Computerhardwareandmaintenance 130829083117 Phpapp02 PDF

SHEBA UNIVERSITY COLLEGE
COMPUTER SCIENCE DEPARTMENT
Advanced PC Maintenance and

Troubleshooting
Compiled by:
natan-ict@live.com
August, 2011
Mekelle, Ethiopia
Advanced PC Maintenance and Troubleshooting 2011
1. Chapter I: Preventive Maintenance
2. Chapter II: PC Components
3. Chapter III: PC Assembling and Disassembling
4. Chapter IV : Software Troubleshooting
5. Chapter V: Common Hardware Problems and Troubleshooting
6. Chapter VI: Printer maintenance and Troubleshooting
Sheba University College, Computer Science Department Compiled by: Natan M.

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Chapter I: Preventive Maintenance
Preventive maintenance definition

Goals of preventive maintenance
Advantage of preventive maintenance
Activities preformed during preventive maintenance
Cleaning pc components
What materials are needed for cleaning
How often you should clean pc
What you can clean
Dust and Dirty environment problem
Disk clean up
Disk cleanup
Using disk cleanup
Removing unneeded files
Recycle Bin Overview
Disk Defragmentation
Disk Defragmenter overview
Why volumes become fragmented
Analyze a volume
defragment a volume
Virus scan
File and folder compression
Facts about electrical power and Automatic Voltage Regulator

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Preventive Maintenance
Maintenance
Preventive maintenance is predetermined work performed to a schedule with the aim of

preventing the wear and tear or sudden failure of equipment components. It is a schedule
of planned maintenance actions aimed at the prevention of break downs and failures.
Preventive maintenance often abbreviated as PM which refers to performing proactive

maintenance in order to prevent to system problems. It is a service given for the purpose
of maintaining equipments and facilities in satisfactory operating conditions by
providing systematic inspection detection and correction of failures either before they
occur or before they develop into major defects
Goals of preventive maintenance

maintenance
Is conducted to keep working and /or extending the life of the equipment
Conducted to get equipment working again sometimes called repairing
To prevent the failure of equipment before it occurs.
Preserve and enhance equipment reliability by replacing worm components before they
actually fail.
Advantage of preventive maintenance
Preventive maintenance has the following long term benefits:
Protect assets and prolong the useful life of production equipment

Improve system reliability
Decrease cost of replacement
Decreases system downtime
Reduce injury

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Cleaning of PC components:
It is important that you clean your computer periodically to ensure that it will function properly
and have a long life. When you clean your computer you not only improve the physical
appearance, but you prolong the life of the computer.
How often
Generally you should try to clean your computer every 3-6 months.
If you use your computer often and if it's in a very dusty environment then you should clean it
sooner (every 3-4 months)
if you use your computer sparingly in a fairly dust free environment you don't need to clean it as
often (every 5-6 months
What you need:

Screwdriver (to open up the computer case)
Can of Compressed air (to blow away dust inside the computer)
Cleaning Liquid: Rubbing alcohol or mild cleaning agent (dish detergent mixed
with water...).
Cotton swabs (Q-tips)
Paper towel or cotton cloth
o Make sure your computer is turned off before you begin the cleaning
process!
o A computer on the ground attracts more dust than one elevated on a
platform.
o 2. Static attracts dust. Wiping down your computer with a solution of one
and half vinegar and one and half water will minimize static.
What you can clean?
Computer Case cleaning
Computer Mouse Cleaning
keyboard
DVD or CD-Rom Drive
Floppy drive head
Hard drive
Monitor-Screen (LCD, flat panel)
Cleaning the Monitor Casing
Cleaning the Inside of The Computer
Cleaning printer

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Dust and Dirty environment problem
It increases the overheating problem and mostly affect:-
The Motherboard.
The Processor and Power Supply fan.
The CD-drive's Lens and Floppy drive's head.
The Add-in card connection.
The cable connection.
The mouse and keyboard.
NOTE: - Don't use any fluid to clean the inside part of the Pc. Unplug the system
from the power supply and use compressed air to clean dusts from the inside part .
Cleaning the Computer Case
Benefits: Improves the overall appearance of your computer.
Steps:
Turn off the system.

Unplug the system unit power connector from the wall outlet (power supply).
Spray a Gentle cleaner (Alcohol) on hair free cloth.
Then clean it slowly.
Note: Don't put too much liquid on the cloth where it might drip through any openings
and into the inside of the computer
Clean the mouse [mechanical mouse]:
Benefits:
For a mechanical mouse cleaning it will make the mouse run smoother and for all
mousses in general cleaning it will improve it's appearance and give it a feeling of
cleanliness.
The mouse may hang up or may not move in the correct way due to dust. It
may not work properly.
Steps:
1. Shutdown the PC.

2. Remove the mouse cable from its connection at the back of your PC.
3. Turn the mouse upside-down and remove the securing screws from the mouse case.
4. Remove the mouse ball from the cavity.
5. Clean the cavity and the mouse ball with proper available materials. [ use dry cloth]

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6. Replace the ball carefully into the cavity.

7. Twist the plate to tighten it into position.
8. Reconnect the cable to the computer.
9. Turn ON the PC and see that if it is activated.
Cleaning the keyboard
Benefits: Cleaning your computer keyboard will not only result in sticky-free keys but
also ensure that your keyboard will continue to function properly by removing dirt, dust
and other particles that can damage the keyboard's circuits.
Steps:
While working on my PC, something (liquid) Spilled into the keyboard.
1. Remove the keyboard cable from its connection at the back of the PC. Do not wait!!
You need to cut power to the device in order to avoid a possible short circuit.
2. Shutdown the PC using the mouse [start>turn off computer ...].
3. Tip the keyboard upside down and drain out as much of the liquid as you can.
4. Try to dry the inside part of the keyboard properly by using blow dryer or direct
sunlight.
5. Reconnect the keyboard cable to the computer.
6. Power up the computer and manipulate the keyboard to assure proper functioning.
Note: Purchasing a keyboard cover or protector will protect your keyboard from dust and any
unexpected spills that may occur.
Cleaning a DVD or CD-Rom Drive

Benefits: Prevents disc read errors.
Steps:
1. Take a clean cotton cloth and dampen it with warm water.

2. Wipe the disc from the center towards the edge of the CD (wiping along the track of the
disc can cause scratches).
3. Prepare the CD cleaner kit.
4. The CD cleaning DISC has two soft brushes: dry and wet.
5. Turn over the disc and drop one of the cleaning fluids on the brush.
6. Insert the cleaning DISC into CD-drive like you would insert an ordinary disc.
7. Try to open the CD Drive from "My Compute: and allow the CD to operate.
8. The cleaning Disc will automatically clean the CD heads with the picture displaying.

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Cleaning the Floppy drive head
1. Prepare the diskette cleaner and fluid.

2. Drop one of the cleaning fluids on the brush surface of the diskette.
3. While the Windows is working, place the cleaning diskette in your floppy drive.
4. Try to open the floppy Drive from "My Computer" and the cleaning diskette will
automatically clean the read \ write heads.
5. After cleaning, put the cleaning diskette back to its special box.
Hard Drive Cleaning

Benefits: It takes a skilled technician to physically open up and clean a hard drive, but your
computer's performance can be optimized by doing such things as clearing out unnecessary files
on your hard drive.
Steps
Uninstall any programs that are outdated or unnecessary (if you aren't sure if you
need the program for your computer to run it's best to just leave the program as is)
and go through your folders and delete any files (pictures, mp3's, text documents...)
that you don't have a need for.
Empty your "Recycle Bin".
Run ScanDisk which checks and repairs disk errors.
Run Disk Cleanup which automatically deletes temporary files stored on your
computer.
Run Disk Defragmenter which optimizes your hard drive by rearranging programs,
files, and unused space which results in files opening quicker and programs running
faster.
Cleaning Monitor-Screen (LCD, flat panel)

Benefits: A clean screen on your monitor gives you a clearer view of the items displayed on your
computer.
Cleaning the Screen
Steps:
Turn off the monitor
Dampen a clean soft cotton cloth with water and gently wipe the screen starting from the
top of the screen to bottom wiping in a downward motion.

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Note
o For LCD (laptop and flat panel) screens be careful not to press too hard or else
you may damage the screen.
o Using a paper towel or dirty cloth can scratch the screen.
o using methyl chloride, acetone, ethyl acid, ethyl alcohol or ammonia-based
cleaners can damage the screen,
o LCD monitors are especially sensitive to these agents.)
Cleaning the Monitor Casing:
Benefits: Improves the overall appearance of your computer.
Steps:
Turn off the monitor

Dampen a cloth or paper towel with a mild cleaning agent and wipe down the casing,
especially the top as this is where most of the dust tends to be. Don't put too much liquid
on the cloth where it might drip through the holes and into the computer monitor.
Use a can of air and blow in the holes to get the any dust that may be in there out
(Alternatively you can use a vacuum cleaner and suck the dust out).
Clean Computer Inside:

Benefits: The inside of the computer is the most important part of the computer that needs to be
cleaned. Removing dust from the computer vents increases the internal air circulation. If you
don't remove the dust the circuit boards it can slow down or interfere with the connections
running through the circuit boards. Dusting the inside of your computer also prevents it from
overheating.
Steps:
1. Turn off and unplug the computer.

2. Remove the casing of the computer (directions should be in your computer manual). It is
recommended that you bring the computer outside at this point because in the next step
there'll be a lot of dust coming out of your computer.
3. Use the can of air to clean out the dust from the vents and the fan in the back of the
computer.
4. Use a can of air to blow the dust out of the computer going in one direction while using
short bursts of air (you want to clean all the circuit boards, underneath the motherboard,
the bottom of the case, get rid of dust on any of your drives and blow air into the power
supply box). You want to try to get as much dust out of the computer as you can, if there
is dust on the inside of the case you should try to get that out of there as well. Try to
avoid any direct physical contact with any circuits in the computer.
5. Put the case back on.
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Cleaning a Printer
Benefits: When your print job isnt up to par, you can get rid of smudges, white lines and reduce paper
jams by simply cleaning your printer. Of course, the real benefit of cleaning is that it saves you money by
prolonging the life of your printer!
Your first step in cleaning a printer is always to check your manufacturers documentation.
If you dont have a written manual, most manufacturers provide tips on what not to do and
provide support for even older printer models on their web sites. Use only the cleaners that your
manufacturer recommends and clean only recommended areas of your printer.
Tip: Search for terms like printer maintenance, printer cleaning, and troubleshooting.
Cleaning the Outside of Your Printer
Steps:
1. Turn your printer off before cleaning.

2. Clean the outside of your printer with a moist, lint-free cloth. Flour sacking or 100%
cotton white t-shirt material works well.
3. Usually a solution of one part vinegar and one part water is safe to use, but when
moistening a cloth, be sure to wring out all the excess. Distilled or RO (reverse osmosis)
water minimizes mineral residues. If you do use a prepared cleaner, make sure it is safe
for both electronics and plastics.
4. Always moisten the cloth. Never spray an aerosol directly onto your printer.
Disk Defragmenter overview
The process of consolidating fragmented files and folders is called defragmentation.

Disk Defragmenter analyzes local volumes and consolidates fragmented files and folders
so that each occupies a single, contiguous space on the volume.
Consolidates your files and folders
Consolidates a volume's free space, making it less likely that new files will be fragmented
The amount of time that defragmentation takes depends on several factors.
The size of the volume
The number and size of files on the volume
The amount of fragmentation
The available local system resources
You can find all of the fragmented files and folders before defragmenting them by analyzing the
volume first. You can then see how fragmented the volume is and decide whether you would
benefit from defragmenting the volume. This method is called analyzing. It is important to

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analyze the volume before defragmenting if not the process of defragmenting will continue its
process whether the volume has fragmented files, folders or not.
You should analyze volumes before defragmenting them. This tells you whether you need to take
the time to defragment them.
A volume must have at least 15% free space for Disk Defragmenter to completely and adequately
defragment it. Disk Defragmenter uses this space as a sorting area for file fragments. If a volume
has less than 15% free space, Disk Defragmenter will only partially defragment it. To increase the
free space on a volume, delete unneeded files or move them to another disk.
You cannot defragment volumes that the file system has marked as dirty, which indicates possible
corruption. You must run chkdsk on a dirty volume before you can defragment it. You can
determine if a volume is dirty by using the fsutil dirty query command. For more information
about chkdsk and fsutil dirty
You can defragment only local file system volumes, and you can run only one instance of Disk
Defragmenter at a time.
To interrupt or temporarily stop defragmenting a volume, click Stop or Pause, respectively.
Why volumes become fragmented?
Volumes become fragmented as users:
Create and delete files and folders

Install new software
Download files from the Internet.
Computers typically save files in the first contiguous free space that is large enough for
the file
If a large enough free space is not available, the computer saves as much of the file as
possible in the largest available space
After a large portion of a volume has been used for file and folder storage, most of the
new files are saved in pieces across the volume. When you delete files, the empty spaces
left behind fill in randomly as you store new ones.
The more fragmented the volume is, the slower the computer's file input/output
performance will be.
Color Description
Red Most of the clusters are part of a fragmented file.
Most of the clusters are contiguous files with clusters in the group that contain only free space
Blue
and contiguous clusters.
Green Most of the clusters are part of a file that cannot be moved from its current location.
White Most of the clusters are free space and contiguous clusters.

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To analyze a volume
We can analyze a volume in to two ways
Using windows interface
To open Disk Defragmenter, click Start, point to All Programs, point to Accessories, point to
System Tools, and then click Disk Defragmenter.
Click the volume that you want to check for fragmented files and folders, and then click Analyze.
When Disk Defragmenter finishes analyzing the volume, it displays its analysis of the volume in
the Analysis display. It also displays a dialog box that tells you whether you need to defragment
the volume.
Note: You must be logged on as an administrator or a member of the Administrators group in

order to complete this procedure
Using command prompt

To open command prompt , click Start, point to Run press Enter or
click Start, point to All Programs, point to Accessories, and then click Command
Prompt
Note: To view the complete syntax for this command, type defrag /?
Type defrag volume [/a] [/v] on the command prompt
Argument Description
volume The drive letter or a mount point of the volume to be analyzed.
/a Analyzes the volume and displays a summary of the analysis report.
/v Displays the complete analysis report.
Defragment a volume:
Using windows interface
To open Disk Defragmenter, click Start, point to All Programs, point to Accessories, point
to System Tools, and then click Disk Defragmenter.
Click the volume that you want to defragment, and then click Defragment
After the defragmentation is complete, Disk Defragmenter displays the results in the
Defragmentation display.
Click View Report to view the Defragmentation Report, which displays detailed

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Using command prompt
To open a command prompt, click Start, point to All Programs, point to

Accessories, and then click Command Prompt
Type defrag volume [/v] on the command prompt
To view the complete syntax for this command, type defrag /?
Argument Description
volume The drive letter or a mount point of the volume to be defragmented.
/v Displays the complete analysis and defragmentation reports.
Using Disk Cleanup
Disk Cleanup helps free up space on your hard drive. Disk Cleanup searches your drive, and then
shows you temporary files, Internet cache files, and unnecessary program files that you can
safely delete. You can direct Disk Cleanup to delete some or all of those files.
To open Disk Cleanup, click Start, point to All Programs, point to Accessories, point to
System Tools, and then click Disk Cleanup.
Removing unneeded files
When running an operating system as complex as Windows, you may not always know the
significance of all the files on your computer. Sometimes Windows uses files for a specific
purpose and then retains them in a folder designated for temporary files. Alternatively, you may
have previously installed Windows components that you are no longer using. For a variety of
reasons, including running out of space on your hard drive, you may want to reduce the number
of files on your disk, or create more free space, if it can be done without harming any of your
programs.
Use the Windows Disk Cleanup Wizard to perform all of the following tasks to clear space on
your hard disk:
Remove temporary Internet files.

Remove any downloaded program files (ActiveX controls and Java applets downloaded
from the Internet).
Empty the Recycle Bin.
Remove Windows temporary files.
Remove Windows components that you are not using.
Remove installed programs that you no longer use.

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Recycle Bin overview
The Recycle Bin provides a safety net when deleting files or folders.
When you delete any of these items from your hard disk, Windows places it in the
Recycle Bin and the Recycle Bin icon changes from empty to full.
Items deleted from a floppy disk or network drives are permanently deleted and are not
sent to the Recycle Bin.
Items in the Recycle Bin remain there until you decide to permanently delete them from
your computer.
These items still take up hard disk space and can be undeleted or restored back to their
original location.
When it fills up, Windows automatically cleans out enough space in the Recycle Bin to
accommodate the most recently deleted files and folders.
If you're running low on hard disk space, always remember to empty the Recycle Bin.
You can also restrict the size of the Recycle Bin to limit the amount of hard disk space it
takes up.
Windows allocates one Recycle Bin for each partition or hard disk.
If your hard disk is partitioned, or if you have more than one hard disk in your computer,
you can specify a different size for each Recycle Bin.
Note: To change the storage capacity of the Recycle Bin
On the desktop, right-click Recycle Bin, and then click Properties.

Move the slider to increase or decrease the amount of disk space that is reserved for
storing deleted items.
Important:
A deleted item that is larger than the storage capacity of the Recycle Bin will not be
saved. It will be permanently deleted.
To empty the Recycle Bin
1. On the desktop, double-click Recycle Bin.

2. On the File menu, click Empty Recycle Bin.
Important
Emptying the Recycle Bin permanently deletes all items.
To remove items permanently when you delete them
1. On the desktop, right-click Recycle Bin, and then click Properties.

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2. Select the Do not move files to the Recycle Bin check box.
Important
If it does not move files to the Recycle Bin check box is selected, you will not be able to
recover any items that you delete.
Notes
You can also remove an item permanently by holding down SHIFT+DELETE while
deleting the file
To prevent delete confirmation messages from appearing
1. On the desktop, right-click Recycle Bin, and then click Properties.

2. Clear the Display delete confirmation dialog check box.
Notes
This setting only applies when you move items to the Recycle Bin. This setting does not
apply when you move items from it.
This setting is unavailable if the Do not move files to the Recycle Bin check box is
selected
To delete or restore files in the Recycle Bin
1. On the desktop, double-click Recycle Bin.

2. Do one of the following:
o To restore an item, right-click it, and then click Restore.
o To restore all of the items, on the Edit menu, click Select All, and then on the
File menu, click Restore.
o To delete an item, right-click it, and then click Delete.
o To delete all of the items, on the File menu, click Empty Recycle Bin.
Notes
Deleting an item from the Recycle Bin permanently removes it from your computer.
Items deleted from the Recycle Bin cannot be restored.
Restoring an item in the Recycle Bin returns that item to its original location.
If you restore a file that was originally located in a deleted folder, the folder is recreated
in its original location, and then the file is restored in that folder.
The following items are not stored in the Recycle Bin and cannot be restored:
o Items deleted from network locations.
o Items deleted from removable media (such as 3.5-inch disks).
o Items that are larger than the storage capacity of the Recycle Bin.

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FACTS ABOUT ELECTRICAL POWER AND SURGE SUPPRESSORS

The voltage you get from the wall socket is NOT always what you expect...
There are periodic fluctuations in voltage from devices going on and off in your building,
problems in the transmission line,
Electrical storms, bad or faulty transformers, etc. Sometimes these fluctuations in voltage may
exceed several thousand volts. When this happens, bad things can happen to good computers (or
any other kinds of electrical devices).
Automatic Voltage Regulator (Surge Suppressor)

A surge suppressor or Automatic Voltage Regulator provides a way to deal with voltage
spikes (but not loss of voltage). The surge suppressor has a metal-oxide varisstor (MOV) that
will shunt excess voltages to ground, thereby saving your PC.
A surge suppressor (sometimes optimistically called a "surge protector") is a device inserted in
the alternating current (AC) utility line to prevent damage to electronic equipment from voltage
"spikes" called transients. A more accurate term for this type of device is "transient suppressor."
A typical surge suppressor is a small box with several utility outlets, a power switch, and a 3-
wire cord for plugging into a wall outlet.
Uninterruptible Power Supply (UPS)

An uninterruptible power supply (UPS) will have this same technology, but it contains a
battery in it as well. The battery in the UPS will allow your PC to continue to operate if power
has been cut off to your building. HOWEVER, it will only last for a few minutes (5 - 30
minutes). An UPS allows you to shut off your PC in a normal fashion in the event of a power
failure. If you have intermittent voltage failures in your area (i.e., the power frequently cuts off
for only a second), consider getting a low-end surge suppressor. It will save you immense
amounts of grief when using your PC, since all the information stored in RAM is wiped out
when power is cut off.

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Chapter II.
II. PC Hardware Components
Motherboard
Drives
Expansion cards
Power supply
Enclosures (case or chassis)
Peripherals
Computer Definition
A computer is a general purpose device that can be programmed to carry out a finite set of
arithmetic or logical operations. Since a sequence of operations can be readily changed, the
computer can solve more than one kind of problem.
Conventionally, a computer consists of at least one processing element, typically a central

processing unit (CPU) and some form of memory. The processing element carries out arithmetic
and logic operations, and a sequencing and control unit that can change the order of operations
based on stored information. Peripheral devices allow information to be retrieved from an
external source, and the result of operations saved and retrieved.
Is an electronic device That accepts information, processes it, and produces output
Is not very intelligent device but, handles instructions flawlessly and fast
Accurate, suited for repetitive work
Can store large amount of data and performs complex calculations
These are the important activities of computer
Input Processes Out put
The PC consists of a System unit (referred as Computer) and various peripherals
The Computer is a box, which contains most of the working electronics. It is connected with
cables to the peripherals.
The following are the main components of PC

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Components of the System Unit (Computer)
Motherboard
CPU, RAM, Cache, ROM chips with BIOS, Chip sets, ports, buses and expansion
slots
Drives
Hard disk drive
Floppy disk drive
CD-ROM drive
Expansion cards
Graphics card (video adapter)
Network controller
SCSI controller
Sound card
Internal Modem
Power supply
Enclosures (case or chassis)
Peripherals
Keyboard
Mouse
Joystick
Monitor
Scanner
Speakers
External drives
External modem

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1. Mother board
Motherboard is the central circuit board that connects all expansion cards, drives and peripherals
together. If the processor is the brain of the computer, then the motherboard is the central
nervous system and circulatory system. The motherboard houses the processor and the memory
of the computer, and contains the buses, the channels which pass data through the computer. All
connections to and from the computer will pass either directly into the motherboard or through
an expansion card such as a video-card plugged into the board. The motherboard provides the
infrastructure of the computer. There are many, many available brands and models of
motherboard, since each one is designed for a specific range of processors and memory. The
chips and circuits that define a motherboard's capabilities are known as the chipset. Generally,
Good understanding of motherboard is the most critical part of getting a good understanding of
how PCs work in general. Motherboard is the base of the modern computer system.
The importance of motherboard
Organization: The way that the motherboard is designed and laid out dictates how the
entire computer is going to be organized
Control: The motherboard contains the chipset and BIOS program, which between them
control most of the data flow within the computer
Communication: Almost all communication between the PC and its peripherals, other
PCs, and you, the user, goes through the motherboard.
Processor Support: The motherboard dictates directly your choice of processor for use
in the system.
Peripheral Support: The motherboard determines, in large part, what types of

peripherals you can use in your PC. For example, the type of video card your system will
use (ISA, VLB, PCI) is dependent on what system buses your motherboard uses.
Performance: The motherboard is a major determining factor in your system's

performance, for two main reasons. First and foremost, the motherboard determines what
types of processors, memory, system buses, and hard disk interface speed your system
can have, and these components dictate directly your system's performance. Second, the
quality of the motherboard circuitry and chipset themselves have an impact on
performance.
Upgradeability: The capabilities of your motherboard dictate to what extent you will be
able to upgrade your machine. For example, there are some motherboards that will accept

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regular Pentiums of up to 133 MHz speed only, while others will go to 200 MHz.
Obviously, the second one will give you more room to upgrade if you are starting with a
P133.
Types of Motherboard (Form Factors)
The form factor determines the general layout, size, and feature placement on a motherboard.
Different form factors usually require different style cases, it also specifies what type of case and
power supply will be supported,. Differences between form factors can include, physical size and
shape, mounting hole location, feature placement, power supply connectors, and others. The
most two kinds of form factors are AT and ATX
AT Motherboard
AT stands for "Advanced Technology. AT motherboards were introduced in 1984 with size
12x13 inches

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AT type: -An old type of motherboard that has only an integrated keyboard port, and two
small separated power connectors [p8 & P9].
It is advanced technology
It is very huge(in size)
More expansion slots
The only integrated port on this (AT) motherboard is for the keyboard, all other devices
connect to the motherboard via cards and expansion slots
The Baby AT motherboard measures 8.5x13 inches and is laid out exactly same as AT
AT power supply connect to AT or Baby AT with one P8 connector and one P9

connector
ATX Motherboard
ATX stands for "Advanced Technology Extended". Intel created ATX motherboard in 1996,
with size 12x9.6 inches. The ATX form factor's positioning was redesigned to offer better access
to the peripheral components on the inside of the computer.
It has many integrated ports, including two serial ports, a parallel port, USB ports and
mini DIN ports
ATX type: -The modem type of motherboard while, has a small keyboard port and one big
power connector [P1].
It is modern
Less expansion slot
Very compact
PS/2 connectors provide one of the quickest visual ways to distinguish between ATX and
AT motherboards
ATX power supply connect to the motherboard via a single P1 connector
ATX motherboards introduced support for power management controlled by the BIOS

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The first "integrated component" is the motherboard board itself! Motherboards are multiple
layer printed circuit boards, also sometimes called PCBs. The physical board that you see is
actually a sandwich of several thinner layers, each containing some of the circuitry required to
connect the various components on the board. At one time this was expensive, difficult-to-
manufacture technology, but time and automation has reduced this complexity to the point where
the board itself is a minor component of overall cost.
Still, good motherboards are solid and well designed, while cheaper ones tend to be flimsy, and
increase the chance of a (virtually impossible to diagnose) electrical problem on the board. In
addition, better boards reduce interference problems because of their design, and reduce the
chances of problems in assembling the PC. Thin boards are more subject to damage from flexing
when inserting peripherals; the thicker the board, the better.
Sockets or Slots
Of course, the motherboard has one or more sockets or slots to hold the processor(s). Single-
processor motherboards are by far the most common, but dual processor and even quad
processor boards are not hard to find. (Quad boards often use special, proprietary designs
employing riser cards.) The type of socket or slot used dictates the type of processor (and in
some cases the speed) that can be used by the motherboard. Not surprisingly, the standards for
processor sockets and slots have been generally defined by most modern motherboards that have
a socket use the ZIF (zero insertion force) style socket that allows the processor to be inserted or
removed from the motherboard by using a lever that tightens or loosens the processor's pins in
the socket. This is a vast improvement over the older style sockets, which required you to exert
considerable force on the surface of a delicate (and expensive) processor, just to get it into the
motherboard.(Getting it out was of course even harder!)
Memory Sockets
Most motherboards today come with between 2 and 8 sockets for the insertion of memory. These
are usually SIMMs (single inline memory modules) or DIMMs (dual inline memory modules) or
the recent RIMMs (Ramous inline memory modules) these can come in different sizes.
I/O Bus Slots

All motherboards have one or more system I/O buses that are used to expand the computer's
capabilities. The slots in the back of the machine are where expansion cards are placed (like your
video card, sound card, network card, etc.). These slots allow you to expand the capabilities of
your machine in many different ways, and the proliferation of both general purpose and very
specific expansion cards is part of the success story of the PC platform.

24
Most modern PCs have two different types of bus slots. The first is the standard ISA (Industry
Standard Architecture) slot; most PCs have 3 or 4 of these. These slots have two connected
sections and start about a half-inch from the back of the motherboard, extending to around its
middle. This is the oldest (and slowest) bus type and is used for cards that don't require a lot of
speed: for example, sound cards and modems. Older systems (generally made well before 1990)
may have ISA slots with only a single connector piece on each; these are 8-bit ISA slots and will
(of course) only support 8-bit ISA cards.
Pentium systems and newer 486-class motherboards also have PCI (Peripheral Component
Interconnect) bus slots, again, usually 3 or 4. They are distinguished from ISA slots in two ways.
First, they are shorter, and second, they are offset from the back edge of the motherboard by
about an inch. PCI is a high-speed bus used for devices like video cards, hard disk controllers,
and high-speed network cards.
Note: Newer PCI motherboards have the connectors for the hard disks coming directly from the
motherboard. These connectors are part of the PCI bus, even though the hard disks aren't
connected to a physical PCI slot.
The newest PCs add another, new connector to the motherboard: an Accelerated Graphics Port
slot. AGP is not really a bus, but is a single-device port used for high-performance graphics. The
AGP slot looks similar to a PCI slot, except that it is offset further from the back edge of the
motherboard.
Some motherboards incorporate a so-called "shared" ISA and PCI slot. This name implies a
single slot that can take either type of card, but that isn't possible because the two slot types are
physically incompatible. In order to save space while maximizing the number of expansion slots,
some designers put an ISA slot on the board right next to a PCI slot; you then have the choice to
use either the ISA or the PCI slot, but not both. This design is possible because ISA cards mount
on the left-hand side of a slot position, while PCI slots mount on the right-hand side.
Power Connector(s)
The motherboard has a socket to attach the power cables coming from the power supply. ATX
form factor motherboards and power supplies use a single, keyed 20-wire motherboard power
cable. All others use a pair of 6-wire cables. The cables are connected to the motherboard so that
the black wires (grounds) are together in the middle. This connector is usually found near the
back right-hand side of the motherboard, near the power supply.

25
The main parts of the motherboard and its related devices

System Chipset and Controllers: A chipset defines the processor type, type and capacity
of RAM, and what internal and external devices the motherboard will support Serves as an
electronic interface among the CPU, RAM, and input/output devices The chipset and other
motherboard circuitry are the "smarts" of the motherboard. Their job is to direct traffic and
control the flow of information inside the computer. These circuits control the processor's
access to memory, the flow of data to and from peripheral devices and communications lines,
and much more. The chipsets are the main component of a motherboard. Chipsets have a
North-bridge and a South-bridge. They assist in the basic functions of the different
components with which they communicate.
The NorthBridge (also called the memory controller) is in charge of controlling

transfers between the processor and the RAM, which is way it is located
physically near the processor. It is sometimes called the GMCH, for Graphic and
Memory Controller Hub. It communicates with the CPU, the PCI bus, and AGP,
etc.
The SouthBridge (also called the input/output controller or expansion
controller) handles communications between peripheral devices. It is also called
the ICH (I/O Controller Hub). It controls I/O functions like the IDE channels,
audio, serial, etc. The South Bridge is the lower-speed component in the chipset.
The chipset is a critical part of any computer, because it plays a big role in determining what
sorts of features the computer can support. For example, which processors you can use, which
types of memory, how fast you can run the machine, and what kind of system buses your PC can
use, are all tied in to the type of chipset the motherboard uses.
System Buses: The system buses are the electrical channels through which various parts of
the computer communicate. The physical part of these buses, the part you see, is the set of
slots in the back of the machine into which you put your video card, sound card and other
cards. It is over the system buses that your video card gets information from the processor;
the processor saves data to your hard disk, etc. The architecture chosen for each of the system
buses has a great impact on the performance of your PC, as well as dictating your choices for
video cards and other devices.
BIOS: The system BIOS (which stands for Basic Input/output System) is a computer
program that is built into the PC's hardware. It is the lowest-level program that runs on your
computer. Its job is to act as an intermediary between your system hardware (the chipset,
motherboard, processor and peripherals) and your system software (the operating system).
The BIOS is what runs when you turn on your computer, and what loads your operating
26
system (for example, DOS and Windows). The BIOS also allows you to set or change many
different parameters that control how your computer will function. For example, you tell the
BIOS what sort of hard drives you have so it knows how to access them.
Cache: The system cache is a small, high-speed memory area that is placed between the
processor and the system memory. The value of the cache is that it is much faster than
normal system memory. Each time the processor requests a piece of data from the memory,
the system first checks the cache to see if the information is there. If it is, then the value is
read from cache instead of memory, and the processor can get back to work that much
sooner. If it isn't, then the data is read from memory and given to the processor, but it is also
placed into the cache in case the processor needs it again in the near future.
System Resources: System resources are not actual physical devices; they are nothing you
can reach into the machine and touch. But they are very important for two reasons. First, they
dictate how your PC organizes its access to various memory areas and devices. Second, they
are one of the most common areas where people have problems with the setup of their PCs:
so-called resource conflicts. These are the four types of resources that various parts of your
computer can sometimes decide to fight over:
Interrupts (IRQs): Under traditional designs, each device has a different IRQ
number. If two try to use the same one, a conflict can result. Newer technologies can
allow multiple devices to share an IRQ channel.
Direct Memory Access (DMA) Channels: Some devices have the ability to read and
write directly from the system memory, instead of asking the processor to do it for
them. Cutting the "middle man" out in this manner improves the efficiency of the
system. Each device that does this needs its own DMA channel.
Input/Output (I/O) Addresses: Devices exchange information with the system by
putting data into certain specific memory addresses. For example, when we pressed
the letter "M", the key press was stored in a certain memory address until it was time
for the processor to deal with it. Any time information goes into or out of the
machine, to your modem or hard drive or printer for example, it uses these I/O
addresses. Again, each device needs its own memory area.
Memory Addresses: Similar to I/O addresses, many devices use blocks of memory
as part of their normal functioning. For example, they may map hardware programs
(BIOS code) into memory, or use a memory area to hold temporary data they are
using.

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2. Power Supply Ports and Connectors
2.1. Power Supply
Power Supply
CPUs, RAM, chipsets-everything on the motherboard-need electrical power to run. Every
power supply provides specialized connections to the motherboard to provide DC electricity
in several voltages to feed the needs of the many devices. Different motherboard form factors
require different connectors.
A standard power supply draws power from a local, Alternating Current (AC) source (usually
a wall outlet) and converts it to either 3.3, 5 and 12 volts direct current (DC), for on-board
electronics, and hard drives
Most PC power supplies also provide the system's cooling and processor fans that keep the
machine from overheating
Many newer supplies have a universal input that will accept either 110 VAC (volts
alternating current), 60 Hz (U.S. standard power), or 220 VAC, 50 Hz
(European/Asian/African standard)
When replacing a power supply, there are three things to consider: physical size, wattage,
and connectors.
Power-Supply Sizes
Power supplies are based on the types of case they will be used in and the types of
motherboard connections they will support
The older models are known as AT-style, and the newer ones are known as ATX
28
Older Pentium-based computers and all 486-based and earlier PCs used AT supplies
almost all Pentium II and later-based systems use ATX supplies
Power-Supply Wattage
Power supplies are rated according to the maximum sustained power (given in watts) that
they can produce. A watt is a unit of electrical power equivalent to one volt-ampere
A PC requires sufficient wattage for the machine to run properly
Most general-use computers require 130 watts while running
About 200-205 watts when booting, It is safe to buy 230-250 watt power supplies
Power-Supply Connectors
Power supplies use several types of connectors; all are easy to identify and use
On the outside of the computer enclosure, a standard male AC plug and three-
conductor wire (two power wires and a ground) draws current from a wall outlet, with
a female connection entering the receptacle in the back of the power supply
AT Power Connectors
A pair of connectors-called P8 and P9 link the AT power supply to the AT motherboard. Each of
these connectors has a row of teeth along one side and a small guide on the opposite side that
help hold the connection in place.
A standard P8 and P9 connection
P8 and P9 connectors
You might find that installing P8 and P9 requires a little bit of work, because of facing, keying,
and figuring out which one goes where. P8 and P9 are faced (that is, they have a front and a
back), so you cannot install them backwards. Sometimes the small keys on P8 and P9 require
that you angle the connectors in before snapping them down all the way. Although you cannot
plug P8 and P9 in backwards, you certainly can reverse them by putting P8 where P9 should go,
and vice versa. When connecting P8 and P9 to the motherboard, keep the black ground wires
next to each other. All AT motherboards and power supplies follow this rule. Be careful
incorrectly inserting P8 and P9 can damage both the power supply and other components in the
PC.

29
ATX Power Connector

ATX uses a single P1 power connector instead of the P8 and P9 commonly found on AT
systems. The P1 connector requires its own special socket on the motherboard. P1 connectors
include a 3.3-volt wire along with the standard 5-volt and 12-volt wires. The invariably white P1
socket stands out clearly on the motherboard. The P1 has a notched connector that allows you to
insert it one way only-you cannot install the P1 connector incorrectly.
P1 connector P1 Socket Properly Installed P1 connector
Connections to Peripherals
A power supply has two or three types of connectors that plug into components such as hard
drives, floppy drives, CD-ROM drives, Zip drives, and fans. Let's take a look at each of these
power connections. Both AT and ATX share these same types of connectors.
Molex Connectors
The most common type of connection is called the Molex. The Molex connector is used
primarily for devices that need both 12 volts and 5 volts of power (Figure 3-15), such as hard
drives and CD media drives.
The Molex connector has chamfers (notches), which make for easy installation. These chamfers
can be defeated if you push hard enough, so always inspect the Molex connection to ensure
proper orientation before you install. Installing a Molex backward will almost certainly destroy
the device into which the Molex is connected.

30
Standard Molex connector Diagram of Molex connector and socket
Mini Connectors
Most systems also provide a mini connector. The mini is used primarily on 3.5-inch floppy
drives, because floppy drive makers have adopted the mini connector for that use. It's very easy
to install a mini connector incorrectly, which inevitably results in a smoked floppy drive. The
mini connector installs with the 12 volt yellow wire on the left.
Socket
Standard mini connector Connector Diagram of mini connector and socket
CAUTION
The label on a power supply that says "Don't Open" means just that!
Opening a power supply is dangerous. It is better to completely remove and replace a
defective power supply as needed
Do not connect power-carrying mini plugs to audio or data devices such as a sound card,
because you might damage or destroy those devices
Extenders and Splitters

PCs can run out of power connections, and large cases can have drives beyond the reach
of any plug on the supply. A quick solution on hand to both of these common problems:
extenders and splitters
Extenders are wire sets that have a Molex connector on each end; they are used to
extend a power connection to a device beyond the reach of the power supply's, own
wiring
Splitters are similar to extenders, with the exception that they provide two power
connections from a single power supply connector
Power-Supply Problems
Power-supply problems can come from both internal and external sources
Failure of a power supply can be caused by failure of components within the computer
(internal), but the most common failures come from the power source itself (external)
Common power delivery problems are spikes, surges, sags, brownouts, and blackouts
affect the stability and operation of the main power supply

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Power-Protection Devices
Surge suppressors (Automatic Voltage Regulator)
A device used to filter out the effects of voltage spikes and surges that are present in
commercial power sources and smooth out power variations
A good surge suppressor will protect your system from most problems
Most power strips with surge protection have a red indicator light. If the light goes out,
this means that the unit is not providing protection
Most power strip/surge protectors should be replaced every year or so. If the light starts
flashing before then, the power strip is failing and should be replaced
Uninterruptible power supply (UPS)

For complete protection from power fluctuations and outages, the uninterruptible power
supply (UPS) is recommended
A UPS is an inline battery backup. When properly installed between a computer and the
wall outlet, a UPS device protects the computer from surges and acts as a battery when
the power dips or fails
Many models can also interact with the computer and initiate a safe shutdown in the
event of a complete power failure
They do this by means of software that runs in the background and is set in action by a
signal through one of the computer's COM ports when the power goes down
2.2. Ports and Connectors
Every cable used with PC has a connector at the end that ultimately plugs into a
corresponding port on the PC
Connectors and ports can be either male or female, defined as having pins or holes,
respectively

32
Common Peripheral Ports

Serial Ports
Serial ports transfer data 1 bit at a time and are used to connect mouse, external modems,
UPS (for data), Switch
It can be either 9-pin or 25-pin male port, but the latest models has only 9-pin serial port
Most motherboards have at least one or two serial ports. COM1,COM2 with I/O address
3F8, 2F8 and IRQ4, IRQ3 respectively
9-Pin Serial port 25-Pin Serial port
Parallel Ports
Parallel communications transfer data 8 bits(1 byte)
Examples include parallel ports for printers; game ports for joy sticks; keyboard buses for
keyboards
Parallel ports are 25-pin female DB ports on the back of PC
Traditionally it gets I/O address 278 and IRQ7
25-Pin Parallel port
Standard Connectors and Cabling

Keyboard
Keyboards range from simple, flat 104 key typewriter type to curved types with 20 extra
keys for daily essentials( browsing, playing music, etc)
Keyboards connect to the PC with one of three connectors
A round five-pin DIN (Deutsch Industry Norm) [for AT-style connector]
A round six-pin mini-DIN, also called as PS/2
A Universal Serial Bus (USB) connector

33
Mouse
Mouse connect to the computer with 9-pin DB or with a mini-DIN (PS/2) connector or with USB
port
Video
Monitors connect the PC with DB video connector
Older CGA (Color/Graphics Adapter) and EGA (Enhanced Graphics Adapter) uses 9-pin
female DB connectors
The new monitors VGA (Video Graphics Adapter) SVGA (Super VGA) or XGA
(Extended Graphics Adapter) uses male DB connectors with 15-pin in three rows
Audio
All sound cards have integrated mini-audio ports
Devices such as microphone and speakers connect to the audio to the audio ports using
mini-audio connector
MIDI/Joystick
Many sound cards have a female DB-15 port to connect Joystick and Musical Instrument
Digital Interface
These devices connect to the port using a male DB connector with 15-pins in two rows
Modems
Modems connects the telephone line using RJ-11 connectors use two wires
All modems have at least one RJ-11 port and many modems have two RJ-11 ports.
Network Cards
Network Interface Cards (NIC) enables a PC to be a part of network
Most network cables have either RJ-45 or BNC Connector that connects to the NIC port
RJ-45 connectors are twisted pair cables that transfer data using four or eight wires BNC
connecter fits into the hole in the BNC port

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Printers
Printers can use either a Centronics port, a USB port, or both
Centronics ports are female with two metal clips to the lock the connector
The 25-pin male connector at the other end of the cable to the 25-pin female port on the
back of PC
The square connector on the USB cable connects to the printer, and the rectangular
connector on the USB cable to the port on the PC
Enhanced Ports and Connectors

USB-Universal Serial Bus
USB ports transfer data at speed up to 12 Mbps
Windows from 98 handles it very well
It has two connectors, the rectangular type to USB port and the square shaped type to
connect the device
We can connect or disconnect at any time without powering down the PC
USB technology allows to daisy chain up to 127 devices together using only one IRQ
Keyboard, mouse, joystick, microphones, scanner, printers, modems and cameras
connects with USB
IEEE-1394 or FireWire
It is an exciting technology created by Apple, texas and IEEE
It transfers at speeds up to 400 Mbps, such incredible speeds make this technology
perfect for digital video recorders, external hard drives and other real time devises
It can be hot swapped
Enables to have daisy chain up to 63 Firewire devices using single IRQ

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3. Microprocessor
Microprocessor History
A microprocessor -- also known as a CPU or central processing unit -- is a complete
computation engine that is fabricated on a single chip. The first microprocessor was the Intel
4004, introduced in 1971. The 4004 was not very powerful -- all it could do was add and
subtract, and it could only do that 4 bits at a time. But it was amazing that everything was on one
chip. Prior to the 4004, engineers built computers either from collections of chips or from
discrete components (transistors wired one at a time). The 4004 powered one of the first portable
electronic calculators.
The first microprocessor to make it into a home computer was the Intel 8080, a complete 8-bit
computer on one chip, introduced in 1974. The first microprocessor to make a real splash in the
market was the Intel 8088, introduced in 1979 and incorporated into the IBM PC (which first
appeared around 1982). If you are familiar with the PC market and its history, you know that the
PC market moved from the 8088 to the 80286 to the 80386 to the 80486 to the Pentium to the
Pentium II to the Pentium III to the Pentium 4. All of these microprocessors are made by Intel
and all of them are improvements on the basic design of the 8088. The Pentium 4 can execute
any piece of code that ran on the original 8088, but it does it about 5,000 times faster!
A chip is also called an integrated circuit. Generally it is a small, thin piece of silicon onto
which the transistors making up the microprocessor have been etched. A chip might be as large
as an inch on a side and can contain tens of millions of transistors. Simpler processors might
consist of a few thousand transistors etched onto a chip just a few millimeters square.
The following table helps you to understand the differences between the different processors
that Intel has introduced over the years.
Name Date Transistors Microns Clock speed Data MIPS

width
8080 1974 6,000 6 2MHz 8 bits 0.64

8088 1979 29,000 3 5MHz 16 bits 8-bit bus 0.33
80286 1982 134,000 1.5 6MHz 16 bits 1
80386 1985 275,000 1.5 16MHz 32 bits 5
80486 1989 1,200,000 1 25MHz 32 bits 20
Pentium 1993 3,100,000 0.8 60MHz 32 bits 64-bit bus 100
Pentium II 1997 7,500,000 0.35 233MHz 32 bits64-bit bus 300
Pentium III 1999 9,500,000 0.25 450MHz 32 bits64-bit bus 510
Pentium 4 2000 42,000,000 0.18 1.5GHz 32 bits64-bit bus 1,700

36
Information about this table:
The date is the year that the processor was first introduced. Many processors are re-
introduced at higher clock speeds for many years after the original release date.
Transistors are the number of transistors on the chip. You can see that the number of
transistors on a single chip has risen steadily over the years.
Microns are the width, in microns, of the smallest wire on the chip. For comparison, a
human hair is 100 microns thick. As the feature size on the chip goes down, the number
of transistors rises.
Clock speed is the maximum rate that the chip can be clocked at. Clock speed will make
more sense in the next section.
Data Width is the width of the ALU. An 8-bit ALU can add/subtract/multiply/etc. two 8-
bit numbers, while a 32-bit ALU can manipulate 32-bit numbers. An 8-bit ALU would
have to execute four instructions to add two 32-bit numbers, while a 32-bit ALU can do it
in one instruction. In many cases, the external data bus is the same width as the ALU, but
not always. The 8088 had a 16-bit ALU and an 8-bit bus, while the modern Pentiums
fetch data 64 bits at a time for their 32-bit ALUs.
MIPS stand for "millions of instructions per second" and is a rough measure of the
performance of a CPU.
Inside a Microprocessor
A microprocessor executes a collection of machine instructions that tell the processor what to do.
Based on the instructions, a microprocessor does three basic things:
Using its ALU (Arithmetic/Logic Unit), a microprocessor can perform mathematical
operations like addition, subtraction, multiplication and division. Modern
microprocessors contain complete floating-point processors that can perform extremely
sophisticated operations on large floating-point numbers.
A microprocessor can move data from one memory location to another.
A microprocessor can make decisions and jump to a new set of instructions based on
those decisions.
Intel Pentium Processors

Intel's first processor to break away from the x86 naming convention was the Pentium (586)
released in 1993. Pentium processors had a Dual Independent Bus Architecture and, as a result,
were capable of parallel processing (using two sets of instructions at the same time). Pentium
processors came in such speeds as 60, 66, 75, 90,100,120,133,150, and 166 MHz. Pentium
processors transmitted data 64-bits at a time, via the 64-bit data bus, located within the processor.
The 32-bit address bus of the Pentium processor enabled it to address up to 4GB of memory.
Pentium processors have 16K Level 1 (L1) cache memory, and can also access between 256K
and 512K of Level 2 (L2) cache.

37
Pentium 60 and 66 MHz

Pentium 60 and 66 MHz processors connected to the motherboard via Socket 4. This processor
had a 273-pin Pin Grid Array (PGA) and used 5 volts DC. (The term PGA is used to explain the
pin orientation of a processor.)
Pentium 75-200 MHz

Pentium 75-200 MHz processors came in a 296-pin PGA format and connected the processor to
the motherboard via Socket 7. These processors used 3.3 volts DC and could use an active or a
passive heat sink.
Intel Pentium Pro Processors

Intel created the Pentium Pro in 1995 to compete in the high-end server market. The Pentium Pro
wasn't meant to replace the Pentium in the company's mainstream market. This processor had a
387-pin SPGA format and connected to the motherboard via Socket 8. The extra pins on this
processor generated a lot of heat and an onboard fan was necessary. The Pentium Pro had a 64-
bit data bus and a 36-bit address bus. Intel released the Pentium Pro in speeds of 150,166,180,
and 200 MHz. All speeds used 3.3 volts DC, except the 150 MHz version of the processor,
which used 3.1 volts DC Pentium Pro processors could handle four pipelines simultaneously and,
as a result, were capable of performing the equivalent of three simultaneous processes.
Intel Pentium MMX Processors

Intel created the Pentium MMX, which provided 57 more instructions for multimedia and
communication capabilities. This processor had a 321-pin SPGA format and connected to the
motherboard using Socket 7. Aside from markings on the chip, the MMX version looks the same
as the earlier Pentiums. This processor was available in speeds of 166, 200, and 233 MHz and
ran under two voltages. One voltage drove the processor and the other voltage provided the pins
with power. Additionally, a 32K L1 cache was available onboard and this processor could
support 256-512K L2 cache.
Intel Pentium II Processors

Intel first introduced the Pentium II processor in 1997. This processor, as shown in Figure blow,
had a new package layout or form factor called Single Edge Contact (SEC) and used Slot 1 to
connect to the motherboard. The Pentium II processor has a 64-bit wide data bus and a 36-bit
wide address bus (effectively 32-bit RAM support). Intel shipped the Pentium II in speeds of
233, 266, 300, and 333 with a system bus speed of 66 MHz; and later shipped Pentium II
processors that ran on a 100 MHz bus at core speeds of 350, 400, and 450 MHz. Regardless of
the speed, and even running on only 3.3 volts DC, all Pentium II processors require special

38
cooling fans. In addition, the Pentium II contains 32K of L1 cache and 512K L2 cache that runs
at half the speed of the processor core.
Intel Pentium III Processors

Intel released the Pentium III processor in 1999 to replace the aging Pentium II. The Pentium III
initially came out in a 242-pin SEC package, but Intel eventually released the 370-pin PGA form
factor. The 242-pin SEC connected to the motherboard using Slot 1 and used 2 volts DC. The
370-pin PGA connected to the motherboard using the PG370 ZIF socket, often referred to as
simply Socket 370. Figure blow shows an SEC Pentium III.
Pentium III processors came out in a wide variety of core speeds and motherboard system
speeds. Initially released at 450 MHz with a 100 MHz system speed, Intel kept cranking up the
speeds until the P-III topped out at 1.3 GHz and a 133 MHz system speed. Other variations exist
as well. The Pentium IIIB techs introduced onboard Advanced Transfer Cache (ATC). Usually
both technologies were desired to greatly improve speed and performance.
Intel Pentium IV Processors

The Pentium 4 is a seventh-generation x86 architecture microprocessor produced by Intel and is
their first all new CPU design, called the Net Burst architecture, since the Pentium Pro of 1995.
The original Pentium 4, codenamed "Willamette", ran at 1.4 and 1.5 GHz and was released in
November 2000 on the Socket 423 platform. Unlike the Pentium II, Pentium III, and various
Celerons, the architecture owed little to the Pentium Pro design, and was new from the ground
up. Notable with the introduction of the Pentium 4 was the very fast 400 MHz FSB; it was
actually a 100 MHz Quad-pumped bus, but the theoretical bandwidth was 4x that of a normal
bus, and so it was considered to run at 400 MHz- the fastest competition was running at 266
MHz (133 MHz Double-pumped).

39
4. Memory
The memory holds instructions, data that needs to be processed and the
results. It is divided into two types; Primary memory is the main memory
on the motherboard of the computer, and Secondary memory is
the storage media used to store the program or data permanently.
The primary memory is of two types: ROM and RAM
Read
Read-Only Memory (ROM)
ROM is a type of memory that normally can only be read, as opposed to RAM which can be both
read and written. There are two main reasons that read-only memory is used for certain functions
within the PC:
The values stored in ROM are always there, whether the power is on or not. A ROM can be
removed from the PC, stored for an indefinite period of time, and then replaced, and the data it
contains will still be there. For this reason, it is called non-volatile storage. A hard disk is also
non-volatile, for the same reason, but regular RAM is not.
Read-only memory is most commonly used to store system-level programs that we want to have
available to the PC at all times. The most common example is the system BIOS program, which
is stored in a ROM called the system BIOS ROM. Having this in a permanent ROM means it is
available when the power is turned on so that the PC can use it to boot up the system.
The following are the different types of ROMs with a description of their relative modifiability:
ROM: A regular ROM is constructed from hard-wired logic, encoded in the silicon
itself, much the way that a processor is. It is designed to perform a specific function and
cannot be changed. This is inflexible and so regular ROMs are only used generally for
programs that are static (not changing often) and mass-produced. This product is
analogous to a commercial software CD-ROM that you purchase in a store.
Programmable ROM (PROM): This is a type of ROM that can be programmed using
special equipment; it can be written to, but only once. This is useful for companies that
make their own ROMs from software they write, because when they change their code
they can create new PROMs without requiring expensive equipment. This is similar to
the way a CD-ROM recorder works by letting you "burn" programs onto blanks once and
then letting you read from them many times. In fact, programming a PROM is also called
burning, just like burning a CD-R, and it is comparable in terms of its flexibility.
Erasable Programmable ROM (EPROM): An EPROM is a ROM that can be erased
and reprogrammed. A little glass window is installed in the top of the ROM package,
through which you can actually see the chip that holds the memory. Ultraviolet light of a
specific frequency can be shined through this window for a specified period of time,
which will erase the EPROM and allow it to be reprogrammed again. Obviously this is
much more useful than a regular PROM, but it does require the erasing light. Continuing
the "CD" analogy, this technology is analogous to a reusable CD-RW.

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Electrically Erasable Programmable ROM (EEPROM): The next level of eras ability
is the EEPROM, which can be erased under software control. This is the most flexible
type of ROM, and is now commonly used for holding BIOS programs. When you hear
reference to a "flash BIOS" or doing a BIOS upgrade by "flashing", this refers to
reprogramming the BIOS EEPROM with a special software program. Here we are
blurring the line a bit between what "read-only" really means, but remember that this
rewriting is done maybe once a year or so, compared to real read-write memory (RAM)
where rewriting is done often many times per second!
Random Access Memory (RAM)

The kind of memory used for holding programs and data being executed is called random access
memory or RAM. RAM differs from read-only memory (ROM) in that it can be both read and
written. It is considered volatile storage because unlike ROM, the contents of RAM are lost
when the power is turned off. Obviously, RAM needs to be writeable in order for it to do its job
of holding programs and data that you are working on. The volatility of RAM also means that
you risk losing what you are working on unless you save it frequently.
There are many different types of RAMs, including static RAM (SRAM) and many flavors of
dynamic RAM (DRAM).
Static RAM (SRAM)

Static RAM is a type of RAM that holds its data without external refresh, for as long as power is
supplied to the circuit. This is contrasted to dynamic RAM (DRAM), which must be refreshed
many times per second in order to hold its data contents. SRAMs don't require external refresh
circuitry or other work in order for them to keep their data intact and SRAM is faster than
DRAM. SRAM is superior to DRAM, and we would use it exclusively if only we could do so
economically. Unfortunately, 32 MB of SRAM would be prohibitively large and costly, which is
why DRAM is used for system memory. SRAMs are used instead for level 1cache and level 2
cache memory, for which it is perfectly suited; cache memory needs to be very fast, and not very
large.
Dynamic RAM (DRAM)

Dynamic RAM is a type of RAM that only holds its data if it is continuously accessed by special
logic called a refresh circuit. Many hundreds of times each second, this circuitry reads the
contents of each memory cell, whether the memory cell is being used at that time by the
computer or not. Due to the way in which the cells are constructed, the reading action itself
refreshes the contents of the memory. If this is not done regularly, then the DRAM will lose its
contents, even if it continues to have power supplied to it. This refreshing action is why the
memory is called dynamic. All PCs use DRAM for their main system memory, instead of
SRAM, even though DRAMs are slower than SRAMs and require the overhead of the refresh
circuitry.

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Generally Static RAM and Dynamic RAM summarized as follow:
Static RAM
It uses transistor to store data.
Doesn't need refreshment because it is made mainly from transistor.
It is the fastest memory.
It is difficult to manufacture it in large capacity [size]. Therefore, you may not get it in
the mad easily.
It is used to build cache memory.
Note: The cache memory is a small size memory, which found inside the CPU [and built-in
motherboard]. If no cache memory, the CPU will be in a wait-state to talk to the other memory.
Faster the speed of the cache memory, the better the performance of the CPU will be.
Dynamic RAM
It uses capacitor to store data.
It needs a periodic refresh because 1t 1S 1 mainly from capacitors.
It uses more power than SRAM.
Easy to manufacture and used to build DRAM that most people call it RAM.
RAM modules
SIMM: - Single Inline Memory Module. It is a type memory stick found in 486 (old) and some
Pentium systems. These RAM modules are available in either 30-pin or 72-pin layouts. 30-pin
SIMMs put out 8 bits of data on the data bus at one time, which makes them 8-bits wide. They
come in 1-16MB sticks. 72-pin SIMMs are 32-bits wide and are available in MB to 64MB sticks.
72-pin and 30-pin SIMMs
DIMM: - stands for Dual Inline Memory Module. It is faster in speed and better in capacity for
regular desktop PCs look similar to SIMMs, but are wider and longer. DIMMs have 168-pins,
are 64-bits wide, and range in capacity from 8M B to 256MB sticks. The 144-pin SO DIMMs are
also 64 bits wide and come in roughly the same capacities as regular DIMMs. The 72-pin SO
DIMMs for laptop PCs, in contrast, are only 32-bits wide.
168-pin DIMMs

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RIMM: - stands for Rambus Inline Memory Module in RIMM, the open slot must be filled with
a sp stick called CRIMM (Continuous RIMM). Sticks look like DIMMs, but have 184 pins and
are 16-18-bits wide. Rambus memory modules can be purchased in 32, 48, 64, 96, 128, and
256MB sizes, and have 600, 700, and 800 MHz data transfer rates.
RIMM
Note: CRIMM is not a RAM; simply it is a terminator for open slot.
Remember the four type of RAM:
30pin SIMMs=8bit in wide.

72pin SIMMs=32bit in wide.
168pin DIMMs = 64bitin wide.
72pin DIMMs = 32 bit in wide (for laptop).
5. Expansion slots
It is an expansion bus slot, which is used to attach 3dapter cards to the motherboard. There
are three main types of expansion standards:
ISA-Industry Standard Architecture
ISA slots are black in color, long, slow speed and old type architecture. 8-bit and 16-bit
wide lSA are common types of architecture.
The above two ISA slots and the three short PCI slots

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PCl- Peripheral Component Interconnect
PCI slots are white in color, short, faster than lSA and modern type architecture. 32-bit [old
type] and 64 bit wide PCl are common types of architecture. These days, every card plugs on PCl
slots.
AGP-Acce1erated Graphics Port
AGP slots are brown in color, very short, faster speed and it is only designed for modern graphic
[video] cards. 64-bit wide is a common AGP slot and it is only found in Pentium II system and
above.
Bus and bits
A bus is the physical pathway on the motherboard through which a group of bits computer only
knows two digits. i.e. 0s and 1[binary system].
Capacity units used in computer-language
1 Byte [B} .............................. 8 - bits
1 Kilobyte [KB). ................. 1,024 [103] bytes
1 Megabyte [MB] ............... 1,024 kilo [106] bytes
1 Gigabyte [GB]. ............... 1,024 mega [109] -bytes

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6. Drives are Storage media

A drive is the name for several types of storage media. There are also storage media, which are
not drives (RAM, Tape Streamers), but on these pages, we will discuss the drives.
Common to drive medium is:

A file system can be assigned to them.
They are recognized by the operating system and they are assigned a drive letter.
During start up, drives are typically recognized by the PC system software (ROM BIOS +
operating system). Thus, the PC knows which drives are installed. At the end of this
configuration, the appropriate drive letter is identified with each drive. If a drive is not "seen"
during start up, it will not be accessible to the operating system. However, some external drives
contain special soft-ware, allowing them to be connected during operation.
Some examples of drives

Storage media Drive letter
Floppy disks A: B:
Hard disk C: E: F:
CDROM/DVD D:
Storage principles
Storage: Magnetic or optic. Data on any drive are digitized. That means that they are expressed
as myriads of 0s and 1s. However, the storage of these bits is done in any of three principles:
The physical drive principle Disk types

Floppy disks
Magnetic Hard disk
Zip drive
CD-ROM
Optic DVD-ROM
USB flash disk
Interface
Individual drives are connected to other PC components through an interface. The hard disk
interface is IDE, SATA or SCSI, which in modern PCs is connected to the PCI bus. Certain
drives can also be connected through a parallel port or the floppy controller:

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Integrated Drive Electronics (IDE)

Integrated Drive Electronics (IDE) has a history of gradual development. After going through
much technological advancement, it has evolved into what is today known as PATA. The under
laying standard for IDE is AT attachment and hence the name PATA. The name PATA has been
the retronym for IDE since the introduction SATA. In IDE standard, the cable length is limited to
460mm. Because of this, most of the devices that use IDE are internal to the computer. Before
the advent of SATA, IDE was the most inexpensive and widely available standard in market. But
SATA, in recent times has gradually captured IDE market.
IDE is a disk drive implementation that integrates the controller on the disk drive itself. ATA is
used to connect hard disk drives, CD-ROM drives and similar peripherals and supports 8/16-bit
interface that transfer up to 8.3MB/s for ATA-2 and up to 100MB/s (ATA-6).
Serial Advanced Technology Attachment (SATA)

If you think SATA is any different than SCSI or IDE, well their end result in functionality is
pretty much the same. Just as SCSI is different from IDE, SATA also has some of its own
characteristics. SATA is an acronym for Serial AT attachment. The work on SATA began with
an aim of replacing the older IDE technology. The developers of SATA interface were
successful in using the same commands that were used for IDE. As explained above, IDE is a
parallel technology, while SATA is a serial technology. SATA also has an IDE emulation mode,
which means that SATA interface can operate as IDE, if the computer motherboard is of old
technology and does not support advanced host control interface.
Serial ATA is a serial link - a single cable with a minimum of four wires creates a point-to-point
connection between devices. Transfer rates for Serial ATA begin at 150MB/s.
Small computer system interface (SCSI)

SCSI is pronounced "skuzzy". Now that is out of the way, here is the technical explanation.
Every computer needs to be connected with peripheral devices once in a while. Basically,
peripheral devices are those devices that are connected externally to the computer. Now where
does SCSI fit in over here? SCSI is set of standards that are used to communicate with the
peripheral devices. These standards are also used while transferring the data between computer
and external devices. SCSI is generally used for communicating with hard drives. It is also used
for communicating with other peripheral devices such as USB flash drives, CD ROM, printers
and many data storage devices.
SCSI interfaces provide for data transmission rates (up to 80 megabytes per second). In addition,
you can attach multiple devices to a single SCSI port, so that SCSI is really an I/O bus rather
than simply an interface.

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Hard disks
Hard disks consist of one or more magnetic disks contained in a box. They are used as
storage media in the PC, where you store programs and other digital data.
In the early years of PC development, the low cost floppy drives were the preferred
storage media. But with IBM's XT in 1983-84, the hard disk became the preferred
medium. The first hard disks were rather large units (5.25" diameter) and of poor quality.
The modern hard disks are 3.5" diameter. A typical example is the Quantum Fireball,
which you see above. The cover plate has been removed, so you can see the top arm with
its read/write head.
A hard disk uses round, flat disks called platters, coated on both sides with a special
media material designed to store information in the form of magnetic patterns.
The platters are mounted by cutting a hole in the center and stacking them onto a spindle.
The platters rotate at high speed, driven by a special spindle motor connected to the
spindle. Special electromagnetic read/write devices called heads are mounted onto sliders
and used to either record information onto the disk or read information from it.
The sliders are mounted onto arms, all of which are mechanically connected into a single
assembly and positioned over the surface of the disk by a device called an actuator.
A logic board controls the activity of the other components and communicates with the
rest of the PC. Each platter has two heads, one on the top of the platter and one on the
bottom, so a hard disk with three platters (normally) has six surfaces and six total heads.

47
Each platter has its information recorded in concentric circles called tracks. Each track is
further broken down into smaller pieces called sectors, each of which
holds 512 bytes of information.
Read/write heads
All hard disks consist of thin platters with a magnetic coating. They rotate quite fast
inside a metal container. Data are written and read by read/write heads, which are
designed to ride on a microscopic cushion of air, without touching the platter. They
register bits from the magnetic coating, which races past them. On the illustration below,
you see a hard disk with three platters. It has 6 read/write heads, which move
synchronously.
The arms, which guide the movement of the read/write heads, move in and out. The
read/write head consists of a tiny electromagnet. The shape of the head end acts like an
air foil, lifting the read/write head slightly above the spinning disk below.
When the disk rotates under the read/write head, it can either read existing data or write
new ones:
If a current is applied to the coil, the head will become magnetic. This magnetism will
orient the micro magnets in the track. This is write mode.
If the head moves along the track without current applied to the coil, it will sense the
micro magnets in the track. This magnetism will induce a current in the coil. These
flashes of current represent the data on the disk. This is read mode.
Hard Disk Logical Structures and File Systems

The file system is the general name given to the logical structures and software routines
used to control access to the storage on a hard disk system. The nature of the logical
structures on the hard disk has an important influence on the performance, reliability,
expandability and compatibility of your storage subsystem.
Master Boot Record (MBR)

To ensure that the PC can always boot regardless of which BIOS is in the machine, chip
makers and BIOS manufacturers arrange so that the processor, once turned on, always
starts executing at the same place, FFFF0h.
In a similar manner, every hard disk must have a consistent "starting point" where key
information is stored about the disk, such as how many partitions it has, what sort of
partitions they are, etc.

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The place where this information is stored is called the master boot record (MBR). It is
also sometimes called the master boot sector or even just the boot sector. (Though the
master boot sector should not be confused with volume boot sectors, which are different.)
The master boot record is always located at cylinder 0, head 0, and sector 1, the first
sector on the disk. This is the consistent "starting point" that the disk always uses. When
the BIOS boots the machine, it will look here for instructions and information on how to
boot the disk and load the operating system. The master boot record contains the
following structures:
Master Partition Table: This small table contains the descriptions of the partitions that
are contained on the hard disk. There is only room in the master partition table for the
information describing four partitions. Therefore, a hard disk can have only four true
partitions, also called primary partitions. Any additional partitions are logical partitions
that are linked to one of the primary partitions. One of the partitions is marked as active,
indicating that it is the one that the computer should use for booting up.
The following procedure outlines the installation of a hard disk.

1. Disconnect the power to the computer
2. Configure the appropriate master/slave settings or SCSI ID for the drive
3. Insert the drive into an available drive bay. If the drive is too small for the bay, you will
need a mounting kit
4. Screw in the 4 screws - 2 on each side of the bay
5. If the drive is an IDE disk, connect the IDE cable to the drive. There should be a stripe
along 1 edge of the cable. This stripe denotes pin 1. Pin 1 on the drive is usually closest
to the power connector on the drive, however, you should consult the manufacturers
documentation. Then connect the signal cable to the motherboard ID1 or ID2 interface
making sure to note the pin 1 orientation there as well. If the drive is a SCSI drive, a
SCSI cable would be connected from the drive to a SCSI controller card.
6. Connect one of the power supply's power connectors to the drive
Hard disk maintenance

Avoid rough handling
Never move a disk when it is still spinning
Never expose the internal housing to open air
Perform regular data backups and disk maintenance tasks(Disk cleanup and Disk
De-fragmentation)

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Floppy Disk
Diskettes were developed as a low cost alternative to hard disks. In the 60s and 70s, when
hard disk prices were excessive.
The first diskettes were introduced in 1971. They were 8" diameter plastic disks with a
magnetic coating, enclosed in a cardboard case. They had a capacity of one megabyte.
The diskettes are placed in a drive, which has read and write heads. Conversely to hard
disks, the heads actually touch the disk, like in a cassette or video player. This wears the
media.
Later, in 1976, 5.25" diskettes were introduced. They had far less capacity (only 160 KB
to begin with). However, they were inexpensive and easy to work with. For many years,
they were the standard in PCs. Like the 8" diskettes, the 5.25" were soft and flexible.
Therefore, they were named floppy disks.
In 1987 IBM's revolutionary PS/2 PCs were introduced and with them the 3" hard
diskettes we know today. These diskettes have a thinner magnetic coating, allowing more
tracks on a smaller surface. The track density is measured in TPI (tracks per inch). The
TPI has been increased from 48 to 96 and now 135 in the 3.5" diskettes.
Diskette drives turn at 300 RPM. That results in an average search time ( revolution) of
100 ms.
Floppy Disk Drive Construction and Operation

In terms of construction and operation, floppy drives are similar to hard disk drives, only
simpler. Of course, unlike hard disks, floppy disk drives use removable floppy media instead of
integrated storage platters.
Read/Write Heads
The read/write heads on the floppy disk are used to convert binary data to
electromagnetic pulses, when writing to the disk, or the reverse, when reading.
There are several important differences between floppy disk and hard disk read/write
heads. One is that floppy disk heads are larger and much less precise than hard disk
heads, because the track density of a floppy disk is much lower than that of a hard disk.
Hard disks have a track density of thousands of tracks per inch, while floppy disks have a
track density of 135 tracks per inch or less.
The floppy drive, however, is a contact recording technology. This means that the heads
directly contact the disk media, instead of using floating heads that skim over the surface
the way hard disks do.
Contact recording also makes the floppy disk system more sensitive to dirt-induced
errors, cause by the media getting scratched or pitted. For this reason, floppy disks are
much less reliable, overall, than hard disks.
Head Actuator

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The head actuator is the device that physically positions the read/write heads over the
correct track on the surface of the disk. Floppy disks generally contain 80 tracks per side.
The actuator is driven by a stepper motor.
Over time, however, a floppy disk can develop difficulties if the track positioning of the
actuator drifts from what is normal. This is called a head alignment problem. When the
heads become misaligned, you may notice that disks will work if formatted, written and
then read in the same drive, but not if moved from one drive to another. This is because
the formatting of the floppy is what defines where the data is placed. Misalignment can
be solved by having the heads on the floppy disk realigned.
The head actuators on a floppy disk are very slow, compared to hard disks, which makes
their seek time much higher. While a hard disk's actuator can move from the innermost to
outermost tracks in about 20 milliseconds, a floppy disk will typically take 10 times that
amount of time or more. This is one reason why floppy disks are much slower than hard
disks.
Spindle Motor
The spindle motor on the floppy is what spins the floppy disk when it is in the drive.
When the disk is inserted, clamps come down on the middle of the disk to physically
grasp it. These clamps are attached to the spindle motor, which turns the disk as it spins.
The speed of the spindle motor depends on the type of floppy drive.
360 KB 1.2 MB 720 KB 1.44 MB 2.88 MB
5.25" 5.25" 3.5" 3.5" 3.5"
Spindle 300 RPM 360 RPM 300 RPM 300 RPM 300 RPM
Speed
Logic Board
The floppy disk contains an integrated logic board that acts as the drive controller. Like
the rest of the floppy disk this is a relatively simple affair, containing the electronics that
control the read/write heads, the spindle motor, head actuator and other components.
The circuits on this board also talk to the floppy disk controller over the floppy interface.
SCSI floppy disks of course include a SCSI interface chip on the logic board to talk over
the SCSI interface.
Low-Level and High-Level Formatting

There are two steps involved in formatting magnetic media such as floppy disks and hard disks
The first step involves the creation of the actual structures on the surface of the media
that are used to hold the data. This means recording the tracks and marking the start of
each sector on each track. This is called low-level formatting.
The second formatting step is high-level formatting. This is the process of creating the
disk's logical structures such as the file allocation table and root directory. The high-level
format uses the structures created by the low-level format to prepare the disk to hold files
using the chosen file system.

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For a hard disk, there is an intermediate task that is performed between the two formatting steps:
partitioning. For this reason, combined with the incredible complexity of modern hard disks,
they are low-level formatted by the manufacturer, and high-level formatting is done by the DOS
FORMAT command (or equivalent). Floppy disks require no intermediate step, and due to their
relative simplicity, they are both low-level and high-level formatted at the same time by default
when you use the FORMAT command.
Troubleshooting Floppy Disk Drives

Getting a "Data error reading drive A:/B:" or "Sector not found" while trying to
read a floppy disk
Explanation: You are receiving errors trying to read the contents of a floppy disk. The contents
of one of the sectors on the disk cannot be read.
Diagnosis: Unfortunately, the most common cause of data error or sector not found messages is
media failure; floppy disk media is just not that reliable and will eventually fail if used
frequently. There are many different factors that can contribute to the failure of floppy disks, and
with proper care, they can be made to last a reasonable amount of time, but they all fail if used
any significant amount.
Warning: Do not store original work on floppy disks, or use them as a primary storage area for
your active files. The chances of failure are too great, and their performance is very low. Use the
hard disk instead, and use floppies only for file transfer and backup (if you don't have better
options like CDs and ZIP).
Recommendation:
Try ejecting and then reinserting the disk. You'd be surprised how often this fixes the
problem.
There may be dirt or dust on the surface of the disk. Sometimes tapping the edge of
the disk on a hard surface a few times will loosen whatever is causing the problem
and let you read the disk. I would recommend emptying its contents to a hard disk
subdirectory and then discarding the floppy in favor of a new one. Clean the floppy
drive read heads. Dirty heads can cause read errors, especially if this is occurring with
more than one disk.
Make sure the floppy drive types are properly set up in the system BIOS.
Try the problem disk in a different PC, if available. Try other disks in this drive.
Sometimes a disk will work fine in one floppy but not in another. If you find that one
particular drive always has problems reading disks then it has a misaligned head.
You can "repair" a damaged disk by using a disk utility such as Microsoft's Scandisk
or Norton's Disk Doctor to mark the unreadable sectors as bad and allow the rest of
the disk to be used. The data in the bad sector is tried to be recovered otherwise it will
lost, but the rest of the file will be recoverable. I do not recommend reusing a floppy
disk after it starts showing read errors.

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Have a floppy drive that is consistently giving read errors (data errors, sectors
not found)
Explanation: Your floppy disk drive is giving a large number of read errors, even when using
different disks or different brands of disks.
Diagnosis: This symptom usually means that the floppy drive needs to be replaced. In some
cases the problem is that the drive has become misaligned. This can be fixed, but today it is more
economical to just replace the drive.
Recommendation:
The first step to try is to clean the drive. Consistent errors can be caused by dirt or debris
on the heads.
Test to see if the drive is having problems reading all types of disks, or only disks that it
did not format. If the drive will read disks that it formats consistently, but will not read
disks formatted on other drives, this implies an alignment problem; the drive's tracks are
not lined up with where they should be, but if this incorrect alignment is used when
formatting then the alignment problem will be masked (until you take the disk to a
different PC). You will probably want to replace the floppy drive.
It is possible that the floppy disk cable has come loose or that there is another similar
physical problem, which you may want to double-check.
Try replacing the floppy disk drive with another and see if the problem goes away; it
usually will.

Floppy disk Maintenance tips
Dont expose the disk to magnets
Never touch the exposed surface
Clean the head using head cleaning diskettes and solutions.
The Optic Media (CD-ROMs and DVD)

CD-ROM and DVD are optic readable media, contrary to hard disks, floppy disks and
tapes, which are magnetic.
The optic storage media are read with a very thin and very precisely aimed laser beam.
They have clear advantages in the areas of data density and stability: Data can be packed
much more densely in optic media than in magnetic media. And they have much longer
life span.
It is presumed that magnetic media, such as a hard disk or DAT (digital audio tape) can
maintain their data for a maximum of five years. The magnetism simply fades away in
time. Conversely, the life span of optic media are counted in tens of years.
The Compact Disk

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The compact disk (CD) was introduced by Philips and Sony in 1980 It is a small plastic disk with
a reflecting metal coating, usually aluminum. Myriads of tiny indentations are burned into this
coating. These indentations contain the music in millions of bits. The CD is organized in tracks.
The CD-ROM
The CD-ROM (Read Only Memory) came as an extension of the CD in 1984. In principle, the
media and the drives are the same. The difference is in the data storage organization. In a CD
ROM, the data are stored in sectors, which can be read independently - like from a hard disk.
About Optic Data Storage

The CD-ROM can be compared to a floppy drive, because the disks are removable. It can
also be compared with a hard drive, because of similar data storage capacity. Actually, a
CD-ROM disk can hold up to 700 MB of data.
In the optic readable CD-ROM, the data storage consists of millions of indentations burnt
into the lacquer coated, light reflecting silver surface.
The burnt dents reflect less light than the shiny surface. A weak laser beam is sent to the
disk through a two-way mirror and the sensor registers the difference in light reflection
from the burnt and shiny areas as zeros and ones.
Tracks
Our data consist of bits, each of which is a burnt dent or a shiny spot on the CD-ROM disk.
Music CDs are designed much in the same manner. The bits are not splashed across the disk, but
arranged in a pattern along the track. Without that organization, you could not read the data.
The platters in hard disks and floppies are organized in concentric tracks. There can be hundreds
of those from center to periphery:
The CD-ROM is designed differently. It has only one track, a spiral winding its way from the
center to the outer edge: This 6 km long spiral track holds up to 700 MB data in about 5.5 billion
dots (each is one bit).
CD-Rom Technology
CD-ROM store data as a series of 1s and 0s, just like a floppy or a hard disk drive.
However, instead of using magnetic energy to read and write data, CD readers and
writers user laser energy
A CD platter is composed of a reflective layer of aluminum applied to a synthetic base
that is composed of polymers. A layer of transparent polycarbonate covers the aluminum.
A protective coating of lacquer is applied to the surface to protect
it from dust, dirt and
scratches.
Data is written by creating pits and lands on the CDs
surface. A pit a depression on the surface, and a land is
the height of the original surface.
The transition from a land to a pit or a pit
to a land represents a binary character 1. Lands and pits represent 0

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The reading of data is based on timing, the speed at which the CD is rotating and the
reflection of light.
The DVD media

The DVD is a high-capacity optic media with capacity 4.7gb
The DVD standard was developed in the mid 1990s by leading companies like Philips
and Sony. DVD stands for Digital Versatile Disk.
The DVD is an all-round disk, which probably will replace CD-ROM and laser disks.
Some DVD drives can both read and write the disks. The drives are sold in many
versions and with many incompatible sub-standards.
The DVD is a flat disk of the same size as a CD. It holds a diameter of 4.7 inches (12 cm)
and is .05 inches (1.2 mm) thick.
Data are stored in a small indentation in a spiral track, just like in the CD, only the tracks
are narrower.
DVD disks are read by a laser beam of shorter wave-length than used by the CDROM
drives. This allows for smaller indentations and increased storage capacity.
DVD types
DVD-ROM
This is the most simple format made for data read-only. It is like a beefed-up CD-ROM. This
medium is usable for distribution of software and other data for PC use.
DVD Video disk

This the most important standard. it is a highly sophisticated and very complex format mixing
video, sound and data in a very special format.
DVD-R
The Recordable DVD are written once only like CD-R. This disk can hold 3.95 GB per side .
DVD RAM/+RW
There a at least three different and in-compatible formats of re-writable DVD. The disk can be
written and read like a hard disk or perhaps more like a CD-RW.
Troubleshooting CD-ROM
The most common causes of optical disk problems are scratches dirt and other
contamination
It is possible to clean the bottom surface of the CD with soft cloth. The best technique is
to wipe the disk in radial fashion, using strokes that start from the center of the disk and
emanate towards the outer edge.
This way the scratches will be perpendicular to the tracks rather than parallel to them
minimizing the interference they might cause
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Read errors can also occur when dust accumulates on the read lens of the drive. It is
possible to clean their drive by using canned air or standard cleaners.
If CD not recognized at boot
First make sure the cable is connected properly
Check the master-slave jumpers, if both drivers are on the same cable
Check device manager for status of the drive
If Not ready reading drive
Either you selected the CD too quickly after loading and the OS needs to catch up
or the CD is dirty, clean with dry cloth.
Use a soft clean dry cloth, never use a wet solution.
7. Video System
Monitor
Monitor is a display device that takes the electrical signals from the video card and forms
an image using points of colored light on the screen.
A monitor may use one of the several display technologies; CRT (Cathode Rays Tube),
LCD (Liquid Crystal Display) Gas plasma displays.

CAUTION
Repairing the inside of monitors is a job more in the realm of a TV repairman than a computer
technician. Monitors generally carry warnings that they contain no user-serviceable parts for
good reason. It should not be taken as an invitation to probe inside them where the risk of serious
electrical shock is high.
The Cathode-Ray Tube (CRT)

The cathode-ray tube (CRT) is the main component of a traditional monitor. The rear of the CRT
holds a cylinder that contains one or more electron guns. Most color monitors have three guns in
backone for each of the colors red, green, and blue. This combination (referred to as RGB)
allows the visual production of all colors. The wide end of the CRT is the display screen, which
has a phosphor coating (a substance that can emit light when hit with radiation). When active,
the guns beam a stream of charged electrons onto the phosphorus coating. When the coating is
hit with the right amount of energy, light is produced in a pattern of very small dots. There is one
dot for each primary color (RGB), and the dots are grouped in patterns close together. The name
for a collection of all dots in a specific location is a pixel (which stands for picture element).
Screen Resolution
The term resolution refers to the degree of detail offered in the presentation of an image;
computer-monitor manufacturers express resolution in pixels per inch. The greater the number of
pixels per inch, the sharper the picture.
In an ordinary screen, each pixel consists of three colors: Red, green and blue. Thus, there are
actually three "sub dots" in each pixel. But they are so small that they "melt" together as one dot:

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Monitor resolution is usually expressed as "a" x "b" where "a" is the number of horizontal pixels,
and "b" is the number of vertical pixels. For example, 640 x 480 means that the monitor
resolution is 640 pixels horizontally by 480 pixels vertically.
For example: 640 x 480 is the standard VGA resolution of 640 pixels per line, 480 lines deep.
Power-Saving Features
Because they are the highest consumers of electrical current in the average PC, most new
monitors provide some level of power-saving technology. Consequently, VESA has established a
standard set of power economy controls to reduce power use when the monitor is idle. These are
collectively referred to as Display Power-Management Signaling (DPMS) modes.
Monitor Status Video Signal Monitor Amount of Recovery Time

Sent Activity Level Power Saved to Normal
Display
On Yes Active None N/A
Standby No Inactive Fair Minimal
Suspend Yes Inactive Good Long
Off No Inactive Excellent Longest (Virtually
the same as full
power)
Frequently turning a monitor on and off places stress on the components. DPMS reduces the
need to use the mechanical switch to turn the device on or off.
Monitor Maintenance
Monitor care and troubleshooting are usually simple tasks. Here are some general guidelines to
follow:
Make sure the enclosure is properly ventilated. Covering the opening on the case can lead
to overheating. Dust the unit at regular intervals.
Clean the face of the CRT gently: Follow the instructions in the product manual. In most
cases, this means dusting the glass with a clean soft cloth. Do not use window cleaners
that contain solvents on the unit.
Make sure that all driver settings are kept within the operating guidelines of the product.
Never operate at higher resolutions or refresh rates than those specified by the vendor,
and stay within the limits of the display adapter.
Use any automatic energy-conservation features supported by the hardware and operating
system. Employ a screen saver on older models that lack energy-saving features. If
possible, do not turn the monitor on and off more than twice a day.
When a monitor fails to operate or produces an improper image, check the following:
Check all cables, including power and display.
Check the front panel controls. Make any appropriate minor adjustments that
are needed.

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Check and, if needed, reinstall the display drivers. Make sure all settings are
within the required limits. Reinstall by returning to a plain 16-color, VGA
display mode and adding resolution; then increase the refresh rate.
Try another display adapter; then, if the problem is still unresolved, try
another computer.
If the monitor still shows problems, refer to a specialist for further tests.
Liquid crystal display (LCD)

A digital display technology that produces images on a flat surface by shining light through
liquid crystals and colored filters.
Takes up less space, consumes less power, and produces less heat than traditional
cathode-ray tube monitors.
Lack of flicker and low glare reduce eyestrain.
Much more expensive than CRTs of comparable size.
Available for years as the default display on laptops, sleek screens based on liquid crystal display
technology are increasingly moving onto the desktop. LCDs have many advantages over
cathode-ray tube monitors. They offer crisp text and no annoying flicker, which means they can
help reduce eyestrain. Because they're usually less than ten inches thick, desktop LCD monitors
take up much less space than their traditional CRT counterparts. The downside: The color quality
of LCD displays typically can't compare with that of CRTs, and the high price tags of desktop
LCDs mean they're still a luxury for most.
Video Adaptor
It converts the processors output information into a video signal that can be sent through
a cable to the monitor.
The display adapter has gone through several major evolutions as the nature of PC
computing has changed from simple word processing and number crunching, to the
graphics-intensive world of Windows and multimedia
Advanced Display Systems
The VGA card quickly became commonplace for a PC display system, and the race was on to
produce cards with more colors, more resolution, and additional features. VESA
(Video Electronics Standards Association) agreed on a standard list of display modes that
extended VGA into the high-resolution world of color and high photographic quality we know
today. The standard is known as SVGA (Super VGA). The SVGA sets specifications for
resolution, refresh rates, and color depth for compatible adapters. On Pentium and later PCs, an
SVGA adapter is the standard for display adapters. The minimum resolution needed for SVGA
compatibility is 640 x 480 with 256 colors, and most modern adapters usually go far beyond that.
Video Memory
The amount of memory on a display adapter is a major factor in determining the screen
resolution and color depth that the card can manage. Just as with system RAM, the video

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memory must be able to operate at a speed that can keep up with the processor, and the demands
of the system clock. If the display adapter is too slow at updating the image on the monitor, the
user is left waiting or is presented with jerky mouse movements and keystrokes that appear in
delayed bursts rather than as typed
Most video adapter cards have the following components.
The Video BIOS: Is the programming in the BIOS chip that enables the system to
display information on the monitor during the POST and boot sequences, before any
other software drivers have been loaded from the disk
The Video Processor: Is the heart of any video adapter and defines the card function
and performance levels.
The Video memory: Video imaged are stored while processing, the amount of memory
on the adapter determines the maximum screen resolution and color depth that the device
can support.
The digital to analog converter: is responsible for converting the digital images
produced by the computer to analog signal that the monitor could display. The Bus
connector: The majority of adapters on the market use PCI bus, the recent bus AGP, a
dedicated video bus deliver a maximum bandwidth four times larger than a comparable
PCI bus.
The Video driver: Generally supports the processor on the video adapter, they enable
the software to communicate with the video adapter. The video driver also provides
interface that can be used to configure the display produced by the adapter.
Adapter and display troubleshooting

A defective of dysfunctional adapter is replaced as a single unit rather than repaired
If the display goes out swap with other monitor to confirm if that display is the problem.
If the problem disappears then it almost certainly in the display or cable, if not the
problem is in the video adapter or PC itself.
The monitor cable can sometimes be the source of display problems. A bent pin in the
connector that plugs into the video adapter can prevent the monitor from displaying
images
Use specialized diagnostic and testing programs like Display mate
Display circuits can hold extremely high voltages for hours, days or even weeks after the
power is shut off.

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Sound System
What is a Sound?
All sound starts as pressure variations traveling through the air. Sound can come from
almost anywherea barking dog, a laughing child, a fire engines siren, a person
speaking.
The process of recording sound to a hard drive requires sound to be carried through several
manipulations.
First, sound must be translated from pressure variations in the air to analog electrical
signals. This is accomplished by a microphone.
These analog signals are amplified by the sound card, then digitized (converted to a series
of representative digital words each taken at a fixed time interval).
The resulting stream of data is processed and organized through the use of software,
which places the data into a standard file format. The file is saved to the drive of choice
(typically, a hard drive).
The playback process is virtually the reverse of recording.
A software application opens a sound file on the hard drive, and then passes the digital
data back to the sound card. Data is translated back into equivalent analog levels
ideally, the reconstructed shape of the analog signal closely mimics the original digitized
signal. The analog signal is amplified, and then passed to a speaker.
If the sound was recorded in stereo, the data is divided into two channels that are
separately converted back to analog signals, amplified, and sent to their corresponding
speakers.
Speakers convert the analog signal back into traveling pressure waves that you can hear.
Troubleshooting a Sound Board

Traditionally, sound boards use many of the same chipsets and basic components, but because
each board is designed a bit differently, it is very difficult for commercial diagnostic products to
identify failed IC functions. For the most part, commercial and shareware diagnostics can only
identify whether a brand-compatible board is responding or not. As a result, this chapter will take
the sub-assembly replacement approach. When a sound board is judged to be defective, it should
be replaced outright.
The following tips might help you nail down a sound problem most efficiently:
Check to see that your speakers are connected, powered, and turned on.
Check that the speaker volume and sound card master volume are turned up.
Check to see that the mixer volume and master volume are set properly.
Be sure that the music or sound file(s) are installed properly.
Check that all sound card and multimedia drivers are installed.
Be sure that the drivers are up to date.
Check for resource conflicts between the sound card and other devices in the system.
Be sure that the sound card is selected and configured properly (especially for DOS
apps).

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The sound device should be enabled and configured under CMOS.

When no sound :
set the adapter to default settings
check the speakers connection
when using powered speakers check supply
General notes on audio hardware

If there are several empty bus slots from which to choose, audio adapters should be
installed in the slot that is as far away as possible from other cards in the computer. This
reduces the possible EM interference; it reduces stray audio signals from one card that
might affect the sound card.
When using speakers rated less than four watts, the volume control on the soundcard
should not be turned to maximum. The speakers may burn from overload. Better results
can be found by plugging the sound card in to powered speakers
The most common problem for audio adapters is that they conflict with other devices
installed in the PC. Hardware conflicts are demonstrated by adapter malfunction,
repetition of the same sound over and over or PC freezes
It is always best to install an audio adapter by using the default settings whenever
possible. If there is a conflict with another adapter, it is recommended to modify the
settings of the other device rather then those of the audio adapter.
Although most computer speakers are magnetically shielded, recorded tapes, credit cards,
or floppy disks should not be left in front of speakers for a long time.
8. Modem
A modem is a peripheral device that enables computers to communicate with each other
over conventional telephone lines, ISDN cable lines, or even without wires.
The word modem comes from combining the words MOdulator and DEModulator.
It is the key that unlocks the world of the Internet and its World Wide Web, commercial
online services, electronic mail (E-mail), and bulletin board systems (BBSes).
It converts digital information to analog by MODulating it on the sending end and
DEModulating the analog information into digital information at the receiving end.
Modems are known as Data Circuit-Terminating Equipment (DCE) while the computer
using the modem is often referred to as Data Terminal Equipment (DTE).
Modems have different transmission modes as follows:
Simplex - Simplex means that signals can be passed in one direction only which
means that communication only happens in one direction.
Half Duplex - Half duplex means that signals can be passed in either direction,
but not in both simultaneously. Half-duplex modems can work in full-duplex
mode.

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Full Duplex - Full duplex means that signals can be passed in either direction,
simultaneously.
Most modern modems are internal; however, they can be internal or external. External
modems are connected to the back of the system board via a RS-232 serial connection.
Internal modems are installed in one of the motherboard's PCI or ISA expansion slots
depending on the modem. The modem contains an RJ-11 connection that is used to plug
in the telephone line.
Types of Modems
Depending upon how your computer is configured and your preferences, you can have an
external, internal (Built in and Modem card). All three types work the same way, but each has its
advantages and disadvantages.
External modem.
This is the simplest type of modem to install because you
don't have to open the computer. External modems have their
own power supply and connect with a cable to a computer's serial
port. The telephone line plugs into a socket on the rear panel of the modem.
Because external modems have their own power supply, you can turn off the modem to break an
online connection quickly without powering down the computer. Another advantage over an
internal modem is that an external modem's separate power supply does not drain any power
from the computer. You also can monitor your modem's connection activity by watching the
status lights.
Internal modem.
Internal modems are more directly integrated into the computer system and, therefore, do not
need any special attention. Internal modems are activated when you run a communications
program and are turned off when you exit the program. This convenience is especially useful for
novice users.
Internal modems usually cost less than external modems, but the price difference is usually
small. The major disadvantage with internal modems is their location: inside the computer.
When you want to replace an internal modem you have to go inside the computer case to make
the switch.

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How Modems Work

Modems convert analog data transmitted over phone lines into digital data computers can
read; they also convert digital data into analog data so it can be transmitted.
This process involves modulating and demodulating the computers digital signals into
analog signals that travel over the telephone lines. In other words, the modem translates
computer data into the language used by telephones and then reverses the process to
translate the responding data back into computer language.
Modems can also be classified by their speed which was measured by the BAUD rate.
One baud is one electronic state change per second. Since a single state change can
involve more than a single bit of data, the Bits Per Second(BPS) unit of measurement has
replaced it as a better expression of data transmission speed. Common modem speeds are
V.34 at 28.8 kbps, V.34+ at 33.6 kbps and V.90 at 56 Kbps.
Error correction is the method by which modems verify that the information sent to them
has been undamaged during the transfer. Error-correcting modems break up information
into small packets, called frames. The sending modem attaches a checksum to each of
these frames. The receiving modem checks whether the checksum matches the
information sent. If not, the entire frame is resent.
Sometimes one modem in a connection is capable of sending data at a faster rate than the
other can receive. Flow control allows the receiving modem to tell the other to pause
while it catches up
Common Problems
Dialing Problems
Make sure the modem is setup and configured correctly. Refer to Configuring Your
Modem for details.
Make sure the line you are using is working properly. Plug the modems phone line into a
telephone to see if you can get a dial tone. If not, contact your telephone company for
assistance with the line.
Connection Problems
For external modems, be sure to use a high quality cable to connect your PC to the
modem and make sure the connection is secure.
For internal modems make sure the modem is properly seated in the bus slot.
Make sure the modem is properly configured and is not conflicting with other devices.
See Configuring the Modem for further details.

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Try disabling Data Compression and Error Control. Check your modem documentation
for instructions on how to do so via your init string. You can also refer to Configuring the
Modem for instructions from within the Win95 modem control panel.
Check the phone line for noise. Try plugging in a regular phone to your modem line and
see if the line quality is good. Listen for hissing or static. You might even try turning off
other electrical devices, such as the television, to see if theyre causing interference.
Check the phone line for noise or static. If you detect any, contact your phone company
for assistance.
Modem driver
If you have a modem that has a hardware controller:
The modem doesn't need a driver to work - the "driver" that makes it a modem is in the modem
and is known as flash firmware. To install the modem in Windows, the "driver" is an .inf file that
defines the modem's command set and other responses for Windows- TAPI applications.
Connectivity problems basically are unaffected by the "driver" only a firmware flash can
change the code that determines how well your modem will perform.
If you have a modem that lacks a hardware controller:

A driver is necessary for the modem to work. There are hundreds of modem brand names,
manufacturers, and sources for modems with varying degrees of support. Fortunately, there are
only a handful of chipset makers - and a common driver base for each of the chipsets.
You really need a modem driver if your modem doesn't work at all: if it hasn't installed
properly, or if you cannot talk to it as described in Setting Up HyperTerminal. (But, again - not
always: See the "If your Modem Doesn't Work at All" listings in Troubleshooting Contents.)

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9. BIOS
Introduction to the BIOS
The instructions that turn a PC into a useful machine come in three stages, starting with
application programs, which are loaded by an operating system, which in turn is loaded
by a bootstrap loader in the BIOS, which stands for Basic Input/Output System.
Software Layer model

Layer # Layer
0 Hardware
1 BIOS
2 Operating System
3 Applications
The BIOS is also responsible for allowing you to control your computer's hardware
settings, for booting up the machine when you turn on the power or hit the reset button
and various other system functions.
The term BIOS is typically used to refer to the system BIOS, however, various other
components such as video adapters and hard drives can have their own BIOSes hardwired
to them.
When You switch on Electrical power to the system.
The microprocessor begins executing the ROM-BIOS code.
BIOS routines begin when the computer is booted and are mad up of 3 main operations.
Processor manufacturers program processors to always look in the same place in the
system BIOS ROM for the start of the BIOS boot program.
First, the Power On Self Tests (POST) are conducted. These tests verify that the system
is operating correctly and will display an error message and/or output a series of beeps
known as beep codes depending on the BIOS manufacturer.
Second, is initialization in which the BIOS looks for the video card. In particular, it looks
for the video card's built in BIOS program and runs it. The BIOS then looks for other
devices' ROMs to see if any of them have BIOSes and they are executed as well.
Third, is to initiate the boot process. The BIOS looks for boot information that is
contained in file called the master boot record (MBR) at the first sector on the disk.

65
In most PCs, the BIOS has four main functions

Power On Self Test (POST)
Test computer hardware, ensuring hardware is properly functioning before starting process of
loading Operating System. Additional information on the POST can be found on our POST /
Beep Codes page. During this process, the PC communicates what's going on-especially if it
discovers problems-through a series of beeps (Beep Codes are given below) initially or text
messages that appear on the monitor if the video card functions properly
It is a built in program in the BIOS chipset that tests the essential hardware part of your PC. It
shows the problem on text message on screen or beeps sound on built-in speaker on the system.
Bootstrap Loader - Process of locating the operating system. If capable Operating system
located, BIOS will pass the control to it.
BIOS - Software / Drivers which interfaces between the operating system and your hardware.
When running DOS or Windows you are using complete BIOS support.
BIOS / CMOS Setup - Configuration program which allows you to configure hardware settings
including system settings such as computer passwords, time, and date.
CMOS
CMOS is short for Complementary Metal-Oxide Semiconductor. CMOS is anon-board
semiconductor chip powered by a CMOS battery inside IBM compatible computers that
stores information such as the system time and system settings for your computer; it is
modified and changed by entering the CMOS Setup.
Standard CMOS Features

Here you can setup the basic BIOS features such as date, time, type of floppy etc. Use the
arrow keys to move around and press enter to select the required option. You can specify
what IDE devices you have such as Hard drive, CD-ROM, ZIP drive etc.
The easiest way to setup the IDE devices is by leaving it set to auto. This allows the
BIOS to detect the devices automatically so you don't have to do it manually. At the
bottom, it also displays the total memory in your system.
Integrated Peripherals
This menu allows you to change the various I/O devices such as IDE controllers, serial ports,
parallel port, keyboard etc. You can make changes as necessary.

66
PCI Configurations
This menu allows you to configure your PCI slots. You can assign IRQ's for various PCI slots. It
is recommended that you leave the default settings as it can get a bit complicated messing around
with IRQ's.
Boot Sequence After loading and providing support for essential hardware, the BIOS
searches for boot devices. By default, on current motherboards, the BIOS searches for the floppy
drive first, and then the hard drive, and, finally, the CDROM drive. You can configure the search
order in the CMOS settings program.
Set Password
To password protect your BIOS you can specify a password. Make sure you don't forget the
password or you can not access the BIOS. The only way you can access the BIOS is by resetting
it using the reset jumper on the motherboard.
Save and Exit Setup

To save any changes you made to the BIOS you must choose this option. From the dialog box
choose "Y".
Exit without Saving

If you don't want to save changes made to the BIOS, choose "N" from the dialog box.
To clear an unknown BIOS password.

If you have mistakenly forgot or lost your BIOS password or you receive a password at boot that
you do not know, you will need to clear the BIOS password by one of the following methods.
Precaution: When inside the computer please be sure of the potential of ESD.
On the computer motherboard locate the BIOS clear / password jumper or dipswitch and
change its position. Once this jumper has been changed, turn on the computer and the
password should be cleared. Once cleared, turn the computer off and return the jumper or
dipswitch to its original position.
Additionally, when looking for the jumper / dipswitch the label of that switch can be
anything; however, in most cases will be labeled CLEAR CLEAR CMOS - CLR -
CLRPWD - PASSWD - PASSWORD PWD
On the computer motherboard locate and remove the CMOS battery for at least 10
minutes allowing the computer to lose its information.
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If one of the above solutions do not clear the password or you are unable to locate the
jumpers or solder beads, it is recommended you contact the computer manufacturer or
motherboard manufacturer for the steps on clearing the computer password.
Beep Codes
The beep codes for each PC vary according to the BIOS manufacturer, although you'll
find certain codes on most PCs.
Below are IBM BIOS Beep codes that can occur. However, because of the wide variety
of models shipping with this BIOS, the beep codes may vary.
Beep Code Description

No Beeps No Power, Loose Card, or Short.
1 Short Beep Normal POST, computer is ok.
2 Short Beep POST error, review screen for error code.
Long repeating Beeps Problem with RAM
Continuous Beep No Power, Loose Card, or Short.
Repeating Short Beep No Power, Loose Card, or Short.
One Long and one Short Beep Motherboard issue.
One Long and Two Short Beeps Video (Mono/CGA Display Circuitry) issue.
One Long and Three Short Beeps. Video (EGA) Display Circuitry.
Three Long Beeps Keyboard / Keyboard card error.
One Beep, Blank or Incorrect Display Video Display Circuitry.
Note:
When the real-time clock starts losing time, its time to replace the CMOS battery
When changing the hardware in PC, remember to check the CMOS settings if necessary

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Chapter III. PC Assembling and Disassembling
The Disassembling process

Disassembly Prerequisites
Things you need to do before you disassemble.
1. Shut down any running programs and turn the computer off.
2. Remove all cables (especially the power cable) that are attached to the computer.
Remember that some cables use special screws to attach them to their ports.
3. Remove any floppy disks from their respective drives to prevent damage to either the
disk or the drive.
4. After checking once more to see that all the prerequisites have been dealt with, move
the computer to the work surface.
Steps:
Back up every thing important

Have a clean workspace with all necessary tools and equipment
Take ESD precautions
Document every thing
Power all devices and disconnect them from the main power supply
Typical Disassembly
Detach keyboard and mouse from the back of the computer
Detach monitor
Detach serial and parallel devices
Detach network cables, speaker cables, Modem phone line
Detach power cable.
Remove system case
Detach internal power cables from storage device
Remove hard device and other storage devices.
Remove interface card
Remove power cables from system board
Remove CPU
Remove RAM
Remove cables from system board
Remove screws holding system board in place
Remove system board

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Actually assembling the system is easy after you have lined up all the components. In fact, you
will find the parts procurement phase the most lengthy and trying of the entire experience.
Completing the system is basically a matter of screwing everything together, plugging in all the
cables and connectors, and configuring everything to operate properly together.
Assembly Preparation
The process of physically assembling a PC requires only a few basic tools: a 1/4" nut driver or
Phillips-head screwdriver for the external screws that hold the cover in place and a 3/16" nut
driver or Phillips-head screwdriver for all the other screws. Needle-nose pliers can also help in
removing motherboard standoffs, jumpers, and stubborn cable connectors.
The following sections cover the assembly and disassembly procedure:
Case or cover assembly

Power supply
Adapter boards
Motherboard
Disk drives
It is best to consider each system by the type of case it uses. All systems that have AT-type
cases, for example, are assembled and disassembled in much the same manner. Tower cases are
basically AT-type cases turned sideways, so the same basic instructions apply. Most Slim line
and ATX-style cases are similar; these systems are assembled and disassembled in much the
same way.
The following section lists assembly and disassembly instructions for several case types.
ESD Protection
One issue you must be aware of is electrostatic discharge (ESD) protection. Another is recording
the configuration of the system with regard to the physical aspects of the system (such as jumper
or switch settings and cable orientations) and the logical configuration of the system (especially
in terms of elements such as CMOS settings).
When you are working on the internal components of a computer, you must take the necessary
precautions to prevent accidental static discharges to the components. At any time, your body
can hold a large static voltage charge that can easily damage components of your system. Before
I ever put my hands into an open system, I first touch a grounded portion of the chassis, such as
the power supply case. This action serves to equalize the electrical charges the device and my
body might be carrying. Be sure the power supply is unplugged during all phases of the assembly
process. Some will claim that you should leave the system plugged in to provide an earth ground
through the power cord and outlet, but that is unnecessary. If you leave the system plugged in,

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you open yourself up to other problems, such as accidentally turning it on or leaving it on when
installing a board or device, which can damage the motherboard or other devices.
N.B: note that power supplies used in many systems today deliver a +5V current to the
motherboard continuously that is, whenever they are plugged in. Bottom line: Be sure any
system you are working on is completely unplugged from the wall outlet.
Recording Physical Configuration
While you are assembling a system, you should record all the physical settings and
configurations of each component, including jumper and switch settings, cable orientations and
placement, ground wire locations, and even adapter board placement. Keep a notebook handy for
recording these items, and write down all the settings.
It is especially important to record all the jumper and switch settings on the motherboard, as well
as those on any card you install in the system (cards seldom use jumpers or switches today, but
some motherboards still do). If you accidentally disturb these jumpers or switches, you will
know how they were originally set. This knowledge is very important if you do not have all the
documentation for the system handy.
Although cable orientation and placement seem to be very simple, we rarely get through the
entire course of my PC troubleshooting seminars without at least one group of people having
cable-connection problems. Fortunately, in most cases (except power cables), plugging any of
the ribbon cables inside the system backward doesn't cause any permanent damage.
Power and battery connections on pre-ATX systems are exceptions; plugging them in backward
in most cases causes damage. In fact, plugging the motherboard power connectors in backward
or in the wrong plug location on these older systems puts 12V where only 5V should bea
situation that can cause components of the board to violently explode. I know of several people
who have facial scars caused by shrapnel from components that exploded because of improper
power supply connections! As a precaution, you always turn your face away from the system
when you power it on for the first time. If you are using an ATX board and power supply, there
is little chance of this happening because of the superior type of power connector used unless
you mix a September 1998 or newer Dell power supply or motherboard with a standard
motherboard or power supply.
Plugging in the CMOS battery backward can damage the CMOS chip, which usually is soldered
into the motherboard; in such a case, the motherboard must be replaced.
Motherboard Installation
The first step in reassembly is sometimes optional. If you didnt remove the motherboard during
disassembly, you can skip this step. Installing the motherboard involves positioning it in the case
and securing it with either screws or plastic circuit board fasteners. Once the motherboard is

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secured in the case, you must connect the individual connectors that run to things like the reset
switch and the turbo button (if present).
When you are installing your system's motherboard, unpack the motherboard and check to
ensure you have everything that should be included. If you purchase a new board, you typically
get at least the motherboard, some I/O cables, and a manual. If you order the motherboard with a
processor or memory, it is usually installed on the board for you but might also be included
separately. Some board kits include an antistatic wrist strap to help prevent damage due to static
electricity when installing the board.
Installing the CPU and Heat sink
Before your new motherboard is installed, you should install the processor and memory. This
usually is much easier to do before the board is installed in the chassis. Some motherboards have
jumpers that control both the CPU speed and the voltage supplied to it. If these are set
incorrectly, the system might not operate at all, might operate erratically, or might possibly even
damage the CPU. If you have any questions about the proper settings, contact the vendor who
sold you the board before making any jumper changes.
All processors today run hot enough to require some form of heat sink to dissipate heat from the
processor. To install the processor and heat sink, use the following procedure:
1. Prep the motherboard. Take the new motherboard out of the antistatic bag it was
supplied in and set it on the bag or the antistatic mat, if you have one.
2. Install the processor. First, find pin 1 on the processor; it usually is denoted by a
corner of the chip that is marked by a dot or bevel. Next, find the corresponding pin 1
of the ZIF socket for the CPU on the motherboard; it also is usually marked on the
board or with a bevel in one corner of the socket. Be sure the pins on the processor are
straight and not bent; if they are bent, the chip won't insert properly into the socket. If
necessary, use small needle-nose pliers or a hemostat to carefully straighten any pins.
Don't bend them too much they might break off, ruining the chip. Insert the CPU into
the ZIF socket by lifting the release lever until it is vertical. Then, align the pins on the
processor with the holes in the socket and drop it down into place. If the processor
does not seem to want to drop in all the way, remove it to check for proper alignment
and any possibly bent pins. When the processor is fully seated in the socket, push the
locking lever on the socket down until it latches to secure the processor
3. Attach the heat sink. Most heat sinks clip to the socket with one or more retainer clip.
Careful when attaching the clip to the socket; you don't want it to scrape against the
motherboard, which can damage circuit traces or components. You also need to keep
the heat sink steady on the chip while attaching the clips, so do not move, tilt, or slide
the heat sink while you attach it. Most heat sinks have a pre applied thermal pad;
otherwise, you will need to put a dab of heat sink thermal transfer compound
(normally white- or silver-colored grease) on the CPU before installing the heat sink.
This prevents any air gaps and enables the heat sink to work more efficiently. If the

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CPU has an active heat sink (with a fan), plug the fan power connector into one of the
fan connectors supplied on the motherboard
4. Configure the motherboard jumpers (if necessary). Refer to the motherboard
manufacturer's manual to set the jumpers, if any, to match the CPU you are going to
install. Most of the time the motherboard BIOS handles this process, but if manual
configuration is necessary, look for the diagram of the motherboard in the manual to
find the jumper location, and look for the tables for the correct settings for your CPU.
If the CPU supplied was already installed on the motherboard, the jumpers should
already be correctly set for you, but it is still a good idea to check them.
Installing Memory Modules
To function, the motherboard must have memory installed on it. Modern motherboards use either
DDR or DDR2 DIMMs. Depending on the module type, it will have a specific method of sliding
into and clipping to the sockets. Usually, you install modules in the lowest-numbered sockets or
banks first. Note that dual-channel boards perform best if modules are installed in matched pairs.
Older legacy systems, particularly those based on RDRAM, often require memory to be installed
in pairs. Consult the motherboard documentation for more information on which sockets to use
first and in what order and how to install the specific modules the board uses
The physical act of installing memory is fairly straightforward and follows the same basic rules
that have been described for installing other peripherals. There are however, a few specific
differences of which you will need to be aware.
The hardest task involved in adding memory to a PC is buying the correct RAM for your
computer. Memory technology has been changing at a rapid pace to match the changes in CPU
and architecture. There are numerous types of
RAM available, and most are not interchangeable. In other words, you must buy the correct type
of memory and all of your memory must be of the same type
Installation Concerns
Each type of memory and each system BIOS has its own peculiarities in how it supports
memory. You will definitely want to read the system manual before you purchase and install
your new memory. Some of the more common rules
include:
When installing memory, many systems require that all slots in a given memory bank be
full. This means that if you have a 4-slot bank free and you want to add memory, you will
have to install four memory modules.
Do not mix memory of different speeds on your system. Many computers will not even
boot if you do this. If your computer does boot, you can rest assured youll have
memory-related problems later!
If you are installing memory of different sizes (one 64MB SIMM and two 32MB SIMMs,
for instance), place the largest SIMMs in the first memory banks.

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Mounting the New Motherboard in the Case
The motherboard attaches to the case with one or more screws and often several plastic
standoffs. If you are using a new case, you might have to attach one or more metal spacers or
plastic standoffs in the proper holes before you can install the motherboard. Use the following
procedure to install the new motherboard in the case:
1. Find the holes in the new motherboard for the metal spacers and plastic standoffs.
You should use metal spacers wherever there is a ring of solder around the hole
2. Screw any metal spacers into the new case in the proper positions to align with
the screw holes in the motherboard
3. Most motherboards today attach directly to the chassis or to a removable
motherboard tray with screws that thread into brass standoffs attached to the
chassis or tray
4. Install the I/O shield (if used) into the chassis by snapping it into place
5. Install the new motherboard into the case or motherboard tray. Either screw it
directly to the standoffs or slide the standoffs already attached to the board by
sliding the entire board into position. Be sure you align the I/O shield with the
case or the ports on the back of the board with the I/O shield already in the case.
Often, you will have to set the board into the case and slide it sideways to engage
the standoffs into the slots in the case. When the board is in the proper position,
the screw holes in the board should be aligned with all the metal spacers or screw
holes in the case. Take the screws and any plastic washers that were supplied with
the new motherboard and screw the board into the case.
6. Take the screws and any plastic washers that were supplied with the new
motherboard and screw the board into the case
Connecting the Power Supply
The power supply is very easy to install, and it usually attaches to the chassis with four screws.
If the system uses a single ATX-style power connector, plug it in; it can go on only one
way. Some ATX systems also use a 6-pin auxiliary connector or a 4-pin ATX12V
connector. These are also keyed and plug in only one way. If the system is not ATX and
two separate six-wire connectors are used instead, the two black ground wires on the
ends of the connectors must meet in the middle. Align the power connectors such that
the black ground wires are adjacent to each other, and plug in the connectors. Consult the
documentation with your board to ensure that the power supply connection is correct.
Incorrectly connecting the power connectors can destroy the motherboard.
Plug in the power lead for the CPU fan if one is used. The fan will either connect to the
power supply via a disk drive power connector or connect directly to a fan power
connector on the motherboard.

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Connecting I/O and Other Cables to the Motherboard
Several connections must be made between a motherboard and the case. These include LEDs for
the hard disk and power, an internal speaker connection, a reset button, and a power button. Most
modern motherboards also have several built-in I/O ports that have to be connected. This
includes dual IDE host adapters, a floppy controller, and front-mounted USB or IEEE 1394
ports. Some boards also include additional items such as built-in video, sound, or SCSI adapters.
If the board is an ATX type, the connectors for all the external I/O ports are already built in to
the rear of the board. If you are using a legacy Baby ATtype board, you might have to install
cables and brackets to run the serial, parallel, and other external I/O ports to the rear of the case.
If your motherboard has onboard I/O (nearly all PCs today use onboard I/O), use the following
procedure to connect the cables:
1. Connect the floppy cable between the floppy drives and the 34-pin floppy
controller connector on the motherboard.
2. Connect the IDE cables between the hard disk, IDE CD-ROM, and 40-pin
primary and secondary IDE connectors on the motherboard; you will use the
primary IDE channel connector for hard disks only and the secondary IDE
channel connector to attach an IDE CD-ROM or other device, such as a tape
drive. If you have a Serial ATA hard disk and a Serial ATA host adapter on the
motherboard, connect the Serial ATA cable from the hard disk to the host adapter
connection on the motherboard.
3. On non-ATX boards, a 25-pin female cable port bracket is used for the parallel
port. Usually two serial ports exist: a 9-pin and either another 9-pin or a 25-pin
male connector port. Align pin 1 on the serial and parallel port cables with pin 1
on the motherboard connector, and then plug them in.
4. If the ports don't have card slot type brackets or if you need all your expansion
slots, the back of the case might have port knockouts you can use instead. Find
ones that fit the ports, and push them out, removing the metal piece covering the
hole. Unscrew the hex nuts on each side of the port connector, and position the
connector in the hole. Install the hex nuts back in through the case to hold the port
connector in place.
5. Most newer motherboards also include a built-in mouse port. If the connector for
this port is not built in to the back of the motherboard (typically next to the
keyboard connector), you probably have a card bracket type connector to install.
In that case, plug the cable into the motherboard mouse connector, and then attach
the external mouse connector bracket to the case.
6. Attach the front-panel switch, LED, internal speaker wires, and front-mounted
ports such as USB and IEEE 1394 from the case front panel to the motherboard. If
they are not marked on the board, check where each one is on the diagram in the
motherboard manual.

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Installing the Drives
At this point you should install your hard drive, floppy drive, and optical drive. The basic
process for mounting optical drives, hard drives, and floppy drives is as follows:
1. Remove the drive bay plates (if needed). Simply bend or knock the plate out of
the way
2. To install a CD drive, simply slide the drive into the chassis. Note that it is easier
to connect the IDE cable to the rear of the drive and make jumper selections
before mounting the drive..
3. After the drive is in the bay, line up the drive-mounting screw holes on the drive
with the holes in the case chassis. Secure the drive with four screws, using the
ones that came with your case or the drive you are installing .If the drive uses
rails, the rails hold the drive in place.
Installing Additional Expansion Cards
Many systems use additional expansion cards for wireless Ethernet, Internet connection
(modem), sound, and SCSI adapters. These cards are plugged in to the bus slots present on the
motherboard. To install these cards, follow these steps:
1. Insert each card by holding it carefully by the edges, being sure not to touch the chips and
circuitry. Put the bottom-edge finger connector into the appropriate open slot (usually
PCI or PCI Express). Firmly press down on the top of the card, exerting even pressure,
until it snaps into place
2. Secure each card bracket with a screw
3. Attach any internal cables you might have removed earlier from the cards
Replacing the Cover and Connecting External Cables
Now the system should be nearly assembled. All that remains is installing the cover assembly
and connecting any external devices that are cabled to the system. I usually don't like to install
the case cover screws until I have tested the system and am sure everything is working properly.
Often, I find that a cable has been connected improperly or some jumper setting is not correct,
requiring that I remove the cover to repair the problem. Use the following procedure to complete
the assembly:
1. Slide the cover onto the case.

2. Before powering up the system, connect any external cables. Most of the connectors are
D-shaped and go in only one way.
3. Plug the 15-pin monitor cable into the video card female connector.
4. Attach the phone cord to the modem, if any.

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5. Plug the round keyboard cable into the keyboard connector, and plug the mouse into the
mouse port or serial port (if you are using a serial mouse). If you're using a USB
keyboard or mouse, plug it into any free USB port.
6. If you have any other external cabling, such as joystick or audio jacks to a sound card,
attach them now.
7. Connect the other end of the IDE cable to your motherboard's IDE connector or to the
back of another IDE device if you are chaining drives.
8. If your system has a removable drive cage, for floppy and hard disk drives, you should
remove the cage.
9. To install floppy and hard drives, slide your drives into the drive cage and secure them
with the screws that came with your case or with the drive you are installing. As with an
optical drive, it's easier to connect the floppy and IDE cables to the rear of the drives and
make any jumper selections prior to placing the drives or the drive cage into the chassis.
10. If your system has a removable drive cage, slide the drive cage back into the PC and
secure it to the chassis using the screws provided with your case.
11. Connect the drive cables to the appropriate locations on your motherboard.
Installing the New Video Card and Driver Software

Follow these steps to install a new video card into a system:
1. If necessary, remove the screw and slot cover behind the expansion slot you want to use
for the new video card.
2. Slide the video card straight down into the slot where it will be installed (typically an
AGP or a PCI Express slot).
3. Push the card down into the slot, using a front-to-back rocking motion if necessary to get
the edge connector to slide into the slot.
4. Use either the screw you removed during removal of the old card or the screw used in
step 1 to fasten the card into place.
5. Attach the video cable from the monitor to the proper connector at the rear of the
monitor. If the new card uses a DVI-I connector and the monitor uses the standard 15-pin
VGA connector, use a DVI-to-VGA adapter (usually provided with the video card or
available separately from stores that stock computer parts). If you're building a dual-
display system, be sure to plug in your primary and secondary displays to the appropriate
connectors.
Running the Motherboard BIOS Setup Program (CMOS Setup)
Now that everything is connected, you can power up the system and run the BIOS Setup
program. This enables you to configure the motherboard to access the installed devices and set
the system date and time. The system also tests itself to determine whether any problems exists.
Do the following:
1. Power on the monitor first and then the system unit. Observe the operation via the
screen and listen for any beeps from the system speaker.
2. The system should automatically go through a power on self test (POST) consisting of
video BIOS checking, a RAM test, and usually an installed component report. If a fatal
error occurs during the POST, you might not see anything onscreen and the system

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might beep several times, indicating a specific problem. Check the motherboard or
BIOS documentation to determine what the beep codes mean.
3. If there are no fatal errors, you should see the POST display onscreen. Depending on
the type of motherboard BIOS, such as Phoenix, AMI, Award, or others, you have to
press a key or series of keys to interrupt the normal boot sequence and get to the Setup
program screens that enable you to enter important system information. Normally, the
system indicates via the onscreen display which key to press to activate the BIOS
Setup program during the POST, but if not, check the motherboard manual for the
key(s) to press to enter the BIOS Setup. Common keys used to enter BIOS Setup are
F1, F2, F10, Esc, Ins, and Del.
4. After the Setup program is running, use the Setup program menus to enter the current
date and time, your hard drive settings, floppy drive types, video cards, keyboard
settings, and so on.
5. Entering the hard drive information is most critical when building a new system. Most
modern BIOSs feature an autodetect or auto-type setting for the drive; I recommend
you choose that if it is available. This causes the BIOS to read the parameters directly
from the drive, which eliminates a chance for errorsespecially if the builder is less
experienced. These parameters include CHS (cylinder head sector) specifications and
transfer speed and translation settings such as LBA. Most systems also let you set a
user-definable type, which means that the cylinder, head, and sector counts for this
type were entered manually and are not constant. If you set a user-definable type (not
normally recommended unless you don't have "auto" as a choice), it is especially
important to write down the exact settings you use if you don't use Auto because this
information might be very difficult to figure out if it is ever lost.
Modern ATA drives also have additional configuration items you should record if you
set them manually. These include the translation mode and transfer speed setting. With
drives larger than 528MB, you should record the translation mode, which is expressed
differently in different BIOS versions. Look for settings such as CHS, ECHS
(Extended CHS), Large (which equals ECHS), or LBA (logical block addressing).
Typically, you set LBA or Large for any drive over 528MB. Whatever you set, it
should be recorded because changing this setting after the drive has been formatted
can cause problems.
6. After you have checked all the settings in the BIOS Setup, follow the instructions
onscreen or in the motherboard manual to save the settings and exit the Setup menu.

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Chapter IV: Software Trouble Shooting
To be well acquainted with the basics of software maintenance and troubleshooting we have to
first grasp the concept of the motor of the computer system, the operating system. So lets first
define what the operating system is, what components make up the operating system and of
course how it does.
What is an operating system?
An operating system is a software the interfaces the user, software applications and the
underling hardware. Operating system interprets user commands and instructions and sends user
request to the appropriate application. It provides a consistent environment to other software to
execute commands.
Basic functions of operating system:
File management
Disk management
Memory management
Points worthy knowing about Operating System (OS):
Minimum hardware requirements and recommendations(memory, processor, storage,

input/output devices)
Boot file (to make an emergency boot disk) and sequence
Important files and set up information
File system Architecture
And compatible applications
Types of Operating system include:
Windows family (Windows 2000, Windows 2006, Windows XP, Windows Vista,
Windows 7)
Unix, Linux, Ubuntu
Macintosh
For our case, since a window is dominant in Ethiopia, we shall consider the modern windows
operating system troubleshooting hereafter. Moreover, since the basic foundation of the windows
operating systems is similar we shall take one operating system installation process in this
section.

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Operating system Installation process:
Windows 2000/XP installation process involves the following procedures:
1. Start the start up program

2. Text Mode setup
Create partition
Select File system
Format the partition, if needed
Copy installation files to the hard disk
3. Restart the computer
4. Setup wizard (Graphics mode)
Choose regional settings
Enter name and organization
Enter the product key
Enter a 15 characters computer name(unique in the network)
Choose a password for the local Administrator account
Fill in the Date and time
5. Network Configuration
Auto-detects NICs and installs windows networking(client for network for
Microsoft networks
Choose to join the work group
6. Restart the computer
7. Final steps to tidy up
Create start menu short cuts
Set up choices applied
Configuration saved to hard disk
Temp files deleted
8. Last restart
Steps To Install Operating System(Server or Workstation).

To Install Operating System (Server Or Workstation)from CD use the following steps.
1. Make sure that you have a CD-ROM connected to your computer and it is functional.
2. Make sure that you have a functional hard disk connected to your computer.
3. Prepare the CD which contains the operating system you want to install (Window XP,
Vista ,Window Server).
4. Start your computer and Enter to BIOS setup by pressing the setup key. For example the
following are
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Some of the setup keys with their corresponding types of computers.
Setup key Computer
F2Dell and HP
F1...Gateway
F10.Compaq
Assume that we are working on phoenix BOIS setup utility. Which is available in most
computers.
st
5. Set the boot order to 1 CD-ROM, 2nd Hard Disk 3rd Floppy disk from the BOOT
menu as shown in Pic-2 then press F10 to save the changes you made ,Click Yes to
confirm save.
Pic-1 Phoenix BIOS Pic-2 The Boot Menu
6. Insert the CD that contains your operating system in to the CD Rom, Restart your PC.
The following screen will be displayed, at this time press any key from your keyboard.

81
Press any key to boot from CD

When you press any
key Pic-4 will be
displayed
Pic -3 Pic-4 Set Up is loading files
7. Wait until the following screen displays.
Press Enter Key and

then accept the
Agreement in Pic-6 by Pic-6 Licence Agreement

pressing F8 key
Pic-5 Setup Window Pic-6 License Agreement
8. If your Hard Disk is New the following Screen Will display , press C to create new
partition by selecting the un portioned space, else if your hard disk was installed
operating system before go to step 10.

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When you press C Pic-8

will be displayed, then
assign the amount of your
first partition(C:) you want
to be in MB .
E.g. 40000 means around

40 GB.
N.B: You can not assign

more than the capacity of your
hard disk.
Pic-8 Partition size assignment.
Pic-7 Unpartitioned Space.
9. Repeat step 8 to create another Partition. (By reading the information papers on he
screens).
10. Identify where are the necessary files which you do not want to format (Erase from the
Disk).If you are asked to install anothers computer please ask them the following
questions.
1. On which partition you want to install the operating system?

2. On what partition were you put your files before it gets damage?
If the necessary files were stored in a different partition on which you are not installing
operating system no problem, this files are safe, and simply you can format the disk. But
if you have files on the partition you want to format, first you have to copy to another
storage media (CD, Flash Disk, Or On other Hard disk )By Making slave in a functional
computer.(Refer or Ask How to Make Slave Hard Disk If You Are Not Familiar With
Making Master And Slave Disks).
11. After you decide what partition to format(C:, D:, E:..)Select it using the Arrow keys
then press Enter. When you press Enter key Pic-10 will be displayed.

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12. Choose Format the partition using the NTFS file system from Pic-10 then press
Enter
Note
If you chose Format the partition using the FAT file system you will loose some special
futures of the NTFS file system which are not available in FAT file system.
Example
1. You can not install Active Directory (Which is to be add to the server operating
system to increase the security of your system).
2. You can not the Disk quota management (Which enable to the System
administrators to assign hard disk space to all users (Accounts)of the system
according to their need.
13. Wait until it finishes formatting, Copying, and Restarting. Without touching (giving
command) anything it starts copying files as shown in Pic-12 .When copying file
progress finishes 100% set up will restart itself after 15 seconds.

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14. Click Next in Pic-15 , Enter, Name (Any Name)and Organization(Any Organization
Name) in Pic-17, Enter, Product key (BMPP3 9CJQQ W6GWH MDK7F 48GBB)in
Pic-16, Click Next in Pic-18,

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Pic-15 Regional & Language Option Pic-16 Personalize your Software
Pic-18 Computer Name and Administrator Password

Pic-17 Product Key
15. Enter Computer Name (E.g. John), enter Administrator password and Conform
Password it in Pic-18, Next.

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Pic-19 Data and Time Setting Pic-20 Networking Setting
16. Adjust Date and time in Pic-19 then click next, Select Typical setting from Pic-20 then
click Next.
Pic-21 Pic-222
17. Relax and back after around 25 -30 minutes and your installation will finalize and restart ,
Do nothing in
Pic-22,Click Finish in Pic-23, Click yes in Pic-24.

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Pic-23 Pic-24
18.The following dialogue will display always you start your server ,it is recommended that to
read some points about configuring(managing)your server but for now Close it by clicking the
close button in the control button of this window in the right upper .
19. Press Ctrl+Alt+Del key in Pic-26, Enter User Name=Administrator, password=that you
have created in step 15 then click OK in Pic-27

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20. Now Enjoy Your Windows 2003 Server
Boot Sequence of the windows 2000/XP:
i. POST
ii. Pnp Devices
iii. Locates MBR
iv. NTLDR (Real mode to 32 bit memory model and then loads the drivers to
read the file system)

89
v. Boot.INI(location of other OS files)

vi. BOOTSEC.DOS(for multi-Boot systems when other OS id detected)
vii. NTDETECT(Hardware detection)
viii. WINNT\SYSTEM32\NTOSKRNL.EXE(initialized *** win2k kernel file)
ix. HAL.DLL(hardware abstraction Layer for hardware independence)
x. WINNT\SYSTEM32\CONFIG\HKEY_LOCAL_MACHINE\SYSTEM ( key
form the registry to initialize device drivers)
Graphical Display:
xi. HKEY_LOCAL_MACHINE\HARDWARE key(the key from the registry for

detecting hardware settings)
xii. Clone copy of control set is created
xiii. Device drivers loaded
xiv. Windows XP started
xv. Log on prompt
Maintaining windows 2000/XP:

Maintenance is about keeping Windows performance from degrading with time and use. It
focuses on running Scandisk, Disk Defragmenter, antivirus, System Cleanup, and System
Backup utilities. When installed properly, all these work automatically, or nearly automatically,
freeing you up for more interesting problems.
You can update Windows in three different ways: patches, service packs, and new versions.
Patches: are EXE files that you get from Microsoft to fix a specific problem. You run
these programs and they do whatever they're supposed to do-update DLLs, reconfigure
Registry settings, or whatever else is necessary to fix a particular problem.
Sometimes a patch might not totally fix a particular problem or it might even cause other
problems. In this case, you need a patch for the patch. Also, some patches must be
installed before another patch can be used.
Service pack: group of patches

Windows update can be accomplished manually or using automatic updates through the internet.
The manual option can be accomplished as:
For windows XP:

Start-All programs--Windows update

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For windows 2000:

Start-Windows update
When you run Windows Update manually, the software connects to the Microsoft Web site and
scans your computer to determine what updates may be needed.
You have several choices here, although two are most obvious. If you click the Express button,
Windows Update will grab any high-priority updatesthese are security patchesand install
them on your computer. If you click the Custom button, you can select from a list of optional
updates.
Automatic updates:
Updates are so important that Microsoft gives you the option to update Windows automatically
After installing XP (after a day or some days) a message balloon will pop up from the taskbar
suggesting that you automate updates. If you click this balloon, the Automatic Updates Setup
Wizard will run, enabling you to configure the update program. You say youve never seen this
message balloon, but would like to automate the update process? No problemsimply right
clicks My Computer (on the Start menu), select Properties, click the Automatic Updates tab, and
select Automatic Update options. Then, whenever your computer connects to the Web, it checks
the Windows Update page. What happens next depends on the setting you choose. You have four
choices:
Automatic (recommended) Windows Update will simply keep your computer patched
up and ready to go. This is the best option for most users, although not necessarily good
for users of portable computers. Nobody wants to log into a slow hotel dial-up connection
and have most of your bandwidth sucked away by Automatic Update downloading hot
fixes!
Download updates for me Windows Update downloads all patches in the
background and then, when complete, tells you about them. You have the option at that
point to install or not install.
Notify me Windows Update simply flashes you a dialog box that tells you updates
are available, but does not download anything until you say go. This is the best option for
users of portable computers. You can download files when its convenient for you, such
as when youre home rather than traveling on business.
Turn off Automatic Updates This does precisely what is advertised. You get neither
automatic patches nor notification that patches are available. Only use this option on a
system that does not or cannot connect to the Internet. If youre online, your computer
needs to be patched!
Driver Updates
Device manufacturers occasionally update their drivers. Most of these updates take place to fix
problems, but many updates incorporate new features. Whatever the case, when one of your
devices gets an updated driver, its your job to install it. Windows /Microsoft Update provide an
easy method to update drivers from manufacturers that take advantage of the service. The only
trick to this is that you usually need to select the Custom option to see these updates because

91
Windows only installs high-priority updates using the Express option. When you click on the
Custom option, look under Hardware, Optional (on the left) to see if Windows has any driver
updates Take some time and read what these updates dosometimes you may choose not to
install a driver update because its not necessary or useful to your system.
Device Manager
Apart from installing and troubleshooting devices; device manager also is the tool to use when
optimizing device drivers.
Right-click on a device in Device Manager to display the context menu.
From here you can:
Update or uninstall the drive
Disable the device
Scan for hardware changes, or display the Properties dialog box.
When you open the Properties dialog box, youll see several tabs that vary according to the
specific device. Most have General, Driver, Details, and Resources. The tab that matters most for
optimization is the Driver tab. The Driver tab has buttons labeled Driver Details, Update Driver,
Roll Back Driver, and Uninstall. Driver Details lists the driver files and their locations on disk.
Update Driver opens the Hardware Update Wizard not very useful given that the install programs
for almost all drivers do this automatically. The Roll Back Driver option enables you to remove
an updated driver, thus rolling back to the previous driver version. Rollback is a lifesaver when
you install a new driver and suddenly discover its worse than the driver it replaced! Uninstall
removes the driver.
Adding a New Device

Windows should automatically detect any new device you install in your system. If Windows
does not detect a newly connected device, use the Add Hardware Wizard to get the device
recognized and drivers installed. Youll find it on the Hardware tab of the System Properties
dialog box.Click Next on the Welcome screen, and the wizard will search for hardware that has
been connected but does not yet have a driver installed. If it detects the device, select the device,
and the wizard will install the driver. You may have to point to the source location for the driver
files. If it does not detect the device, which is very likely, it will ask you if the hardware is
connected. Select Add a New Hardware Device, and then click Next. If the device is a printer,
network card, or modem, select Search for and install the hardware automatically and click Next.
In that case, once it detects the device and installs the driver, youre done. If you do see your
device on the list, your best hope is to select Install the hardware that and manually select from a
list.
Performance Options
One optimization you can perform on both Windows 2000 and Windows XP is setting
Performance Options. Performance Options are used to configure CPU, RAM, and virtual
memory (page file) settings.
To access these options:

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Right-click My Computer select Propertiesclick the Advanced taband click

the Options button (Windows 2000) or Settings button (Windows XP) in the
Performance section of that tab.
The Performance Options dialog box differs between the two families of
operating systems. In Windows 2000, the Performance Options dialog box shows
a pair of radio buttons called Applications and Background Services. These radio
buttons set how processor time is divided between the foreground application and
all other background tasks.
Set this to Applications if you run applications that need more processor time. Set it to
Background Services to give all running programs the same processor usage. You can also adjust
the size of the page file in this dialog box, but in most cases I dont mess with these settings and
instead leave control of the page file to Windows. The Windows XP Performance Options dialog
box has three tabs: Visual Effects, Advanced, and Data Execution Prevention. The Visual
Effects tab enables you to adjust visual effects that impact performance. Try clicking the top
three choices in turn and watch the list of settings. Notice the tiny difference between the first
two choices. The third choice, Adjust for best performance, turns off all visual effects, and the
fourth option is an invitation to make your own adjustments. If youre on a computer that barely
supports Windows XP, turning off visual effects can make a huge difference in the
responsiveness of the computer. For the most part, though, just leave these settings alone.
Managing User Accounts and Groups

The most basic element of Windows security is the user account. Each user must present a valid
user name and the password of a user account in order to log on to a Windows computer
Groups enable the system administrator to easily assign the same rights and permissions to all
members of the group without the need to set those rights and permissions individually.
Windows 2000 and XP have several built-in groups and two user accounts created during
installationAdministrator and Guestwith only the Administrator account enabled by default.
When you install Windows, you supply the password for the Administrator account. This is the
only usable account you have to log on to the computer. You manage users and groups using the
Local Users and Groups node in the Computer Management console, accessed by right-
clicking on My Computer and selecting Manage Local Users and Groups can also be used on
standalone computers.
Using the Users and Passwords Applet in Windows 2000

When you install your OS you may choose to let the OS assume that you are the only user of the
computer and do not want to see the logon dialog box. You can check this setting after
installation by opening the Users and Passwords applet in Control Panel to see the setting for
Users must enter a user name and password to use this computer.

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Theres a second setting in Users and Passwords thats important to enable for the sake of
securitythe setting on the Advanced Tab under Secure Boot Settings. If checked it requires
users to press CTRL-ALT-DEL before logging on. This setting is a defense against certain
viruses that try to capture your user name and password, sometimes by presenting a fake logon
prompt. Pressing CTRL-ALT-DEL will remove a program like that from memory and allow the
actual logon dialog box to appear.
Creating a New User in Windows 2000

Creating a new user account enables that user to log in with a user name and password
To create a new user: open the Users and Passwords applet from Control Panel click the
Add button.
This opens the Add New User Wizard Enter the user name that the user will use to log on.
Enter the users first and last names in the Full name field, and if you wish, enter some text that
describes this person in the Description field. If this is at work, enter a job description in this
field. The Full name and Description fields are optional.
After entering the user information, click the Next button to continue. This opens a password
dialog box where you can enter and confirm the initial password for this new user. Click the
Next button to continue.
Now you get to decide what groups the new user should belong to. Select one of the two
suggested optionsStandard User or Restricted Useror select the other option button and
choose a group from the drop-down list. Select Standard user, which on a Windows 2000
Professional desktop makes this person a member of the local Power Users Group as well as the
local Users group. Click the Finish button to close the dialog box. You should see your new user
listed in the Users and Passwords dialog box
N.B To create and manage users, you must be logged on as the Administrator, be a member of
the Administrators group, or have an Administrator account (in Windows XP). Assign a
password to the Administrator account so that only authorized users can access this all-powerful
account.
Managing Users in Windows XP

Although Windows XP has essentially the same type of accounts database as Windows 2000, the
User Accounts Control Panel applet replaces the former Users and Passwords applet and further
simplifies user management tasks. Windows XP has two very different ways to deal with user
accounts and how you log on to a system: the blank user name and password text boxes,
reminiscent of Windows 2000 , and the Windows XP Welcome screen. If your Windows XP
computer is a member of a Windows domain, your system automatically uses the Windows
Classic style, including the requirement to press CTRL-ALT-DEL to get to the user name and
password text boxes, just like in Windows 2000. If your Windows XP computer is not a member
of a domain, you may use either method, although the Welcome screen is the default. Windows
XP Home and Windows XP Media Center cannot join a domain, so these versions of Windows
only use the Welcome screen.

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Windows requires you to create a second account that is a member of the Administrators group
during the initial Windows installation. This is for simple redundancyif one administrator is
not available or is not able to log on to the computer, another one can log on.
Creating users is a straightforward process. To create a new user in Windows XP, open the User
Accounts applet from the Control Panel and click Create a new account. On the Pick an
account type page you can create either type of account. Simply follow the prompts on the
screen.
In the User Accounts applet look at the Change the way users logs on and off option. Select it;
you will see two checkboxes. If you select the Use the Welcome screen checkbox, Windows will
bring up the friendly Welcome screen each time users log in. If this box is unchecked, youll
have to enter a user name and password.
The second option, Use Fast User Switching, enables you to switch to another user without
logging off the currently running user. This is a handy option when two people actively share a
system, or when someone wants to borrow your system for a moment but you dont want to close
all your programs. This option is only active if you have the Use the Welcome screen checkbox
enabled. If Fast User Switching is enabled, when you click on the Log Off button on the Start
menu, you get the option to switch users.
Error-Checking and Disk Defragmentation

Implementing Hard Drives, are the key Windows maintenance tools you use to accomplish this
task. When you cant find a software reason (and there are many possible ones) for a problem
like a system freezing on shutdown, the problem might be the actual physical hard drive. The
tool to investigate that is Error-checking.
Error-checking can be done:
From a command line using the chkdsk command
Or through the GUI by opening My Computer, right-clicking on the drive you want to
check, selecting Properties, and then clicking the Tools tab, where you can click Check
Now to have Error-checking scan the drive for bad sectors, lost clusters, and similar
problems, and repair them if possible.
Run the Disk Defragmenter on a regular basis to keep your system from slowing down due
to files being scattered in pieces on your hard drive. Before you click the Defragment button,
click the Analyze button to have Windows analyze the disk and determine if defragmentation is
actually necessary.
Temporary File Management with Disk Cleanup

Before you defrag a drive, you should run the Disk Cleanup utility to make sure youve cleared
out the junk files that accumulate from daily use. All that Web surfing uses up disk space,
leaving behind hundreds of temporary

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Internet files. Those, and other bits and pieces such as those deleted files still hanging around
in your Recycle Bin, can add up to a lot of wasted disk space if you dont periodically clean them
out.
The junk files that take up space fall the following categories:
Application temporary files that failed to delete
Installation temporary files that failed to delete
Internet Browser cache files
Files in the Recycle Bin
Internet cookie files
Identical files in separate locations
You can access this tool through:
Start menu (Start | All Programs | Accessories | System Tools), or you can open My
Computer, right-click the drive you want to clean up, select Properties, and right
there in the middle of the General tab youll find the Disk Cleanup button.
Disk Cleanup calculates the space you will be able to free up and then displays the Disk Cleanup
dialog box , which tells you how much disk space it can free upthe total amount possible as
well as the amount youll get from each of the different categories of files it checks. The list of
Files to delete only has a few categories checked, and the actual amount of disk space to be
gained by allowing Disk Cleanup to delete these files is much smaller than the estimate. If you
scroll down through the list, you will see a choice to compress old files. This is one of the few
choices where you will gain the most space. The other big heavyweight category is Temporary
Internet Files, which it will delete. Try Disk Cleanup on a computer that gets hours of Internet
use every day.
Registry Maintenance
Your Registry is a huge database that Windows constantly updates. As a result, the Registry
tends to get clogged with entries that are no longer valid. These usually dont cause any
problems directly, but they can slow down your system. Interestingly, Microsoft does not
provide a utility to clean up the Registry. To clean your Registry, you need to turn to a third-
party utility. Before you start cleaning your Registry with wild abandon, keep in mind that all
Registry cleaners are risky in that there is a chance that it may delete something you want in the
Registry.
Security: Spyware/Anti-Virus/Firewall
You simply cannot run a computer today without a large number of security programs to protect
you from malicious attacks from spyware, malware, viruses, and hacking. In fact, the
installation, monitoring, and updating of these programs (and possibly even hardware) is so
important that they get their own chapter.
Optimizing windows
Installing and Removing Software

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The most common optimization performed on any PC is probably adding and removing
applications. Installing and removing software is part of the normal life of any PC. Each time
you add or remove software, you are making changes and decisions that can affect the system
beyond whatever the program does, so it pays to know how to do it right.
Installing Software
Most application programs are distributed on CD-ROMs. Luckily, Windows supports Autorun, a
feature that enables it to look for and read a special file calledwait for itAutorun
immediately after a CD-ROM is inserted, and then run whatever program is listed in Autorun.inf.
Most application programs distributed on CD-ROM have an Autorun file that calls up the
installation program.
Sometimes, however, it is necessary to choose the installation sequence yourself. The following
reasons may enforce for manual installation:
Perhaps the installation CD lacks an Autorun installation program,

or perhaps Windows is configured so that programs on a CD-ROM must be started
manually.
Or In some cases, a CD-ROM may contain more than one program, and you must
choose which of them to install.
Regardless of the reason, beginning the installation manually is a simple and straightforward
process using the Add or Remove Programs (Add/Remove Programs in Windows 2000) applet
in the Control Panel. Click the Add New Programs button, follow the prompts, and provide the
disk or location of the files.
Prerequisite to install software: you must be an administrator or member of the

administrators group (not always necessary).
For a successful installation of an application the following points need to be full filled:
You typically first must accept the terms of a software license before you are allowed to
install an application. These steps are not optionalthe installation simply wont
proceed until you accept all terms the software manufacturer requires,
And in many cases enter a correct code.
You may also be asked to make several decisions during the installation process. For
example, you may be asked where you would like to install the program and if you
would like certain optional components installed. Generally speaking, it is best to accept
the suggested settings unless you have a very specific reason for changing the defaults.
Removing Software
Each installed application program takes up space on your computers hard drive, and programs
that you no longer need simply waste space that could be used for other purposes. Removing
unnecessary programs can be an important piece of optimization. You remove a program from a
Windows PC in much the same manner as you install it.
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Ways to remove installed applications:

Use the applications own uninstall program, when possible. You normally find the
uninstall program listed under the applications icon on the Start Menu
If an uninstall program is not available, then use Windows Add or Remove Programs
applet from Control Panel. You select the program you want to remove and click the
Change/Remove button. Click yes if you are sure you no more need the application when
you are asked for confirmation.
Adding a New Device

Windows should automatically detect any new device you install in your system. If Windows
does not detect a newly connected device, use the Add Hardware Wizard to get the device
recognized and drivers installed. Youll find it on the Hardware tab of the System Properties
dialog box.
Click Next on the Welcome screen, and the wizard will search for hardware that has been
connected but does not yet have a driver installed. If it detects the device, select the device and
the wizard will install the driver. You may have to point to the source location for the driver
files. If it does not detect the device, which is very likely, it will ask you if the hardware is
connected. When you answer yes and click Next, it will give you a list of installed hardware
If the device is in the list, select it and click Next. If not, scroll to the bottom and select Add a
New Hardware Device, and then click Next. If the device is a printer, network card, or modem,
select Search for and install the hardware automatically and click Next. In that case, once it
detects the device and installs the driver, youre done. If you do see your device on the list, your
best hope is to select Install the hardware that I manually select from a list. In the subsequent
screens, select the appropriate device category, select the device manufacturer and the correct
model, and respond to the prompts from the Add Hardware Wizard to complete the installation.
Performance Options
One optimization you can perform on both Windows 2000 and Windows XP is setting
Performance Options. Performance Options are used to configure CPU, RAM, and virtual
memory (page file) settings. To access these options:
Right-click My Computer and select Properties
Click the Advanced tab--Click the Options button (Windows 2000) or Settings
button (Windows XP) in the Performance section of that tab.
The Performance Options dialog box differs between the two families of operating systems. In
Windows 2000, the Performance Options dialog box shows a pair of radio buttons called
Applications and Background Services. These radio buttons set how processor time is divided
between the foreground application and all other background tasks.
Set this to Applications if you run applications that need more processor time.
Set it to Background Services to give all running programs the same processor usage.
The Windows XP Performance Options dialog box has three tabs: Visual Effects, Advanced,
and Data Execution Prevention.

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The Visual Effects tab enables you to adjust visual effects that impact performance. The
third choice, Adjust for best performance, turns off all visual effects, and the fourth
option is an invitation to make your own adjustments. If youre on a computer that barely
supports Windows XP, turning off visual effects can make a huge difference in the
responsiveness of the computer. For the most part, though, just leave these settings alone.
The Advanced tab has three sections: Processor scheduling, Memory usage, and
Virtual memory.
Under the Processor scheduling section, you can choose to adjust for best
performance of either Programs or Background services. The
Memory usage settings enable you to allocate a greater share of memory to
programs or to the system cache.
Finally, the Virtual memory section of this page enables you to modify the size
and location of the page file
Microsoft introduced Data Execution Prevention (DEP) with Windows XP Service Pack
2. DEP works in the background to stop viruses and other malware from taking over
programs loaded in system memory. It doesnt prevent viruses from being installed on
your computer, but makes them less effective. By default, DEP monitors only critical
operating system files in RAM, but the Data Execution Prevention tab enables you to
have DEP monitor all running programs. It works, but youll take a performance hit. Like
other options in the Performance Options dialog box, leaving the DEP settings as default
is the best option most of the time.
Resource Tracking
One big issue with optimization is knowing when something needs optimization. Lets say your
Windows computer seems to be running more slowly. Resource tracking is very important for
identifying the performance problem. Task Manager and the Performance Console are tools you
can use to figure out what (if anything) has become a bottleneck.
Task Manager
The Task Manager has many uses, for instance, the Applications tab is used to shut down a
troublesome program. For optimization purposes, Task Manager is a great tool for investigating
how your RAM and CPU are working at any given moment and why. The quick way to open the
Task Manager is to press CTRL+SHIFT+ESC or CTRL+ALT+DELETE. Click the
Performance tab to reveal a handy screen with the most commonly used information: CPU
usage, available physical memory, the size of the disk cache, commit charge (memory for
programs), and kernel memory (memory used by Windows).
Not only does Task Manager tell you how much CPU and RAM usage is taking place, it also
tells you what program is using those resources. Lets say your system is running slowly. You
open up Task Manager and see that your CPU usage is at 100 percent. You then click on the
Processes tab to see all the processes running on your system. Click on the CPU column to sort
all processes by CPU usage to see whos hogging the CPU . To shut off a process, just right-click
on the process and select End Process. Many times a single process will open many other
processes. If you want to be thorough, click on End Process Tree to turn off not only the one
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Task Manager is also a great tool for turning off processes that are hogging memory. Lets say
youre experiencing a slowdown, but this time you also notice your hard drive light is flickering
nonstopa clear sign that youve run out of memory and the swapfile is now in use. You go
into Task Manager and see that there is no available system memorynow you know the
swapfile is in use! In order to make the PC run faster you have got to start unloading programs
but which ones? By going into the Processes tab in Task Manager, you can see exactly which
processes are using the most memory. Just be careful not to shut down processes you dont
recognize; they might be something the computer needs!
Windows troubleshooting
The first step to troubleshooting Windows is preparation. You must have critical system files and
data backed up and tools in place for the inevitable glitches.
The various versions of Windows offer five different tools for the job, although none offer them
all:
System Restore
The Backup or Restore Wizard (called NT Backup if you want to run it from the
command prompt),
Automated System Recovery (ASR)
The Emergency Repair Disk (ERD),
And the Recovery Console.
System Restore
The System Restore tool enables you to create a restore point, a copy of your computers
configuration at a specific point in time. If you later crash or have a corrupted OS, you can
restore the system to its previous state.
To create a restore point: Start | All Programs | Accessories | System Tools | System Restore.
When the tool opens, select Create a Restore Point and then click Next . Type in a description
on the next screen. Theres no need to include the date and time because the System Restore adds
them automatically. Click Create and youre done.
The System Restore tool creates some of the restore points in time automatically. For instance,
by default, every time you install new software, XP creates a restore point. Thus,if installation of
a program causes your computer to malfunction, simply restore the system to a time point prior
to that installation, and the computer should work again.
During the restore process, only settings and programs are changed. No data is lost.
Your computer will include all programs and settings as of the restore date.
To restore to a previous time point, start the System Restore Wizard by choosing
Start | All Programs | Accessories | System Tools | System Restore. Then select the first radio
button, Restore my computer to an earlier time, and then click Next. Select a date on the
calendar; then select a restore point from the list on the right and click Next

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The last screen before the system is restored shows a warning. It advises you to close all open
programs and reminds you that Windows will shut down during the restore process. It also states
that the restore operation is completely reversible. Thus, if you go too far back in time, you can
restore to a more recent date.
You dont have to count on the automatic creation of restore points. You can open System
Restore at any time and simply select Create a restore point. Consider doing this before making
changes that might not trigger an automatic restore point, such as directly editing the Registry.
System Restore is turned on by default and uses some of your disk space to save information on
restore points. To turn System Restore off or change the disk space usage, open the System
Properties applet in Control Panel and select the System Restore tab.
Backup or Restore Wizard (NT Backup)

Windows 2000/XP Backup provide almost all the tools you need. It has come a long way from
its origins in Windows NT. It supports a greater variety of devices, enabling you to network
drives, logical drives, tape, and removable disks (but not CD-R, CD-RW, or DVD-R). Most
folks, however, still turn to third-party utilities to create system, email, browser, and personal
data backups.
You can start Backup by navigate:
Start | Accessories | System Tools,
Clicking the Backup Now button on the Tools page of the local disk properties box.
Start | Run with the command NTBACKUP. This technique works in both Windows
2000 and Windows XP.
To create a backup, start the Backup utility, click Advanced Mode, and choose the
Backup tab. Check the boxes next to the drives and files you want to include in the backup. To
include your system state information, such as Registry and boot files (which you should do),
click the System State checkbox. To specify where to put the backup file youre creating, either
type the path and filename in the Backup media or filename box or click Browse, select a
location, type the filename, and click Save. Click Start Backup.
Choose whether you want to append this backup to a previous one or overwrite it. Click
Advanced to open the Advanced Backup Options dialog box, select Verify data after backup, and
click OK. Click Start Backup again. A dialog box will show you the utilitys progress. When its
done, click Close and then close the Backup utility.
Installing Recovery Console

When things get really bad on a Windows system, you need to turn to the Recovery Console.
The Recovery Console is a text-based startup of Windows that gets you to a command prompt
similar to the Windows command prompt.
If you have the Windows 2000/XP CD-ROM, you can start the Recovery Console by running
Setup, selecting Repair, and then selecting Recovery Console. If you like to be proactive,
however, you can install the Recovery Console on your hard drive so that it is one of your startup
options and does not require the Windows 2000 or XP CD-ROM to run. The steps to do this in
Windows 2000 and Windows XP are very nearly identical.
First, you need to log into the system with the Administrator account. Grab your

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Windows 2000 or XP installation CD-ROM and drop it in your system. If the Autorun function
kicks in, just click the No button. To install the Recovery Console and make it a part of your
startup options, click the Start button, select Run, and type the following:
d:\i386\winnt32 /cmdcons
If your CD-ROM drive uses a different drive letter, substitute it for the D: drive. Then just follow
the instructions on the screen. If you are connected to the Internet, allow the Setup program to
download updated files. From now on, every time the system boots, the OS selection menu will
show your Windows OS (Windows 2000 Professional or Windows XP) and the Microsoft
Windows Recovery Console. It may also show other choices if yours is a multi-boot computer.
Diagnosing Windows
Failure to Boot
Windows boot errors take place in those short moments between the time the POST ends and the
Loading Windows screen begins. For Windows to start loading the main operating system, the
critical system files NTLDR, NTDETECT.COM, and BOOT.INI must reside in the root
directory of the C: drive, and BOOT.INI must point to the Windows boot files. If any of these
requirements arent in place, the system wont get past this step. Here are some of the common
errors you see at this point:
No Boot device Present

NTLDR Bad or Missing
Invalid BOOT.INI
Note that these text errors take place very early in the startup process. Thats your big clue that
you have a boot issue. If you get to the Windows splash screen and then lock up, thats a whole
different issue, so know the difference.
If you get one of the catastrophic error messages, you have a three-level process to get heal.
First try to repair
If repair fails try to Restore from a back up copy of windows
If restore is either not available or fails, then your only recourse is to rebuild.
N.B You will lose data at the restore and rebuild phases, so you definitely want to spend a lot of
effort on the repair effort first!
Repair Using Recovery Console

To begin troubleshooting one of these errors, boot from the installation CD-ROM and have
Windows do a repair of an existing installation. Windows will prompt you if you want to use the
Recovery Console or the emergency repair process (ASR/ERD). Start with the Recovery
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If Recovery console is not installed, start it as described earlier using the Windows 2000 or XP
installation CD-ROM. When you select the Recovery Console, you will see a message about
NTDETECT, another one that the Recovery Console is starting up, and then you will be greeted
with the following message and command prompt:
Microsoft Windows XP<TM> Recovery Console.

The Recovery Console provides system repair and recovery functionality.
Type Exit to quit the Recovery Console and restart the computer.
1: C:\WINDOWS
Which Windows XP installation would you like to log onto
<To cancel, press ENTER>?
If there is only one installation of Windows XP on your computer, type the number 1 at the
prompt and press the ENTER key. If you press ENTER before typing in a valid selection, the
Recovery Console will cancel and the computer will reboot. The only choice you can make in
this example is 1. Having made that choice, the only change to the screen above is a new line:
Type the Administrator password:
Enter the Administrator password for that computer and press ENTER. The screen still shows
everything that has happened so far, unless something has happened to cause an error message. It
now looks like this:
Microsoft Windows XP<TM> Recovery Console.
The Recovery Console provides system repair and recovery functionality.
Type Exit to quit the Recovery Console and restart the computer.
1: C:\WINDOWS
Which Windows XP installation would you like to log onto
<To cancel, press ENTER>? 1
Type the Administrator password: ********
C:\Windows>
Now you are supposed to use the recovery console commands to repair the problem.
The Recovery Console shines in the business of manually restoring registries, stopping problem
services, rebuilding partitions (other than the system partition), and using the EXPAND program
to extract copies of corrupted files from a CD-ROM or floppy disk.
Using the Recovery Console, you can reconfigure a service so that it starts with different
settings, format drives on the hard disk, read and write on local FAT or NTFS volumes, and copy
replacement files from a floppy or CD-ROM. The Recovery Console enables you to access the
file system, and is still constrained by the file and folder security of NTFS.
The Recovery Console is best at fixing three items: repairing the MBR, reinstalling the boot
files, and rebuilding BOOT.INI. Lets look at each of these.

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i. A bad boot sector usually shows up as a No Boot Device error. If it turns out that
this isnt the problem, the Recovery Console command to fix it wont hurt
anything. At the Recovery Console prompt, just type:
Fixmbr
This fixes the master boot record.
ii. The second problem the Recovery Console is best at fixing is missing system
files, usually indicated by the error NTLDR bad or missing. Odds are good that if
NTDLR is missing, so are the rest of the system files. To fix this, get to the root
directory (CD\ and type
copy d:\i386\ntldr
Then type
copy d:\i386\ntdetect.com
iii. Rebuilding BOOT.INI. If the BOOT.INI file is gone or corrupted, run this
command from the recovery console:
bootcfg /rebuild
The Recovery console will then try to locate all installed copies of Windows and ask you
if you want to add them to the new BOOT.INI file its about to create. Say yes to the ones
you want.
If all goes well with the Recovery Console, then do a thorough backup as soon as
possible (just in case something else goes wrong). If the Recovery Console does not do
the trick, the next step is to restore Windows XP.
Attempt to Restore
If youve been diligent about backing up, you can attempt to restore to an earlier, working copy
of Windows. You have two basic choices depending on your OS. In Windows 2000, you can try
the Emergency Repair Disk (ERD). Windows XP limits you to the Automated System Recovery
(ASR).
Rebuild
If faced with a full system rebuild, you have several options depending on the particular system.
You could simply reboot to the Windows CD-ROM and install right on top of the existing
system, but thats usually not the optimal solution. To avoid losing anything important, youd be
better off swapping the C: drive for a blank hard drive and installing a clean version of Windows.
Most OEM systems come with a misleadingly-named Recover CD or recovery partition.
The Recover CD is a CD-ROM that you boot to and run. The recovery partition is a hidden
partition on the hard drive that you activate at boot by holding down a key combination specific
to the manufacturer of that system.
Both recover options do the same thingrestore your computer to the factory-installed state. If
you run one of these tools, you will wipe everything off your systemall personal files, folders,

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and programs will go away! Before running either tool, make sure all important files and folders
are backed up on an optical disc or spare hard drive.
Failure to Load the GUI

Assuming that Windows gets past the boot part of the startup, it will then begin to load the real
Windows OS. You will see the Windows startup image on the screen hiding everything until
Windows loads the Desktop.
Several issues can cause Windows to hang during the GUI-loading phase, such as buggy device
drivers or Registry problems. Even autoloading programs can cause the GUI to hang on load.
The first step in troubleshooting these issues is to use one of the Advanced Startup options to try
to get past the hang spot and into Windows.
Device Drivers
Device driver problems that stop Windows GUI from loading look pretty scary. The common
symptom of this is a Stop error, better known as the Blue Screen of Death (BSoD). The BSoD
only appears when something causes an error from which Windows cannot recover. The BSoD is
not limited to device driver problems, but device drivers are one of the reasons youll see the
BSoD.
Windows BSoDs tell you the name of the file that caused the problem and usually suggest a
recommended action. These are helpfulbut not often.
BSoD problems due to device drivers almost always take place immediately after youve
installed a new device and rebooted. Take out the device and reboot. If Windows loads properly,
you are safe.
The second indication of a device problem that shows up during the GUI part of startup is a
freeze-up: the Windows startup screen just stays there and you never get a chance to log on. If
this happens, try one of the Advanced Startup Options, covered below.

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Registry
Your Registry files load every time the computer boots. Windows does a pretty good job of
protecting your Registry files from corruption, but from time to time something may slip by
Windows and it will attempt to load a bad Registry. These errors may show up as BSoDs that say
Registry File Failure or text errors that say Windows could not start. Whatever the case,
you need to restore a good Registry copy. The best way to do this is the Last Known Good
Configuration boot option. If that fails, then you can restore an earlier version of the Registry
through the Recovery Console. Boot to the Windows installation CD-ROM, select the repair
installation to get to the Recovery Console, and type these commands to restore a Registry.
Notice I didnt not Registry in the previous sentence. Your Registry is corrupted and gone, so
you need to rebuild.
delete c:\windows\system32\config\system
delete c:\windows\system32\config\software
delete c:\windows\system32\config\sam
delete c:\windows\system32\config\security
delete c:\windows\system32\config\default
copy c:\windows\repair\system c:\windows\system32\config\system

copy c:\windows\repair\software c:\windows\system32\config\software
copy c:\windows\repair\sam c:\windows\system32\config\sam
copy c:\windows\repair\security c:\windows\system32\config\security
copy c:\windows\repair\default c:\windows\system32\config\default
Advanced Startup Options

If Windows fails to start up, use the Windows Advanced Startup Options menu to discover the
cause. To get to this menu, restart the computer and press F8 after the POST messages, but
before the Windows logo screen appears. Windows 2000 and Windows
XP have similar menus. The basic to these advanced options are Safe Mode and Last Known
Good Configuration.
There are several differences between the two operating systems in this menu.
i. Boot normally in windows 2000 is termed as Start Windows Normally in
windows XP
ii. Windows XP has options not available in windows 2000(Disable automatic
restart on system failure and Reboot.)
A Windows system with multiple operating systems might also have the Return to OS Choices
Menu.
Safe Mode
Safe Mode starts up Windows but loads only very basic, nonvendor specific drivers for mouse,
VGA monitor, keyboard, mass storage, and system services. Some devices, such as your USB
mouse, may not work!
Once in Safe Mode, you can use tools like Device Manager to locate and correct the source of
the problem. When you use Device Manager in Safe Mode, you can access the properties for all
the devices, even those that are not working in Safe Mode. The status displayed for the device is
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the status for a normal startup. Even the network card will show as enabled. You can disable any
suspect device or perform other tasks, such as removing or updating drivers. If a problem with a
device driver is preventing the operating system from starting normally, check the Device
Manager for yellow question mark warning icons that indicate an unknown device.
Safe Mode with Networking

This mode is identical to plain Safe Mode except that you get network support. I use this mode to
test for a problem with network drivers. If Windows wont start up normally, but does start up in
Safe Mode, I then reboot into Safe Mode with Networking. If it fails to start up with Networking,
then the problem is a network driver. I reboot back to Safe Mode, open Device Manager, and
start disabling network components, beginning with the network adapter.
Safe Mode with Command Prompt

When you start Windows in this mode, after you log on, rather than loading the GUI desktop, it
loads the command prompt (CMD.EXE) as the shell to the operating system. This is a handy
option to remember if the desktop does not display at all, which, after you have eliminated video
drivers, can be caused by the corruption of the EXPLORER.EXE program. From the command
prompt you can delete the corrupted version of EXPLORER.EXE and copy in an undamaged
version. This requires knowing the command-line commands for navigating the directory
structure, as well as knowing the location of the file that you are replacing. Although Explorer is
not loaded, you can load other GUI tools that dont depend on Explorer. All you have to do is
enter the correct command.
Enable Boot Logging

This option starts Windows normally and creates a log file of the drivers as they load into
memory. The file is named Ntbtlog.txt and is saved in the %SystemRoot% folder.
If the startup failed because of a bad driver, the last entry in this file may be the driver the OS
was initializing when it failed. Reboot and go into the Recovery Console. Use the Recovery
Console tools to read the boot log (type ntbtlog.txt) and disable or enable problematic devices
or services.
Enable VGA Mode

Enable VGA Mode starts Windows normally but only loads a default VGA driver. If this mode
works, it may mean that you have a bad driver, or it may mean that you are using the correct
video driver, but it is configured incorrectly (perhaps with the wrong refresh rate and/or
resolution). Whereas Safe Mode loads a generic VGA driver, this mode loads the driver
Windows is configured to use, but starts it up in standard VGA mode rather than using the
settings for which it is configured. After successfully starting in this mode, open the Display
Properties and change the settings.
Last Known Good Configuration

When Windows startup fails immediately after installing a new driver, but before you have
logged on again, you may want to try this option. This can be a rather fickle and limited tool, but
it never hurts to try it.
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Disable automatic restart on system failure

Sometimes a BSOD will appear at startup, causing your computer to spontaneously reboot.
Thats all well and good, but if it happens too quickly, you might not be able to read the BSOD
to see what caused the problem. Selecting Disable automatic restart on system failure from the
Advanced Startup Options menu stops the computer from rebooting on Stop errors. This gives
you the opportunity to write down the error and hopefully find a fix.
Start Windows Normally

This choice will simply start Windows normally, without rebooting. You already rebooted to get
to this menu. Select this if you changed your mind about using any of the other exotic choices.
Troubleshooting Tools in the GUI

Once youre able to load into Windows, whether through Safe Mode or one of the other options,
there are plenty of windows tools to diagnostic windows. For example, If a bad device driver
caused the startup problems, for example, you can open Device Manager and begin
troubleshooting.
Event Viewer might reveal problems with applications failing to load, a big cause of Windows
loading problems. It might also reveal problems with services failing to start. Finally, Windows
might run into problems loading DLLs. You can troubleshoot these issues individually or you
can use System Restore in Windows XP to load a restore point that predates the bugginess.
Auto loading Programs

Windows autoload some programs so they start at boot. The problem with Autoloading
programs is when one of them starts behaving badlyyou need to shut off that program!
There are at least five different locations in folders, files, and the Registry that Windows
accesses to autoload programs. To help you, Windows XP includes the handy
System Configuration Utility (MSCONFIG.EXE), a one-stop spot to see and maintain every
program (and service) that autoloads at startup.
The System Configuration Utility enables you to keep individual programs and services from
autoloading, but it does not actually remove the programs/services. If you want to completely
delete a program, youll need to find the undelete or Add/Remove Program option.
Services
Windows loads a number of services as it starts. If any critical service fails to load, Windows
will tell you at this point with an error message. The important word here is critical. Windows
will not report all service failures at this point. If a service that is less than critical in Windows
eyes doesnt start, Windows usually waits until you actually try to use a program that needs that
service before it prompts you with an error message

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To work with your systems services, go to the Control Panel | Administrative Tools
| Services and verify that the Service you need is running. If not, turn it on. Also notice that each
service has a Startup TypeAutomatic, Manual, or Disabledthat defines when it starts. Its
very common to find that a service has been set to Manual when it needs to be set to Automatic
so that it starts when Windows boots
System Files
Windows lives on dynamic link library (DLL) files. Almost every program used by Windows
and certainly all of the important onescall to DLL files to do most of the heavy lifting that
makes Windows work. Windows protects all of the critical DLL files very carefully, but once in
a while you may get an error saying Windows cant load a particular DLL. Although rare, the
core system files that make up Windows itself may become corrupted, preventing Windows from
starting properly. You usually see something like Error loading XXXX.DLL, or sometimes a
program you need simply wont start when you double-click on its icon. In these cases, the tool
you need is the System File Checker. The System File Checker is a command prompt program
(SFC.EXE) that is used to check a number of critical files, including the ever-important DLL
cache. SFC takes a number of switches, but by far the most important is /scannow. Go to a
command prompt and type the following to start the program:
SFC /scannow
SFC will automatically check all critical files and replace any it sees as corrupted. During this
process, it may ask for the Windows installation CD-ROM, so keep it handy!
System Restore
Windows XP systems enable you to recover from a bad device or application installation by
using System Restore to load a restore point. Follow the process explained earlier in the chapter.
System Restore is the final step in recovering from a major Windows meltdown. Windows 2000
only REGEDT32 is safe to use for actual editing, but you can use the older REGEDIT to perform
searches, because REGEDT32s search capabilities are not very good.
Module V: Common
Common Hardware problems and Trouble
shootings

109
Trouble Shooting Methods

STARTING POINT FOR TROUBLESHOOTING
Replacement Method
Common Hardware problem and their solutions
Mouse
Keyboards
Power supply
Motherboard
Main memory
Hard disk
Sound card
Modem card
Monitors
Common type of hard ware problems and trouble shootings:
TROUBLESHOOTING METHODS Troubleshooting is the process of identifying

and correcting problems. The best troubleshooters are usually people who have been
exposed to most problems. They have seen different types of problems and their
solutions. Therefore, if they run into a particular problem, they might see it before and
can quickly address the problems.
Most of the solutions are quite simple, so you don't have to be a technical expert to work
with your PC in good condition. If you want to be a good troubleshooter, just follow the
procedures detailed in this book.
STARTING POINT FOR TROUBLESHOOTING
Every technician [computer users] has his or her own way to troubleshoot. Some people
use their instincts while others need an advice from other people. But let us see a
common troubleshooting method.
1. GATHER INFORMATION
Ask the customer the following questions to define the problems:

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Can you tell me something about the problem?

What did you do to your computer lastly [Before it stopped working]?
How often does this happen? Have you installed new software Have you deleted some
files?
Have you added a new hardware device?
Have you made any other changes to the computer recently?
2. CHECK THE POWER AND CABLE CONNECTORS
Check the power line.

Check the wall outlet power.
Check the power sockets.
Check the cables.
Is it plugged in?
Is it turned on?
Is the computer ready to accept command from the user?
Open the case covers and Reset chips and cables.
ESD (Electrostatic Discharge)
ESD stands for electrostatic discharge. ESD happen when two objects of dissimilar charge
(for example, man and the computer components) contact each other. This charge can
damage the computer components like CPU, RAM, Motherboards, cards and other
electronic components.
To prevent ESD, simply touch the metal part of the case (power supply) in every
movement while working inside the computer. Or use anti-static wrist strap.
3. CHECK IF THE ERROR IS USER'S ERROR
Because the user cannot print.

Because the user cannot save the files
Because the user cannot run application etc.
If the user is wrong, show him \ her how to use the computer.
4. RESTART THE COMPUTER

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This process is called a "cold boot" (since the machine was off or cold when it started). A
"warm boot" is the same except it occurs when the machine is rebooted using
{CTRL+ALT+DELETE}.
NOTE: -Reboot can solve or show the problem. Rebooting doesn't work, try to power down
the system completely, and then power it up
5. DEFINE IF THE PROBLEM IS A HARDWARE OR SOFTW

RERELATED
Is it a startup problem?
Is it windows problem?
Is it a program problem?
Is it a device problem?
Startup problem: An error occurs before or during boot process.
Window Problem: An error occurs with window system itself.
Program Problem: An error occurs with a specific program.
Device Problem: An error occurs with a specific piece of hardware parts.
6. FIND OUT THE PROBLEM AND SOLVE IT!
If the problem is hardware related, determine which component is failing and try to
solve the problem.
If the problem is software related; determine which is corrupted or missed and try
to solve the problem.
REPLACEMENT METHOD

112
When you troubleshoot, make one change at a time is my favorite troubleshooting

method). If the change does not solve the problem, change it back to its original state
before making another change.
For example, you may have trouble on your monitor. If you can get another monitor,
attach to your system and try it. If the other monitor works, you know that the problem is
with your monitor. But if the other monitor does not work, change it back to its original
state and try to find other possible causes.
Common hardware problems and their solutions:

Mouse
Keyboards
Power supply
Motherboard
Main memory
Hard disk
Sound card
Modem card
Monitors
Mouse problems and solutions
Problem:
The mouse may hang up or may not move in the correct way due to
dust. [Doesnt work properly]
Solution
Clean the mouse [mechanical mouse]:
Shutdown the PC.

Remove the mouse cable from its connection at the back of your PC.
Turn the mouse upside-down and remove the securing screws from the mouse case.
Remove the mouse ball from the cavity.
Clean the cavity and the mouse ball with proper available materials. [ use dry cloth]
Look inside the mouse housing. You will see the two perpendicular bars. Use your
finger nail to scrape along each bar, removing any dirt.
Reconnect the cable to the computer.
Turn ON the PC and see that if it is activated.
Problem:
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The new PS/2 or serial mouse doesn't work when plugged on the system
running Windows XP.
Solution
Restart the system.

Plug the new mouse firmly.
Restart the PC.
The new mouse will be active.
Else-use a replacement method.
Keyboard problems and solutions
While working on PC, something (liquid) Spilled in to the keyboard. Solution
Remove the keyboard cable from its connection at the back of the PC. Do not
wait!! You need to cut power to the device in order to avoid a possible short
circuit.
Shutdown the PC using the mouse [start>turn off computer ...].
Tip the keyboard upside down and drain out as much of the liquid as you can.
Try to dry the inside part of the keyboard properly by using blow dryer or direct
sunlight.
Reconnect the keyboard cable to the computer.
Power up the computer and manipulate the keyboard to assure proper
functioning.
Some keys on the keyboard don't work.
Solution
For the current help:
Use On-Screen Keyboard. [Win XP]
To open On-Screen Keyboard: click on Start, point to Programs, point to Accessories, point
to Accessibility, and then click On-Screen Keyboard. Then you can use the mouse to type
any text.
OR
Turn OFF the PC and Remove the keyboard cable from its connection at the back of
the PC.
Turn the keyboard upside-down and remove the securing screws properly.

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Select the key that you want to remove. Just be careful not to damage the other key.
Clean or adjust the sit of the key properly.
If you remove multiple keys, be sure to return them to their proper seats.
Make sure that the keyboard is dry while cleaning.
Replace the cover.
Reconnect the cable to the computer.
Boot up the PC and check that if activated.
CPU problems and trouble shootings:
Problem
Both the CPU and power supply fan work properly but the system shows a blank
screen.
Solution
The CPU might be damaged. Use the replacement method.
CPU problem Possible causes:
Overheating.
Static discharge.
Bent or Broken pins.
General symptom of CPU
The system fails to Boot (start).

Black Screen.
The system boots, but the operating system (windows) fails to load.
The system locks-up or dies after several minutes of operations.
The system says hardware monitor error .....
General symptom of RAM
The system refuses to do another task until you close some windows
program.
Slow down in operation.
The system freezes.
Creates [shows] the ghost and crashes pictures on the screen.

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General Troubleshooting
Check the virtual memory.

Check the capacity of your RAM.
Use the replacement method.
Run any memory diagnostic software that is supplied by your computer
manufacturer.
Problem
The system displays blank screen with a long [multiple] beep sounds.
Solution
The memory is not installed correctly [or the RAM is absent] .

Press the RAM firmly on the motherboard.
Or there's a problem with your memory or motherboard.
Else-Use the replacement method.
Problem
Some PC shows 200 series error any error (from 200-299) code during the POST
process.
Solution
Any number starting with 2 usually indicate memory-related problem.

Check the memory setting into the BIOS set on
Problem
A PC shows memory size error
Solution
Memory size error always (usually) hap] after memory has been added.

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Running BIOS setup program will allow the system recognize the memory
and the error should away.
If the system is out of memory, add a memory stick (RAM) to increase the
memory capacity.
Problem
A PC shows memory parity error that halts the system operation
Solution
If you get a parity error message, write down any memory address
information that appears. If the problem occurs again, then the RAM is
bad. Replace the RAM]
General power problems
The general power problems can be categorized in three types:
1. Power Quality problem
Possible causes:
EMI (Electro-Magnetic Interference].

Variable rate [frequency] from the power line.
2. Too much power
Possible causes:
Power spike [for few milliseconds].

Power surge [for several seconds].
3. No-enough power
Possible causes:
Power sag [for few milli second]

Brownout [if sag lasts for longer than a second]

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Blackout [a complete of power failure]
Protection against power problems
You can use the following devices for proper
Line conditioner
Stabilizer
Surge suppressor
UPS
N.B ups means uninterruptible Power 5uppfy. The UPS is also known as battery
backup
Problem
Monitor's power indicator lights but no power lights on the system unit.
Solution
Check the system unit's power connection.

Check your power supply DC volt outlet.
Use a replacement method for power supply.
Check also the motherboard.
Power supply symptoms
Fan noise sounds rough or louder than usual.

Fan noise is absent altogether.
The power supply chassis is unusually hot to touch.
General troubleshooting methods
Check the power cable.

Check the power supply [you can use a Multi- meter to test electronic
components]. Check the power outlet voltage.
Replace the power supply unit.
Problem
A PC accidentally reboots or shutdown
Solution

118
Check your power line.

Make sure that your power supply is rated [watt" to handle all the peripherals that it
powers [30Owatt or above is better]
Check the power supply fan movement.
Use a replacement method.
Motherboard problems and trouble shootings:
Problem
The PC shows 100 series error (any error from 100- 199) code and freezes the
system.
Solution
Any number starting with 1 usually indicates system board problem.

Check the system board (motherboard)
Use a replacement method.
Problem
The power supply works properly' but no movement of the CPU fan and the
display shows black screen.
Solution
The system board power connector is plugged correctly or the motherboard failure
might cause this problem.
Symptom: - hard disk failure message on black screen
Troubleshooting
Your hard drive is not hooked up right.

Check the power cable for hard drive.
Check the data (IDE) cable.
Check the BIOS setting for hard drive and CDROM drive. [usually configured
AUTO]
Check the jumper (MASTER \SLA VE) setting.
Else-the hard drive has failed. If you can get another hard drive that works, plug
it in and see if it corrects the problem (replacement method).

119
Symptom: - boot failure message troubleshooting
Your hard disk can't start windows. It might have gone bad, or you might have a
computer virus. Re-installation of the operating system may solve the problem.
Problem
The PC's hard disk is busy
Solution
Check the viruses.

Run the system maintenance tasks [disk defragmenter, disk cleanup,
scandisk.]
Is the hard disk's Light indicator [on the PC's front case] blinking
constantly? If so, your PC doesn't have enough memory. So, add more
RAM
Problem
On POST (power on self test) routine, the system freezes and shows "no boot
device available" message on the screen
Solution
Remove any floppy disk from the floppy drive so that the boot process can
continue.
Check the IDE cables connectors.
Check the jumper of the hard disk\CD drive.
You have a bootable Hard disk partition but forget to set it active. [Reconfigure
the hard disk setting]
Problem
Some systems show 1700-1799 error code on the screen during the POST
routine.
Solution
Hard disk problems. The hard disk geometry might not be set correctly, or the
hard disk contains a bad controller.

120
Problem
The system shows "drive not found" or not boot device available" at boot time.
Solution
Check the connectivity first.

Check the jumper setting for the HDD\ CDROM.
Check the cable connection.
Adjust the CMOS setting to 'Auto' detection.
Problem
The system shows "no operating system" or "missing operating system" error
message during boot process.
Solution
Make sure the CMOS setting detects the hard disk properly.
The hard disk might have a corrupted or missing, file.
Backup the data and reinstall the operating!" system.
Sound card
Usually built-in the motherboard and is used to give sound through the speakers.
Problem
No sound from the Computer
Possible cause:
Software related problem.

Speaker connection failure.
Solution
Check your speaker and its connection.

Check the volume control in the windows system
Check the driver software for the sound card.
121
Problem
No sound from the CD drive
Solution
Check the disc into another system.

The audio cable connecting the CD drive to Sound card is detached. Therefore,
unplug off] the PC and reattach the audio cable to sound card.
Run any sound card diagnostic software.
Modem card
In order to connect the computer to the Internet connection, you must have a modem
card between the motherboard and Telephone line.
Problem
Modem cannot dial and "no Dial tone" message appears on the monitor
Solution
Check the phone card connection.

Make sure the jack on the modem labeled "line" is connected to phone line wall
jack.
Monitor problems and trouble shootings:
General display problem
Incorrect configuration. [Check the brightness and contrast control]

Adapter might not be seated properly in II expansion slot.
Cable between the CPU and monitor may lose or fail.
Software related problems.
Failure in monitor s display electronics and in monitor's power supply.
Incompatibility between software and display adapter.
Common symptom:
No display.
Troubleshooting

122
Check the power to monitor.

Check the brightness control on the monitor.
Check the data cable between the monitor and the video port on the system
unit.
Problem
When the system turns on, it sounds a single beep and shows the disk activity
(light flashes) but the display is blank.
Solution
The computer is starting normally but the monitor doesn't display anything. Just
use the following simple method.
Methods
Shutdown the PC [unplug the power cable] and press down the video card
firmly, restart the PC.
Is the monitor turned on? If not, check the monitor power connector.
If the problem is on the monitor, use the replacement method.
Also check the connection (data cable) between the video card and the monitor.
Your adapter hardware may not work, so use the replacement method.
Problem
The Monitor shows only one bright vertical line in the center of the
screen
Solution
The monitor is una\Jle to drag the ray (beam) to the horizontal side.
There is a -problem on the horizontal section of the monitor circuit board.
This symptom may also be the horizontal deflection' coil or its connection opened.
However, unsolder the horizontal transistor from its board and measure it by using a

123
multi-meter. [Usually Done by an electronics expert]
Problem
The Monitor shows only one bright Horizontal line in the center of the screen.
Solution
The monitor is unable to pull the beam to the vertical the vertical side
There is a problem in the vertical section [vertical IC].
Cable between the CPU and monitor might fail or disconnected.
Display adapter fault.
Supply to vertical section is missing.
Vertical deflection coil or its connection IS opened.
Problem
The Monitor shows only one bright point in the center of the screen
Solution
The monitor is unable to pull the beam to horizontal and vertical side of the
monitor.
Check the horizontal transistor and vertical IC.
Problem: No Power light appears on the Computer (Monitor &. System Unit) and there
is no display on the screen.
Solution
Check the power line from the wall outlet.

Check the adapter sockets.
Check the power cables.
Check that the system unit's power supply is plugged into the wall outlet (adapter
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socket)
Check that the monitor is plugged into the wall outlet (adapter socket).
Check the system unit's ON\ OFF switch.
Check the monitor's ON\OFF switch.
Problem
Still black screen, no power light and no fan sounds.
Solution
Both the system unit and the monitor not getting power properly.
Is it plugged in?
Is the wall outlet power working?
Or Computer's power supply has gone bad
Problem
System unit's power lights, fan sound and no power light on the monitor.
Solution
Check the monitor power connection.

Problem
Both the monitor's and the system unit's power lights but no picture on the
screen.
Solution
Note: The red power light on the monitor indicates 'no signal has been sent to the
monitor through the monitor's data cable, and the green light indicates: that the monitor
has received a signal from the CPU.
Check if the monitor brightness and contrast is on accurate setting.

Re-attach the data cable. The data (video) cable that connects the monitor to
the video card may be unplugged.
Problem
Still the monitor and computer system Power lights came on but there is no
picture on the screen.
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Solution
Reseat the video card firmly. [Don't forget ESD]

The video cable (pins) might fail. [So check it]
The video card might fail. [Replace it]
The monitor might fail.
Problem
The computer shows "keyboard error" message on black screen or you

couldnt' type anything.
Solution
Check the keyboard connection (Identify t.: keyboard and the mouse connector
(PS /2 types) at the back of your PC].
Unplug and re-plug the keyboard cable to make sure it is plugged in firmly.
Make sure that nothing is holding any key down on the keyboard.
Or the keyboard might fail. Use the replacement method.
Problem
A PC shuts down and reboots without warning.
Solution
Fluctuation in voltage would cause sudden restart or shutdown.

Heat problem could cause restart after a few minutes of operation.
Check the power supply fan.
Check the CPU cooling fan.
Check also the thermal compound [grease] between the CPU chipset and heat sink.
CHAPTER IV Printers
Printer definition
Printer language
Printer Quality
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Type of printers
Printer operation stages:

Laser printer image troubleshooting
Toner cartridge Refill Method:
Ink jet printer image Troubleshooting
Printer definition
It is an electro-mechanical device that is used to put information from the computer
onto paper.
a printer is a device that accepts text and graphic output from a computer and transfers
the information to paper, usually to standard size sheets of paper.
Printers vary in size, speed, sophistication, and cost. In general, more expensive printers
are used for higher-resolution color printing.
Printer Languages
Printer languages are commands from the computer to the printer to tell the printer how to
format the document being printed. These commands manage font size, graphics, compression of
data sent to the printer, color, etc
Printer qualities
Color:
Color is important for users who need to print pages for presentations or maps and other
pages where color is part of the information.
Color printers can also be set to print only in black-and-white.
Color printers are more expensive to operate since they use two ink cartridges (one color
and one black ink)
Resolution: Printer resolution (the sharpness of text and images on paper) is usually
measured in dots per inch ( dpi ). Most inexpensive printers provide sufficient resolution for
most
Speed: If you do much printing, the speed of the printer becomes important. Inexpensive
printers print only about 3 to 6 sheets per minute. Color printing is slower. More expensive
printers are much faster.

127
Memory: Most printers come with a small amount of memory (for example, one megabyte )
that can be expanded by the user. Having more than the minimum amount of memory is
helpful and faster when printing out pages with large images or tables with lines around them
Type of printers
Impact printer
Non impact printer
Impact Printer
Impact printers worked something like an automatic typewriter, with a key striking an inked
impression on paper for each printed character .
Examples of non impact printer
dot matrix printer

passbook printer
The dot-matrix printer was a popular low-cost personal computer printer. It's an impact printer
that strikes the paper a line at a time.
It has a print head that cost as that of the printer and it has also a heat sink that controls the heat
Dot matrix is used mostly used in governmental offices
It is an old printer that is currently out of use due to the following three main reasons.
Highly noisy
Poor quality
Very slow
Non impact printer
There are two common types of non impact printers Inkjet [color] and Laser Jet printers.
The Inkjet printer uses an ink cartridge where as the LaserJet printer uses a toner [black
powder] cartridge
The best-known non-impact printers are
Inkjet printer
Laser printer

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Laser jet printer
Is a common type of computer printer that rapidly produces high quality text and
graphics on plain paper.
Is a printer that uses a laser to produce an image on a rotating drum before
electrostatically transferring the image to paper.
Is a printer that uses a laser and the electrophotographic method to print a full page at
a time. The laser "paints" a charged drum with light, to which toner is applied and
then transferred onto paper
.different types of laser jet printers and their cartridges numbers
Type of printer cartridgeno speed Quality memory
4 plus 98A 4ppm 300dpi 8mb

4l 74A 4ppm 600dpi 8mb
5l, 6l 06A 6ppm 600dpi 8mb
1100 92A 8ppm 600dpi 8mb
1000,1200 15A 20ppm 1200dpi 64mb
1150 24A 20ppm 1200dpi >>
1300 13A 20ppm 1200dpi >>
1320 49A 20ppm 1200dpi >>
2013 53A 26ppm 1200dpi >>
1010,1012 12A 12ppm 1200dp >>
1015,1018,1020 12A 12ppm >1200dpi >>
4050 27A 35ppm >1200dpi >>
4100 61A 35ppm >1200dpi >>
4200 38A 35ppm >1200dpi >>
4250 42A 35ppm >1200dpi >>
4250 printer families
4250, 4250D, 4250N, 4250DN,
Where: D: means duplex used to print front and back
N: mean network card used for sharing printer among many computers
S: means step
TONER CARTRIDGE SECTION

129
Drum unit.
Developing unit.
Drum unit contains the following:
Photosensitive drum.
Charging roller (primary corona roller)
Cleaning blade.
Waste tanker.
Bias voltage connector.
Developing unit contains the following:
Toner powder
Toner tanker
Rubber blade
Magnetic charging roller (developing roller)
Bias voltage connector.
Toner
Powdery substance
It contains:
Carbon substance [for black color]

Plastic resins [for easy flow and melt]
Iron oxide [for electrical charge]
Photosensitive drum
It is the heart of the image formation system.

Its electrical properties are charged when it is exposed to light. [The drum
becomes conductive when exposed to light and areas not exposed to light
remain non conductive and maintain their charges.]
The drum is made from aluminum coated with an organic photo
conductive material(OPC)
130
The drum sometimes called OPC[print drum or EP drum)
Cleaning blade:
It is used to clean small amount of toner from drum, which is not transferred to
the print paper.
It is MADE FROM long, flat strip of rubber
Waste tanker:
It is part of drum unit

It is a toner hopper for used toner
Note: Some people recycle the second hand of toner from the waste tanker but the print
quality will be less poor.
Primary charger:
It is located close to the photosensitive drum

It uses 600 dc v(bias voltage ) to charge the drum surface negatively
Developer roller:
It is located to parallel to the drum
It is the toner transfer roller and major part of developing unit
It contains the magnetic substance to attract the toner
It uses -600cv( bias voltage ) to transfer toner on the exposed surface of the
drum.
Transfer roller
This section is found outside the toner cartridge .

It transfers the toner from the drum surface to the paper.
It uses +600dcv( biasing voltage) to charge the surface of the paper.
Printer operation stages:
Stage 1 Cleaning process
Physical cleaning: the cleaning blade removes the toner from the drum surface
Electrical cleaning: the eraser lamp removes an electrical charge from the drum
surface.
131
Stage 2 Charging [Conditioning] process
The corona roller applies a uniform negative [-600dcv] charge to the surface
of the drum.
Stage 3: exposing[laser writing] process
From the laser assembly, a laser beam focuses on the print drum and creates an
image or text by discharging the negative surface of the drum.
Stage 4. Developing process
The toner from the developing roller is transferred to the drum surface and visible
image is formed.
Note: the friction feed mechanism feeds the paper into the printer.
Stage 5: transfer process
The transfer roller applies a positive charge at the back of the paper, causing the paper
To attract the negatively charged toner from the drum surface.
Note Next to the transfer roller, there is static eliminator to discharge the paper.
Stage 6. Fixing [fusing] process
At the fIxing stage, the paper passes between the fuser film and pressure roller.
The fuser lamp melts and dries the toner while the pressure roller compresses the paper.
Remember: The mechanical and electronics part of a printer are usually repaired by office
machine technicians.
Laser printer image troubleshooting

Symptom:-white image
Possible Causes:
Opc(drum) problem

132
Laser writer problem

Lose contact to the magnetic sleeve
Lose contact to the transfer unit
Out of toner.
Incorrect software setup.
Troubleshooting
Replace the toner cartridge.

Re-install the printer driver. [start>printer and faxes> select" add printer" and
follow the wizard]
Symptom: -black image
Possible Causes:
Primary charger failure

Fuser film
Cleaning blade
Symptom: -light image
Possible causes:
OPC
Laser writer
False contact to the magnetic sleeve
False contact to the transfer roller
Toner cartridge Refill Method:
1. Disassemble the toner cartridge parts.

2. Remove the used toner from the waste tanker.
3. Clean the parts with dry cloth [or lI:d compressed air].
4. Add the original toner to the toner cylindll (some folks use photocopy toner).
5. Reassemble the cartridge.
6. Shake it gently.
7. Place the cartridge into the printer.
8. Make a self-test or print test page and see the outcome.
Problem
While printing, the computer displays a message: " there was an error writing to

133
LPT 1"
9.
Solution
Check the printer connection.

Remove and re-attach the cable, then restart your PC.
Make sure it is turned on and online.
Check the printer in device manager.
Black stripes on paper
Possible Causes:
Dirty prullary corona wire

Poorly seated toner\OPC drum
solution
Visual check
Clean corona wire.
Paper jams or skewed printing
Possible Causes:
Paper not loaded squarely.

Too much paper loaded into the tray .
Mechanical problem that do not allow the movement of the cartridge such as
motors
Solution for paper jams
Visualize the problem.

Check the paper feeder.
Service the entire part of the printer.
Desk jet printer
A printer that forms an image by using electromagnetic fields to guide electrically

charged ink streams onto the page
134
High-speed computer-driven printer that sprays a row of fine streams of ink onto
labels and/or forms to create a dot pattern print image.
Printer that forms characters by firing tiny dots of ink at the paper
Operates by propelling variably-sized droplets of liquid or molten material (ink) onto
almost any sized page. They are the most common type of computer printer for the
general consumer] due to their low cost, high quality of output, capability of printing
in vivid color, and ease of use.
Sprays ink at a sheet of paper. Ink-jet printers produce high-quality text and graphics.
Ink jet printer has the following three indicators for its functionalty
Power green color

Resume
orange
Cartridge orange
Power:
remains on : ready to use

remains blinking: printing
fast blinking: ink cleaner problem
Resume remains blinking: paper jam
Resume and power remains blinking : mechanical problem( that forces the cartridge assembly
from moving
Cartridge assembly includes the following:
Motor
Rail
Belt
Vertical adjustment sensor
Cartridge and power remains on: low ink
Cartridge remains blinking, and power remains on: cartridge problem.
Causes:
missing cartridge
Wrong cartridge number
135
Defective cartridge
Cartridge, resume power remains on: control panel board problem
Ink jet printer image troubleshooting
Problem
Poor print quality
Possible Causes:
Print cartridge may need reactivation .

Paper may be unsuitable.
Solution
Check the manufacturer manual.
Problem
Fading print
Possible Cause:
Print cartridge has insufficient ink
Solution
Visual check [quake it gently]

You can refill the ink cartridge. [Officially not recommended. It may damage the
printer parts]
Replace new ink cartridge.
Problem
Faint print
Possible Cause:
136
Paper may be unsuitable.
Solution
Check the manufacturer's recommendations

137

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SHEBA UNIVERSITY COLLEGE

COMPUTER SCIENCE DEPARTMENT

Advanced PC Maintenance and

1. Chapter I: Preventive Maintenance

2. Chapter II: PC Components

3. Chapter III: PC Assembling and Disassembling

4. Chapter IV : Software Troubleshooting

5. Chapter V: Common Hardware Problems and Troubleshooting

6. Chapter VI: Printer maintenance and Troubleshooting

Sheba University College, Computer Science Department Compiled by: Natan M.

Chapter I: Preventive Maintenance

Preventive maintenance definition

Sheba University College, Computer Science Department Compiled by: Natan M.

Preventive maintenance is predetermined work performed to a schedule with the aim of

Preventive maintenance often abbreviated as PM which refers to performing proactive

Goals of preventive maintenance

Advantage of preventive maintenance

Preventive maintenance has the following long term benefits:

Protect assets and prolong the useful life of production equipment

Sheba University College, Computer Science Department Compiled by: Natan M.

What you need:

What you can clean?

Computer Case cleaning

Computer Mouse Cleaning

Sheba University College, Computer Science Department Compiled by: Natan M.

Dust and Dirty environment problem

It increases the overheating problem and mostly affect:-

Cleaning the Computer Case

Benefits: Improves the overall appearance of your computer.

Turn off the system.

Clean the mouse [mechanical mouse]:

1. Shutdown the PC.

Sheba University College, Computer Science Department Compiled by: Natan M.

6. Replace the ball carefully into the cavity.

Cleaning the keyboard

Cleaning a DVD or CD-Rom Drive

1. Take a clean cotton cloth and dampen it with warm water.

Sheba University College, Computer Science Department Compiled by: Natan M.

Cleaning the Floppy drive head

1. Prepare the diskette cleaner and fluid.

Hard Drive Cleaning

Cleaning Monitor-Screen (LCD, flat panel)

Cleaning the Screen

Turn off the monitor

Sheba University College, Computer Science Department Compiled by: Natan M.

Cleaning the Monitor Casing:

Benefits: Improves the overall appearance of your computer.

Turn off the monitor

Clean Computer Inside:

1. Turn off and unplug the computer.

Cleaning the Outside of Your Printer

1. Turn your printer off before cleaning.

Disk Defragmenter overview

The process of consolidating fragmented files and folders is called defragmentation.

Sheba University College, Computer Science Department Compiled by: Natan M.

Why volumes become fragmented?

Volumes become fragmented as users:

Create and delete files and folders

Red Most of the clusters are part of a fragmented file.

Sheba University College, Computer Science Department Compiled by: Natan M.

We can analyze a volume in to two ways

Using windows interface

Note: You must be logged on as an administrator or a member of the Administrators group in