken by different national traditions, and also
explains why in certain contexts (such as former Socialist Bloc) the green
movement is marked only by its absence.
Guha's focus is on environmentalism in modem age, but he delineates
and explores in depth a multiplicity of approaches to those issues, with
particular emphasis on the often variant currents of the latter half of the
twentieth century. Ideas about the environment and movements aimed at
focusing attention on the causes of its degradation and the ways to protect it are
set in the different socioeconomic and political contexts which gave rise to
them. He seeks to identify the commonalities and differences in environmental
thinking and activism through case studies drawn from the experience of areas
as diverse as the United States, The former Soviet Union, China, India, Africa
and Brazil. He candidly assesses the strengths and shortcomings of each of
these strands of environmentalism as well as their contributions to the
coalescence of a global environmental consciousness.

Baviskar, Amita (1995) In The Belly of the River: Tribal Conflicts Over
Development in the Narmada Valley, Delhi: Oxford University Press.
The book begins with a brief look at the Indian experience of development and
its impact on poverty and the environment and examines the ways in which this
experience has been understood by Ecological Marxists. It examines the
SUbjugation of adivasis to the increasing extractive and executive powers of
non-local, bureaucratic structure which predates colonialism. It describes that
despite the poverty of their resource base, people have created a production
system remarkable in its diversity and self sufficiency, utilizing different
aspects of the land, forest and the river to the fullest. It explains how such
resource use is enabled by co-operation, structured around the patriarchal clan, a
kin group bound by norms of reciprocity and mutual aid.

9
Introduction

In the later part of the book, Baviskar explains the processes of

transformation of adivasi life through political collective action. It describes the
ways in which the consciousness of the adivasi community is transformed, from
the pursuit of honor to action against the state, fighting to secure access to the
land and the forest. It also examines the relationship between the adivasis and
the activists who have facilitated their organization, and critically evaluates the
experience of collective action trying to resist the state and, at the same time,
make it more accountable to the adivasi community. It also depicts the
complexity of the issues which unite adivasis with other political constituencies,
situated in different social spaces, and spread across the world, showing how the
different ideological streams of environmentalism come together in practice.
It draws the themes of environmental practice and adivasi consciousness
into general theory of development and resistance. It analyses contradictions in
the way in which the lives of adivasis are represented by intellectuals who speak
'on their behalf, and the problems and possibilities engendered in the process
of coming together to formulate a critique of development. It also proposes a
perspective on adivasi environmentalism which respects people's understanding
of what they are fighting for, a perspective that builds upon their strengths while
remaining conscious of their vulnerabilities.

Sheth, Praveen (1995) Environmentalism: Politics, Ecology and Development,

Jaipur: Rawat Publications.
Sheth studies politics of environment in India as rooted in its rich ecological
traditions but rudely distorted in practice. He has adopted a political science
approach to study the patterns and problems of eco-development. With the use
of rich and contemporary data, he has brought in the complex interplay of
various forces like the state, pollution control boards, forest departments,
industrial interests, tribals, women and eco-advocacy groups and reconstructs
the emerging discourse on participative and sustainable development. His
analysis of the role of political authorities, the judiciary as a 'green guardian'
and the graphic review of a wide range of ecological movements describes the
ongoing discourse on eco-democracy and development alternatives.

10
Introduction

The book probes in the conflicts of compelling interests and values, to

assess the role of new actors like the courts and movements which are trying to
create and expand the space where an eco-prudent political system is likely to
emerge. It also traces how the nature and role of Indian state are slowly being
transfonned to make it a 'strong-soft' state from a mere 'soft' state, and
perhaps, help its graduation as an 'eco-development' state. It argues that
cultural traditions and thought have provided ideological underpinning and
legitimacy to the present environmental movement in India. It leads us to
discern that our ecological perspective, issues and movements do not have to
depend on the environmental views and experiences of the West. The
cosmological view of the Vedic, Upanishad and Puranic traditions and literary
imagination enriched by fascinating symbols and idioms of the relationship of
people with nature have provided the main mode of communication in the
movements and struggles. It is the grassroots struggle mainly participated by the
local communities and eco-advocacy groups for environmental rights which
have made the history and politics of environment in India truly Indian.

Mishra, Anupam (1993) Aaj Bhi Khare Hain Talab, (Hindi), Delhi: Gandhi
Peace Foundation.
This is a remarkable work on the history of talabs (ponds / tanks) in different
parts of the country. It also describes the traditional methods of construction of
talabs. It locates the social significance of water in Indian mythology and
scriptures. The social pride honor attached with the construction of talabs is
described with the stories and folktales in different regions of the country. It is a
well research work and includes most of the states and regions of the country.
Anupam Mishra has shown that the practice of castes being engaged in
the construction of talabs have been abolished with the time. The traditional
wisdom of these castes and their significance in the survival of a society has
been demonstrated with great respect, they deserve in human society. The
anthropological quest for the origin of such castes and the structures they have
made is remarkable for Hindi writing. This is research work, academic in its
spirit, but well presented even for the common people. This work is true on

11
Introduction

Gandhian ethics; it gives credit to each and every resource and person it has
used. Best thing about it is that it doesn't hold the copyrights of the work,
making it more and more accessible for those who need it. It will be the basis of
this study in finding out the roots of the traditions of water conservation and the
people who have carried them through the ages.

Along with these, the study has taken into account numerous articles in
Rajasthan Patrika and other Hindi dailies in the State. The researcher has also
taken into account the oral traditions in the state, which describes the history of
a particular cultural trait, like some puja associated with a particular tree or
animal in the local communities. The researcher has been to the Charan Shodh
Sans than and other such institutions, which are engaged in the research on the
local people, their traditions, their deities, their scripture and other such issues.
The State Archives have also been checked for details and information on some
spec(jic aspect coming across in the course of research.

Research Questions
What are the methods and tools used by these organizations to revive the
tradition and culture?
What is the significance of water in the traditions and cultural practices
of the people of the region?
What is the role of caste, kinship and family in these efforts for revival?
How this people-centric approach is different from the State-centric
approach?
What is the specific role of women and their significance III these
processes?
What is the role of traditional institutions like caste panchayats, kinship
organizations and others like temple committees in these efforts?
What is the role of modem media in strengthening these efforts and how
can it initiate such processes by itself?

12
Introduction

Aims and Objectives

To establish the uniqueness of the integrated processes and other efforts
to revive the traditions and culture of water conservation in Rajasthan.
To find out the role of the traditional institutions like caste panchayats
and kinship organization in these processes of revi ving the traditions and
culture.
To locate the place of women in these initiatives in respect of the nature
and feminism debate.
To seek the role of the media and other modem means In these
processes.
To establish the significance of religious practices and symbols and the
role of culture in natural resources conservation.

Universe of Study
This study has focused on three regions of Rajasthan: Mewat, Marwar
and Dhundhad. The three organizations which are studied, work in different
areas. Tarun Bharat Sangh works in the Eastern part of the State in the districts
of Alwar, Sawai Madhopur and Jaipur. The reasearcher has observed the works
ofTBS in many districts and nearing areas in the Sariska Forests. Jal Bhagirathi
Foundation works in Western part of the State in more than seven districts with
its base at Jodhpur. The researcher has undertaken studies in Jodhpur (Rural)
district and in some parts of Barmer and Pali district. Rajasthan Patrika has
many editions in the state. It is running the campaigns in many small towns. The
researcher was involved in the campaigns in Ajmer and Jaipur cities. Fieldwork
for the study was spanned for over two summers in the areas described above.

Research Methodology
This is an empirical study based on fieldwork. Participant observation is the
main method to find out the ways and methods these organizations are using to
revive these traditions and culture of water conservation. The researcher worked
as volunteer for all three organizations in their campaigns for participant
observation.

13
Introduction

Data was collected on the status of traditional methods of water

conservation before and after the efforts of these organizations. The
methodology of the organizations was also studied to know the distinctions
between the traditional methods and the alterations made to these methods
while adopting them.
The study takes into account the narrations of the older generation of
these communities to find out the traditional ways, their significance and the
role of these communities in keeping them alive. Old texts in Hindi, in English
(like gazetteer, government reports, etc.) and in local dialects have also been
used. The state has rich tradition of oral history, which has been used in this
study in form of stories of from the elders and some caste-specific story tellers
like charans and bhaats. Certain local research institutions and individuals
engaged in research on local dialects, traditions and cultural aspects in different
parts of the State have also been consulted for the secondary sources.

Fieldwork
The rationale behind the participant observation is that work, philosophy and
day-to-day activities of these organisations involve the traditions and culture of
the region which are the ways of life of the communities. This cannot be
understood fully without living these experiences. Fieldwork was spread over a
time of more than two years in different phases from May 2005 to August 2007.
Researcher volunteered for many of the campaigns of these organisations. He
has been involved with TBS in different roles and capacities even before the
study, but he visited the villages and the organisation headquarters during the
summer of 2005. Amrutam Jalam Abhiyan was observed since its inception in
Ajmer and Jaipur. Researcher has participated in its campaigns in Ajmer and
Jaipur in years 2006 and 2007 without disclosing that he is observing it for
research purposes. It was revealed later to the staff of Rajasthan Patrika when
access to library and data for the work in different regions was needed. Jal
Bhagirathi Foundation was officially visited for the first time in the year 2006-
07 but the researcher was observing its work in parts of Barmer and Pali even
before that, though without declaring that. These Sites were revisited later in the
final phase of field work.

14
Introduction

Chapterisation
Introduction
This chapter locates the background of the study in contemporary social
research. The introduction of the State, of the districts under study and the
organizations has been detailed. The details of the traditions and culture under
observation have also been detailed with their historical references and
significance.
Chapter-l
Water Management through People's Participation
Theoretical Underpinnings
This chapter describes the theoretical basis of the study. It has started with the
enquiry into the nature-society relationship in the classical and modem social
theory. Then it has described the theoretical basis of traditions and culture of
water conservation. It has also looked into the Indian epics and others scriptures
for the theoretical basis of near-to-nature way of life. Gandhian philosophy,
theories dealing with tradition and modernity and the theories of media-society
relations have also been analyzed. In the later part of this chapter these theories
have been analysed with specific reference to Rajasthan and the case studies.
Chapter- 2
Tarun Bharat Sangh:
Enquiry the Gandhian Way
This chapter accounts the history, development and success of Tarun Bharat
Sangh (TBS). It details the methods and techniques used by TBS for people's
mobilization and revival of the tradition. It also tries to analyze the impact of
the works ofTBS through case studies and detailed surveys of the villages.
Chapter- 3
Jal Bhagirathi Foundation:
Tradition meets Modernity
This chapter accounts the origin and methodology of Jal Bhagirathi Foundation
(JBF). It examines the claims of work undertaken by the Foundation in the
desert districts of Rajasthan. The revival of the traditional methods with
applications of modem means of conservation and democratic polity has been
described in this chapter.

15
Introduction

Chapter- 4
Rajasthan Patrika:
Media as a Social Catalyst
This chapter presents the details of the Amrutum Jalam campaign of Rajasthan
Patrika initiated in the urban and semi-urban districts and towns of Rajasthan
and their impact on the water crises in those places. It also takes into account
the media and society theories.
Conclusion
This chapter summarizes the integration of these three efforts and the impact
they have made. It shows the results of integrated processes of reviving the
traditions and culture of water conservation in the state. It also presents a
critique of the efforts of the development agencies engaged in resolving the
water crises in the state.

16
Introduction

References
Baviskar, Amita (1995), In the Belly of River: Tribal Conflicts Over
Development in the Narmada Valley, Delhi: Oxford University Press.

Goldblatt, David (1996), Social Theory and the Environment, London: Polity
Press.

Guha, Ramchandra (2000), Environmentalism: A Global History, New Delhi:

Oxford University Press.

Milton, Key (1996), Environmentalism and Cultural Theory, London:

Routledge.

Mishra, Anupam (1993), Aaj Bhi Khare Hain Talab, New Delhi: Paryavaran
Kaksh, Gandhi Peace Foundation.

Mishra, Anupam (2001), The Radiant Rindrops of Rajasthan, New Delhi:

Research Foundation for Science, Technology and Ecology.

Pepper, David (1996), Modern Environmentalism: An Introduction, London:

Routledge.

Sheth, Praveen (1995), Environmentalism: Politics, Ecology and Development,

Jaipur, New Delhi: Rawat Publications.

17