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Aquaculture
FromWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia

Aquaculture,alsoknownasaquafarming,isthefarmingof
Aquaculture
fish,crustaceans,molluscs,aquaticplants,algae,andother
aquaticorganisms.Aquacultureinvolvescultivating
freshwaterandsaltwaterpopulationsundercontrolled
conditions,andcanbecontrastedwithcommercialfishing,
whichistheharvestingofwildfish.[2]Mariculturerefersto
aquaculturepracticedinmarineenvironmentsandin
underwaterhabitats.

AccordingtotheFoodandAgricultureOrganization(FAO),
aquaculture"Farmingimpliessomeformofinterventioninthe
rearingprocesstoenhanceproduction,suchasregular
stocking,feeding,protectionfrompredators,etc.Farmingalso
impliesindividualorcorporateownershipofthestockbeing
cultivated."[3]Thereportedoutputfromglobalaquaculture
operationsin2014suppliedoveronehalfofthefishand
shellfishthatisdirectlyconsumedbyhumans[4][5]however,
thereareissuesaboutthereliabilityofthereportedfigures.[6]
Further,incurrentaquaculturepractice,productsfromseveral AquacultureinstallationsinsouthernChile
poundsofwildfishareusedtoproduceonepoundofa
piscivorousfishlikesalmon.[7]

Particularkindsofaquacultureincludefishfarming,shrimp
farming,oysterfarming,mariculture,algaculture(suchas
seaweedfarming),andthecultivationofornamentalfish.
Particularmethodsincludeaquaponicsandintegratedmulti
trophicaquaculture,bothofwhichintegratefishfarmingand
plantfarming.

Globalharvestofaquaticorganismsinmillion
Contents tonnes,19502010,asreportedbytheFAO [1]

1 History
2 21stcenturypractice
3 Speciesgroups
3.1 Aquaticplants
3.2 Fish
3.3 Crustaceans
3.4 Molluscs
3.5 Othergroups
4 Aroundtheworld
4.1 Nationallaws,regulations,and
management
5 Overreporting
6 Aquaculturalmethods
6.1 Mariculture

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6.2 Integrated
7 Nettingmaterials
8 Issues
8.1 Fishoils
8.2 Impactsonwildfish
8.3 Coastalecosystems
8.4 Geneticmodification
9 Animalwelfare
9.1 Commonwelfareconcerns
9.2 Improvingwelfare
10 Prospects
11 Seealso
12 Notes
13 References
14 Furtherreading
15 Externallinks

History
TheindigenousGunditjmarapeopleinVictoria,Australia,mayhaveraised
eelsasearlyas6000BC.Evidenceindicatestheydevelopedabout100km2
(39sqmi)ofvolcanicfloodplainsinthevicinityofLakeCondahintoa
complexofchannelsanddams,andusedwoventrapstocaptureeels,and
preservethemtoeatallyearround.[8][9]

AquaculturewasoperatinginChinacirca2500BC.[10]Whenthewaters
subsidedafterriverfloods,somefish,mainlycarp,weretrappedinlakes.
Earlyaquaculturistsfedtheirbroodusingnymphsandsilkwormfeces,and
atethem.Afortunategeneticmutationofcarpledtotheemergenceof
goldfishduringtheTangdynasty.

Japanesecultivatedseaweedbyprovidingbamboopolesand,later,netsand
oystershellstoserveasanchoringsurfacesforspores.

Romansbredfishinpondsandfarmedoystersincoastallagoonsbefore
100CE.[11]

Workersharvestcatfishfromthe IncentralEurope,earlyChristianmonasteriesadoptedRomanaquacultural
DeltaPrideCatfishfarmsin practices.[12]AquaculturespreadinEuropeduringtheMiddleAgessince
Mississippi awayfromtheseacoastsandthebigrivers,fishhadtobesaltedsotheydid
notrot.[13]Improvementsintransportationduringthe19thcenturymade
freshfisheasilyavailableandinexpensive,evenininlandareas,makingaquaculturelesspopular.The15th
centuryfishpondsoftheTrebonBasinintheCzechRepublicaremaintainedasaUNESCOWorldHeritage
Site.[14]

Hawaiiansconstructedoceanicfishponds.Aremarkableexampleisafishponddatingfromatleast1,000years
ago,atAlekoko.LegendsaysthatitwasconstructedbythemythicalMenehunedwarfpeople.[15]

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Infirsthalfof18thcentury,GermanStephanLudwigJacobiexperimentedwithexternalfertilizationofbrown
troutsandsalmon.Hewroteanarticle"VonderknstlichenErzeugungderForellenundLachse".Bythelatter
decadesofthe18thcentury,oysterfarminghadbeguninestuariesalongtheAtlanticCoastofNorthAmerica.[16]

Thewordaquacultureappearedinan1855newspaperarticleinreferencetotheharvestingofice.[17]Italso
appearedindescriptionsoftheterrestrialagriculturalpractiseofsubirrigationinthelate19thcentury[18]before
becomingassociatedprimarilywiththecultivationofaquaticplantandanimalspecies.

In1859,StephenAinsworthofWestBloomfield,NewYork,beganexperimentswithbrooktrout.By1864,Seth
GreenhadestablishedacommercialfishhatchingoperationatCaledoniaSprings,nearRochester,NewYork.By
1866,withtheinvolvementofDr.W.W.FletcherofConcord,Massachusetts,artificialfishhatcherieswereunder
wayinbothCanadaandtheUnitedStates.[19]WhentheDildoIslandfishhatcheryopenedinNewfoundlandin
1889,itwasthelargestandmostadvancedintheworld.Thewordaquaculturewasusedindescriptionsofthe
hatcheriesexperimentswithcodandlobsterin1890.[20]

Bythe1920s,theAmericanFishCultureCompanyofCarolina,RhodeIsland,foundedinthe1870swasoneofthe
leadingproducersoftrout.Duringthe1940s,theyhadperfectedthemethodofmanipulatingthedayandnight
cycleoffishsothattheycouldbeartificiallyspawnedyeararound.[21]

Californiansharvestedwildkelpandattemptedtomanagesupplyaround1900,laterlabelingitawartime
resource.[22]

21stcenturypractice
Harveststagnationinwildfisheriesandoverexploitationofpopularmarinespecies,combinedwithagrowing
demandforhighqualityprotein,encouragedaquaculturiststodomesticateothermarinespecies.[23][24]Atthe
outsetofmodernaquaculture,manywereoptimisticthata"BlueRevolution"couldtakeplaceinaquaculture,just
astheGreenRevolutionofthe20thcenturyhadrevolutionizedagriculture.[25]Althoughlandanimalshadlong
beendomesticated,mostseafoodspecieswerestillcaughtfromthewild.Concernedabouttheimpactofgrowing
demandforseafoodontheworld'soceans,prominentoceanexplorerJacquesCousteauwrotein1973:"With
earthsburgeoninghumanpopulationstofeed,wemustturntotheseawithnewunderstandingandnew
technology.[26]

About430(97%)ofthespeciesculturedasof2007weredomesticatedduringthe20thand21stcenturies,of
whichanestimated106cameinthedecadeto2007.Giventhelongtermimportanceofagriculture,todate,only
0.08%ofknownlandplantspeciesand0.0002%ofknownlandanimalspecieshavebeendomesticated,compared
with0.17%ofknownmarineplantspeciesand0.13%ofknownmarineanimalspecies.Domesticationtypically
involvesaboutadecadeofscientificresearch.[27]Domesticatingaquaticspeciesinvolvesfewerriskstohumans
thandolandanimals,whichtookalargetollinhumanlives.Mostmajorhumandiseasesoriginatedin
domesticatedanimals,[28]includingdiseasessuchassmallpoxanddiphtheria,thatlikemostinfectiousdiseases,
movetohumansfromanimals.Nohumanpathogensofcomparablevirulencehaveyetemergedfrommarine
species.

Biologicalcontrolmethodstomanageparasitesarealreadybeingused,suchascleanerfish(e.g.lumpsuckersand
wrasse)tocontrolsealicepopulationsinsalmonfarming.[29]Modelsarebeingusedtohelpwithspatialplanning
andsitingoffishfarmsinordertominimizeimpact.[30]

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Thedeclineinwildfishstockshasincreasedthedemandforfarmedfish.[31]However,findingalternativesources
ofproteinandoilforfishfeedisnecessarysotheaquacultureindustrycangrowsustainablyotherwise,it
representsagreatriskfortheoverexploitationofforagefish.[32]

Anotherrecentissuefollowingthebanningin2008oforganotinsbytheInternationalMaritimeOrganizationisthe
needtofindenvironmentallyfriendly,butstilleffective,compoundswithantifoulingeffects.

Manynewnaturalcompoundsarediscoveredeveryyear,butproducingthemonalargeenoughscalefor
commercialpurposesisalmostimpossible.

Itishighlyprobablethatfuturedevelopmentsinthisfieldwillrelyonmicroorganisms,butgreaterfundingand
furtherresearchisneededtoovercomethelackofknowledgeinthisfield.[33]

Speciesgroups
Aquaticplants Globalaquacultureproductioninmillion
tonnes,19502010,asreportedbytheFAO[1]
Microalgae,alsoreferredtoasphytoplankton,microphytes,or
planktonicalgae,constitutethemajorityofcultivatedalgae.
Macroalgaecommonlyknownasseaweedalsohavemany
commercialandindustrialuses,butduetotheirsizeand
specificrequirements,theyarenoteasilycultivatedonalarge
scaleandaremostoftentakeninthewild.

Fish

Thefarmingoffishisthemostcommonformofaquaculture.
Itinvolvesraisingfishcommerciallyintanks,ponds,orocean
enclosures,usuallyforfood.Afacilitythatreleasesjuvenile Mainspeciesgroups
fishintothewildforrecreationalfishingortosupplementa
species'naturalnumbersisgenerallyreferredtoasafish
hatchery.Worldwide,themostimportantfishspeciesusedin
fishfarmingare,inorder,carp,salmon,tilapia,andcatfish.[1]

IntheMediterranean,youngbluefintunaarenettedatseaand Minorspeciesgroups
towedslowlytowardstheshore.Theyaretheninternedin
offshorepenswheretheyarefurthergrownforthemarket.[34]
In2009,researchersinAustraliamanagedforthefirsttimetocoax
southernbluefintunatobreedinlandlockedtanks.Southernbluefintuna
arealsocaughtinthewildandfattenedingrowoutseacagesinsouthern
SpencerGulf,SouthAustralia.

Asimilarprocessisusedinthesalmonfarmingsectionofthisindustry
juvenilesaretakenfromhatcheriesandavarietyofmethodsareusedtoaid
themintheirmaturation.Forexample,asstatedabove,someofthemost
importantfishspeciesintheindustry,salmon,canbegrownusingacage
system.Thisisdonebyhavingnettedcages,preferablyinopenwaterthat Cultivatingemergentaquaticplantsin
hasastrongflow,andfeedingthesalmonaspecialfoodmixturethataids floatingcontainers
theirgrowth.Thisprocessallowsforyearroundgrowthofthefish,thusa
higherharvestduringthecorrectseasons.[35][36]Anadditionalmethod,
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knownsometimesassearanching,hasalsobeenusedwithintheindustry.Searanchinginvolvesraisingfishina
hatcheryforabrieftimeandthenreleasingthemintomarinewatersforfurtherdevelopment,whereuponthefish
arerecapturedwhentheyhavematured.[37]

Crustaceans

Commercialshrimpfarmingbeganinthe1970s,andproductiongrewsteeplythereafter.Globalproduction
reachedmorethan1.6milliontonnesin2003,worthaboutUS$9billion.About75%offarmedshrimpisproduced
inAsia,inparticularinChinaandThailand.Theother25%isproducedmainlyinLatinAmerica,whereBrazilis
thelargestproducer.Thailandisthelargestexporter.

Shrimpfarminghaschangedfromitstraditional,smallscaleforminSoutheastAsiaintoaglobalindustry.
Technologicaladvanceshaveledtoeverhigherdensitiesperunitarea,andbroodstockisshippedworldwide.
Virtuallyallfarmedshrimparepenaeids(i.e.,shrimpofthefamilyPenaeidae),andjusttwospeciesofshrimp,the
Pacificwhiteshrimpandthegianttigerprawn,accountforabout80%ofallfarmedshrimp.Theseindustrial
monoculturesareverysusceptibletodisease,whichhasdecimatedshrimppopulationsacrossentireregions.
Increasingecologicalproblems,repeateddiseaseoutbreaks,andpressureandcriticismfrombothnongovernmental
organizationsandconsumercountriesledtochangesintheindustryinthelate1990sandgenerallystronger
regulations.In1999,governments,industryrepresentatives,andenvironmentalorganizationsinitiatedaprogram
aimedatdevelopingandpromotingmoresustainablefarmingpracticesthroughtheSeafoodWatchprogram.[38]

Freshwaterprawnfarmingsharesmanycharacteristicswith,includingmanyproblemswith,marineshrimp
farming.Uniqueproblemsareintroducedbythedevelopmentallifecycleofthemainspecies,thegiantriver
prawn.[39]

Theglobalannualproductionoffreshwaterprawns(excludingcrayfishandcrabs)in2003wasabout280,000
tonnes,ofwhichChinaproduced180,000tonnesfollowedbyIndiaandThailandwith35,000tonneseach.
Additionally,Chinaproducedabout370,000tonnesofChineserivercrab.[40]

Molluscs

Aquaculturedshellfishincludevariousoyster,mussel,andclamspecies.
Thesebivalvesarefilterand/ordepositfeeders,whichrelyonambient
primaryproductionratherthaninputsoffishorotherfeed.Assuch,
shellfishaquacultureisgenerallyperceivedasbenignorevenbeneficial.[41]

Dependingonthespeciesandlocalconditions,bivalvemolluscsareeither
grownonthebeach,onlonglines,orsuspendedfromraftsandharvestedby
handorbydredging.InMay2017aBelgianconsortiuminstalledthefirst
oftwotrialmusselfarmsonawindfarmintheNorthSea.[42]
Abalonefarm
Abalonefarmingbeganinthelate1950sandearly1960sinJapanand
China.[43]Sincethemid1990s,thisindustryhasbecomeincreasingly
successful.[44]Overfishingandpoachinghavereducedwildpopulationstotheextentthatfarmedabalonenow
suppliesmostabalonemeat.SustainablyfarmedmolluscscanbecertifiedbySeafoodWatchandother
organizations,includingtheWorldWildlifeFund(WWF).WWFinitiatedthe"AquacultureDialogues"in2004to
developmeasurableandperformancebasedstandardsforresponsiblyfarmedseafood.In2009,WWFcofounded
theAquacultureStewardshipCouncilwiththeDutchSustainableTradeInitiativetomanagetheglobalstandards
andcertificationprograms.[45]

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Aftertrialsin2012,[46]acommercial"searanch"wassetupinFlindersBay,WesternAustralia,toraiseabalone.
Theranchisbasedonanartificialreefmadeupof5000(AsofApril2016)separateconcreteunitscalledabitats
(abalonehabitats).The900kgabitatscanhost400abaloneeach.Thereefisseededwithyoungabalonefroman
onshorehatchery.Theabalonefeedonseaweedthathasgrownnaturallyontheabitats,withtheecosystem
enrichmentofthebayalsoresultingingrowingnumbersofdhufish,pinksnapper,wrasse,andSamsonfish,among
otherspecies.

BradAdams,fromthecompany,hasemphasisedthesimilaritytowildabaloneandthedifferencefromshorebased
aquaculture."We'renotaquaculture,we'reranching,becauseoncethey'reinthewatertheylookafter
themselves."[47][48]

Othergroups

Othergroupsincludeaquaticreptiles,amphibians,andmiscellaneousinvertebrates,suchasechinodermsand
jellyfish.Theyareseparatelygraphedatthetoprightofthissection,sincetheydonotcontributeenoughvolumeto
showclearlyonthemaingraph.

Commerciallyharvestedechinodermsincludeseacucumbersandseaurchins.InChina,seacucumbersarefarmed
inartificialpondsaslargeas1,000acres(400ha).[49]

Aroundtheworld
In2012,thetotalworldproductionoffisherieswas158
Globalaquacultureproductioninmillion
milliontonnes,ofwhichaquaculturecontributed66.6million
tonnes,19502010,asreportedbytheFAO[1]
tonnes,about42%.[50]Thegrowthrateofworldwide
aquaculturehasbeensustainedandrapid,averagingabout8%
peryearforover30years,whilethetakefromwildfisheries]
hasbeenessentiallyflatforthelastdecade.Theaquaculture
marketreached$86billion[51]in2009.[52]

Aquacultureisanespeciallyimportanteconomicactivityin
China.Between1980and1997,theChineseBureauof
Fisheriesreports,aquacultureharvestsgrewatanannualrate
of16.7%,jumpingfrom1.9milliontonnestonearly23
milliontonnes.In2005,Chinaaccountedfor70%ofworld
Mainaquaculturecountries,19502010
production.[53][54]Aquacultureisalsocurrentlyoneofthe
fastestgrowingareasoffoodproductionintheU.S.[55]

About90%ofallU.S.shrimpconsumptionisfarmedand
imported.[56]Inrecentyears,salmonaquaculturehasbecomea
majorexportinsouthernChile,especiallyinPuertoMontt,
Chile'sfastestgrowingcity.

AUnitedNationsreporttitledTheStateoftheWorldFisheries
andAquaculturereleasedinMay2014maintainedfisheries
andaquaculturesupportthelivelihoodsofsome60million
peopleinAsiaandAfrica.[57]
Mainaquaculturecountriesin2010
Nationallaws,regulations,andmanagement
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Lawsgoverningaquaculturepracticesvarygreatlybycountry[58]andareoftennotcloselyregulatedoreasily
traceable.IntheUnitedStates,landbasedandnearshoreaquacultureisregulatedatthefederalandstatelevels[59]
however,nonationallawsgovernoffshoreaquacultureinU.S.exclusiveeconomiczone(http://oceanservice.noaa.
gov/facts/eez.html)waters.InJune2011,theDepartmentofCommerceandNationalOceanicandAtmospheric
Administrationreleasednationalaquaculturepolicies[60]toaddressthisissueand"tomeetthegrowingdemandfor
healthyseafood,tocreatejobsincoastalcommunities,andrestorevitalecosystems."In2011,Congresswoman
LoisCappsintroducedtheNationalSustainableOffshoreAquacultureActof2011[61]"toestablisharegulatory
systemandresearchprogramforsustainableoffshoreaquacultureintheUnitedStatesexclusiveeconomiczone"
however,thebillwasnotenactedintolaw.

Overreporting
Chinaoverwhelminglydominatestheworldinreportedaquacultureoutput,[62]reportingatotaloutputwhichis
doublethatoftherestoftheworldputtogether.However,therearesomehistoricalissueswiththeaccuracyof
China'sreturns.

In2001,thefisheriesscientistsRegWatsonandDanielPaulyexpressedconcernsinalettertoNature,thatChina
wasoverreportingitscatchfromwildfisheriesinthe1990s.[6][63]Theysaidthatmadeitappearthattheglobal
catchsince1988wasincreasingannuallyby300,000tonnes,whereasitwasreallyshrinkingannuallyby350,000
tonnes.WatsonandPaulysuggestedthismaybehavebeenrelatedtoChinesepolicieswherestateentitiesthat
monitoredtheeconomywerealsotaskedwithincreasingoutput.Also,untilmorerecently,thepromotionof
Chineseofficialswasbasedonproductionincreasesfromtheirownareas.[64][65]

Chinadisputedthisclaim.TheofficialXinhuaNewsAgencyquotedYangJian,directorgeneraloftheAgriculture
Ministry'sBureauofFisheries,assayingthatChina'sfigureswere"basicallycorrect".[66]However,theFAO
acceptedtherewereissueswiththereliabilityofChina'sstatisticalreturns,andforaperiodtreateddatafrom
China,includingtheaquaculturedata,apartfromtherestoftheworld.[67][68]

Aquaculturalmethods
Mariculture

Mariculturereferstothecultivationofmarineorganismsinseawater,
usuallyinshelteredcoastalwaters.Thefarmingofmarinefishisan
exampleofmariculture,andsoalsoisthefarmingofmarinecrustaceans
(suchasshrimp),molluscs(suchasoysters),andseaweed.

Mariculturemayconsistofraisingtheorganismsonorinartificial
enclosuressuchasinfloatingnettedenclosuresforsalmonandonracksfor
oysters.Inthecaseofenclosedsalmon,theyarefedbytheoperators
oystersonracksfilterfeedonnaturallyavailablefood.Abalonehavebeen
farmedonanartificialreefconsumingseaweedwhichgrowsnaturallyon
MaricultureoffHighIsland,Hong
thereefunits.[48]
Kong

Integrated

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Integratedmultitrophicaquaculture(IMTA)isapracticeinwhichthe
byproducts(wastes)fromonespeciesarerecycledtobecomeinputs
(fertilizers,food)foranother.Fedaquaculture(forexample,fish,shrimp)is
combinedwithinorganicextractiveandorganicextractive(forexample,
shellfish)aquaculturetocreatebalancedsystemsforenvironmental
sustainability(biomitigation),economicstability(productdiversificationand
Carparethedominantfishin
riskreduction)andsocialacceptability(bettermanagementpractices).[69] aquaculture

"Multitrophic"referstotheincorporationofspeciesfromdifferenttrophicor
nutritionallevelsinthesamesystem.[70]Thisisonepotentialdistinctionfrom
theageoldpracticeofaquaticpolyculture,whichcouldsimplybetheco
cultureofdifferentfishspeciesfromthesametrophiclevel.Inthiscase,these
organismsmayallsharethesamebiologicalandchemicalprocesses,withfew
synergisticbenefits,whichcouldpotentiallyleadtosignificantshiftsinthe
ecosystem.Sometraditionalpolyculturesystemsmay,infact,incorporatea
greaterdiversityofspecies,occupyingseveralniches,asextensivecultures
(lowintensity,lowmanagement)withinthesamepond.Theterm"integrated"
referstothemoreintensivecultivationofthedifferentspeciesinproximityof
eachother,connectedbynutrientandenergytransferthroughwater.

Ideally,thebiologicalandchemicalprocessesinanIMTAsystemshould
balance.Thisisachievedthroughtheappropriateselectionandproportionsof
differentspeciesprovidingdifferentecosystemfunctions.Thecocultured
speciesaretypicallymorethanjustbiofilterstheyareharvestablecropsof
Theadaptabletilapiaisanother
commercialvalue.[70]AworkingIMTAsystemcanresultingreatertotal
commonlyfarmedfish
productionbasedonmutualbenefitstothecoculturedspeciesandimproved
ecosystemhealth,eveniftheproductionofindividualspeciesislowerthanin
amonocultureoverashorttermperiod.[71]

Sometimestheterm"integratedaquaculture"isusedtodescribetheintegrationofmonoculturesthroughwater
transfer.[71]Forallintentsandpurposes,however,theterms"IMTA"and"integratedaquaculture"differonlyin
theirdegreeofdescriptiveness.Aquaponics,fractionatedaquaculture,integratedagricultureaquaculturesystems,
integratedperiurbanaquaculturesystems,andintegratedfisheriesaquaculturesystemsareothervariationsofthe
IMTAconcept.

Nettingmaterials
Variousmaterials,includingnylon,polyester,polypropylene,polyethylene,plasticcoatedweldedwire,rubber,
patentedropeproducts(Spectra,ThornD,Dyneema),galvanizedsteelandcopperareusedfornettingin
aquaculturefishenclosuresaroundtheworld.[72][73][74][75][76]Allofthesematerialsareselectedforavarietyof
reasons,includingdesignfeasibility,materialstrength,cost,andcorrosionresistance.

Recently,copperalloyshavebecomeimportantnettingmaterialsinaquaculturebecausetheyareantimicrobial
(i.e.,theydestroybacteria,viruses,fungi,algae,andothermicrobes)andtheythereforepreventbiofouling(i.e.,the
undesirableaccumulation,adhesion,andgrowthofmicroorganisms,plants,algae,tubeworms,barnacles,mollusks,
andotherorganisms).Byinhibitingmicrobialgrowth,copperalloyaquaculturecagesavoidcostlynetchangesthat
arenecessarywithothermaterials.Theresistanceoforganismgrowthoncopperalloynetsalsoprovidesacleaner
andhealthierenvironmentforfarmedfishtogrowandthrive.

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Issues
Ifperformedwithoutconsiderationforpotentiallocalenvironmentalimpacts,aquacultureininlandwaterscan
resultinmoreenvironmentaldamagingthanwildfisheries,thoughwithlesswasteproducedonaperkgona
globalscale.[77]Localconcernswithaquacultureininlandwatersmayincludewastehandling,sideeffectsof
antibiotics,competitionbetweenfarmedandwildanimals,andthepotentialintroductionofinvasiveplantand
animalspecies,orforeignpathogens,particularlyifunprocessedfishareusedtofeedmoremarketablecarnivorous
fish.Ifnonlocallivefeedsareused,aquaculturemayintroduceplantofanimal.Improvementsinmethods
resultingfromadvancesinresearchandtheavailabilityofcommercialfeedshasreducedsomeoftheseconcerns
sincetheirgreaterprevalencein1990sand2000s.[78][79]

Fishwasteisorganicandcomposedofnutrientsnecessaryinallcomponentsofaquaticfoodwebs.Inocean
aquacultureoftenproducesmuchhigherthannormalfishwasteconcentrations.Thewastecollectsontheocean
bottom,damagingoreliminatingbottomdwellinglife.Wastecanalsodecreasedissolvedoxygenlevelsinthe
watercolumn,puttingfurtherpressureonwildanimals.[80]Analternativemodeltofoodbeingaddedtothe
ecosystem,istheinstallationofartificialreefstructurestoincreasethehabitatnichesavailable,withouttheneedto
addanymorethanambientfeedandnutrient.Thishasbeenusedinthe"ranching"ofabaloneinWestern
Australia.[48]

Fishoils

Tilapiafromaquaculturehasbeenshowntocontainmorefatandamuchhigherratioofomega6toomega3oils.

Impactsonwildfish

Somecarnivorousandomnivorousfarmedfishspeciesarefedwildforagefish.Althoughcarnivorousfarmedfish
representedonly13percentofaquacultureproductionbyweightin2000,theyrepresented34percentof
aquacultureproductionbyvalue.[81]

Farmingofcarnivorousspecieslikesalmonandshrimpleadstoahighdemandforforagefishtomatchthe
nutritiontheygetinthewild.Fishdonotactuallyproduceomega3fattyacids,butinsteadaccumulatethemfrom
eitherconsumingmicroalgaethatproducethesefattyacids,asisthecasewithforagefishlikeherringandsardines,
or,asisthecasewithfattypredatoryfish,likesalmon,byeatingpreyfishthathaveaccumulatedomega3fatty
acidsfrommicroalgae.Tosatisfythisrequirement,morethan50percentoftheworldfishoilproductionisfedto
farmedsalmon.[82]

Farmedsalmonconsumemorewildfishthantheygenerateasafinalproduct,althoughtheefficiencyof
productionisimproving.Toproduceonepoundoffarmedsalmon,productsfromseveralpoundsofwildfishare
fedtothemthiscanbedescribedasthe"fishinfishout"(FIFO)ratio.In1995,salmonhadaFIFOratioof7.5
(meaning7.5poundsofwildfishfeedwererequiredtoproduce1poundofsalmon)by2006theratiohadfallento
4.9.[83]Additionally,agrowingshareoffishoilandfishmealcomefromresidues(byproductsoffishprocessing),
ratherthandedicatedwholefish.In2012,34percentoffishoiland28percentoffishmealcamefromresidues.[84]
However,fishmealandoilfromresiduesinsteadofwholefishhaveadifferentcompositionwithmoreashandless
protein,whichmaylimititspotentialuseforaquaculture.

Asthesalmonfarmingindustryexpands,itrequiresmorewildforagefishforfeed,atatimewhenseventyfive
percentoftheworldsmonitoredfisheriesarealreadyneartoorhaveexceededtheirmaximumsustainableyield.[7]
Theindustrialscaleextractionofwildforagefishforsalmonfarmingthenimpactsthesurvivabilityofthewild
predatorfishwhorelyonthemforfood.Animportantstepinreducingtheimpactofaquacultureonwildfishis
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shiftingcarnivorousspeciestoplantbasedfeeds.Salmonfeeds,forexample,havegonefromcontainingonly
fishmealandoiltocontaining40percentplantprotein.[85]TheUSDAhasalsoexperimentedwithusinggrain
basedfeedsforfarmedtrout.[86]Whenproperlyformulated(andoftenmixedwithfishmealoroil),plantbased
feedscanprovidepropernutritionandsimilargrowthratesincarnivorousfarmedfish.[87]

Anotherimpactaquacultureproductioncanhaveonwildfishistheriskoffishescapingfromcoastalpens,where
theycaninterbreedwiththeirwildcounterparts,dilutingwildgeneticstocks.[88]Escapedfishcanbecomeinvasive,
outcompetingnativespecies.[89][90][91]

Coastalecosystems

Aquacultureisbecomingasignificantthreattocoastalecosystems.About20percentofmangroveforestshave
beendestroyedsince1980,partlyduetoshrimpfarming.[92]Anextendedcostbenefitanalysisofthetotal
economicvalueofshrimpaquaculturebuiltonmangroveecosystemsfoundthattheexternalcostsweremuch
higherthantheexternalbenefits.[93]Overfourdecades,269,000hectares(660,000acres)ofIndonesianmangroves
havebeenconvertedtoshrimpfarms.Mostofthesefarmsareabandonedwithinadecadebecauseofthetoxin
buildupandnutrientloss.[94][95]

Pollutionfromseacageaquaculture

Salmonfarmsaretypicallysitedinpristinecoastalecosystemswhichtheythenpollute.Afarmwith200,000
salmondischargesmorefecalwastethanacityof60,000people.Thiswasteisdischargeddirectlyintothe
surroundingaquaticenvironment,untreated,oftencontainingantibioticsandpesticides."[7]Thereisalsoan
accumulationofheavymetalsonthebenthos(seafloor)nearthesalmonfarms,particularlycopperandzinc.[96]

In2016,massfishkilleventsimpactedsalmonfarmersalongChile'scoastandthewiderecology.[97]Increasesin
aquacultureproductionanditsassociatedeffluentwereconsideredtobepossiblecontributingfactorstofishand
molluscanmortality.[98]

Seacageaquacultureisresponsiblefornutrientenrichmentofthewatersinwhichtheyareestablished.Thisresults
fromfishwastesanduneatenfeedinputs.Elementsofmostconcernarenitrogenandphosphoruswhichcan
promotealgalgrowth,includingharmfulalgalbloomswhichcanbetoxictofish.Flushingtimes,currentspeeds,
distancefromtheshoreandwaterdepthareimportantconsiderationswhenlocatingseacagesinordertominimize
theimpactsofnutrientenrichmentoncoastalecosystems.

Theextentoftheeffectsofpollutionfromseacageaquaculturevariesdependingonwherethecagesarelocated,
whichspeciesarekept,howdenselycagesarestockedandwhatthefisharefed.Importantspeciesspecific
variablesincludethespecies'foodconversionratio(FCR)andnitrogenretention.Studiespriorto2001determined
thattheamountofnitrogenintroducedasfeedwhichislosttothewatercolumnandseaflooraswastevariesfrom
52to95%.

Geneticmodification

AtypeofsalmoncalledtheAquAdvantagesalmonhasbeengeneticallymodifiedforfastergrowth,althoughithas
notbeenapprovedforcommercialuse,duetocontroversy.[99]Thealteredsalmonincorporatesagrowthhormone
fromaChinooksalmonthatallowsittoreachfullsizein1628months,insteadofthenormal36monthsfor

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Atlanticsalmon,andwhileconsuming25percentlessfeed.[100]TheU.S.FoodandDrugAdministrationreviewed
theAquAdvantagesalmoninadraftenvironmentalassessmentanddeterminedthatit"wouldnothavea
significantimpact(FONSI)ontheU.S.environment."[101]

Animalwelfare
Aswiththefarmingofterrestrialanimals,socialattitudesinfluencetheneedforhumanepracticesandregulations
infarmedmarineanimals.UndertheguidelinesadvisedbytheFarmAnimalWelfareCouncilgoodanimalwelfare
meansbothfitnessandasenseofwellbeingintheanimal'sphysicalandmentalstate.Thiscanbedefinedbythe
FiveFreedoms:

Freedomfromhunger&thirst
Freedomfromdiscomfort
Freedomfrompain,disease,orinjury
Freedomtoexpressnormalbehaviour
Freedomfromfearanddistress

However,thecontroversialissueinaquacultureiswhetherfishandfarmedmarineinvertebratesareactually
sentient,orhavetheperceptionandawarenesstoexperiencesuffering.Althoughnoevidenceofthishasbeen
foundinmarineinvertebrates,[102]recentstudiesconcludethatfishdohavethenecessaryreceptors(nociceptors)
tosensenoxiousstimuliandsoarelikelytoexperiencestatesofpain,fearandstress.[102][103]Consequently,
welfareinaquacultureisdirectedatvertebratesfinfishinparticular.[104]

Commonwelfareconcerns

Welfareinaquaculturecanbeimpactedbyanumberofissuessuchasstockingdensities,behaviouralinteractions,
diseaseandparasitism.Amajorproblemindeterminingthecauseofimpairedwelfareisthattheseissuesareoften
allinterrelatedandinfluenceeachotheratdifferenttimes.[105]

Optimalstockingdensityisoftendefinedbythecarryingcapacityofthestockedenvironmentandtheamountof
individualspaceneededbythefish,whichisveryspeciesspecific.Althoughbehaviouralinteractionssuchas
shoalingmaymeanthathighstockingdensitiesarebeneficialtosomespecies,[102][106]inmanyculturedspecies
highstockingdensitiesmaybeofconcern.Crowdingcanconstrainnormalswimmingbehaviour,aswellas
increaseaggressiveandcompetitivebehaviourssuchascannibalism,[107]feedcompetition,[108]territorialityand
dominance/subordinationhierarchies.[109]Thispotentiallyincreasestheriskoftissuedamageduetoabrasionfrom
fishtofishcontactorfishtocagecontact.[102]Fishcansufferreductionsinfoodintakeandfoodconversion
efficiency.[109]Inaddition,highstockingdensitiescanresultinwaterflowbeinginsufficient,creatinginadequate
oxygensupplyandwasteproductremoval.[106]Dissolvedoxygenisessentialforfishrespirationand
concentrationsbelowcriticallevelscaninducestressandevenleadtoasphyxiation.[109]Ammonia,anitrogen
excretionproduct,ishighlytoxictofishataccumulatedlevels,particularlywhenoxygenconcentrationsare
low.[110]

Manyoftheseinteractionsandeffectscausestressinthefish,whichcanbeamajorfactorinfacilitatingfish
disease.[104]Formanyparasites,infestationdependsonthehost'sdegreeofmobility,thedensityofthehost
populationandvulnerabilityofthehost'sdefencesystem.[111]Sealicearetheprimaryparasiticproblemforfinfish

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inaquaculture,highnumberscausingwidespreadskinerosionandhaemorrhaging,gillcongestion,andincreased
mucusproduction.[112]Therearealsoanumberofprominentviralandbacterialpathogensthatcanhavesevere
effectsoninternalorgansandnervoussystems.[113]

Improvingwelfare

Thekeytoimprovingwelfareofmarineculturedorganismsistoreducestresstoaminimum,asprolongedor
repeatedstresscancausearangeofadverseeffects.Attemptstominimisestresscanoccurthroughouttheculture
process.Duringgrowoutitisimportanttokeepstockingdensitiesatappropriatelevelsspecifictoeachspecies,as
wellasseparatingsizeclassesandgradingtoreduceaggressivebehaviouralinteractions.Keepingnetsandcages
cleancanassistpositivewaterflowtoreducetheriskofwaterdegradation.

Notsurprisinglydiseaseandparasitismcanhaveamajoreffectonfishwelfareanditisimportantforfarmersnot
onlytomanageinfectedstockbutalsotoapplydiseasepreventionmeasures.However,preventionmethods,such
asvaccination,canalsoinducestressbecauseoftheextrahandlingandinjection.[106]Othermethodsinclude
addingantibioticstofeed,addingchemicalsintowaterfortreatmentbathsandbiologicalcontrol,suchasusing
cleanerwrassetoremovelicefromfarmedsalmon.[106]

Manystepsareinvolvedintransport,includingcapture,fooddeprivationtoreducefaecalcontaminationof
transportwater,transfertotransportvehiclevianetsorpumps,plustransportandtransfertothedeliverylocation.
Duringtransportwaterneedstobemaintainedtoahighquality,withregulatedtemperature,sufficientoxygenand
minimalwasteproducts.[104][106]Insomecasesanaestheticsmaybeusedinsmalldosestocalmfishbefore
transport.[106]

Aquacultureissometimespartofanenvironmentalrehabilitationprogramorasanaidinconservingendangered
species.[114]

Prospects
Globalwildfisheriesareindecline,withvaluablehabitatsuchasestuariesincriticalcondition.[115]The
aquacultureorfarmingofpiscivorousfish,likesalmon,doesnothelptheproblembecausetheyneedtoeat
productsfromotherfish,suchasfishmealandfishoil.Studieshaveshownthatsalmonfarminghasmajor
negativeimpactsonwildsalmon,aswellastheforagefishthatneedtobecaughttofeedthem.[116][117]Fishthat
arehigheronthefoodchainarelessefficientsourcesoffoodenergy.

Apartfromfishandshrimp,someaquacultureundertakings,suchasseaweedandfilterfeedingbivalvemollusks
likeoysters,clams,musselsandscallops,arerelativelybenignandevenenvironmentallyrestorative.[24]Filter
feedersfilterpollutantsaswellasnutrientsfromthewater,improvingwaterquality.[118]Seaweedsextractnutrients
suchasinorganicnitrogenandphosphorusdirectlyfromthewater,[69]andfilterfeedingmolluskscanextract
nutrientsastheyfeedonparticulates,suchasphytoplanktonanddetritus.[119]

Someprofitableaquaculturecooperativespromotesustainablepractices.[120]Newmethodslessentheriskof
biologicalandchemicalpollutionthroughminimizingfishstress,fallowingnetpens,andapplyingIntegratedPest
Management.Vaccinesarebeingusedmoreandmoretoreduceantibioticusefordiseasecontrol.[121]

Onshorerecirculatingaquaculturesystems,facilitiesusingpolyculturetechniques,andproperlysitedfacilities(for
example,offshoreareaswithstrongcurrents)areexamplesofwaystomanagenegativeenvironmentaleffects.

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Recirculatingaquaculturesystems(RAS)recyclewaterbycirculatingitthroughfilterstoremovefishwasteand
foodandthenrecirculatingitbackintothetanks.Thissaveswaterandthewastegatheredcanbeusedincompost
or,insomecases,couldevenbetreatedandusedonland.WhileRASwasdevelopedwithfreshwaterfishinmind,
scientistassociatedwiththeAgriculturalResearchServicehavefoundawaytorearsaltwaterfishusingRASin
lowsalinitywaters.[122]Althoughsaltwaterfishareraisedinoffshorecagesorcaughtwithnetsinwaterthat
typicallyhasasalinityof35partsperthousand(ppt),scientistswereabletoproducehealthypompano,asaltwater
fish,intankswithasalinityofonly5ppt.CommercializinglowsalinityRASarepredictedtohavepositive
environmentalandeconomicaleffects.Unwantednutrientsfromthefishfoodwouldnotbeaddedtotheoceanand
theriskoftransmittingdiseasesbetweenwildandfarmraisedfishwouldgreatlybereduced.Thepriceof
expensivesaltwaterfish,suchasthepompanoandcombiausedintheexperiments,wouldbereduced.However,
beforeanyofthiscanbedoneresearchersmuststudyeveryaspectofthefish'slifecycle,includingtheamountof
ammoniaandnitratethefishwilltolerateinthewater,whattofeedthefishduringeachstageofitslifecycle,the
stockingratethatwillproducethehealthiestfish,etc.[122]

Some16countriesnowusegeothermalenergyforaquaculture,includingChina,Israel,andtheUnitedStates.[123]
InCalifornia,forexample,15fishfarmsproducetilapia,bass,andcatfishwithwarmwaterfromunderground.
Thiswarmerwaterenablesfishtogrowallyearroundandmaturemorequickly.CollectivelytheseCalifornia
farmsproduce4.5millionkilogramsoffisheachyear.[123]

Seealso
Agroecology
Alligatorfarm
Aquaponics
Copperalloysinaquaculture
Maggotsusedasfoodforfish
Fishhatchery
Fisheriesscience
Industrialaquaculture
Listofharvestedaquaticanimalsbyweight
Recirculatingaquaculturesystem

AquaculturebyCountry:

AquacultureinAustralia
AquacultureinCanada
AquacultureinChile
AquacultureinChina
AquacultureinEastTimor
AquacultureintheFederatedStatesofMicronesia
AquacultureinFiji
AquacultureinIndonesia
AquacultureinKiribati
AquacultureintheMarshallIslands
AquacultureinNauru
AquacultureinNewZealand
AquacultureinPalau
AquacultureinPapuaNewGuinea
AquacultureinSamoa
AquacultureintheSolomonIslands
AquacultureinSouthAfrica
AquacultureinSouthKorea
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AquacultureinTonga
AquacultureinTuvalu
AquacultureinVanuatu

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Furtherreading

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WilliamMcClarney(2013).FreshwaterAquaculture.EchoPointBooks&Media,LLC.ISBN162654990
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AquaLinguaISBN9788252923896
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889367760,OCLC35883297(https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/35883297)
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aOA04C).CABI.ISBN9781845935894.
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N4i4C).JohnWiley&Sons.ISBN9780470958865.
Wilkey,RyanMyers,MackenzieRintoul,LylaRobinson,TorieSpina,Michelle(1June2011)."Fiji
Aquaculture/RiceFarmingAnalysis"(http://digitalcommons.calpoly.edu/socssp/71).DigitalCommonsat
CalPoly.
Ottinger,M.Clauss,K.Kuenzer,C.(2016)."Aquaculture:Relevance,Distribution,ImpactsandSpatial
AssessmentsAReview"(http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0964569115300508).Ocean&
CoastalManagement.119:244266.doi:10.1016/j.ocecoaman.2015.10.015(https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.oc
ecoaman.2015.10.015).
Ottinger,M.Clauss,K.Kuenzer,C.(2017)."LargeScaleAssessmentofCoastalAquaculturePondswith
Sentinel1TimeSeriesData"(http://www.mdpi.com/20724292/9/5/440).RemoteSensing.9(5):440.
doi:10.3390/rs9050440(https://doi.org/10.3390%2Frs9050440).

Externallinks
"AquacultureFactsheet"(http://waittinstitute.org/aquaculture/).Waitt
Lookupaquaculturein
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Wiktionary,thefree
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TheCoastalResourcesCenter(http://www.crc.uri.edu/index.php?the Aquaculture.
meid=1)
NOAAaquaculture(http://www.aquaculture.noaa.gov/)
TheUniversityofHawaii'sAquacultureHub(http://www.aquaculturehub.org)
TEDEdlessononaquaculture(http://ed.ted.com/on/H7rUYhKF)

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