Chapter 9 - Forced Convection

10/1/2016 Chapter9.
ForcedConvectionFundamentalsofHeatandMassTransfer
Fundamentals of Heat and Mass Transfer
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Chapter 8. Numerical Methods in Heat Conduction Chapter 10. Natural (or Free) Convection

Chapter 9
Forced Convection
9.1 Introduction
Inthepreviouschapters,westudiedaboutconductionheattransfer,whereheattransferwasamolecularphenomenonandwas
consideredmainlyinsolidsconvectionwasmentionedonlyinpassingandwasconsideredonlyasaboundaryconditionwhile
analysingconductionheattransfer.
Inconvectionheattransfer,thereisaflowoffluidassociatedwithheattransferandtheenergytransferismainlyduetobulkmotionof
thefluid.Whentheflowoffluidiscausedbyanexternalagencysuchasafanorpumporduetoatmosphericdisturbances,the
resultingheattransferisknownasForcedconvectionheattransferwhentheflowoffluidisduetodensitydifferencescausedby
temperaturedifferences,theheattransferissaidtobebyNatural(orfree)convection.Forexample,ifairisblownonahotplatebya
blower,heattransferoccursbyforcedconvection,whereas,ahotplatesimplyhunginairwillloseheatbynaturalconvection.
Inthischapter,weshallstudyaboutforcedconvectionheattransfer.Sincethereisaflowoffluidinvolvedinconvectionheattransfer,
itisclearthattheflowfieldwillinfluencetheheattransfergreatly.Mathematicalsolutionofconvectionheattransferwill,therefore,
requirethesimultaneoussolutionofdifferentialequationsresultingbytheapplicationofconservationofmass,conservationof
momentumandconservationofenergy,undertheconstraintsofgivenboundaryconditions.Forathreedimensionalfluidflow,
mathematicalsolutionoftheresultingdifferentialequationsisaformidabletaskanditisusualtomakemanysimplifying
assumptionstogetamathematicalsolution.Still,itmustbestatedthatexactmathematicalsolutions,evenforsimpleconvectionheat
transfercases,arerathercomplicatedanditiscommonpracticetoresorttoempiricalrelationsforsolutionsofproblemsinvolving
convectionheattransfer.Theseempiricalrelationsareobtainedbyresearchersafterperforminglargenumberofexperimentsfor
severalpracticallyimportantsituationsandarepresentedintermsofnondimensionalnumbers.
Inthischapter,weshallfirstdescribethephysicalmechanismofforcedconvectionandthenmentionabouttheconvectiveheat
transfercoefficientandvariousfactorsaffectingthesame.Then,weshalldiscussaboutvelocityandthermalboundarylayers.
Applicationofconservationofmass,momentumandenergyinrespectoftheboundarylayerwillbedemonstratednext.Weshallnot
rigorouslysolvetheseequations,butwillonlymentionthemethodsofsolution,sinceouremphasiswillbeonpracticalsolutionswith
theuseofempiricalrelations.Then,wepresentseveralempiricalrelationstodeterminefrictionandheattransfercoefficientsforflow
overdifferentgeometriessuchasaflatplate,cylinderandsphereforflowunderlaminarandturbulentconditions.Finally,flowinside
tubeswillbeconsideredanddeterminationofheattransfercoefficientbyanalogywiththemechanismoffluidflowwillbeexplained.
9.2 Physical Mechanism of Forced Convection

ConsiderahotironblockwhosesurfaceisatatemperatureTs.LetthissurfacebecooledbyafluidatatemperatureTa,flowingover
itssurfaceatavelocityU,asshowninFig.9.1.
Weknowthatheatwillbecarriedawayfromthehotironblockbytheflowingfluidandtheblockwillcool.Wealsoknowthatifthe
velocityofthefluidisincreased,moreheatiscarriedawayandtheblockwillbecooledfaster.Forthepurposeofanalysis,wequantify
theprecedingstatementbyadimensionlessnumbercalled,ReynoldsNumber,inhonourofOsborneReynolds,anEnglishscientist.
Reynoldsnumberisdefinedasfollows:
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10/1/2016 Chapter9.ForcedConvectionFundamentalsofHeatandMassTransfer
FIGURE9.1Temperatureandvelocitydistributioninlaminar,forcedconvectionoverahotblock
where U=meanvelocityofflow,m/s
3
=densiyoffluid,kg/m
=dynamicviscosityoffluid,kg/(ms),
and
x=acharacteristicdimensionoftheflowpassage,equaltothelineardistancealongtheflowdirectioninthecaseofaflatplateorthe
pipediameterinthecaseofaflowthroughapipe.Fornoncircularpassages(suchasasquareorrectangularpassage),the
characteristicdimensioninEq.9.1istheequivalentdiameter,definedas:
where de=equivalentdiameter,m
2
Ac =areaofcrosssection,m ,and
P=wettedperimeter,m
Forarectangularcrosssectionofbreadthaandheightb,wegetfromEq.9.2:
And,foranannulusformedbyatubeofouterdiameterd1placedwithinatubeofinnerdiameterd2 ,equivalentdiameteriscalculated
as:
NotethatEq.9.2isusedinconnectionwiththecalculationofpressuredropforflowthroughanannulusbut,forthecaseofheat
transfer,sayfromahotfluidflowingthroughtheinnertubetoacoldfluidflowingthroughtheoutertube,sincetheheattransfer
occursonlythroughthesurfaceoftheinnertube,weusefortheequivalentdiameter:
IftheReynoldsnumberisbelowacertainvalue,asdeterminedbyexperiments,theflowislaminari.e.thefluidlayersmoveparallel
toeachotherinanorderlymanner.Asthevelocityofflowincreases,i.e.asthevalueofReynoldsnumberincreases,thereismore
disorderinthefluidandthefluidflowbecomesturbulentfluidchunksmoveatrandomandobviouslytheheattransferincreases,
sincethesechunksoffluidcarrytheheatwiththem.TransitionfromlaminartoturbulentflowoccursnotatafixedvalueofReynolds
number,butoccursinarangecalledtransitionrangeofReynoldsnumbers.Forexample,forflowthroughapipe,atvaluesof
Reynoldsnumberbelow2300theflowislaminar,forvaluesabove4000theflowisturbulentandinbetweenisthetransitionrange.
ValueofReynoldsnumberisaffectedbyfluidproperties,dimensionofflowpassageandalsobysurfaceconditions.
Fig.9.1alsoshowsthevelocityprofileandthetemperatureprofileforlaminarflow.Thevelocityprofileisparabolic.Astheflowing
fluidcomesincontactwiththesurfaceoftheblock,athinlayeradherestothesurfaceandessentiallyremainsstationarywithzero
velocitythisphenomenonisknownasnoslipconditionintheterminologyoffluidmechanics.Thefluidlayeradjacenttothislayer
hasitsvelocityretardedascomparedtothefreestreamvelocityduetotheeffectofviscosityofthefluid,andthenextlayerhasslightly
highervelocity,etc.tillthefreestreamvelocityisattainedatalayerfartherawayfromthesurface.Thepointwearetryingtomake
hereisthatimmediatelynexttothesolidsurface,thereisessentiallyastationarylayeroffluidandtheheattransferthroughthisfluid
layerisbypureconductionsubsequently,sincethenextlayersoffluidareinmotionconvectionheattransferoccurs.
Forthisstationaryfluidlayer,theheatfluxisgivenbyFourierslaw:
qcond=kf(dT/dy)|y=0(9.3)
wherekfisthethermalconductivityofthefluidand(dT/dy)|y=0isthetemperaturegradientaty=0i.e.atthesurface.
9.3 Newtons Law of Cooling and Heat Transfer Coe icient

GoverningrateequationforconvectionheattransferisgivenbyNewtonsLawofCooling(alsoknownasNewtonRikhmanLaw).
Accordingtothislaw,theheatfluxinconvectionheattransferisgivenby:
qconv=h(TsTa)(9.4)
wherehistheconvectiveheattransfercoefficientand(TsTa)isthetemperaturedifferencebetweenthehotsurfaceandtheflowing
2 2
fluid.Unitofhis:W/(m C)sothattheheatfluxhasunitsofW/m .
ThoughEq.9.4looksverysimple,itisverysubtle.Thereasonis:heattransfercoefficient,h,dependsonseveralfactorssuchas:
1.thefluidpropertieslikedensity,viscosity,thermalconductivityandspecificheat,
2.typeofflow(laminarorturbulent),
3.shapeoffluidpassage(circular,rectangleoraflatsurface),
4.natureofthesurface(rough/smooth)and
5.orientationofthesurface
Infact,entirethrustindeterminingtheheattransferrateinconvectionistofindoutthisvalueofhinareliablemanner.
9.4 Nusselt Number

Sinceweknowthatadjacenttothesolidsurfacethefluidlayerisstationaryandtheheattransferinthisfluidlayerisbyconduction,
andtheheattransferredbyconvectionsubsequentlymustbeequaltothisfluidlayer,wecanequateEqs.9.3and9.4:
Wecanwrite:
h={kf(dT/dy)|y=0}/(TsTa)(9.5)
i.e.theproblemoffindingoutthevalueofhreducestothetaskoffindingoutthetemperaturegradient(dT/dy)aty=0i.e.atthe
surface.
Sincetheheattransfercoefficientdependsonflowconditions,itsvalueonasurfacevariesfrompointtopoint.However,wegenerally
takeanaveragevalueofhbyproperlyaveragingthelocalvalueofheattransfercoefficientovertheentiresurface.
ItisalsocommonpracticetonondimensionalisetheheattransfercoefficientwithNusseltnumber.Nusseltnumberisdefinedas:
whereisacharacteristicdimensionandkfisthefluidthermalconductivity.
TogetaphysicalinterpretationoftheNusseltnumber,considerathinlayeroffluidwiththicknessandwithatemperature
differenceofTbetweenthetwosurfaces.Then,wehave:
Inotherwords,Nusseltnumbertellsushowmuchtheheattransferisenhancedduetoconvectionascomparedtoonlyconduction.
Or,highertheNusseltnumber,largertheheattransferbyconvection.IfNu=1,itmeansthatheattransferisbyconductionalone.
Example9.1.Airat25Cflowsoveraflatsurfacemaintainedat65C.Temperaturemeasuredatalocationof0.3mmfromthe
surfaceis45C.Findoutthevalueofthelocalheattransfercoefficient.Thermalconductivityofairattheaveragetemperaturemaybe
assumedas0.027W/(mC).
Solution.
Data:
Ta=25CTs=65C=0.0003mT=4565=20Ckf=0.027W/(mC)
Now,tofindoutheattransfercoefficient,applyEq.9.5:
h={kf(dT/dy)|y=0}/(TsTa)(9.5)
Now,
(Notethattemperaturegradientisnegativesince,startingfromtheplatesurface,asweproceedintheydirection,Tdecreasesasy
increases.)
Therefore,
9.5 Velocity Boundary Layer

ConceptofboundarylayerwasintroducedbyLudwigPrandtlintheyear1904.Accordingtothisconcept,whenafluidflowsovera
surface,theflowfieldcanbeconsideredtobedividedintotworegions:one,athinlayeradjacenttothesolidsurface,calledthe
boundarylayer,wheretheviscosityeffectsarepredominantandvelocityandtemperaturegradientsareverylarge,andsecond,alayer
beyondtheboundarylayerwherethevelocityandtemperaturegradientsareequaltotheirfreestreamvalues.Theboundarylayer
thickness()isarbitrarilydefinedasthatdistancefromthesurfaceintheydirectionatwhichthevelocityreaches99%ofthefree
streamvelocity,U.Boundarylayerconcepthelpsinsimplificationofmomentumequationsand,inparticular,solutionofviscousflow
problemswasgreatlyfacilitatedbythisconcept.
Letusfirststudythedevelopmentofboundarylayerforaflowoveraflatplate.Flowoveraflatplateisimportantfromapractical
pointofview,sinceflowoverturbinebladesandaerofoilsectionsofairplanewingscanbeapproximatedasflowoveraflatplate.See
Fig.9.2.
Considerathin,flatplate.TheleadingedgeandthetrailingedgeoftheplateareshownintheFig.9.2.Letafluidapproachtheflat
plateatafreestreamvelocityofU.Thefluidlayerimmediatelyincontactwiththeplatesurfaceadherestothesurfaceandremains
stationary,andinfluidmechanics,thisphenomenonisknownasnoslipcondition.Then,thefluidlayernexttothisstationarylayer
hasitsvelocityretardedbecauseoftheviscosityeffectsi.e.duetothefrictionalforceordragexertedbetweenthestationaryandthe
movinglayers.Thiseffectcontinueswithsubsequentlayersuptosomedistanceintheydirectiontillthevelocityequalsthefree
streamvelocityU.Thisregionoffluidlayerinwhichtheviscosityeffectsarepredominantisknownasthevelocity(orhydrodynamic)
boundarylayer,orsimplytheboundarylayer.Thicknessoftheboundarylayerisarbitrarilydefinedasthatdistanceinthey
directionfromtheplatesurfaceatwhichthevelocityis99%ofthefreestreamvelocity.Notethefollowingpointsinconnectionwith
theboundarylayer:
FIGURE9.2Developmentofboundarylayeroveraflatplate
1.Theboundarylayerdividestheflowfieldintotworegions:one,theboundarylayerregionwheretheviscosityeffectsare
predominantandthevelocitygradientsareverysteep,and,second,theinviscidregionwherethefrictionaleffectsare
negligibleandthevelocityremainsessentiallyconstantatthefreestreamvalue.
2.Sincethefluidlayersintheboundarylayertravelatdifferentvelocities,thefasterlayerexertsadragforce(orfrictionalforce)
ontheslowerlayerbelowitthedragforceperunitareaisknownasshearstress().Shearstressisproportionaltothe
velocitygradientatthesurface.Thisisthereasonwhy,influidmechanics,thevelocityprofilehastobefoundouttodetermine
thefrictionalforceexertedbyafluidonthesurface.Shearstressisgivenby:
2
whereisdynamicviscosityofthefluiditsunitiskg/(ms)orN.s/m .Viscosityisameasureofresistancetoflow.For
liquids,viscositydecreasesastemperatureincreases,whereasforgases,viscosityincreasesasthetemperatureincreases.
Viscositiesofafewfluidsat20CaregiveninTable9.1.Itmaybeobservedthatviscosityvariesbyseveralordersofmagnitude
fordifferentfluids.
3.UseofEq.9.7todeterminethesurfaceshearstressisnotveryconvenient,sinceitrequiresamathematicalexpressionforthe
velocityprofileso,inpractice,surfaceshearstressisdeterminedintermsofthefreestreamvelocityfromthefollowing
relation:
TABLE9.1Dynamicviscosityofafewfluidsat20C
Fluid (kg/(m.s)
Glycerin 1.49
Engineoil 0.80
Ethylalcohol 0.00120
Water 0.00106
Freon12 0.000262
Air 0.0000182
whereCfisafrictioncoefficientordragcoefficient.isthedensityofthefluid.Cfisdeterminedexperimentallyinmost
cases.Dragcoefficientvariesalongthelengthoftheflatplate.Averagevalueofdragcoefficient(Cfa)iscalculatedbysuitably
integratingthelocalvalueoverthewholelengthoftheplateandthenthedragforceovertheentireplatesurfaceisdetermined
from:
2
whereA=surfacearea,m .
4.Startingfromtheleadingedgeoftheplate,forsomedistancealongthelengthoftheplate,theflowintheboundarylayeris
laminari.e.thelayersoffluidareparalleltoeachotherandtheflowproceedsinasystematic,orderlymanner.However,after
somedistance,disturbancesappearintheflowandbeyondthistransitionregion,flowbecomescompletelychaoticandthere
iscompletemixingofchunksoffluidmovinginarandommanneri.e.theflowbecomesturbulent.
5.Transitionfromlaminartoturbulentflowdependsprimarilyonthefreestreamvelocity,fluidproperties,surfacetemperature
andsurfaceroughness,andischaracterizedbyReynoldsnumber.Reynoldsnumberisadimensionlessnumber,definedas:
Re=(Inertiaforces/Viscousforces)
Or,
where U=freestreamvelocity,m/s
x=characteristiclengthi.e.foraflatplateitisthelengthalongtheplateintheflowdirection,
fromtheleadingedge,and
2
v=kinematicviscosityoffluid=/,m /s,whereisthedensityoffluid.
WhentheReynoldsnumberislow,i.e.whentheflowislaminar,inertiaforcesaresmallcomparedtoviscousforcesandthe
velocityfluctuationsaredampedoutbytheviscosityeffectsandthelayersoffluidflowsystematically,paralleltoeachother.
WhentheReynoldsnumberislarge,i.e.whentheflowisturbulent,inertiaforcesarelargecomparedtotheviscousforcesand
theflowbecomeschaotic.Foraflatplate,ingeneral,forpracticalpurposes,thecriticalReynoldsnumber,Rec atwhichthe
5
flowchangesfromlaminartoturbulentistakenas510 .Itshouldbeunderstoodclearlythatthisisnotafixedvaluebut
dependsonmanyparametersincludingthesurfaceroughness.
6.Thereisintensemixingoffluidparticlesinturbulentregiontherefore,heattransferismoreinturbulentflowascomparedin
laminarflow.Thisisthereasonwhyspecialeffortsaremadeinthedesignofheatexchangerstoincreaseturbulence.However,
onehastopayapremiumofincreasedpressuredropi.e.increasedpowertopumpthefluidthroughtheheatexchanger.
7.Velocityprofileinthelaminarflowisapproximatelyparabolic.
8.TurbulentregionofboundarylayerisprecededbytransitionregionasshowninFig.9.2.
9.Turbulentboundarylayeritselfismadeofthreelayers:averythinlayercalledlaminarsublayer,then,abufferlayerand,
finally,theturbulentlayer.
10.Velocityprofileinthelaminarsublayerisapproximatelylinear,whereasintheturbulentlayerthevelocityprofileissomewhat
flat,asshown.
11.Thicknessoftheboundarylayer,,increasesalongtheflowdirectionasweshallseelater,isrelatedtotheReynoldsnumber
asfollows:inthelaminarflowregion:
andforturbulentflowregion:
whereRexistheReynoldsnumberatpositionxfromtheleadingedge.
9.6 Thermal Boundary Layer

Whenthetemperatureofafluidflowingonasurfaceisdifferentfromthatofthesurface,athermalboundarylayerdevelopsonthe
surface,inamannersimilartothedevelopmentofthevelocityboundarylayer.Letusillustratethedevelopmentofthethermal
boundarylayerwithreferencetoaflatplate.SeeFig.9.3.
ConsiderafluidatanuniformvelocityofUandauniformtemperatureofTaapproachtheleadingedgeofathin,flatplateasshown.
LettheflatplatebeatauniformtemperatureofTs.LetTa>Ts.Then,thefirstlayerthatcomesincontactwiththesurfacewilladhere
tothesurface(noslipcondition)andreachthermalequilibriumwiththesurfaceandattainatemperatureofTs.Then,thefluid
particlesinthislayerwillexchangeenergywiththeparticlesintheadjoininglayer,whichinturnwillexchangeenergywiththe
subsequentlayer,andsoon.ThusatemperatureprofilewilldevelopintheflowfieldandthetemperaturewillvaryfromTsatthe
surfacetoTaatthefreestream.InFig.9.3,theterm(TTs)isplottedagainstyasshown.Thusatthesurface,(TTs)=0andatthe
freestreamcondition,(TTs)=(TaTs).Theregioninwhichthetemperaturevariationintheydirectionissignificantisknownas
thermalboundarylayer.Thicknessofthethermalboundarylayer(t)atanylocationisdefinedasthatdistancefromtheplatesurface
intheydirectionwhere(TTs)=0.99(TaTs).i.ewherethetemperaturedifferencebetweenthefluidandthesurfacehas
reached99%ofthemaximumpossibletemperaturedifferenceof(TaTs).Inotherwords,attheouteredgeofthethermalboundary
layer,thedimensionlesstemperatureratio,(TTs)/(TaTs)isequalto99%.
Thicknessofthethermalboundarylayerincreaseswithincreasingdistancealongtheplatethisisduetothefactthateffectsofheat
transferarefeltmore,furtherdownstream.
IftheapproachingfluidstreamtemperatureTaislessthantheplatesurfacetemperature,thenthetemperatureprofileinthethermal
boundarylayerwillbeasshownbelow,inFig.9.4:
FIGURE9.3Developmentofthermalboundarylayeroveraflatplate
FIGURE9.4ThermalboundarylayeroveraflatplatewhenTa<Ts
Temperatureofthefluidchangesfromamaximumattheplatesurfacetothefreestreamtemperature,asweproceedfromthesurface
upwardsintheydirection.Verticaldistancefromtheplatesurfacewheretheratio(TsT)/(TsTa)isequalto99%representsthe
thicknessofthethermalboundarylayer.
Velocityprofileinthehydrodynamicboundarylayerdependsontheviscosityofthefluid,whereastemperatureprofileinthethermal
boundarylayerdependsontheviscosity,specificheatandthermalconductivityofthefluid,inadditiontothevelocity.
Relativemagnitudesofthethicknessesofthehydrodynamicboundarylayer()andthermalboundarylayer(dt)dependonthe
dimensionlessparameterPrandtlnumberdefinedas:
Pr=(Moleculardiffusivityofmomentum)/(Moleculardiffusivityofheat)
Or,
whereisdynamicviscosity,Cpisthespecificheatandkisthethermalconductivityofthefluid.
Also,viskinematicviscosity=/,andisthethermaldiffusivity.
Prandtlnumberisoftheorderof1forgases,lessthan0.01forliquidmetalsandmorethan100,000forheavyoils.SeeTable9.2.
TABLE9.2RangeofPrandtlnumbersforfluids
Fluid Pr
Liquidmetals 0.0040.030
Gases 0.71.0
Water 1.713.7
Lightorganicfluids 550
Oils 50100,000
Glycerin 2000100,000
Regardingtherelativegrowthofvelocityandthermalboundarylayersinafluid,wemaynotethefollowing:
1.Forgases,wherePr=(v/)isoftheorderof1,weseethatthemomentumandheatdissipatealmostatthesameratei.e.
thicknessesofthehydrodynamicandthermalboundarylayersareofthesameorder
2.forliquidmetalssincePr<<1,itmeansthatheatdiffusesatamuchhigherratethanthemomentumforliquidmetalsi.e.the
thermalboundarylayerismuchthickerthanhydrodynamicboundarylayerforliquidmetals(SeeFig9.5,a),and,
3.forheavyoils(Pr>>1),momentumdiffusesatafasterratethanheatthroughthemediumandthisisevidentfromFig.(9.5,b)
thus,thethermalboundarylayerismuchthinnerthanhydrodynamicboundarylayer.
Forlaminarconditions,thicknessofthermalboundarylayerisrelatedtohydrodynamicboundarylayer,approximatelyasfollows:
FIGURE9.5Thermalandvelocityboundarylayersoveraflatplateforliquidmetalsandoils
wherePristhePrandtlnumber.
9.7 Di erential Equations for the Boundary Layer

Inconvectionstudies,sincethereisafluidflow,weareinterestedintheshearstressandthefrictioncoefficienttodeterminethesewe
needthevelocitygradientatthesurface.Similarly,todeterminetheconvectioncoefficient,weneedthetemperaturegradientatthe
surface.Todeterminethevelocitygradientatthesurface,weapplytheequationofconservationofmomentum(inconjunctionwith
theequationofconservationofmass)toadifferentialvolumeelementintheboundarylayer.And,todeterminethetemperature
gradientatthesurface,weapplytheequationofconservationofenergytoadifferentialvolumeelementintheboundarylayer.We
startwiththeapplicationofequationforconservationofmass:
9.7.1 Conservation of MassThe Continuity Equation for The Boundary Layer

Consideradifferentialcontrolvolume,ofsection(dx.dy)andunitdepth,withintheboundarylayer,asshowninFig.9.6.
FIGURE9.6Elementalcontrolvolumeintheboundarylayeroveraflatplateforconservationofmass
Assumptions:
1.Flowissteady,incompressible
2.Constantfluidproperties
3.PressurevariationisonlyintheXdirection
4.ShearinYdirectionisnegligible
5.Continuityinspaceandtime
LetuandvbethevelocitycomponentsintheXandYdirections.Then,rememberingthatthemassflowrateisgivenby(densityx
velocityxarea)andthatthedepthisunityintheZdirection,wecanwrite:
MassflowintothecontrolvolumeinXdirection=.u.(dy.1)
MassflowoutofthecontrolvolumeinXdirection=.[u+(u/x).dx].(dy.1)
Therefore,netmassflowintotheelementintheXdirection=.(u/x).dx.dy
Similarly,netmassflowintothecontrolvolumeintheYdirectionis=.(v/y).dy.dx
Sincethenetmassflowintocontrolvolume,insteadystate,mustbeequaltozero,wewrite:
.{(u/x)+(v/y)}.dx.dy=0
i.e.foratwodimensionalflowintheboundarylayer,equationofconservationofmassisgivenby:
(u/x)+(v/y)=0.(9.15)
Eq.9.15isknownascontinuityequationfortwodimensional,steadyflowofanincompressiblefluid.
9.7.2 Conservation of Momentum Equation for The Boundary Layer

ThisisobtainedbytheapplicationofNewtonssecondlawofmotiontothedifferentialelement,whichstatesthatthenetforceonthe
elementintheXdirectionisequaltothenetmomentumeffluxfromthecontrolvolumeintheXdirection.Fig.9.7showsthe
momentumfluxesandforcesactingonthedifferentialcontrolvolume.
FIGURE9.7Conservationofmomentuminatwodimensional,incompressibleboundarylayer
FornopressuregradientsintheYdirectionandwiththeassumptionthatviscousshearintheYdirectionisnegligible,
2
MomentumflowinXdirectionintoleftface=.u .dy
2
MomentumflowinXdirectionoutofrightface=.[u+(u/x).dx] .dy
2
=.u .dy+2..u.(u/x).dx.dy
xmomentumflowenteringbottomface=.u.v.dx
xmomentumflowleavingupperface=.[v+(v/y).dy].[u+(u/y).dy].dx
=.u.v.dx+.u.(v/y).dx.dy+.v.(u/y).dx.dy
Therefore,netmomentumchangeintheXdirection=
[momentumfluxoutoftherightandtopfaces][momentumfluxintotheleftandbottomfaces]

2 2
=[.u .dy+2..u.(u/x).dx.dy]+[.u.v.dx+.u.(v/y).dx.dy+.v.(u/y).dx.dy].u .dy.u.v.dx
=2..u.(u/x).dx.dy+.u.(v/y).dx.dy+.v.(u/y).dx.dy
=.{u.(u/x)+v.(u/y)}.dx.dy+.u.{(u/x)+(v/y)}.dx.dy
Now,fromcontinuityEq.9.15,wehave:(u/x)+(v/y)=0Therefore,netmomentumtransferintheXdirection=.{u.(u/x)
+v.(u/y)}.dx.dy(a)
Now,letuscalculatetheforcesactingonthecontrolvolumeintheXdirection:
Pressureforces:
Pressureforceontheleftfaceisp.(dy.1)andovertherightfaceis
[p+(p/x).dx].(dy.1)
Therefore,netpressureforceinthedirectionofmotionis:(p/x).dx.dy
And,
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Viscousshearforceatthebottomfaceis:(u/y).(dx.1)
2 2
Viscousshearforceatthetopfaceis:[(u/y)+( u/y ).dy].(dx.1)
Therefore,netviscousforceinthedirectionofmotion=
2 2 2 2
[(u/y)+( u/y ).dy].(dx.1)(u/y).(dx.1)=( u/y ).dx.dy
Therefore,
F x=ResultantappliedforceintheXdirection=
NetpressureforceintheXdirection+netviscousforceintheXdirection
i.e.

2 2
F x=(p/x).dx.dy+( u/y ).dx.dy(b)
EquatingEqs.aand b asperNewtonssecondlaw,andneglectingsecondorderdifferentials,weget:

2 2
.{u.(u/x)+v.(u/y)}=( u/y )(p/x).(9.16)
Eq.9.16isknownasconservationofmomentumequationfortwodimensional,steadyflowofanincompressiblefluid.
IfthepressurevariationintheXdirectionisnegligible,(whichistrueforflowoveraflatplatesince(U/x)=0),Eq.9.16reduces
to:

2 2
u.(u/x)+v.(u/y)=n.( u/y ).(9.17)
wherev=/=kinematicviscosity
9.7.3 Conservation of Energy Equation for The Boundary Layer

Assumptions:
1.steady,incompressibleflow
2.conductionisonlyintheYdirection
3.temperaturechangeintheXdirectionissmalli.e.negligibleconductioninflowdirection
4.specificheat(Cp)ofthefluidisconstant
5.negligibleviscousheating
6.negligiblebodyforces
Fig.9.8showstherateatwhichenergyisconductedandconvectedintoandoutofthedifferentialcontrolvolume.
Notethatinadditiontotheconductiveterms,therearefourconvectiveterms.
Letuswritethedifferentenergytermsandapplytheenergybalancewhichstatesthatnetrateofconductionandconvectionshouldbe
equaltozero:
Convectiveterms:
FortheXdirection:
Energyintothecontrolvolume=.Cp.u.T.dy
Energyoutofthecontrolvolume=.Cp.{u+(u/x).dx}.{T+(T/x)dx}.dy
Therefore,neglectingtheproductofdifferentials,netenergyconvectedintothecontrolvolumeintheXdirectionisgivenby:.Cp.
{u.(T/x)+T.(u/x)}.dx.dy
Similarly,netenergyconvectedintothecontrolvolumeintheYdirectionisgivenby:
.Cp.{v.(T/y)+T.(v/y)}.dx.dy
Conductiveterms:
ConductioninYdirection.
FIGURE9.8Conservationofenergyinatwodimensional,incompressibleboundarylayer
NetconductionintothecontrolvolumeintheYdirectionisgivenby:

2 2 2 2
k.dx.(T/y)[k.dx.{(T/y)+( T/y ).dy}=k.( T/y ).dx.dy
Similarly,forcompleteness,netconductionintothecontrolvolumeintheXdirectionisgivenby:

2 2
k.( T/x ).dx.dy
Whentheviscousworkisneglected,makinganenergybalance,wehave:
Algebraicsumtotalofheatflowtothecontrolvolumeduetoconductionandconvectionmustbeequaltozero.
i.e.
2 2 2 2
.Cp.{u.(T/x)+T.(u/x)}.dx.dy.Cp.{v.(T/y)+T.(v/y)}.dx.dy+k.( T/x ).dx.dy+k.( T/y ).dx.dy=0
i.e.
2 2 2 2
.Cp.{u.(T/x)+T.(u/x)+v.(T/y)+T.(v/y)}.dx.dy+k.{( T/x )+( T/y )}.dx.dy=0
i.e.
2 2 2 2
.Cp.{u.(T/x)+v.(T/y)+T.[(u/x)+(v/y)]}+k.{( T/x )+( T/y )}=0
Now,fromcontinuityequation,(u/x)+(v/y)=0also,sincetheboundarylayerisverythin,(T/y)>>(T/x).(i.e.
conductioninXdirectionisnegligible).
Therefore,energybalanceequationbecomes:

2 2
u.(T/x)+v.(T/y)=(/r.Cp).( T/y )
or,
Thisistheenergyequationforatwodimensional,steadyincompressibleflow,whentheviscousdissipationisneglected,i.e.for
verylowvelocitiesofflow.
ObservethesimilaritybetweenEq.9.17formomentumbalanceandtheEq.9.18forenergybalance.
InEq.9.17,v=/=kinematicviscosity,alsoknownasmomentumdiffusivity.InEq.9.18,isthediffusivityofheat.Theirratiois
knownasPrandtlnumberandisequalto:
Pr=v/=(/)/(k/.Cp)=Cp./k(9.19)
Ifv=,thenPr=1andthemomentumandenergyequationsareidenticalthus,Prandtlnumbercontrolstherelationbetweenthe
velocityandtemperaturedistributions.
Whentheviscousdissipationcannotbeneglected,asinthecaseofveryviscousfluids(e.g.injournalbearings),orwhenthefluid
shearrateisextremelyhigh,anadditionaltermforviscousdissipation,appearsontheLHSoftheenergybalance.isgivenby:
2 2 2 2
=.{[(u/y)+(v/x)] +2.[(u/x) +(v/y) ](2/3).[(u/x)+(v/y)] (9.20)
Weshallnotconsiderviscousdissipationinourdiscussions.
9.8 Methods to Determine Convective Heat Transfer Coe icient

Asstatedearlier,inconvectionheattransferanalysis,theprimaryproblemistodeterminetheheattransfercoefficient.Oncethis
quantityisdetermined,heattransferratefromthesurfaceiseasilydeterminedbyapplyingNewtonslaw.
Therearegenerally,fivemethodsavailabletodeterminetheconvectiveheattransfercoefficient:
1.dimensionalanalysisinconjunctionwithexperimentaldata
2.exactmathematicalsolutionsofboundarylayerequations
3.approximatesolutionsofboundarylayerequationsbyintegralmethods
4.analogybetweenheatandmomentumtransfer,and
5.numericalanalysis
Ofcourse,noneofthemcanbyitself,solvealltheproblemswecomeacrossinpractice,sinceeachmethodhasitsownlimitation.
Oftheabovementionedmethods,dimensionalanalysisismathematicallysimple,buthasthedisadvantagethatitdoesnotgiveany
insightintothephenomenonoccurringalso,itdoesnotgiveanyequationthatcanbesolved,butrequiresexperimentaldatatogetthe
coefficientsintheequations.However,thismethodhelpsintheinterpretationoftheexperimentaldataandextendstherangeof
applicabilitybyexpressingthedataintermsofdimensionlessgroups.
Exactsolutionsofboundarylayerequationsinvolvesimultaneoussolutionsofdifferentialequationsderivedfortheboundarylayer.
Thesearerathercomplicatedandsolutionsareavailableforafewsimpleflowsituations,suchasflowoveraflatplate,anairfoil,ora
circularcylinder,inlaminarflow.Describingtheturbulentflowmathematicallyisratherdifficult.Weshallonlygiveanoutlineofthis
method,sinceouremphasisisonpracticalsolutionstoconvectionheattransferproblemsbyusingempiricalrelations.
Approximatesolutionsforboundarylayerequationsconsiderafinitecontrolvolumeforanalysis,ratherthananinfinitesimal
controlvolume,andintegralequationsarederivedhowever,solutionrequiresassumingequationstodescribethevelocityand
temperatureprofilessatisfyingtheboundaryconditions.Thismethodisrelativelysimple,anditispossibletogetsolutionsto
problemsthatcannotbetreatedbyexactmethodofanalysis.Thismethodcanbeappliedtoturbulentflowalso.
Analogybetweenheatandmomentumtransferisaveryusefultooltodeducetheconvectiveheattransfercoefficientbythe
knowledgeofflowfrictiondataonly,particularlyforturbulentflows,withoutactuallyconductingheattransferexperiments.This
methodutilizesthefactthatthemomentumandenergyequationshavethesameform,undercertainconditions,andtherefore,the
solutionsalsomusthavethesameform.Further,itissimpletoconductflow(friction)experiments,ascomparedtoheattransfer
experiments.
Numericalmethodsinvolvesdiscretizingthedifferentialequationsandarethereforeapproximate.Solutionsareobtainedatdiscrete
pointsintimeandspaceratherthancontinuouslyhowever,accuracycanbeimprovedtoacceptablelevelsbytakingsufficientlyclose
grids.Mainadvantageofnumericalmethodsisthatvariationinfluidpropertiesandboundaryconditionscanbeeasilyhandled.
9.8.1 Dimensional Analysis

Dimensionalanalysisconsidersthevariousquantitiesthatcontributetothephenomenonandreducesthesevariablesinto
dimensionlessgroupshowever,dimensionalanalysisaloneisnotofmuchuse,andthismethodmustalwaysbesupplementedby
experimentaldatasincetodeterminethecoefficientsinthefunctionalrelationshipsbetweenthedimensionlessgroupsweneedactual,
practicaldata.Also,itisnecessarytohavesomeinsightintotheproblembeforewestarttheanalysis,sincewehavetofirstlistthe
pertinentvariablesthatinfluencethephenomenon.Oncethisisdone,mathematicsinvolvedisminimum,andthemethodcanbe
appliedroutinelytomostoftheproblems.
9.8.1.1 Primary Dimensions and Dimensional Formulas.
Fundamentalaxiomofdimensionalanalysisisthatequationsdescribingaphysicalphenomenonmustbedimensionally
homogeneous(i.e.dimensionsofthetwosidesoftheequationareidentical)andunitsthereinmustbeconsistent.
Dimensionisaqualitativeexpressionwhereasunitisquantitative.Forexample,whenthedistancebetweentwopointsisspokenofas
lengthitisqualitativeinstead,ifwesaythatthedistanceissomanymetresorkilometresormiles,wearespeakingintermsof
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InS.I.system,therearefourprimarydimensionsviz.Length(L),Mass(M),Time(t)andTemperature(T).Otherderivedquantities
canbeexpressedintermsoftheseprimarydimensions.Dimensionalformulaforaphysicalquantityisobtainedfromitsdefinitionor
fromphysicallawsinvolved.Forexample,
Dimensionoflengthofabar:[L]
1
Dimensionofvelocity:Distance/time:[L/t]=L.t
2 2
DimensionofForce:Massxacceleration=[M.L/t ]=[M.L.t ]
2 2 2
DimensionofWork:Forcexdistance:[M.L.t ].L=[M.L .t ]
2 3
DimensionofPower:Work/time:=[M.L .t ],,etc.
Table9.3showsafewphysicalquantities,theirsymbols,unitsanddimensionalformulas.
9.8.1.2 Buckingham Theorem.
Thistheoremisusedtodeterminethenumberofindependentdimensionlessgroupsthatcanbeobtainedfromasetofphysical
quantitiesthatgovernagivenphenomenon.
Accordingtothisrule,ifthenumberofpertinentphysicalvariablesgoverningaphenomenonisn,andthenumberofprimary
dimensionstoexpressthedimensionalformulasofthesenquantitiesism,then,thenumberofindependentdimensionlessgroups
thatcanbeformedbycombiningthesephysicalquantitiesisgivenby(nm).Ifthesedimensionlessgroupsaredesignatedby 1, 2 ,
,etc.then,relationbetweenthemcanbeexpressedas:
F( 1, 2 , 3 ,)=0(9.21)
TABLE9.3Somephysicalquantitiesofimportanceinheattransferandtheirdimensions
Forexample,ifinaproblem,thereare5physicalquantitieswhicharedescribedby3primarydimensionsonly,thenthereare(53)
=2dimensionlessgroupsandthesolutionisoftheform:
F( 1, 2 )=0.(9.22)
Or,
1=f( 2 )(9.23)

Thenexperimentaldatacanbepresentedbyplotting 1against 2 .
1 2

Ifthereare3dimensionlessgroupsinanotherproblem,thesolutionisoftheform:
F( 1, 2 , 3 )=0.(9.24)
Or,
1=f( 2 , 3 )(9.25)
Now,experimentaldatacanbepresentedbyplotting 1against 2 fordifferentvaluesof 3 .
WhileapplyingtheBuckinghammethod,afterdeterminingthenumberofptermsthatcanbeformed,furtherprocedureisasfollows:
Ofthetotalofnnumberofvariables,selectacoregroupofmnumberofvariables,whichrepeatforeachtermtheseareknown
asrepeatedvariablesthen,eachtermisformedbythecoregroupplusoneoftheremaining(nm)variables.Eachofthe
variablesinthecoregroupisraisedtoasuitablepowertomaintaindimensionalhomogeneity.Selectionofthecoregroupshouldbe
doneasperthefollowingthumbrules:
1.variablesinthecoregroupmustcontainamongthemselvesallthefundamentaldimensionsinvolvedinthephenomenon.
2.therepeatingvariablesmustnotformdimensionlessgroupsamongthemselves
3.invariably,dependentvariableshouldnotbeincudedinthecoregroup
4.notwovariablesinthecoregroupshouldhavethesamedimensions
5.ingeneral,repeatingvariablesshouldbechosensuchthatonevariablecontainsageometricproperty(e.g.lengthl,diameter
Dorheighth),othervariablecontainsaflowproperty(e.g.velocityV,accelerationaetc.),andtheothervariablecontainsa
fluidproperty(e.g.density,dynamicviscosityetc.).Inmostofthecases,repeatedvariablesorthecoregroupconsistof:
(l,V,),(d,V,),(l,V,),or(d,V,).
ProcedureofapplyingtheBuckinghammethodisillustratedbelow:
9.8.1.3 Dimensional Analysis for Forced Convection.
NowletusillustratetheapplicationofBuckighamstheoremtothecaseofconvectionheattransferforafluidflowingacrossa
heatedtubeofcourse,sameapproachisapplicableforheattransferforafluidflowinginsideatubeorflowingoveraplate.
First,itisnecessarytolistthepertinentparametersinfluencingthephysicalphenomenon.Fromthedescriptionoftheproblem,it
appearsreasonabletoassumethatthephysicalquantitieslistedbelow(alongwiththeirdimensionalformulas)arerelevanttothis
problem:
1.Tubediameter(D)[L]
3
2.Fluiddensity()[ML ]
1
3.Fluidvelocity(V)[Lt ]
1 1
4.Fluidviscosity()[ML t ]
2 2 1
5.Specificheat(Cp)[L t T ]
3 1
6.Thermalconductivity(k)[MLt T ],and
3 1
7.Heattransfercoefficient(h)[Mt T ]
Thus,weseethatthereare7pertinentvariablesaffectingthephysicalphenomenonandtheycontain4fundamentaldimensionsL,M,t
andT.
Then,fromBuckinghamstheorem,wededucethat(74)=3independentdimensionlessgroupswouldbeformedtocorrelate
experimentaldata.
Now,letusformthecoregroupof4variables,keepinginmindtheprinciplesenumeratedabove.Letuschoosed,V,,andhforthe
coregroup.Theycontainamongthemselvesalltheprimarydimensionstheydonotformdimensionlessgroupsamongthemselves
notwovariableshavesamedimensionsand,onevariable(D)isageometricproperty,onevariable(V)isaflowproperty,andisa
fluidproperty.Then,thedifferenttermsareobtainedbycombiningthecoregroupwitheachoneoftheremaining(74)
properties:

a b c d
1=h . .D .V .
m n p q p
2 =h . .D .V .C
w x y z
3 =h . .D .V .k
Exponentsoftermsintermsarechosensoastomakethetermsdimensionless.So,westartwith 1andwritethedimensional
formulasofeachquantityandapplytherequirementofdimensionalhomogeneity:
For 1:
EquatingtheexponentsofM,L,tandToneitherside,fordimensionalhomogeneity:
ExponentsofM:0=a+b+1
ExponentsofL:0=3b+c+d1
Exponentsoft:0=3ad1
ExponentsofT:0=a
Solvingtheaboveequations,weget:
a=0b=1c=1d=1
Therefore,
1 1
1= .D .V
1
.
i.e. 1=/(.V.D)
Since 1isdimensionlessanyway,
weshallchoose: 1=.V.D/
Recognizethat 1isthedimensionlessReynoldsnumber(Re).
For2:
ExponentsofM:0=m+n
ExponentsofL:0=3n+p+q+2
Exponentsoft:0=3mq2
ExponentsofT:0=m1
m=1n=1p=0q=1
Therefore,
1
2 =h ..V.Cp
i.e. 2 =(Cp..V)/h
Sincethedimensionsofhandk/Daresame,wewrite:
2 =(Cp..V.D)/k
Dividingthisbyanotherdimensionlessnumber,i.e.Reynoldsnumbergivesagainanotherdimensionlessnumberso,weget:
2 ={(Cp..V.D)/k}/{.V.D/}=.Cp/k
Recognisethat 2 isthedimensionlessPrandtlnumber(Pr).
For3:
ExponentsofM:0=w+x+1
ExponentsofL:0=3x+y+z+1
Exponentsoft:0=3wz3
ExponentsofT:0=w1
w=1x=0y=1z=0
Therefore,

1 1
3 =h .D .k=k/(h.D)
Sincek/(h.D)isdimensionless,(h.D)/kisalsodimensionless.So,wechoose:
3 =(h.D)/k
Recognizethat 3 isthedimensionlessNusseltnumber(Nu).
Then,accordingtotheBuckinghamptheorem,
3 =F( 1, 2 )
Or,

m n
Nu=C.Re .Pr .(9.26)
whereC,mandnareconstantsevaluatedexperimentally.
Eq.9.26isthedesiredrelationamongthevariousphysicalquantitiesaffectingforcedconvectionacrossatube,expressedintermsof
dimensionlessnumbersNu,ReandPr.
Note:
(a)Ifwehadtaken(D,,,k)forthecoregroup(or,repeatingvariables),thencombiningthecoregroupwithV,cpandhinturn,we
wouldhavegot,respectively:
1=(VD)/=Re
2 =Cp/k=Pr,and
3 =hD/k=Nu
i.e.thesameresultasobtainedearlier.
(b)If,instead,wechoose(V,,,Cp)asthecoregroup,thenthedimensionlesstermsobtainedare:
Re=(VD)/m
Pr=Cp/k,and
St=h/(VCp)=h/(GCp)=Stantonnumber,
whereG=.V=massvelocity
Infact,anotherwayofexpressingheattransfercorrelationsis:
St=F(Re,Pr).(9.27)
9.8.1.4 Advantages and Limitations of Dimensional Analysis
Advantages:
1.Itismathematicallyquitesimple.
2.Whenagivenphysicalphenomenondependsonalargenumberofvariables,dimensionalanalysisreducesthenumberof
variablesforexperimentationbygettingthedimensionlessnumberswithsuitablecombinationofthosevariables.Advantageof
havinglessernumberofvariablesforexperimentationisobvious.
3.Dimensionalanalysishelpsininterpretationofexperimentaldataandinderivingsuitableempirical,designequations.
4.Italsohelpsinplanningtheexperimentalworkforaparticularproblem.
5.Ithelpstoextendtherangeofexperimentalresultsforexample,ifaparticularsetofresultsforairinforcedconvectionis
expressedintermsofNusseltsnumber,ReynoldsnumberandPrandtlnumbers,thenthesameresultscanbeappliedtoanother
fluid,say,water,ifthecorrespondingdimensionlessnumbersarethesame.
6.Ithelpsingettingapartialsolutiontoproblems,whenthemathematicalsolutionistoocomplicated.
Limitations:
1.Itdoesnotgiveanyinsightintothephysicalphenomenonoccurring.
2.Selectionofvariableshastobedonewithcareifitiswronglydone,resultswillbeerroneous.
3.Itdoesnotgiveanexactfunctionalrelationwhichcanbesolveddimensionalanalysisrequiresexperimentaldatatogetthe
coefficientsinthefunctionalrelationship.
4.Ifitisrequiredtogettheeffectofoneparticularvariableontherestofthevariablesinaparticularproblem,itisdifficulttoget
thisinformationbydimensionalanalysis.
Applicationofdimensionalanalysistothecaseofheattransferbynaturalconvectionwillbedescribedinthenextchapter.
9.8.1.5 Dimensionless Numbers and their Physical Significance.
Therearemanydimensionlessnumbersthatwecomeacrossinheattransferstudies.Theirphysicalsignificancemustbeclearly
understoodandthisisisfacilitatedbyexpressingthesedimensionlessnumbersastheratiosoftwoforces.Thisrequiresalittle
explanation:
Manytimes,influidmechanicsandheattransferstudies,itbecomesimpossibleorimpracticabletoconductexperimentsonthe
actualprototypesizeofthesystem.Then,studiesaredoneonamodelofreducedsize.Then,thequestionarisesastohowtorelatethe
resultsoftheexperimentsdoneonthemodeltotheactualprototype.Tobeabletodoso,certaincriteriahavetobesatisfied.These
criteria,knownascriteriaforsimilitudearethefollowing:
1.GeometricalsimilarityTwoobjectsaregeometricallysimilariftheratiosofcorrespondinglineardimensionsareequal.
2.KinematicsimilarityThisrepresentssimilarityofmotion,i.e.iftheratiosofvelocitiesofcorrespondingparticlesare
equal,thereissaidtobekinematicsimilarity.
3.DynamicsimilarityThisrepresentssimilarityofforces.Ifthereiskinematicsimilarityandinaddition,theratiosof
homologousforcesinthesystemsarealsothesame,thereissaidtobedynamicsimilarity.
Ifalltheabovecriteriaaresatisfied,thenthereiscompletecorrespondenceorsimilaritybetweenthemodelandtheprototype.
Further,inanincompressibleflow,iftheconditionsofgeometricalsimilarityanddynamicsimilarityaresatisfied,thenkinematic
similarityisautomaticallyachieved.
Geometricsimilaritycanbeeasilyachievedbyconstructingthemodeloftheactualsystemtoacertainreducedscale.Onewayof
ensuringdynamicsimilarityisbymakingsurethatsomerelevantdimensionlessnumbersarethesameforboththemodelandthe
prototype,sincethesedimensionlessnumberscanbeexpressedasratiosofcertainforces.Letusillustratethisbyconsideringdifferent
forcesthatarerelevanttofluidmechanicsandheattransfer:
(1)Inertiaforce(Fi):
F i=massxacceleration,i.e.
(2)Viscousforce(Fv):
F v=shearstressxarea,i.e.
(3)Gravityforce(Fg):
F g=massxgravitationalacceleration,i.e.

3
F g=L g(c)
(4)Surfacetension(Ft):
F t=L(d)
whereisthecoefficientofsurfacetension(units:Force/unitlength)
(5)Elasticityforce(Fe ):

2
F e=EvL (e)
whereEvisthebulkmodulusofelasticityofthefluid.
(6)Pressureforce(Fp):
F p=pressurexarea,i.e.

2
F p=pL (f)
Now,letusformtheratiosofinertiaforcewithotherforces:
Ratiosofforces:
1.
2.
Here,FrisknownasFroudenumber.
3.
4.
5.
Dimensionlessnumbersmentionedaboveoccurfrequentlyinfluidmechanics.
Someofthedimensionlessnumbersoccurringinheattransferare:
Reynoldsnumber:
Wehave:
i.e.Reynoldsnumberisameasureofrelativemagnitudesofinertialandviscousforcesoccurringinagivenflowsituation.Atlow
velocities,Reynoldsnumberislow,i.e.viscouseffectsarelargeandanyflowdisturbancesareeasilydampedbyviscouseffectsandthe
differentlayersintheflowmovesystematically,paralleltoeachotherthisiscalledlaminarflow.If,ontheotherhand,theReynolds
numberislarge,effectofinertialforcesarepredominantandtheflowpatterniscompletelyrandom,withthechunksofparticles
movinginalldirectionsthisiscalledturbulentflow.Thus,Reynoldsnumberdenotesthetypeofflowi.e.iftheflowislaminaror
turbulent.
Prandtlnumber:
Wehave:
i.e.Prandtlnumberistheratioofkinematicviscosityofthefluidtoitsthermaldiffusivity.vrepresentsthediffusionofmomentum
throughthefluidwhereasrepresentsthediffusionofheat(energy)throughthefluid.ThereforePrisameasureofrelative
effectivenessofmomentumandenergytransportinthemediumbydiffusion.ForoilsPr>>1,andthissignifiesthatinoils,
momentumtransportismorerapidthanthetransportofenergyforgases,Pr~1andthismeansthatingases,momentumandenergy
aretransportedbydiffusionatalmostthesamerate.Forthecaseofliquidmetals,wherePr<<1,theenergytransportismanytimes
morerapidascomparedtothetransportofmomentum.
Prandtlnumberisalsothesignificantparameterwhichinfluencestherelativegrowthofvelocityandtemperatureprofiles.
Hydrodynamicandthermalboundarylayerthicknessesarerelatedby:
wherenisapositiveexponent.
Forgases(Pr~1),~t,foroils(Pr>>1),>>t,andforliquidmetals(Pr<<1),<<t.
Nusseltnumber:
Wehave:
ConsideraplateatatemperatureTs,overwhichafluidatatemperatureTaisflowingthen,immediatelyadjacenttothesurfacethere
willbeastationarylayeroffluid.Inthislayer,heattransferis,obviouslybyconductionandthentheheatistransferredtothestream
byconvection.Makinganenergybalanceandequatingthesetwoquantities,
i.e.Nusseltnumbermaybeinterpretedasaratiooftemperaturegradientatthesurfacetoanoverall,referencetemperaturegradient.
Lookingatitinanotherway,multiplyingboththenumeratoranddenominatoroftheexpressionforNubyT,wecanwrite:
i.e.Nusseltsnumberisanindicationoftheenhancementofheattransferbyconvection.
Stantonnumber:
Wehave:
Thiscanbewrittenas:
Stantonnumberisexpressedintermsofotherthreedimensionlessnumbers,namelyNusseltsnumber,ReynoldsnumberandPrandtl
number.NotethatStantonnumbercomesintopictureonlyinconnectionwiththeforcedconvectionheattransfer,sincethetermfor
velocity(V)iscontainedintheexpressionforNu.
Inanotherinterpretation,ifthetemperaturedifferencebetweenthewallsurfaceandthebulkofthefluidisT,
convectiveheatflux=h.Tand
energytransportedbythebulkfluidflowperunitcrosssectionofflowarea=
massflowratexCpxT=(V.).Cp.T
Therefore,takingtheirratio:
Inotherwords,Nusseltnumbermayalsobeinterpretedastheratioofconvectiveheatfluxtotherateofenergytransportbythebulk
flowofthefluidperunitareaofflowcrosssection.
Pecletnumber:
Wehave:
i.e.PecletnumbermaybeexpressedastheproductofReynoldsnumberandPrandtlnumbers.Again,aswehaveshownabove,energy
transportedbythebulkfluidflowperunitcrosssectionofflowarea=
massflowratexCpxT=(V.).Cp.T,and
heatfluxduetoconductionacrossadistanceLforthesameT=kT/L.Takingtheirratio:
i.e.Pecletnumbermaybeinterpretedastheratioofrateofheattransferbybulkflowtotherateofheattransferbyconduction.
Graetznumber:
Thisdimensionlessnumberisrelatedtotheheattransfertoafluidflowingthroughacircularpipe.Bydefinition,itistheratioofheat
capacityofthefluidflowingperunitlengthofthepipetothethermalconductivityofthepipei.e.
whereDisthediameterandListhelengthofpipe.Therefore,GraetznumberissimilartoPecletnumber,butisusedinconnection
withheattransferanalysisoflaminarflowinpipes.
Grashoffnumber:
Grashoffnumberoccursonlyinconnectionwithheattransferinnaturalconvection(weshallstudythislater).Wehave,bydefinition:
Thiscanbewrittenas:
Inotherwords,
RoleofGrashoffnumberinnatural(free)convectionissimilartothatofReynoldsnumberinforcedconvection.
9.8.2 Exact Solutions of Boundary Layer Equations

Here,weshallillustratethemethodinconnectionwiththeheattransferforflowonaflatplate.However,weshallonlygiveanoutline
ofthemethod,since,aswestatedearlier,ourfocusistoenumeratetheempiricalrelationsusefulforpracticalcalculations.
Recollectthattheequationsofcontinuity,momentumandenergyfortheboundarylayeronaflatplatearegiven,respectively,by:
(u/x)+(v/y)=0 (9.15)
2 2
u.(u/x)+v.(u/y)=n.( u/y ) (9.17)
2 2
u.(T/x)+v.(T/y)=.( T/y ) (9.18)
Now,solvingthemomentumequationinconjunctionwiththecontinuityequationgivesthevelocitydistribution,boundarylayer
thicknessandshearstress(orfrictionforce)atthesurface.Exactmathematicalsolutionisrathercomplexitsoutlineisgivenbelow:
Sincethevelocityprofilesatdifferentdistancesfromtheleadingedgeoftheplatearesimilar,theycanbeconsideredtodifferfrom
eachotheronlybyastretchingfactorintheydirection.So,thedimensionlessvelocityu/Ucanbeexpressedatanylocationxasa
functionofdimensionlessdistancey/fromthewall.Define:
Also,astreamfunction(x,y)isdefinedsuchthatitsatisfiesthecontinuityequation,andletting
Substitutingforthetermsinthemomentumequationintermsofgivesanordinary,nonlinear,thirdorderdifferentialequation:
Solutionofthisdifferentialequationwasobtainednumerically,byBlasius.TheresultisshowninFig.9.9.
0.5
InFig.9.9,abscissaisadimensionlessdistance(y/x).Rex andtheordinateisadimensionlessvelocity(u/U),whereuisthelocal
velocityinthexdirectionandUisthefreestreamvelocity.
TwoimportantobservationsaretobemadefromFig.9.9:
(a)first,whenthexcoordinatereachesavalueof5,theycoordinateis0.99i.e.thelocalvelocityreaches99%ofthestreamvelocity
0.5
valuewhen(y/x).Rex reachesavalueof5.However,fromthedefinitionoftheboundarylayerthickness,weknowthaty=when
u/U=99%.Therefore,wecanwrite:
FIGURE9.9Velocityratioinlaminarboundarylayer,asperBlasius
where localvalueofReynoldsnumber.
(b)secondobservationisthattheslopeaty=0is0.332,i.e.
Weget:
Then,thewallshearstress,isgivenby:
And,thefrictioncoefficient(ordragcoefficient),isbydefinition:
Thisisthelocalvalueoffrictioncoefficient.
Averagevalueoffrictioncoefficient(Cfa)overaplatelengthofLisobtainedbyintegratingEq.9.31betweenx=0andx=L.i.e.
i.e.
Cfa=2CfL(9.33)
Thus,forlaminarflowoveraflatplate,averagefrictioncoefficientistwicethevalueoflocalfrictioncoefficientatx=L.
SolutionoftheenergyEq.9.18givesthevalueofconvectiveheattransfercoefficient.
Observethesimilaritybetweentheequationofmomentum9.17andequationofenergy9.18.ThisfactledPohlhausentofollowBlasius
assumptionofasimilarityparameterandstreamfunctionasfollows:
and,thefollowingordinarydifferentialequationisobtained:
Observethatnowtheratio,(v/),i.e.Prandtlnumber,entersthesolution.Ifwedrawagraphofexcesstemperatureratio(TTs)/(Ta
0,5
Ts)against(y/x).Rex wegetdifferentcurvesfordifferentPrandtlnumbershoweveriftheexcesstemperatureratioisplotted
0.5 0..333
against(y/x).Rex Pr ,wegetasinglecurveforallPrandtlnumbersandtheplotissimilartothatinFig.9.9.Thisplotisshown
inFig.9.10.
FIGURE9.10Dimensionlesstemperatureratioinlaminarboundarylayer,forflowoveraflatplate
Again,therearetwoimportantobservationstobemadefromFig.9.10:
(a)first,whentheXcoordinatereachesavalueof5,theYcoordinateis0.99i.e.thelocalexcesstemperaturereaches99%ofthe
valueoftotaltemperaturedifferencebetweenthefreestreamtemperatureandtheplatesurfacetemperature,when
0.5 0.333
(y/x).Rex .Pr reachesavalueof5.However,fromthedefinitionofthethermalboundarylayerthicknesst,weknowthaty=t
when(TTs)/(TaTs=99%.Therefore,wecanwrite:
Therefore,immediately,usingEq.9.28,wecanwritefortherelationshipbetweenthethicknessesofhydrodynamicandthermal
boundarylayers:
(b)secondobservationisthattheslopeaty=0is0.332,i.e.
Therefore,
Then,localheattransferflux(consideringthestationarylayer):
Then,wehaveforconvectiveheattransfercoefficient:
and,wecanwrite,usingEq.9.37:
Andthelocalheattransfercoefficientis:
AveragevalueofheattransfercoefficientisobtainedbyintegratingEq.9.39betweenx=0andx=L.Weget:
ha=2hx=L(9.40)
i.e.averagevalueofheattransfercoefficientistwicethelocalvalueatx=L.
And,then,averageNusseltnumberisgivenby:
Eq.9.41isvalidforPr0.6.
Intheaboveequations,propertiesofthefluidareevaluatedatthemeantemperaturebetweenthefreestreamtemperatureandthe
platesurfacetemperaturei.e.atthefilmtemperaturegivenby:
Eq.9.41isnotvalidforliquidmetals(Pr<<1)forliquidmetals,followingcorrelationissuggestedbyKays:
wherePex=RexPr=Pecletnumber
Example9.2.Dryairatatmosphericpressureand20Cisflowingwithavelocityof3m/salongthelengthofalong,flatplate,0.3
mwide,maintainedat100C.
(a)Calculatethefollowingquantitiesatx=0.3m:
(i)boundarylayerthickness(ii)localfrictioncoefficient(iii)averagefrictioncoefficient(iv)localshearstressduetofriction(v)
thicknessofthermalboundarylayer(vi)localconvectionheattransfercoefficient(vii)averageheattransfercoefficient(viii)rateof
heattransferfromtheplatebetweenx=0andx=x,byconvection,and(ix)totaldragforceontheplatebetweenx=0andx=0.3m.
5
(b)Also,findoutthevalueofxc .(i.e.thedistancealongthelengthatwhichtheflowturnsturbulent,Rec =510 ).
Solution.
Data:
Propertiesofairaretobetakenatthefilmtemperatureof60C.Weget,fromthedatatables:
3 6
:=1.025kg/m Cp:=1017J/(kgK):=19.90710 kg/(ms)k:=0.0279W/(mK)Pr:=0.71
(a)Atx=0.3m:
x:=0.3m
5
NotethatRexislessthan510 .Thereforeboundarylayerislaminarandtheequationsderivedaboveareapplicable.
(i)Boundarylayerthickness,:
(ii)LocalfrictioncoefficientCfx:
(iii)AveragefrictioncoefficientCa:
Or:fromEq.9.33

3
Cfa:=2Cfxi.e.Cfa=6.1690410
(iv)Localshearingstress,.
Wehave
(v)Thicknessofthermalboundarylayer:
Wehave
(vi)Localconvectionheattransfercoefficient:
Wehave
(vii)Averageheattransfercoefficient:
FromEq.9.40,averageheattransfercoefficientbetweenx=0andx=xisequaltotwicethevalueoflocalheattransfercoefficientat
x=x
i.e. ha:=2hx
2
i.e. ha=11.86W/(m C) (averageheattransfer
coefficient.)
(viii)Rateofheattransferfromtheplatebetweenx=0andx=x,byconvection:
(ix)Totaldragforceontheplatebetweenx=0andx=0.3m
F D:=Area,N (drag
force)
3
i.e. F D=1.2810 N.
(b)Distanceatwhichflowturnsturbulent:
Example9.3.Dryairatatmosphericpressureand20Cisflowingwithavelocityof3m/salongthelengthofaflatplate,(size:0.5
m0.25m),maintainedat100C.UsingBlasiusexactsolution,calculatetheheattransferratefrom:(i)thefirsthalfoftheplate(ii)
fullplate,and(iii)nexthalfofplate.
Solution.
Data:
Propertiesofairaretobetakenatthefilmtemperatureof60C.Weget,fromdatatables:
3 6
:=1.025kg/m Cp:=1017J/(kgk):=19.90710 kg/(ms)k:=0.0279W/(mK)Pr:=0.71
(i)Heattransferratefromthefirsthalfofplate:
Now,characteristicdimensiontocalculateReynoldsnumberishalfthelengthofplate:
5
Thisvalueislessthan510 so,theboundarylayerislaminarandtheequationsderivedaboveareapplicable:
Wehave:
Thereforeaverageheattransfercoefficientbetweenx=0andx=0.25m:
Therefore,heattransferredfromfirsthalfofplate:
Q1:=haArea(TsTa)W
i.e. Q1=64.962W
(ii)Heattransferratefromtheentireplate:
5
Wehave:
Thereforeaverageheattransfercoefficientbetweenx=0andx=0.5m:
ha:=2hL
2
i.e. ha=9.187W/(m C) (averageheattransfercoefficient)
2
Area:=0.50.25m (areaoffullofplate)
2
i.e. Area=0.125m (areaofhalfofplate)
Therefore,heattransferredfromentireplate:
Q2 :=haArea(TsTa)
W
i.e. Q2 =91.87W
(iii)Heattransferratefromnexthalfofplate:
Thisisequaltoheattransferredfromtheentireplateminustheheattransferredfromthefirsthalfofplate=Q2 Q1
i.e.Q2 Q1=26.908W(heattransferredfromnexthalfofplate)
9.8.3 Approximate Solutions of Boundary Layer EquationsVon Karman Integral Equations

ItmaybeobservedthatBlasiussolutiontothemomentumequation,thoughexact,isquitecumbersomeevenforthesimplecaseofa
flatplatefurther,muchingenuityisrequiredinselectingasuitablesimilarityparameterforthesolution.Intheapproximate
methodofVonKarman,insteadofdevelopingthedifferentialequationsstartingfromaninfinitesimalcontrolvolume,afinitecontrol
volumeisselectedandintegralequationsaredevelopedthismaybedoneeitherbydirectlyintegratingthemomentum(orenergy)
equationorbywritingamomentum(orenergy)balanceforthefinitecontrolvolume.Thislatterapproachisshownbelow.
Considerafinitecontrolvolume,ABCD,thatextendsfromthewallsurfaceintheYdirectionwellintothefreestream(i.e.beyond
theboundarylayer),hasathicknessofdxintheXdirectionandhasunitwidthintheZdirection,asshown.LettheheightofABbeH
(>).Now,letuswritethemomentumbalance:
FIGURE9.11Finitecontrolvolumeintheboundarylayeroveraflatplate,forintegralapproach
Massflowrateenteringface
Massflowrateleavingface
SincenomasscanenterthecontrolvolumefromfaceAD,itisclearfromthemassbalancethattheincrementalmass,i.e.
musthaveenteredthecontrolvolumethroughfaceBC,withthefreestreamvelocityU.
Thexmomentumfluxesare:
InfluxthroughfaceAB:
effluxthroughfaceCD=
influxthroughBC=
Assumingthattherearenopressureforces(i.e.pressuregradientinXdirectioniszero)andnobodyforces,andalsothatthereisno
shearforceontheupperfaceBCsinceitisoutsidetheboundarylayer,wewritethemomentumbalance:
Dragorshearforceattheplatesurface=netmomentumchangeforthecontrolvolume.
Notethatupperlimitofintegrationisreplacedbysincetheintegrandiszerofory>i.e.outsidetheboundarylayer.
Simplifying,weget:
Eq.9.44isknownasVonKarmanintegralmomentumequationfortheboundarylayer.Itexpresseswallshearstresswasafunction
ofnondimensionalvelocitydistribution(u/U).ItisclearfromEq.9.44thatifweknowthevelocitydistributionintheboundary
layer,wecancalculatethewallshearstresseasily.
Now,methodofsolutionistoassumeavelocitydistributionintheboundarylayertostartwith.Atfirstsight,thislooksridiculousto
assumethevelocitydistribution,butsincetheboundarylayerisverythin,assumingavelocityprofilewhichsatisfiestheboundary
conditionsdoesnotintroducemucherror.Thisisverifiedfrompracticalresultsandalso,asshowninTable9.4,assumptionof
differentvelocityprofilesdoesnotgivemuchvariationincalculatedvaluesofboundarylayerthicknessorthefrictioncoefficientCf.
Since,fromtheexperiments,itisobservedthatvelocitydistributionsintheboundarylayeratdifferentxlocationsaregeometrically
similar,wecansaythatthedimensionlessvelocitydistribution(u/U)isafunctionofdimensionlessdistancefromthewall(y/).So,
letusassumeavelocityprofileasfollows:
Eq.9.45mustsatisfythefollowingboundaryconditions:
Applyingtheseboundaryconditions,wegettheconstantsa,b,canddinEq.9.45andthevelocityprofilebecomes:
LetusnowintroducethiscubicvelocityprofileintotheVonKarmanmomentumintegralEq.9.44.Simplifying,weget:
Atthesolidsurface,Newtonslawofviscositygives:
EquatingEqs.9.47and9.48,weget:
Sinceisafunctionofxonly,weintegratetheaboveequationandapplyingtheconditionthatatx=0,=0,weget:
Or,innondimensionalform,thismaybewrittenas:
whereRexistheReynoldsnumberwithcharacteristicdistancexfromtheleadingedgeoftheplate.
Eq.9.49givestheboundarylayerthickness,atadistancexfromtheleadingedge.
Tocalculatetheshearstressatthewall,letusinsertthisvalueofintheexpression9.48forw:
Now,fromthedefinitionoflocalskinfrictioncoefficient,wehave:
Averageskinfrictioncoefficientisgivenby:
whereReListheReynoldsnumberbasedonlengthLoftheplate.
Notethatvaluesofboundarylayerthicknessandskinfrictioncoefficientobtainedabovewiththeapproximate,integralmethod,
matchreasonablywellwiththevaluesobtainedbyexactanalysisofBlasius.
Further,ifweassumeavelocityprofileotherthanthecubicvelocityprofileassumedabove(satisfyingtheboundaryconditions),itis
observedthattheresultsobtaineddonotdiffergreatly.Table9.4demonstratesthisfactforsomevelocityprofiles,includinglinear,
parabolicandcubic.Blasiusexactresultsareshownforcomparison:
Notethataboveresultsarevalidforlaminarboundarylayerconditionsonly.
Massflowthroughtheboundary:
Ifweconsiderasectionatanydistancexfromtheleadingedge,massflowthroughthatsectionisgivenby:mx=[AreaVelocity
density]integrationisperformedwithinthelimits0to.
TABLE9.4Boundarylayerthickness()andskinfrictioncoefficient(Cfa)fordifferentvelocityprofiles
i.e.
Assumingthecubicvelocityprofileasdoneearlier,substitutingforu,weget:
i.e.
Massentrainedbetweentwosectionsatx1andx2 canbecalculatedusingEq.9.52as:
where1and2 arethethicknessesofboundarylayeratsectionsx1andx2 respectively.
Integralenergyequation:
VonKarmanintegraltechniquemaybeappliedtogetanapproximatesolutionfortheenergyequationoftheboundarylayer,asshown
below:
Considerafinitecontrolvolumethatenclosesboththehydrodynamicandthermalboundarylayers,(laminarandincompressible)as
showninFig.9.12.Assumethatthefluidpropertiesdonotvarywithtemperatureandareconstantlettheheatingoftheplate
commenceatadistancex0fromtheleadingedgeoftheplate.Thatmeansthatthermalboundarylayerdevelopsonlybeyondx0from
theleadingedge.
LeusmakeanenergybalanceonthecontrolvolumeABCD.
FIGURE9.12Finitecontrolvolumeintheboundarylayeroveraflatplate,forintegralenergyequation
EnergyentersthecontrolvolumebyconvectionatfaceAB,leavesbyconvectionatfaceCDalso,energyentersthecontrolvolumeby
conductionthroughfaceADandbyconvectionthroughfaceBC.Letuswritethevarioustermsinvolved:
Fluidmassenteringface
Fluidmassleavingthroughface
Fromcontinuityconsideration,massincrementviz.
mustenterthecontrolvolumefromtopfaceBC.
Heatfluxesthroughthefourfacesare:
HeatinfluxthroughAB=Qx=massXspecificheatXtemperature
i.e.
HeateffluxthroughCD=
HeatinfluxthroughupperfaceBC:SincefaceBCiswelloutsidethethermalboundarylayer,itstemperatureisequaltofreestream
temperature,Ta.So,wehave:
HeatconductedintothecontrolvolumethroughlowerfaceAD=
Writingtheenergybalance:
Heatflowintothecontrolvolume=Heatflowoutofthecontrolvolume
or,
Qx+QBC+QAD=Qx+dx
SubstitutingfromEqs.a, b , c and d andsimplifying,weget:
Eq.9.54istheintegralenergyequationfortheboundarylayer,withconstantthermophysicalpropertiesandconstantfreestream
temperature.
Notethatwehaveneglectedviscousdissipationintheelementsinceitisverysmallforlowvelocities.
Tosolvetheintegralenergyequationwehavetoassumethevelocityandtemperatureprofilesletusassumecubicvelocityprofileand
cubictemperatureprofiles.
Cubicvelocityprofile,asshownearlier,is:
Temperaturedistributionmustsatisfytheboundaryconditions:
Theseboundaryconditionsareoftheformasrequiredforthevelocityprofiletherefore,temperaturedistributionisalsooftheform:
whereTsistheplatesurfacetemperature,Taisthefreestreamtemperatureandtisthethicknessofthermalboundarylayeratagiven
section.
Now,theEqs.9.55and9.56areinsertedintheintegralEq.9.54andsimplified.Formostgases(Pr1)andoils(Pr>1),thermal
boundarylayeristhinnerthanhydrodynamicboundarylayer,i.e.t<so,upperlimitofintegrationischangedtotinsteadofH
becausetheintegrandbecomeszerobeyondy=t.
Finalsolutionforthethermalboundarylayerthicknessis:
RememberthatEq.9.57isforthecasewhentheheatingoftheplatestartsatadistanceofx0fromtheleadingedge.Instead,ifthe
heatingstartsfromtheleadingedgeitself,puttingx0=0,weget:
Observethatthisvalueoftisclosetothevalueobtainedwithexactanalysis.
Localheattransfercoefficient(hx):
Weobtainhxfromtherelation:
GettingdT/dyfromEq.9.56,andtakingthevaluesofand(t/)fromEqs.9.49and9.57respectively,weget:
and,intermsofnondimensionalNusseltnumber,wewrite:
Iftheplateisheatedovertheentirelength,x0=0,andweget:
and,
NotethatEq.9.62isinexcellentagreementwiththevalueobtainedwithexactanalysis.
Averagevalueoftheheattransfercoefficientisobtainedbyintegratingthelocalvalueovertheentireplate:
Performingtheintegrationaftersubstitutingforhx,weget:
ha=2hL(9.63)
Similarly,averagevalueofNusseltnumberisobtainedas:
Notethatalltheaboveanalysisisforlaminarboundarylayerconditionspropertyvaluesaretakenatfilmtemperature(i.e.mean
valueofsurfaceandfreestreamtemperatures),givenby:
Eq.9.61isvalidforfluidswithPrandtlnumbersvaryingfrom0.6to50i.e.itisnotapplicabletoliquidmetalsforwhomPr<<0.6
andforheavyoilsorsiliconesforwhomPr>>50.
ForawiderangeofPrandtlnumbersChurchillandOzoehavegiventhefollowingcorrelation,forlaminarflowonan
isothermalflatplate:
Forconstantheatfluxconditions:
Alltheaboverelationswerederivedforlaminarflowoveraflatplate,temperatureoftheplatebeingmaintainedconstant.However,
therearemanypracticalcaseswheretheheatfluxoverthesurfaceisconstant(e.g.whenthesurfaceisheatedbyelectricalheaters).
Forthecaseofconstantheatflux,itisshownthatlocalNusseltnumberisgivenby:
Intermsofsurfaceheatfluxandtemperaturedifference,thisiswrittenas:
Averagetemperaturedifferencealongtheplateforthiscaseisobtainedbyperformingtheintegration:
Substitutingfor(TsTa)fromEq.9.67andperformingtheintegration,weget:
and,
2
Intheaboveequations,qsistheheatfluxperunitareawithunits:W/m .
Again,fortheconstantheatfluxcase,Eq.9.65forverywiderangeofPrandtlnumbers,ismodifiedas:
Fluidpropertiesarestillevaluatedatthefilmtemperature.
Inallcases,averageNusseltnumberisNua=2NuL(9.70a)
Example9.4.Airat20Candatmosphericpressureisflowingwithavelocityof3m/salongthelengthofaflatplate,maintainedat
60C.Calculate:(i)hydrodynamicboundarylayerthicknessat20cmand40cmfromtheleadingedge,bytheapproximatemethod
(ii)massentrainmentratebetweenthesetwosectionsassumingacubicvelocityprofile,and(iii)heattransferredfromthefirst40cm
oftheplate.
Solution.
Data:
Propertiesofairaretobetakenatthefilmtemperatureof40C.Weget,fromdatatables:
3 6 2
:=1.092kg/m Cp:=1014J/(kgK):=19.12310 NS/m k:=0.0265W/(mK)Pr:=1.01
(i)Hydrodynamicboundarylayerthicknessatsection1(i.e.x=0.2m)ofplate:
Now,characteristicdimensiontocalculateReynoldsnumberislengthx1
5
Hydrodynamicboundarylayerthickness,1:
Hydrodynamicboundarylayerthicknessatsection2(i.e.x=0.4m)ofplate:
Now,characteristicdimensiontocalculateReynoldsnumberislengthx2 :
5
Hydrodynamicboundarylayerthickness2 :
(ii)Massflowentrainedbetweensections1and2:
Foracubicvelocityprofile,massflowentrainedbetweensection1and2isalreadyshowntobe:

(iii)heattransferredfromthefirst40cmoftheplate:
Tocalculatetheheattransferredfromfirst40cmoftheplate,weneedtheaveragevalueofheattransfercoefficientoverthislength.It
isgivenbytwicethevalueoflocalheattransfercoefficientatx=0.4m.i.e.
ha:=2hx(9.63)
2
i.e. ha=11.554W/(m C) (averageheattransfercoefficientover40cm
length)
2
Area:=0.4.1m (heattransferareaforunitwidth)
Therefore,heattransferredover40cmlengthofplate:
Q:=haArea(TsTa)W
i.e. Q=184.858W heattransferredover40cmlengthof

plate.
Example9.5.Engineoilat30Cisflowingwithavelocityof2m/salongthelengthofaflatplate,maintainedat90C.Calculate,at
adistanceof40cmfromtheleadingedge:(i)hydrodynamicandthermalboundarylayerthicknessesbytheexactmethod(ii)local
andaveragevaluesoffrictioncoefficient(iii)localandaveragevaluesofheattransfercoefficient,and(iv)heattransferredfromthe
first40cmoftheplateforunitwidth.
Solution.
Data:
Propertiesofengineoilaretobetakenatthefilmtemperatureof60C.Weget,fromdatatables:
3 3 2
:=864kg/m Cp:=2047J/(kgK):=72.510 Ns/m k:=0.140W/(mK)Pr:=1050
(i)Hydrodynamicandthermalboundarylayerthicknessat0.4mfromleadingedgeofplate:
Now,characteristicdimensiontocalculateReynoldsnumberis:x=0.4m
5
Thisvalueislessthan510 so,theboundarylayerislaminarandtheequationsderivedearlierareapplicable:
Hydrodynamicboundarylayerthickness:
Thicknessofthermalboundarylayer:
Wehave:
Notethatthermalboundarylayerthicknessisverysmallcomparedtothatofhydrodynamicboundarylayer,sincePr>>1.

(ii)Localandaveragevaluesoffrictioncoefficient:
Wehave:
(iii)Localandaveragevaluesofheattransfercoefficient:
7
SincePrandtlnumberisveryhighandRex.Pr=1.00110 >100,
weshalluseEq.(9.65),i.e.
Therefore,averagevalueofheattransfercoefficient
ha:=2hx
2
i.e. ha=235.219W/m C) (valueofaverageheattransfercoefficient.)
(iv)Heattransferredfromthefirst40cmoftheplateforunitwidth.
Example9.6.Anairstreamat20Candatmosphericpressure,flowswithavelocityof5m/soveranelectriacallyheatedflatplate
(size:0.5m0.5m),heaterpowerbeing1kW.Calculate:
(i)theaveragetemperaturedifferencealongtheplate(ii)heattransfercoefficient,and(iii)temperatureoftheplateatthetrailing
edge
Solution.
Data:
Notethatpropertieshavetobeevaluatedatthefilmtemperaturehowever,sincethetemperatureoftheplateisnotconstant,but
variesalongthelength,weshallstarttheanalysistakingthepropertiesat20Candthenrefinethevalueslater.
At20Candatmosphericpressure,propertiesofairare:
3 6 2
:=1.205kg/m Cp:=1005J/(kgK)v:=15.0610 m /sk:=0.02593W/(mK)Pr:=0.703
(i)theaveragetemperaturedifferencealongtheplate
FirstcheckReynoldsnumberforlaminarflow:
Therefore,flowislaminar.
Forconstantheatfluxconditions,weuseEq.9.68,tocalculatetheaveragetemperaturedifference:
Now,findthepropertiesagainatafilmtemperatureof:(20+313.3)/2=161.5C
Weget:
6 2
v:=30.110 m /sk:=0.0365W/(mK)Pr:=0.682
Now,usingEq.9.68again,weget:
Therefore,filmtemperature:
Therefore,thefilm,temperaturehasnotchangedmuch.So,weconclude:
(TsTa)avg=318.737deg.C(Averagevalueoftemperaturedifferenceovertheplatelength.)
(ii)Convectionheattransfercoefficient:
Wehave,forthecaseofconstantheatflux:
Now,
FromEq.9.66:
Therefore,averageheattransfercoefficientoverthewholelengthofplate:
havg:=2hL
2
i.e. havg=16.733W/(m C) (averageheattransfercoefficientoverthe
plate.)
(iii)Temperatureoftheplateatthetrailingedge:
Fromthebasicheatflowequation.,wehave:
Example9.7.SodiumPotassiumalloy(25%+75%),at300C,flowswithavelocityof0.4m/soveraflatplate(size:0.3m0.1
m),maintainedat500C.Calculate(i)thehydrodynamicandthermalboundarylayerthicknesses(ii)localandaveragevalueof
frictioncoefficient(iii)heattransfercoefficient,and(iv)totalheattransferrate
Solution.
Data:
PropertiesofNaKalloyaretobetakenatthefilmtemperatureof400C.Weget,fromdatatables:
6 2
v:=0.30810 m /sk:=22.10W/(mK)Pr:=0.0108
(i)Hydrodynamicandthermalboundarylayerthicknessat0.3mfromleadingedgeofplate:
5
Thisvalueislessthan510 so,theboundarylayerislaminarandtheequationsderivedearlierareapplicable:
Hydrodynamicboundarylayerthickness,:
Thicknessofthermalboundarylayer,t:
Wehave:
Notethatthermalboundarylayerthicknessisverylargecomparedtothatofhydrodynamicboundarylayer,sincePr<<1.
(ii)Localandaveragevaluesoffrictioncoefficient:
Wehave:
(iii)Localandaveragevaluesofheattransfercoefficient:
3
SincePrandtlnumberisverylow(liquidmetal)andReL.Pr=4.20810 >100,
weshalluseEq.9.65i.e.
(iv)Heattransferredfromtheplate:
Note:Alternatively,forliquidmetals,wecanalsouseEq.9.43togetlocalNusseltnumber:
wherePeisthePecletnumber=Re.Pr

0.5
i.e.NuL:=0.565.(ReLPr)
i.e.i.e.NuL=36.65
ComparethisvalueofNusseltnumberwiththevalueof33.791,obtainedfromEq.9.65.
ValueofQthusobtainedisabout8.5%higherthanthevalueobtainedbyusingEq.9.65.
9.8.3.1 Turbulent boundary Layer Flow Over a Flat Plate.
ConsideraflatplateoverwhichafluidflowswithafreestreamvelocityofU.Attheleadingedgethefluidcomesincontactwiththe
surfaceandthenalongthelengthaboundarylayerdevelops,asexplainedearlier.Foracertaindistancefromtheleadingedgetheflow
intheboundarylayerislaminar,i.e.theflowisregularandthelayersoffluidareallparalleltoeachotherhowever,afterthis
distance,calledcriticaldistance(Xc )theflowbecomesturbulent,i.e.theflowbecomeshighlyirregularandthereiscompletely
randommotionoffluidchunks.Thetransitionfromlaminartoturbulentisnotsudden,butthereisatransitionregioninbetween.
Thedimensionlessnumbercharacterizingthetypeofflowi.e.whetheritislaminarorturbulent,istheReynoldsnumber,Re(=
5
.U.L/).Foraflatplate,generallyacceptedvalueofReatwhichflowbecomesturbulentis510 however,itshouldbeunderstood
thatthisvalueisnotafixedvalue,butdependsonthesurfaceconditionsi.e.ifthesurfaceissmoothorrough.
Theturbulentboundarylayeritselfisthoughtofassubdividedintothreesectionsviz.alaminarsublayer,abufferlayerandlastly,a
turbulentregion.SeeFig.9.2.
Now,onecouldeasilyimaginethatbecauseofthenatureofrandommotionoffluidinturbulentflow,anexactmathematicalanalysis
ofthisphenomenonisratherdifficult.Modelshavebeenproposedbymanyresearchworkerstoexplaintheobservedphenomenon:
Reynoldsconductedhisfamousdyeexperimentin1883tovisuallydemonstratethetransitionfromlaminartoturbulentflow.In
turbulentflowitisobservedthatsecondarymotionsofthefluidaresuperimposedonthemainflowandthereareirregular
fluctuationsoflocalvelocity.Chunksoffluid,callededdiesmoveacrossthelineofmotioncausingmixingofthefluid,thuscausing
thetransportofmomentumaswellasenergy.Therefore,inturbulentflow,heattransferisenhancedalso,thereisincreaseddrag
forceorpressuredrop.Prandtl(1925)suggestedthattheeddiesmovingacrossthefluidlayerscausethetransportofmomentum,
andtheaveragetransversedistancemovedbyaneddybeforeitgetsmixedwithotherparticlesandlosesitsidentityiscalledasmixing
length.Thismixinglengthisakintothemeanfreepathappearinginthekinetictheoryofgases.
Turbulentflowisimportantinheattransferapplications,sincethereisincreasedheattransferinturbulentflowofcourse,thisis
achievedwithapenaltyofincreasedpressuredrop.Itisusualtointroduceturbulencepromotersinapplicationswhereincreased
heattransferistheprimaryconsideration.
Weshallnotgointothetheoriesofturbulence,butgiveheretheimportantresultsusefulforpracticalapplications.
Velocitydistribution:
Boundarylayerthicknessismoreinturbulentflowascomparedtothatinlaminarflow.Also,thevelocitydistributionismore
uniformacrossthethicknessofboundarylayerasshowninFig.9.2.Itisobservedexperimentallythatthevelocitydistributionin
turbulentflowfollowstheoneseventhpowerlaw:
Surfaceshearstress:
Surfaceshearstressisgivenby:
Hydrodynamicboundarylayerthickness:
Thisisobtainedbysolvingtheintegralmomentumequation,i.e.
Substitutingforu(y)andwfromEqs.9.71and9.72respectively,andsolving,weget:
Thermalboundarylayerthickness:
Inturbulentflow,sincetheeffectsofphysicalmovementofeddiespredominatesoverthediffusioneffects,Prandtlnumberdoesnot
havemuchinfluenceonthethermalboundarylayerthickness,tandisofthesameorderasthehydrodynamicboundarylayer
thickness,.
Localskinfrictioncoefficient:
Rememberingthatlocalskinfrictioncoefficientisdefinedas:
andusingEq.9.72forwandEq.9.73for,weget:
Averagevalueofskinfrictioncoefficient:
AveragevalueofCfxoverlengthLisgivenby:
SubstitutingforCfxfromEq.9.74andperformingtheintegration,weget:
5 7
Eq.9.75isvalidfor510 <ReL<10 and0.6<Pr<60.
7 9
ForvaluesofReLbetween10 and10 followingequationissuggestedbyPrandtlandSchlichting:
wherelog(ReL)isthelogarithmtobase10. Enjoy Safari? Subscribe Today
LocalandaverageNusseltnumbers:
LocalNusseltnumberiscalculatedbyapplyingColburnanalogy(whichweshallstudyinthenextsection).Weget:
and,
5 7
ForEqs.9.77and9.88,remember:510 <ReL<10 and0.6<Pr<60
Localandaverageheattransfercoefficients:
Thesearedeterminedfrom:
and,
Foranunheatedstartinglengthofx0:
Inturbulentflow,whenheatingstartsfromaninitiallengthofx0,i.e.thermalboundarylayerbeginsatx=x0:
Note:bothx0andxaremeasuredfromtheleadingedgeoftheplate.
Somecommentsonthevariationoflocalheattransfercoefficientandlocalfrictioncoefficientalongthelengthxfromtheleading
edgeoftheplate,inlaminarandturbulentflowareappropriate:
(a)Inlaminarflow,wehave:
and
1/2
i.e.inlaminarflow,localfrictioncoefficientvariesasx likewise,fromEq.9.38,itisclearthatlocalheattransfercoefficientalso
1/2
variesasx .Ofcourse,attheleadingedge(i.e.atx=0),boththesevaluesareinfiniteandthendecreasealongthelengthoftheplate
1/2
accordingtox .
(b)Inturbulentflow,wehave:
and,
0.2
i.e.inturbulentflow,boththelocalfrictioncoefficientandthelocalheattransfercoefficientvaryasx So,asweproceedalongthe
lengthoftheplate,initially,startingfromtheleadingedge,theflowislaminarwhereboththelocalfrictionandheattransfer
1/2
coefficientsvaryasx then,theflowturnsturbulentwhenthecriticaldistanceisreached,andboththelocalfrictionandheat
0,2
transfercoefficientsreachtheirhighestvaluesatthispointandthentheydecreasealongthedistanceaccordingto:x .Thisisshown
graphicallyinFig.9.13.InFig.9.13,thetransitionregionisalsoshown.
Foruniformheatfluxconditions:
LocalNusseltnumberincreasesbyabout4%overthevalueforconstantwalltemperature,andisgivenby:
Also,intheaboveequations,itisassumedthatflowovertheplateisturbulentovertheentireplatefromtheleadingedgeitself,or
alternatively,regionoflaminarflowistoosmallcomparedtotheregionofturbulentflow.
9.8.3.2 Combined laminar and Turbulent Flow Over a Flat Plate.
Asexplainedearlier,foraflowoveraflatplate,theflowattheleadingedgestartsaslaminarandafteracriticaldistancexc theflow
becomesturbulent.Ifthedistanceoverwhichtheflowislaminarisnotnegligibleascomparedtothedistanceoverwhichtheflowis
turbulent(i.e.theplateislongenoughtocausetheboundarylayertobecometurbulent,butnotlongenoughtoneglectthelengthover
whichtheflowislaminar),averagefrictioncoefficientandaverageNusseltnumberovertheentireplatearedeterminedbyintegrating
therespectivelocalvaluesovertworegions,i.e.thelaminarregion,0<x<xc and,theturbulentregion,xc <x<L,asshownbelow:
and,
FIGURE9.13Variationoflocalfrictionandheattransfercoefficientsforflowoveraflatplate
5
IfweperformtheintegrationtakingthevalueofcriticalReynoldsnumber,Rec as510 ,wegetfortheaveragefrictioncoefficient
andaverageNusseltnumber,thefollowingrelations:
5
Another,moregeneralrelationshipusedforcriticalReynoldsnumberotherthan510 is:
5 5 6 6
wherevalueofAis1050,1700,3300and8700respectivelyforvaluesofRec equalto310 ,510 ,110 ,and310 .

5
and,forcriticalReynoldsnumberof510 ,averageNusseltnumberovertheentireplateis
5
and,moregenerally,forcriticalReynoldsnumbersotherthan510 :
0.8 0.5
whereA=0.036.Rec 0.664.Rec
Example9.8.Arefrigeratedtruckismovingataspeedof85km/hwhereambienttemperatureis50C.Thebodyofthetruckisof
rectangularshapeofsize10m(L)4m(W)3m(H).Assumetheboundarylayeristurbulentandthewallsurfacetemperatureisat
10C.Neglectheattransferfromverticalfrontandbacksideoftruckandflowofairisparallelto10mlongside.Calculateheatloss
fromthefoursurfaces.
0.8 0.33
Forturbulentflowoverflatsurfaces:Nu=0.036.Re .Pr
3 6 2
Averagepropertiesofairat30C:=1.165kg/m ,Cp=1.005kJ/kgK,v=16.10 m /s,Pr=0.701
(M.U.Dec.1999).
Solution.
Data:
Truckismovingataspeedof85km/h,i.e.
PropertiesatTfbydata:

6 2 3
v:=1610 m /s:=1.165kg/m Cp:=1005J/kgKPr:=0.701
Checkifflowislaminarorturbulent:
Reynoldsnumber:

5
5
i.e.flowisturbulentsinceReynoldsnumberismorethan510
Heattransfer:
Forturbulentflow,wehave:
Also,findoutthepowerrequiredtoovercomewindresistance:
Wehave,averageskinfrictioncoefficientgivenby:
Example9.9.Aflatplate,1mwideand1.5mlongismaintainedat90Cinairwithfreestreamtemperatureof10C,flowingalong
1.5msideoftheplate.Determinethevelocityofairrequiredtohavearateofenergydissipationas3.75kW.Usecorrelations:
0.5 1/3
NuL=0.664Re Pr forLaminarflow,and
0.8 1/3
NuL=[0.036Re 836].Pr forturbulentflow.
3
Takeaveragepropertiesofairat50C:=1.0877kg/m ,Cp=1.007kJ/kgK,
:=2029.105kg/m.s,Pr=0.703,k=0.028W/mK
[P.U.1995]
Solution.
Data:
PropertiesatTf:bydata:
5 3
:=2.02910 kg/(ms):=1.0877kg/m Cp:=1007J/kgKPr:=0.703k:=0.028W/mK
Nusseltnumber:
Wehave,forconvectionheattransfer:
Now,wedonotknowiftheflowislaminarorturbulent.Todeterminethis,weneedtheReynoldsnumber.But,wedonotknowthe
velocitytodeterminetheReynoldsnumber.So,weshallfirstassumetheflowtobelaminarandthencheckiftheReynoldsnumber
5
worksouttobelessthanthecriticalReynoldsnumber(i.e.510 ):
ForLaminarflow:
5
ThisvalueofReynoldsnumberisgreaterthanthecriticalReynoldsnumberof510 .Therefore,theassumptionthattheflowis
laminariswrong.
Then,forturbulentflow,weusetherelation:
Therefore,
Example9.10.Airat30Cflowsoveraflatplate,0.4mwideand0.75mlongwithavelocityof20m/s.Determinetheheatflow
ratefromthesurfaceoftheplateassumingthattheflowisparalleltothe0.75mside.Plateismaintainedat90C.Usecorrelations:
0.5 1/3 Enjoy Safari? Subscribe Today
NuL=0.664Re Pr forLaminarflow,and
0.8 1/3
0.8 1/3
NuL=[0.036Re 836].Pr forturbulentflow.
3
Takeaveragepropertiesofairat60C:=1.06kg/m ,Cp=1.008kJ/kgK,
6 2
v=18.9710 m /s,Pr=0.708,k=0.0285W/mK
[M.U.]
Solution.
Data:
PropertiesatTfbydata:
6 2 3
v:=18.9710 m /s:=1.06kg/m Cp:=1008J/kgKPr:=0.708k:=0.0285W/mK
First,letusfindoutthedistancefromtheleadingedgeatwhichtheflowturnsturbulent,assumingthecriticalReynoldsnumbertobe
5
510 ,i.e.LcatwhichthecriticalReynoldsnumberisreached:
i.e.alongthelengthoftheplate,foradistanceof0.474m,theflowislaminar.Thisdistancecannotbeneglectedascomparedtothe
totallengthoftheplateof0.75m.Therefore,combinedeffectoflaminarandturbulentboundarylayerflowhastobeconsidered.
Forthecaseofcombinedlaminarandturbulentboundarylayers,wehave:
Alternatively,wecancalculatetheheattransferredbythelaminarandturbulentregionsseparately,andthenaddthemup,togetthe
totalheattransferrateforthewholeplate:
Forlaminarflowregion(i.e.uptoadistanceof0.474malongthelength):
Forturbulentrflowregion(i.e.fromadistanceof0.474muptotheendofplate):
LocalNusseltnumberfortheturbulentregionisgivenby:
Therefore,averagevalueofheattransfercoefficientforturbulentregionisobtainedas
Notethat istheaverageNusseltsnumberforturbulentregion
HeattransferratefortheturbulentregionQ2
Thisvaluematcheswiththevalueobtainedearlierbydirectformula.
Toshowgraphicallythevariationoflocalheattransfercoefficientovertheentirelengthofplate:
0.5
Wehavestatedearlierthatthelocalheattransfercoefficientforthelaminarregionvariesasx andthatfortheturbulentregion
0.2
variesasx .Letusillustratethisgraphically,usingMathcad.
Forlaminarregion,i.e.fromx1=0tox1=0.474malongthelengthofplate,localheattransfercoefficientasafunctionofxiswritten
as:
Enjoy
Forturbulentregion,i.e.fromx2 =0.474mtox2 Safari? Subscribe Today
=0.75malongthelengthofplate,localheattransfercoefficientasafunctionofxis

writtenas:
Now,forthefirstcase,letusdefinearangevariablex1varyingfromx1=0tox1=0.474manddrawthegraphbychoosingthexy
graphfromthegraphpallete,andfillinguptheplaceholderonthexaxiswithx1andtheplaceholderontheyaxiswithhxlam(x1)
thenforthesecondcase,againdefinearangevariablex2 varyingfromx2 =0.474mtox2 =0.75mandintheplaceholderonthex
axis,putacommaafterx1andtypex2 andintheplaceholderontheyaxisputacommaafterhxlam(x1)andthentypehxturb (x2 ).
Clickanywhereoutsidethegraphregionandimmediatelythegraphsappear.SeeFig.Ex.9.10
x1:=0,0.01,,0.47 (definerangevariablex1varyingfrom0to0.47m,with
anincrementof0.01m)
x2 :=0.47,0.48,,0.75 (definerangevariablex2 varyingfrom0.47to0.75m,

withanincrementof0.01m)
FIGUREExample9.10Variationoflocalheattransfercoefficientalongthelengthofaflatplateforlaminarandturbulentboundary
layerheattransfer
Note:
1.IntheaboveFig.Example9.10firstportionofthecurveisforlaminarboundarylayerheattransferandthesecondportionis
0.5
forturbulentboundarylayerheattransfer.Inlaminarportion,thelocalheattransferfallssteeply,asx ,alongthelengthupto
thecriticaldistanceoncethecriticaldistanceisreached,theboundarylayerturnsturbulentandthelocalheattransfer
coefficientsuddenlyincreasestoahighvalueandthen,withincreasingxthelocalheattransfercoefficientdropsmore
0.2
gradually(asx )ascomparedtothelaminarportion.
2
2.Inthelaminarregion,theheattransfercoefficientvariesfromaninfinitevalueatx=0toabout12W/(m C)atx=0.47m.
2
And,averageheattransfercoefficientforthelaminarregion,asalreadycalculated,is25.148W/(m C).
2
3.Intheturbulentregion,theheattransfercoefficientvariesfromavalueofabout56W/(m C)atx=0.47mtoabout51
2
W/(m C)atx=0.75m.And,averageheattransfercoefficientfortheturbulentregion,asalreadycalculated,is53.229
2
W/(m C).
2
4.Averageheattransfercoefficientovertheentireplate,forthecombinedlaminarandturbulentregions,is35.441W/(m C).
9.8.4 Analogy Between Momentum and Heat Transfer

Wehaveshownthatthetwodimensionalequationsforthemomentumtransportandenergytransporthaveidenticalforms.Itis
reasonabletoassumethattheirsolutionsalsomusthavesomecorrespondencetoeachother.
Solutionofmomentumequationleadsustoarelationfortheskinfrictioncoefficientandthedragforcesimilarly,solutionofthe
energyequationleadsustoanexpressionfortheheattransfercoefficient.So,weseekananalogyorrelationbetweenthefluidfriction
andheattransfercoefficients:
9.8.4.1 Relation Between the Fluid Friction and Heat Transfer Coeicient in Laminar Flow For a Flat Plate.
RecollectthattheaverageNusseltnumberforlaminarflowoveraflatplateisgivenby:
Thiscanberewrittenas:
Now,theLHSofEq.aisadimensionlessnumberknownasStantonnumber,Sta.
SubstitutingforNua,ReLandPrfromtheirrespectivedefinitions,weget:
2
whereG=.U(kg/(m s),isknownasmassvelocity.
Therefore,wewrite:
However,wehavealreadyshownthat:
i.e.
Then,comparingEqs.dand e ,wecanwrite:
ThisrelationisknownasColburnanalogyanditgivesasimplerelationbetweentheheattransfercoefficientandthefriction
coefficient.Eq.9.86isvalidforvaluesofPrbetween0.6and50.LHSofEq.9.86isalsoknownasColburnjfactor,andisgenerally
usedtocorrelateheattransfercoefficientwithReynoldsnumber.
Notetheimportantsignificanceofthisanalogy:justbyknowingthefrictioncoefficient,onecanpredicttheheattransfercoefficient
forthatsituationandconductingexperimentstodeterminefrictioncoefficientis,manytimes,practicallymucheasierthan
conductingexperimentstodetermineheattransfercoefficients.
9.8.4.2 Reynolds and Colburn Analogies for Turbulent Flow Over a Flat Plate.
Consideringthelaminarsublayeradjacenttotheplatesurface,wehavetherelationforshearstress,alongtheXdirectionandaty=
0:
and,heatfluxatthesurfaceintheydirectionis:
CombiningEqs.aand b :
Now,ifPrandtlnumberisunity,i.e.ifCp=k/,wereplace(k/)inEq.cbyCp,andseparatingthevariables,wewrite,assumingqand
tobeconstant:
InEq.d,subscriptsindicatesthatqandareconsideredatthesurfaceoftheplate.
IntegratingEq.dbetweenthelimitsu=0whenT=Tsandu=UwhenT=Ta,gives:
However,bydefinition,thelocalheattransferandfrictioncoefficientsaregivenby:
Then,Eq.ecanbewrittenas:hx.
Eq.9.87isknownasReynoldsanalogyanditgivesarelationbetweenNusseltsnumber(i.e.heattransfercoefficient)andthe
frictioncoefficient.NotethatReynoldsanalogywasderivedwiththeassumptionthatPr=1andisvalidformostofthegases.
However,whenthePrandtlnumberisdifferentfromunity,Colburnsanalogy,i.e.
isapplied.ThisisvalidforvaluesofPrbetween0.6and50.
Inpractice,toapplytheanalogybetweenmomentumandheattransfer,itisnecessarytoknowthefrictioncoefficientCfx.For
turbulentflowoveraflatplate,wehavetheempiricalrelationforlocalfrictioncoefficient:
5 7
Eq.9.74isvalidfor:510 <Rex<10 .
Example9.11.Airat27Cand1atmflowsoveraflatplateataspeedof2m/s.Assumingthattheplateisheatedoveritsentirelength
toatemperatureof60C,calculatetheheattransferforthefirst0.4moftheplate.Also,computethedragforceexertedonthefirst
0.4moftheplateusingReynoldsanalogy.AssumeairtobeaperfectgaswithR=287J/kgKandCp=1.006kJ/kgK.
(M.U.May1999).
Solution.
Data:
PropertiesatTf:
Reynoldsnumber:
i.e.flowislaminar.
Therefore,wehaveforaverageNusseltsnumber:
Averageheattransfercoefficient:
Heattransferrate:
Q:=ha(LB)(TsTa)W (heattransferrateforthefirst0.4mlength)
i.e. Q=114.249W (heattransferrateforthefirst0.4m

length.)
Tocalculatethedragforce:
Wehave,formassvelocity:

2
G:=Ukg/(sm )(massvelocity)
Therefore,Stantonnumber,bydefinition:
9.9 Flow Across Cylinders, Spheres and Other Blu Shapes and Packed Beds
Sofar,westudiedexternalflowoveraflatplate.Next,weshallconsiderflowacrosscylinders,spheresandotherbluffshapessuchas
diskorhalfcylinder.Thesecasesareofconsiderablepracticalimportance.Caseofsinglecylinderincrossflowisidenticaltothecase
ofcoolingofanelectricalcablebyforcedconvectionbyairflowingacrossitalsodeterminationoflocalvelocitiesinaflowbyhot
wireanemometerinvolvestheheattransferfromasingleplatinumwiremaintainedataconstanttemperature(orbypassinga
constantcurrentthroughit)andcorrelatingthechangeincurrent(orchangeinresistance)tothevelocityofflow.Heattransferfroma
sphereisimportantwhenweareinterestedinperformanceofsystemswherecloudsofparticlesareheatedorcooledinastreamof
fluid.Suchanunderstandingisgenerallyrequiredwhenwecorrelatedataforheattransferinfluidbeds,especiallyinthefieldof
chemicalengineering.Iftheparticleisofanirregularshape,thenanequivalentdiameterisusedinplaceofspherediameter,i.e.Dis
takenasthediameterofanequivalentspherethathasthesamesurfaceareaasthatoftheirregularshape.Frontportionofan
aeroplanewingcanbeapproximatedasahalfcylinderwhilecalculatingthelocalheattransfercoefficientsovertheforwardportionof
thewing.
9.9.1 Flow Across Cylinders and Spheres

Now,thecharacteristiclengthtakentocalculatetheReynoldsnumberistheexternaldiameterDofthecylinderorsphere.Andthe
Reynoldsnumberisdefined,asusual:
whereUistheuniformvelocityofflowasitapproachesthecylinderorsphere.
ThecriticalReynoldsnumberforflowacrosscylinderorsphereis:

5
Recr =210

5
i.e.uptoRe=210 ,theboundarylayerremainslaminarandbeyondthisvalue,theboundarylayerbecomesturbulent.
FlowpatternsforaflowacrossacylinderareshowninFig.9.14.Fluidparticlesatthemidplaneofastreamapproachingthecylinder
strikethecylinderatthestagnationpointandcometoahalt,thusincreasingthepressure.Restofthefluidbranchesaroundthe
cylinderformingaboundarylayerthatembracesthecylinderwalls.Pressuredecreasesintheflowdirectionandthevelocity
increases.Atverylowfreestreamvelocities(Re<4),thefluidcompletelywrapsaroundthecylinderasthevelocityincreases,
boundarylayerdetachesfromthesurfaceattherear,formingawakebehindthecylinder.Thispointiscalledseparationpoint.Flow
separationoccursatabout=80deg.whentheboundarylayerislaminarandatabout=140deg.whentheboundarylayeris
turbulent.
Dragcoefficient(CD):Dragforceforacylinderincrossflowisprimarilyduetotwoeffects:one,frictiondragduetotheshear
stressatthesurface,andtheother,pressuredragduetothepressuredifferencebetweenthestagnationpointandthewake.Atlow
Reynoldsnumbers(<4),frictiondragispredominant,andathighReynoldsnumbers(>5000),pressuredragispredominant.Atthe
intermediatevaluesofRe,boththeeffectscontributetothedrag.
FIGURE9.14Flowpatternsforcrossflowoveracylinder
FIGURE9.15DragCoefficientVersusReynoldsNumberforLongCircularCylindersandSpheresinCrossFlow
AveragedragcoefficientCDforcrossflowoveracylinderandsphereareshowninFig.9.15.Then,thedragforceactingonthebodyin
crossflowisobtainedfrom:
whereANisthefrontalareai.e.areanormaltothedirectionofflow.
InFig.9.15,thereare5sections,a,b,c,dandeshown.Commentscorrespondingtothesesectionsofthefigurearegivenbelow:
1.AtRe<1,inertiaforcesarenegligibleandtheflowadherestothesurfaceanddragisonlybyviscousforces.Heattransferis
purelybyconduction.
2.AtRe=about10,inertiaforcesbecomeappreciablenow,pressuredragisabouthalfofthetotaldrag.
3.AtReoftheorderof100,vorticesseparateandthepressuredragpredominates.
4.AtRevaluesbetweenabout1000and100,000,skinfrictiondragisnegligiblecomparedtothepressuredrag.Pointof
separationisatabout=80deg.measuredfromthestagnationpoint.
5.AtRe>100,000,flowintheboundarylayerbecomesturbulentandtheseparationpointmovestotherear.
Heattransfercoefficient:Becauseofthecomplexnatureofflow,mostoftheresultsareempiricalrelationsderivedfrom
experiments.
VariationoflocalNusseltnumberaroundtheperipheryofacylinderincrossflowisgiveninFig.9.16.Nuishightostartwithatthe
stagnationpoint,thendecreasesasincreasesduetothethickeningoflaminarboundarylayer.Forthetwocurvesatthebottom,
minimumisreachedatabout=80deg.,theseparationpointinlaminarflow.Fortherestofthecurves,thereisasharpincreaseat
about=90deg.duetotransitionfromlaminartoturbulentflowNureachesasecondminimumatabout=140deg.duetoflow
separationinturbulentflow,andthereafterincreaseswith,duetointensemixingintheturbulentwakeregion.
Between=0and80deg.empiricalequationforlocalheattransfercoefficientis:
FIGURE9.16CircumferentialVariationoftheHeatTransferCoefficientatHighReynoldsNumbersforaCircularCylinderinCross
Flow(W.H.Giedt)
Whilecalculatingheattransfercoefficientforacylinderincrossflow,ofpracticalinterestistheaverageheattransfercoefficientover
theentiresurface.AcomprehensiverelationforcrossflowacrossacylinderisgivenbyChurchillandBernstein:
7
Eq.9.90isvalidfor100<Re<10 ,andRe.Pr>0.2andcorrelatesverywellallavailabledata.Fluidpropertiesareevaluatedatfilm
temperature,Tf=(Ts+Ta)/2=averageofsurfaceandfreestreamtemperatures.
InthemidrangeofReynoldsnumbers,i.e.20,000<Re<400,000,itissuggestedthatfollowingequationbeused:
for20,000<Re<400,000,andRe.Pr>0.2
BelowPe=(Re.Pr)=0.2,followingrelationisrecommendedbyNakaiandOkazaki:
ForEqs.9.91and9.92also,propertiesareevaluatedatthefilmtemperature.
Forheattransferfromasinglecylinderincrossflow,forliquidmetals,followingrelationisrecommendedbyIshiguroet.al.:
Nucyl=1.125(RePr)0.413(for1<Re.Pr<100(9.93))
However,notethatEq.9.90isquitecomprehensiveandisalsovalidforliquidmetals.Forcircularcylinderincrossflow,forgases,
followingrelationiswidelyused:
where,valuesofCandnaregiveninTable9.5:
TABLE9.5ValuesofCandninEq.9.94
Re C n
0.44 0.989 0.330
440 0.911 0.385
404,000 0.683 0.466
4,00040,000 0.193 0.618
40,000400,000 0.0266 0.805
Allfluidpropertiesaretakenatfilmtemperature.
Fornoncircularcylinders:

Again,Eq.9.94isapplicable.
Fornoncircularcylinders,Fig.9.17below,givesthevaluesofCandntobeusedinEq.9.94.Thisfigurealsoshowsthecharacteristic
dimensionDusedtocalculatetheReynoldsnumber,foreachgeometry.
Flowacrossspheres:
Forgases,McAdamsrecommendsfollowingrelation:

0.6
Nusph=0.37Re (for25<Re<100,000(9.95))
Forflowofliquidspastspheres,Kramerssuggestsfollowingrelation:

0.3 0.5
NusphPr =0.97+0.68Re (for1<Re<2000(9.96))
InEq.9.95and9.96,fluidpropertiesareevaluatedatfilmtemperature.
AcomprehensiveequationforgasesandliquidsflowingpastasphereisgivenbyWhitaker:
Eq.9.97isvalidfor:3.5<Re<80,000and0.7<Pr<380.Here,fluidpropertiesareevaluatedatfreestreamtemperature.
AspecialcaseisthatofheatandmasstransferfromfreelyfallingliquiddropsandthefollowingcorrelationofRanzandMarshall
isapplicable:
FIGURE9.17ConstantsCandnforcrossflowovernoncircularcylinders
Forheattransferfromaspheretoaliquidmetal,followingcorrelationisrecommended:
InEq.9.98,fluidpropertiesaretobeevaluatedatfilmtemperature.
9.9.2 Flow Across Blu Objects

Normalflatplate(widthD):
Halfroundcylinderofdia.D,withflatsurfaceatrear:
InEqs.9.99and9.100,fluidpropertiesareevaluatedatfilmtemperature.
9.9.3 Flow Through Packed Beds

Here,agasorliquidflowsthroughabedpackedwithsolidparticles(suchasspheres,cylindersorcommercialpackingslikeRaschig
rings,ceramicsaddlesetc.).Duringthechargingcycle,thehotfluid,whilepassingthroughthebed,givesupitsheattothesolid
particles,andduringthedischargecycle,theincomingcoolerfluidpicksupthestoredheatfromthesolidparticles.
Packedbedsareusedincatalyticreactors,graindryers,storageofsolarthermalenergy,gaschromatography,regeneratorsand
desiccantbeds.
ReynoldsnumberinthecorrelationsisbasedonasuperficialvelocityUs,i.e.thefluidvelocitythatwouldexistifthebedwereempty.
Characteristiclengthusedistheequivalentdiameterofthepacking,Dp.Anotherparameterthatappearsinsomecorrelationsisthe
voidfraction,,i.e.thefractionofbedvolumethatisempty.
Whitakerrecommendsfollowingrelationforheattransferbetweenthegasandpackings(includingcylinderswithdiameter
equaltoheight,spheres,orseveraltypesofcommercialpackingssuchasRaschigrings,partitionringsorBerlsaddles):
wherehaistheaverageheattransfercoefficient
Eq.9.101isvalidfor:20<ReDp<10,000,and0.34<<0.78.
PackingdiameterDpisdefinedassixtimesthevolumeoftheparticledividedbytheparticlesurfaceareaforasphere,Dp=diameter
ofsphere.Allpropertiesareevaluatedatbulkfluidtemperature(Onemayusetheaverageofinletandoutlettemperatureoftheheat
exchanger).Intheabovecorrelation,Reynoldsnumberisdefinedas:
Eq.9.101doesnotcorrelatedatawellforcubepackings.
Todeterminetheheattransferfromthewallofapackedbedtoagas,Beekrecommendsthefollowingrelation,forparticleslike
cylinders,whichcanpacknexttothewall:
and,forparticleslikespheres,whichcontactthewallatonepoint:
InEqs.9.102and9.103,propertiesoffluidareevaluatedatthefilmtemperature.Also,theReynoldsnumberis:
whereDpisthediameterofsphereorcylinder.Forothertypesofpackings,WhitakersdefinitionofDpmaybeused.
Beekalsogivesthecorrelationforthefrictionfactor:
wherepisthepressuredropoveralengthLofthepackedbed.
Example9.12.Airat35Cflowsacrossacylinderof50mmdiameteratavelocityof50m/s.Thecylindersurfaceismaintainedat
3 6
145C.Findtheheatlossperunitlength.Propertiesatmeantemperatureof90Care:=1kg/m ,=2010 kg/(ms),k=0.0312
W/(mC),Cp=1.0kJ/(kgC).
0805 1/3
Usetherelation:NuD=0.027.(ReD) .(Pr)
[M.U.]
Solution.
Data:
PropertiesatTf:
6 3 2
:=2010 kg/(ms)k:=0.0312W/(mC)Cp:=1000J/(kgC):=1kg/m A:=.D.Lm

2
i.e.A=0.157m
Reynoldsnumber:
Prandtlnumber:
Nusseltsnumber:
Wehave:
Therefore,heattransfercoefficient:
Heattransferred,Q:
Q:=hA(TsTa)
3
i.e. Q=3.18210 W
Example9.13.Ahotwireprobeis5mminlength,10mdiameterwirewithanelectricalresistanceof150ohms/m.Thewireis
maintainedataconstanttemperatureof50C.Ifthetheprobeiskeptinanairstreamflowingatavelocityof10m/sandat1barand
25C,determinethecurrentrequiredtomaintainthewiretemperatureat50C.
Solution.
Data:
PropertiesatTf:
6 2
v:=16.710 m /sk:=0.02704W/(mK)Pr:=0.706
Reynoldsnumber:
SinceRe.Pr>0.2,wecanusethecorrelationofChurchillandBernstein,viz.
Therefore,heattransfercoefficient:
HeattransferredQ:
Q:=h(pDL)(TsTa)W
i.e. Q=0.016W (heatdissipated=16

mW)

2
ThisisalsoequaltothevalueofelectricalpowerdissipatedQ=I .R
R:=150.0.005ohms (electricalresistanceofthe
wire)

i.e. R=0.75ohms
Therefore,currentflowrequired:
Alternatively:
TocalculateNuwecanalsouseEq.9.94:
Then,forcircularcylinder,wegetforRe=5.988,fromtheTable9.5:
ThisvalueisalmostthesameasobtainedbythecorrelationofChurchillandBernstein.
Therefore,currentflowrequired:
Example9.14.Airat25Cflowsacrossanellipticaltube6cm12cmsize,perpendiculartotheminoraxiswithavelocityof3
m/s.Tubesurfaceismaintainedat55C.Determinethevalueofconvectioncoefficient.
Solution.
Data:
PropertiesatTf=40C:
6 2
v:=17.610 m /sk:=0.0265W/(mK)Pr:=0.71
Reynoldsnumber:
SeeFig.9.17forthecaseofflowacrossanellipse.
Then,weuseEq.9.94,viz.
ValuesofCandnareobtainedfromFig.9.17as:
C:=0.224and,n:=0.612
Heattransfercoefficient:
Example9.15.Inapackedbedheatexchanger,airisheatedfrom40Cto360Cbypassingitthrougha10cmdiameterpipe,
packedwithspheresof8mmdiameter.Theflowrateis18kg/h.Pipesurfacetemperatureismaintainedat400C.
Determinethelengthofbedrequired.
Solution.
Data:
Averageairtemperature=(40+360)/2=200C
Therefore,averagefilmtemperature=(200+400)/2=300C
Takingpropertiesofairat300C:
3 6 2
:=0.596kg/m Cp:=1047J/(kgK)k:=0.0429W/(mK)v:=49.210 m /sPr:=0.71
Equivalentparticlediameter=6volume/surfacearea=Dforasphere
i.e.Dp:=0.008m(equivalentparticlediameter.)
Therefore,superficialvelocity:
Reynoldsnumber:
Therefore,
Nusseltsnumber:
WeuseEq.9.103,viz.
Heattransfercoefficient
Now,heatgainedbyair,Q=heattransferbetweenthewallsurfaceandair
i.e. Q:=mairCp(ToutTin)W
3
i.e. Q=1.67510 W (heatgainedbyair)
Thisshouldbeequaltoheattransferbetweenthewallsurfaceandair=haxpipesurfaceareaxLMTDHere,LMTDisthelogmean
temperaturedifferencebetweenthepipesurfaceandtheairstream.Sincethetemperatureofairstreamgoesonchangingalongthe
lengthofheatexchanger,weuseameantemperaturedifferencebetweenthepipesurfaceandthisairstream,givenbyLMTD.
LMTDisdefinedasfollows:
Now,writingtheheatbalance,Q=haXpipesurfaceareaxLMTD,weget:
Q=ha(dpipeL)LMTD
whereListhelengthofpipe(=heightofbed)
9.9.4 Flow Across a Bank of Tubes

Flowacrossabankoftubesispracticallyaveryimportantcase.Inmanyindustrialheatexchangers,oneofthefluidsflowsinsidethe
tubesinashellandthesecondfluidflowsthroughtheshell,acrossthetubes.Typicalapplicationsare:inwatertubeboilerswhere
waterflowsthroughthetubesandhotfluegasesflowacrossthesetubes,wasteheatrecoverysystems,airconditioningapplicationsand
commonshellandtubeheatexchangersusedinnumerousindustrialapplications.
Tubesinatubebankmaybearrangedeitherinaninlineconfigurationorinastaggeredconfiguration,asshowninFig.9.18.Inthe
figure,SListhelongitudinalpitch,STisthetransversepitchandSDisthediagonalpitch.
Zhukauskas(1972)proposedthefollowingcorrelationforNusseltsnumber,basedonalargeamountofexperimentaldata:
whereNuaistheaverageNusseltsnumber
haistheaverageheattransfercoefficient
ReD=(dUmax)/
PristhebulkPrandtlnumber
PrwisthewallPrandtlnumber
And,
FIGURE9.18Flowacrossatubebank
Note:
1.WhilecalculatingUmaxforthestaggeredarrangement,calculatewithboththeEqs.9.106and9.107andadoptthelargervalue
soobtained.Uisthevelocityoffluidasitapproachesthetubebank.
2.Forgases,Prandtlnumberratiomaybedropped,sinceitdoesnothavemuchinfluence
3.Allproperties(exceptPrw)areevaluatedatfreestreamtemperature
Eq.9.105givesverygoodpredictionwhenthenumberoftuberowsinthebank,
6
N>20,and0.7<Pr<500,and1000<ReDmax<210 .However,theequationcanbeusedevenwhenN<20,withacorrection
factorapplied.IfN=4,errorinvolvedinpredictionisabout25%.
Eq.9.105takesthefollowingformsforvariousflowregimes:
ForLaminarflow(i.e.10<ReD<100):
Theseequationshavebeenvalidatedalsointherange:50<ReD<1000.
5
Fortransitionregime(i.e.1000<ReD<210 ):
Note:ST/SL<0.7forinlinetubes,givesveryineffectiveheatexchangerandshouldnotbeused.
5
Forturbulentregime(i.e.ReD>210 )
Forstaggeredarrangement,withST/D=2andSL/D=1.4,wehavetherelationduetoAchenbach:

5 6
5 6
Eq.9.116isvalidintherange4.510 <ReD<710 .
Ifthenumberoftuberowsis<20,acorrectionfactorisappliedtothecalculatedNusseltsnumberasfollows:
Nua_N=NuaC2 (9.117)
where Nua_N istheNusseltsnumberfortheactualtubebankwithN<20,and
Nua isthevalueofNusseltsnumbercalculatedforN>20,usingoneoftheappropriate
relationsgivenabove
C2 isthecorrectionfactortakenfromTable9.6.
TABLE9.6CorrectionfactorC2 inEq.9.117forN<20
Pressuredrop:Pressuredrop(inPascals)forflowofgasesoverabankoftubesisgivenby:
where Gmax=massvelocityatminimumflowarea=p.
Umax
=density,evaluatedatfreestreamconditions
N=numberoftransverserows
b =averagefreestreamviscosity
Frictionfactor,fisgivenby:
and,
Example9.16.Airat1barand20Cflowsacrossabankoftubes10rowshighand4rowsdeepairvelocityis8m/s,measuredat
theentrytothetubebank.Diameterofthetubesis25mmandsurfacetemperatureofthetubesismaintainedat80C.Tubesare
arrangedinaninlinemanner.ST=SL=37.5mm.Calculatethetotalheattransferperunitlengthofthetubebank,andalsotheexit
airtemperature.Also,findoutthepressuredrop.
Solution.
Data:
Ts:=80CTi:=20CU:=8m/sST:=0.0375mSL:=0.0375mD:=0.025m

Reyonldsnumber:
ThisisbasedonUmax.Wehave:
Takingpropertiesofairatfreestreamtemperatureof20C:
3 6 2
:=1.164kg/m Cp:=1012J/(kgK)k:=0.0251W/(mK)v:=15.710 m /sPr :=0.71
Nusseltsnumber:
SinceReynoldsnumberisbetween1000and200,000whichisinthetransitionregime,theappropriateequationforaverageNusselts
numberis:
Thelastterm,i.e.theratioofPrandtlnumberscanbeneglectedforgases:So,wehave:
Therefore,averageheattransfercoefficientis:
Thisisthevalueofheattransfercoefficientthatwouldbeobtainediftherewere20rowsoftubesinthedirectionofflow.But,inthe
presentcase,thereareonly4rowsinthedirectionofflow.So,fromtheTable,wegetthecorrectionfactoras:
C2 =0.90
Therefore,actualheattransfercoefficientis=184.6580.9(actualaverageheattransfercoefficient)
2
i.e.ha=166.193W/(m C)(actualaverageheattransfercoefficient)
Surfaceareaforheattransferforunitlengthoftubesis:
2
A:=(104)(D1)m /m (for10rowshigh,4rows
deep)
2
i.e. A=3.142m /m.
TotalheattransferrateQ:
Now,totalheattransferrateisgivenbyNewtonslaw:
Q=haAT
HereTistheaveragetemperaturedifferencebetweenthewallandtheairstream.However,temperatureofairstreamgoeson
changingfromentrytoexitintheheatexchanger.So,weuseameantemperaturedifferencecalledLMTD(logmeantemperature
difference).ExpressionforLMTDisderivedinthechapteronheatexchangers.Forthepresent,letustakeforLMTD:
WeneedtheexittemperatureTooftheairstream.Thisiscalculatedbyaheatbalance:
i.e.mass_flow=3.492kg/s
Then,wecanwritetheheatbalance:
hALMTD=mass_flowCp(ToTi)
SubstituteforLMTDandsolveforTo.
UseSolveblockofMathcadassumeaguessvalueforTotostartwith,sayTo=70C.ThentypeGivenandwritetheconstraintthen
typeFind(To)andgettheanswer:
To:=70(guessvalue)
Given
Therefore,heattransferrate,Q:
Alternatively,wecanusethearithmeticaveragevalueofairstreambetweentheinletandoutlettemperature,sincethisissimplerto
calculateanderrorinvolvedwillnotbemuch:
UsingSolveblockasearlier,toobtainTo:
To:=70(guessvalue)
Given
i.e.wegetpracticallythesamevalueforToasobtainedearlier.
Pressuredrop:
Wehave:
6
w:=20.7910 kg/ms (dynamicviscosityofairat80C)
6
b :=18.4610 kg/ms (dynamicviscosityofairataveragefreestream
temperatureof24.5C)
Therefore,

9.10 Flow Inside Tubes
Circulartubesarethemostcommonlyusedgeometryforcoolingandheatingapplications,inindustry.Often,tubesofother
geometriessuchassquareorrectanglearealsoused.Weareinterestedinheattransferinsuchcasespressuredropoccurringduring
flowisalsoofinterestsinceithasadirectbearingonthepumpingpowerrequiredtocausetheflow.
Observethemajordifferencebetweentheexternalflowsjuststudiedandtheinternalflowthroughpipes:intheexternalflow,sayover
aflatplate,therewasafreesurfaceoffluidandtheboundarylayerwasfreetogrowindefinitelyhowever,inapipeflow,theflowis
confinedwithinthepipeandtheboundarylayergrowthislimitedtogrowonlyuptothecentreofthepipe.
9.10.1 Hydrodynamic and Thermal Boundary Layers for Flow in a Tube

Considerafluidenteringintoacircularpipe,withauniformvelocityU(SeeFig.9.19).Fluidlayercomingincontactwiththepipe
surfacecomestoacompletehaltandtheadjacentlayersslowdowngraduallyduetoviscosityeffects.Sincethetotalmassflowina
sectionmustremainconstant,velocityinthecentralportionincreases.Asaresult,avelocityboundarylayerdevelopsalongthepipe.
Thicknessofthevelocityboundarylayerincreasesalongtheflowlengthuntiltheentirepipeisfilledupwiththeboundarylayer,as
shown.Hydrodynamicentrylength(L h)isthedistancefromtheentrypointtothepointwheretheboundarylayerhasdeveloped
uptothecentre.Intheregionbeyondthehydrodynamicentrylength,thevelocityprofileisfullydevelopedandremainsunchanged
thisisthehydrodynamicallydevelopedregion.Aswillbeshownlater,velocityprofileinthefullydevelopedregion,inlaminarflow,
isparabolicinturbulentflow,thevelocityprofileisatruncated
Similarly,whenafluidatanuniformtemperatureentersapipewhosewallisatdifferenttemperature,athermalboundarylayer
developsalongthepipe.Thicknessofthermalboundarylayeralsoincreasesalongtheflowlengthtilltheboundarylayerreachesthe
centreofthepipe.Thermalentrylength(L)isthedistancefromtheentrytothepointwherethethermalboundarylayerhasreached
thecentre,andisshownintheFig.9.19.Beyondthispoint,alongthelength,wehavethefullydevelopedflowi.e.theflowisboth
hydrodynamicallyandthermallyfullydeveloped.
Temperatureprofilemayvarywithxeveninthethermallydevelopedregion.However,thedimensionlesstemperatureprofile
expressedas(TTs)/(TmTs)remainsconstantinthethermallydevelopedregion,whetherthetemperatureofthepipesurface
remainsconstantortheheatfluxatthesurfaceremainsconstant.(Tmisthebulkormeantemperatureatagivensection).
FIGURE9.19Flowinsideapipe
RelativegrowthofhydrodynamicandthermalboundarylayersiscontrolledbythedimensionlessPrandtlnumber.Forgases,Pr=1,
andthehydrodynamicandthermalboundarylayersessentiallycoincideforoilsPr>>1andthehydrodynamicboundarylayer
outgrowsthethermalboundarylayer,i.e.hydrodynamicentrylengthissmallerforoils.ForfluidswithPr<<1,suchasliquidmetals,
thermalboundarylayeroutgrowsthehydrodynamicboundarylayerandconsequently,thethermalentrylengthisshorterthanthe
hydrodynamicentrylength.
Reynoldsnumberisthedimensionlessnumberthatcharacterizestheflowinsideatubeaslaminarorturbulent.Reynoldsnumberis
definedas:
Re=(Um.D)/v
whereUmisthemeanvelocityinthepipe,andnisthekinematicviscosityofthefluid.Flowregimesaredefinedasfollows,depending
upontheReynoldsnumber:
Re<2300 (Laminarflow)
2300Re4000 (Transitionflow)
Re>4000 (Turbulentflow)
Hydrodynamicandthermalentrylengths:
Inlaminarflow:
L h_lam=0.05ReD (9.121a)
L t_lam=0.05RePrD (9.121b)
Inturbulentflow,hydrodynamicandthermalentrylengthsareindependentofReandPrandaregenerallytakentobe:
L h_turb =L t_turb =10D(9.122)
Thefrictioncoefficientorshearstressatthesurfaceisrelatedtotheslopeofthevelocityprofileatthesurface.Sincethevelocity
profileremainsessentiallyconstantinthehydrodynamicallydevelopedregion,thefrictionfactorandtheshearstressremainconstant
inthehydrodynamicallydevelopedregion.Byasimilarargument,heattransfercoefficientalsoremainsconstantinthethermally
developedregion.
Attheentrytothetube,thicknessoftheboundarylayerispracticallyzerosovelocityandtemperaturegradientsatthesurfaceare
almostinfiniteattheentry,whichmeansthattheheattransfercoefficientandpressuredroparethehighestintheentryregionandgo
ondecreasingalongthelength.
Generally,inpractice,turbulentflowsprevailinheattransferapplicationslengthofpipesisalsogenerallymuchlargerascompared
tothehydrodynamicandthermalentrancelengths.Therefore,flowthroughpipesisgenerallyassumedtobefullydevelopedoverthe
entirelength.
9.10.2 Velocity Profile for Fully Developed, Steady, Laminar Flow

Considerafullydeveloped,steady,laminarflowinapipe.ConsiderafluidelementoflengthLandradiusr,asshowninFig.9.20.
Weareinterestedtogetthevelocityprofileandthepressuredrop(orfrictionfactor)duringflow.Thisisobtainedbymakingaforce
balanceonacylindricalfluidelementasshowninFig.9.20.Forcesactingontheelementare:pressureforcesattheendsandthe
shearforcesonthesurfacethereisnochangeinmomentumsincethevelocitiesaresameatbothsections1and2.So,writingaforce
balance:

2
(p1p2 )p =(2rL)(a)
But,
FIGURE9.20Laminarflowthroughapipe
(negativesign,sincerismeasuredoppositetothedirectionofy).
So,
Separatingthevariablesandintegrating,
i.e.
Thiscanalsobewrittenas:
NegativesigninEq.9.123indicatesthatpressuredecreasesintheflowdirection.Also,notethatthevelocityprofileisparabolic.

Now,maximumvelocityoccursatr=0,i.e.atthecentre:
Eq.9.124givesthemaximumvelocityinthepipe.
FromEqs.9.123and9.124,weget:
Averageormeanvelocity,um,isobtainedbyequatingthevolumetricflowtotheintegratedparaboloidalflow:
Now,frictionfactorisdefinedby:
whereDisthepipediameterand isthedynamicpressure.
IntegratingEq.9.127,weget,DarcyWeisbachequationforpressuredrop:
wherep=p1p2 and,L=x2 x1
FromEqs.9.126and9.127,weget:
Eq.9.129givesthefrictionfactorforlaminarflow(Re<2000),inapipeflow.
Sincevolumetricflowrate,Q=A.um,wecanwriteforheadloss:
Eq.9.131isknownasHagenPoiseuilleequation.
DarcyWeisbachEq.9.128isapplicabletononcircularductsalso,ifDisreplacedbyhydraulicdiameter(Dh),definedby:
whereAistheareaofcrosssectionandPisthewettedperimeter.
ValuesofproductoffrictionfactorandReynoldsnumberfortwoimportantductconfigurations(viz.annularductsandrectangular
ducts)aregivenTables9.7and9.8below:
TABLE9.7Annularducts
Ratioofradii f.Re
74.68
0.001
80.11
0.01
86.27
0.05
89.37
0.10
92.35
0.20
94.71
0.40
95.59
0.60
95.92
0.80
96.00
1.00
TABLE9.8Rectangularducts
Ratioofsides f.Re
89.91
0.05
84.68
0.10
82.34
0.125
78.81
0.166
72.93
0.25
65.47
0.40
62.19
0.50
57.89
0.75
56.91
1.00
9.10.3 Heat Transfer Considerations in a Pipe

Mostofthepracticalcasesofheattransferinvolvingapipeflowfallundertwocategories:
1.surfaceheatfluxonthepipeisconstant,e.g.whenthepipeissubjectedtoradiationorheatedelectricallybywindinganelectric
tape,or
2.pipesurfacetemperatureisconstant,e.g.whenthereiscondensationorboilingoccurringonthesurfaceofthepipe.
(a)Constantsurfaceheatflux,qs: Enjoy Safari? Subscribe Today
Letafluidenterapipesubjectedtoaconstantsurfaceheatfluxqs,withameaninlettemperatureofTiandletthemeanexit
temperatureoffluidbeTe.Then,theheattransferratecanbewrittenas:
Q=qsA=mCp(TeTi)(9.133)
Or,themeanexittemperatureoffluidmaybewrittenas:
whereAisthesurfaceareaofthepipe,misthemassflowrateoffluidandCpisitsmeanspecificheat.Meanfluidtemperature,Tm
increaseslinearlyintheflowdirection.Thesurfacetemperatureisdeterminedfrom:
qs=h(TsTm)(9.135)
Whenhisconstant,forconstantsurfaceheatflux,(TsTm)isconstant,i.e.thesurfacetemperaturealsoincreaseslinearlyintheflow
direction.ThissituationisshowngraphicallyinFig.9.21:
Now,weareinterestedtogetthetemperatureprofileandtheheattransfercoefficientduringflow.Thisisobtainedbymakingan
energybalanceonacylindricalfluidelementshowninFig.9.22.Here,thesurfaceheatfluxalongthelengthisconstant,i.e.
Heatflowstobeconsideredare:conductioninandoutoftheelementattheendsandtheheatconvectedinandoutbyvirtueofflow.
FIGURE9.21Tubesurfaceandmeanfluidtemperaturesforapipewithconstantsurfaceheatfluxinpipeflow
FIGURE9.22Controlelementforenergybalanceinpipeflow
So,writinganenergybalance:
Heatflowintotheelementbyconduction=
Heatflowoutoftheelementbyconduction=
Byenergybalance:
Netenergyconvectedout=netenergyconductedin
i.e.dQConv=dQr dQr+dr
Substitutingfortheabovetermsandsimplifyingneglectinghigherorderdifferentials,
weget:
Asalreadydiscussed,withconstantheatfluxatthewall,averagefluidtemperaturemustincreaselinearlywithx,sothatdT/dx=
constanti.e.temperatureprofileswillbesimilaratdifferentlocationsalongthelength.
TosolveEq.9.136,wehavetoinserttheexpressionforthevelocityprofilegivenbyEq.9.125,withtheboundaryconditions:
So,Eq.9.136becomes:
Integrating,
Integratingagain,
ApplyingthefirstB.C.,weget:C1=0.Also,T=Tc atr=0,atcentreofthepipe,i.e.C2 =TC
Therefore,temperaturedistributionintermsoftemperatureatthecentreofthepipeis:
Bulktemperature:
Forconvectionheattransferinapipe,wehave:
localheatflux,q=h(TsTb )(9.138)
whereTsisthewalltemperature,andTb thebulktemperature,whichisanenergyaveragedtemperatureacrossthepipe,calculated
from:
Again,wehavealreadyshownthatbulktemperatureisalinearfunctionofxforconstantheatfluxatthewall.Performingthe
calculationinEq.9.139,(usingEq.9.137),weget:
And,wall(or,surface)temperatureisgivenby:
Now,theheattransfercoefficientisgivenby:
Now,thenumeratorinEq.9.142isthetemperaturegradientandisgivenby:
SubstitutingEqs.9.140,9.141and9.143in9.142,weget
Or,intermsofNusseltsnumber:
Notetheinterestingresultthatfor,steady,fullydevelopedlaminarflowinapipewhosewallsaresubjectedtoaconstantheatflux,the
Nusseltsnumberisaconstant=4.364.Ofcourse,attheentranceregion,valueofNusseltsnumberwillbesomewhathigher.
(b)Constantsurfacetemperature,T s:
LetafluidenterapipewhosesurfaceismaintainedataconstanttemperatureTs,withameaninlettemperatureofTiandletthemean
exittemperatureoffluidbeTe.Then,themeantemperatureofthefluidTmapproachesthesurfacetemperatureasymptotically,as
showninFig.9.23.
Now,thetemperatureofthesurfaceisconstantandthefluidtemperaturevariescontinuouslyfromTiattheinlettoTeattheexit.To
determinetheheattransferrate,wehavetheNewtonsrateequation,Q=hATm,whereATmisameantemperaturedifference
betweenthesurfaceandthefluid.Inthechapteronheatexchangers,itwillbeshownthatthismeantemperaturedifference,also
knownaslogmeantemperaturedifference(LMTD),isgivenas:

Where,Ti,andTearethetemperaturedifferencesattheinletandoutlet,asshown
Here,misthemassflowrate(kg/s),AistheareaofheattransferandCpisthespecificheatofthefluid.
FromEq.9.147,onecancalculatethemeanfluidtemperatureattheexit.Thetermh.A/(m.Cp)isknownasNumberofTransferUnits
(NTU)andisameasureofthesizeoftheheatexchanger.
Bymakingananalysissimilartotheoneaswedidinthecaseofconstantheatfluxatthewalls,wecanshowthatforthecaseof
constantwalltemperature,forsteady,laminarflow,theNusseltsnumberisaconstant,givenby:
FIGURE9.23Variationofmeanfluidtemperatureforapipewithconstantsurfacetemperature
FIGURE9.24VariationofNusseltsnumberwith(x/D)/(Re.Pr),forlaminarflowinapipe
Again,notethatthisisforfullydevelopedflowandintheentranceregionthevalueswillbehigher.
NatureofvariationofNusseltsnumberwiththedimensionlessnumber(x/D)/(Re.Pr)isshowninthefollowinggraph(Fig.9.24).
Notethatforfullydevelopedflows,Nusseltsnumberapproachestheasymptoticvaluesof4.364and3.656forthecasesofuniform
heatfluxandconstantwalltemperature,respectively.
Forshortpipes(L/Dissmall,<60),withconstantwalltemperature,fullydevelopedvelocityprofile(parabolic),averageNusselt
numberisgivenbyHausenas:
ThisequationgivestheaverageNusseltnumberoverthelengthoftube,includingtheentryregion.Here,Re=(D.um.)/.Also,inthe
aboveexpression,thedimensionlessgroupinthedenominatorisknownasGraetznumber,i.e.
Foroils,orotherfluidsinwhichviscosityvarieswithtemperatureconsiderably,theconstant0.0668inequation9.150amustbe
0.14
multipliedby(/s) .
Anothercorrelationfortheaboveconditionsis:
InEq.9.150,propertyvaluesaretakenatmeanbulktemperature.Iftheoutlettemperatureisnotspecified,iterativeworkingwillbe
required.
AnothercorrelationtotakecareofthepropertyvariationsissuggestedbySiederandTate:
Forshortpipes(L/Dissmall,<60),withconstantwalltemperature,velocityprofilestilldeveloping,averageNusseltnumberisgiven
byHausenas:
Foroils,orotherfluidsinwhichviscosityvarieswithtemperatureconsiderably,theconstant0.104inEq.9.150dmustbemultiplied
0.14
by(/s) .
Forlonglengths,atconstantwalltemperature,Nusseltnumberasymptoticallyapproachesthevalue3.66.Forshortpipeswith
constantwallheatflux,withfullydevelopedparabolicvelocityprofile,HausenscorrelationforlocalNusseltnumberis:
Anotherrelationrecommendedforaboveconditionsis:
Forshortpipeswithconstantwallheatflux,withdevelopingvelocityprofile,HausenscorrelationforlocalNusseltnumberis:
Forlongpipeswithconstantwallheatflux,averageNusseltnumberapproachesthevalue4.364,asalreadydiscussed.
9.10.4 Fully Developed Laminar Flow Inside Pipes of Non-circular Cross-sections

NusseltsnumberandfrictionfactorforfullydevelopedlaminarflowinsidepipesofnoncircularcrosssectionsaregiveninTable9.9.
Here,ReynoldsnumberandNusseltsnumberarebasedonthehydraulicdiameter,whichwasdefinedearlier,as:
whereAistheareaofcrosssectionandPisthewettedperimeter.
Flowthroughanannulus:Practicallyimportantcaseistheflowthroughanannuluswiththeoutersurfaceinsulated,andthe
insidesurfacemaintainedateitheraconstanttemperatureorconstantheatflux.
Inthecaseofanannulus,thehydraulicdiameterasgivenbyEq.9.132viz.
Dh=(DoDi).Forfullydevelopedlaminarflow,Nusseltnumbervarieswith(Di/Do)asshowninTable9.10.Here,NuTistheNusselt
numberwiththeinnerwallmaintainedatconstanttemperatureandNuHistheNusseltnumberwiththeinnersurfacemaintainedat
constantheatflux.Outsidesurfaceisinsulatedforboththecases.
Inlaminarflow,surfaceroughnessofthepipedoesnothavemucheffectonNusseltsnumberorfrictionfactor.
TABLE9.9NusseltsnumberandfrictionfactorforfullydevelopedLaminarflowinpipesofvariouscrosssections
TABLE9.10Nusseltnumbersforfullydevelopedlaminarflowinanannulus,insulatedontheoutside
9.10.5 Turbulent Flow Inside Pipes
9.10.5.1 Velocity profile and pressure drop.
ExperimentalresultsofNikuradseforturbulentflowinsmoothpipesindicatedapowerlawformforvelocityprofile:
whereuisthelocaltimeaveragevelocity,umaxisthetimeaveragevelocityatthecentre,Ristheradiusofthepipeandy=(Rr),is
thedistancefromthepipewall.ValuesofindexnaregiveninTable9.11fordifferentvaluesofReynoldsnumbers:
PressuredropforturbulentflowinpipesisalsogivenbytheDarcyWeisbachequationi.e.
TABLE9.11ValuesofindexninEq.9.152forturbulentflowinpipes
Re n
3
410
6.0
4
2.310
6.6
5
1.110
7.0
6
1.110
8.8
6
210
10.0
6
3.210
10.0
However,frictionfactorfmustbedeterminedexperimentally.(Notethatincaseoflaminarflowequationforfrictionfactorwas
derivedanalyticallyasf=64/Re).
Averageormeanvelocity,umoverthecrosssectioniseasilycalculatedforthepowerlawprofileas:
Performingtheintegrationwegettheresultas:
Frictionfactorfforsmoothpipesisgivenbythefollowingempiricalrelations:
0.25 4
f=0.316Re (for210 <Re<8104(9.154))
0.2
f=0.184Re (for104<Re<105(9.155))
2
f=(0.79ln(Re)1.64) (for3000<Re<5<106(9.156))
Eq.9.156forfrictionfactor,developedbyPetukhov,coversawiderangeofReynoldsnumbers.
FrictionfactorfforcommercialorroughpipesisgivenbyColebrooksformula(1939)orfromtheMoodysdiagram.Here,
surfaceimperfectionsontheinternalsurfaceextendbeyondthelaminarsublayerandarecharacterizedbyaroughnessheightand
therelativeroughness(/D)isaparameterintheMoodysdiagram.SeeFig.9.25.Notethatintheregionofcompleteturbulence,
frictionfactorismainlydependentontherelativeroughness.ValuesofforcommercialpipingaregiveninTable9.12.
Colebrookformula:
Here,logarithmistobase10.Thisequationisslightlydifficulttocalculatesincefoccursonbothsidesoftheequationandaniterative
solutionwillberequired.Instead,followingformulaforfisrelativelyeasiertocalculate:
Lossesinpipefittings:
Fittings,valves,etc.arepartofthepipingsystemandtheyalsoofferresistancetoflowoffluid.Lossesthroughfittingscanbequite
considerableinlarge,industrialpipingsystems.Generally,headlossthroughavalveorfittingisexpressedinthefollowingform:
Valuesoflosscoefficient,kLforsomecommonvalvesandfittingsaregiveninTable9.13.
Inpractice,whilecalculatingpressuredropinapipingsystem,foreachvalveandfitting,anequivalentlengthL eq isfoundoutand
addedtothestraightlengthofpipingandthentheDarcyWeisbachequationisapplied.Equivalentlengthforavalveorfittingis
calculatedfrom:
9.10.5.2 Heat Transfer Coeicient for Turbulent Flow Inside Pipes.
Analyticaltreatmentofturbulentflowisrathercomplicatedascomparedtothatoflaminarflowtherefore,empiricalrelationsbased
onextensiveexperimentaldatahavebeensuggested.Reynoldsanalogybetweenmomentumandheattransfersuppliesthesimplest
correlation:
Figure6.25Moodysdiagramforfrictionfactorforflowthroughpipes
TABLE9.12Roughnessheightforcommercialpiping
Typeofpiping ,mm
Drawntubing 0.0015
Brass,lead,glass,spuncement 0.0075
Commercialsteelorwroughtiron 0.05
Castiron(asphaltdipped) 0.12
Galvanizediron 0.15
Woodstave 0.2to1.0
Castiron(uncoated) 0.25
Concrete 0.3to3.0
Rivetedsteel 1to10
Reynoldsanalogybetweenmomentumandheattransferforturbulentflowinapipe:Inlaminarflow,wehavetheexpressionfor
shearstressandheattransferasfollows:
TABLE9.13Losscoefficient(kL)forsomecommonvalvesandfittings
Item kt
Anglevalve,fullyopen 3.1to5.0
Ballcheckvalve,fullyopen 4.5to7.0
Gatevalve,fullyopen 0.19
Globevalve,fullyopen 10
Swingcheckvalve,fullyopen 2.3to3.5
Regularradiuselbow,screwed 0.9
Regularradiuselbow,flanged 0.3
Longradiuselbow,screwed 0.6
Longradiuselbow,flanged 0.23
Closereturnbend,screwed 2.2
Flangedreturnbend,twoelbows,regularradius 0.38
do,longradius 0.25
StandardTee,screwed,flowthroughrun 0.6
doflowthroughside 1.8
Herevandrepresentmomentumandthermaldiffusivity,respectively.Itisamolecularphenomenoni.e.inlaminarflow,
momentumistransportedbetweenlayersoffluidatamolecularlevel.However,inturbulentflow,thereisanadditionalfactorof
eddytransporti.e.chunksoffluid,called,eddiesalsophysicallymovebetweenlayersandcontributetothetransportofmomentum
andheat.Thisisrepresentedformomentumandheattransfer,respectively,asfollows:
Now,letusassumethatmomentumandheataretransportedatthesameratei.e.M=H,andthatthePrandtlnumber,Pr=1.Then,
dividingEq.9.160by9.159,weget:
Now,integrateEq.9.161fromthesurfacetothemeanbulkconditions,i.e.fromT=Ts,u=0toT=Tbandu=um,assumingthatq/
isaconstantatthesurface=qs/s:
Now,heatfluxatthewallcanbewrittenas:
qs=h(TsTb )(9.163)

And,theshearstressatthewall=(shearforce)/surfacearea
So,weget:
SubstitutingEqs.9.163and9.164inEq.9.162,weget:
Eq.9.165iscalledReynoldsanalogyforfluidflowinapipeandisvalidforbothlaminarandturbulentflows.Notetherestriction
thatPr=1,inReynoldsanalogyi.e.itholdsgoodformostofthegases.
ForfluidswithPrandtlnumbermuchdifferentfromunity,wehavetheColburnanalogyexpressedasfollows:
AllfluidpropertiesinEq.9.166areevaluatedat(Tb +Ts)/2,exceptCpinStantonnumber,whichisevaluatedatthebulktemperature
ofthefluid.
Notethatbyanalogybetweenmomentumandheattransfer,wegetarelationbetweenheattransfercoefficient(h)andfriction
coefficient(f),andbyknowinganyoneofthem,theotherquantitycanbecalculated.
Therearetwomoreanalogies,morerefinedthantheonesalreadymentioned.Weshalljuststatethem:
Prandtlanalogy:
PrandtlanalogyreducestoReynoldsanalogywhenPr=1.
VonKarmananalogy:
SubstitutingthefrelationfromEq.9.155intheColburnanalogy,i.e.9.166,wegetthefollowingrelationforNusseltnumberforfully
developedturbulentflowinsmoothtubes:
ThisisknownasColburnequation.
9.10.5.3 Design Equations.
However,morepopularlyuseddesignequationforfullydeveloped(L/D>60),turbulentflowinpipesistheDittusBoelter
equation.(1930),givenbelow:
n
Nu=0.023Re0.8Pr (for0.7<Pr<160,Re>10,000(9.170))
wheren=0.4forheatingandn=0.3forcoolingofthefluidflowingthroughthepipe.Here,fluidpropertiesareevaluatedatthebulk
meantemperatureoffluidi.e.atTb =(Ti+Te)/2,whereTiisthetemperatureoffluidatpipeinletandTeisthetemperatureoffluid
atpipeoutlet.
Ifthetemperaturedifference,(TsTb )issignificant,thenvariationsinphysicalpropertieshavetobetakenintoaccount,andinsuch
situationscorrelationofSiederandTate(1936)isrecommended:
Amorerecentrelation(1970)whichfitsexperimentalresultsbetteristhefollowing:
wheren=0.11forheatingoffluids,n=0.25forcoolingoffluids,n=0forconstantheatfluxand forgases,temperatureinKelvin
Aboveequationscanbeusedforthecasesofheattransferwithconstantwalltemperatureaswellasuniformheatfluxatthewall
surface.
Also,relationsforturbulentflowincircularpipescanbeusedfornoncirculartubesaswell,byreplacingpipediameterDin
evaluatingReynoldsnumberbythehydraulicdiameter,Dh=4.A/P.Correlationforthermalentryregion:
FortherangeofL/Dfrom10to400,Nusseltrecommendedthefollowingrelationforturbulentflowinpipes:
Here,fluidpropertiesareevaluatedatmeanbulktemperature.
9.10.5.4 Turbulent Flow in a Long, Smooth Annulus.
ForNusseltnumber,thecorrelationsforcircularpipesareused,withthehydraulicdiametertakenasDh=DoDi.
Forfrictionfactor,followingrelationisproposed:
0.25
fannulus=0.085(Re) (Rebasedonhydraulicdiameter(9.173))
9.10.5.5 Correlations for Liquid Metals.
Forfullydevelopedturbulentflowofliquidmetalsinsmoothcirculartubes[(L/D)>30],withconstantsurfaceheatflux,
Skupinskiet.al.recommendthefollowingcorrelation:
0.827
Nu=4.82+0.0185Pe (3600<Re<9.05105,100<
Pe<10,000(9.174))
Notethat Pe=Re.Pr
Morerecent(1972)correlation,whichfitstheavailabledatawellforflowofliquidmetalsinpipeswithconstantheatflux,isdueto
NotterandSleicher:

0.93
Nu=6.3+(0.0167Re0.85Pr )(9.175)
Similarly,forconstantsurfacetemperatureconditions,forflowofliquidmetals,SebanandShimazakirecommendthe
followingcorrelationforPe>100,and[(L/D)>30],
0.8
Nu=5.0+0.025Pe (forTs=constantPe>100(9.176))
9.10.5.6 Helically Coiled Tubes.
Coiledtubesareusedtoenhancetheheattransfercoefficientandalsotoaccommodatealargerheatexchangesurfaceinagiven
volume.Heattransferinacoiledtubeismorecomparedtothatinastraighttubeduetothecontributionofsecondaryvorticesformed
asaresultofcentrifugalforces.
Here,wedefineanewdimensionlessnumber,calledDeannumber,Dnasfollows:
whereDisthediameterofthetubeanddc isthediameterofthecoil.
Forlaminarflow,followingequationsarerecommended,dependingupontheDeannumber:
1.WhenDn<20:
2.When20<Dn<100:
3.WhenDn>100:
AlltheabovethreeEqs.viz.9.178,9.179and9.180arevalidfor10<Pr<600.
Also,forcoiledtubes,thereisnotmuchdifferenceinvaluesofaverageNusseltnumberswhetherthesurfacetemperatureiskept
constantorthesurfaceheatfluxismaintainedconstant.
Inlaminarflow,frictionfactorforacoiledtubeisobtainedfrom:
Here,logarithmistobase10.
CriticalReynoldsnumberatwhichflowbecomesturbulentinacoiledpipeisgivenas:
Forvaluesof(D/dc )>860,criticalReynoldsnumberforacurvedpipeisthesameasthatforastraightpipe.
Forturbulentflowinusseltnumberforhelicalcoilhasproposedthefollowingcorrelation:
Here,LHSistheratioofaverageNusseltnumbersforhelicalandstraighttubes,Disthediameterofthetubeanddc isthediameterof
thecoil.
Example9.17.Waterisheatedintheannularsectionofadoublepipeheatexchangerbyelectricalheatingoftheinnerpipe.Outer
pipeisinsulated.Meanbulktemperatureofwateris60C.Fortheannulus,Di=2.5cmandDo=5cm.Determinetheconvection
coefficientandpressuredrop/metrelengthfor:
1.flowrateof0.04kg/s,and
2.flowrateof0.5kg/s
Solution.
Data:
Ta:=60CDi:=0.025mD0:=0.05mL:=1mm1:=0.04kg/s(Case(i))m2 :=0.5kg/s
First,weneedthepropertiesofwaterataveragetemperatureof60C:
3 3
:=983.3kg/m :=0.46710 kg/(ms)Cp:=4185J/(kgC)k:=0.654W/(mC)Pr:=2.99
Case(i):Flowrateis0.04kg/s:
Sincethereiselectricalheatingoftheinsidetube,itisacaseofconstantheatfluxatthewalland,theoutsidesurfaceisinsulated.
Reynoldsnumber:
TocalculateRe,weneedhydraulicdiameter,sincethisisannularduct:
Therefore,thisisthecaseoflaminarflowinanannularduct,insulatedfromoutsideandsubjectedtoconstantheatfluxattheinner
wall.Weassumefullydevelopedflow.Then,fromTable9.10weget:
Pressuredrop:
Frictionfactorforfullydevelopedlaminarflowinanannulus,isreadfromTable9.7.
Therefore,pressuredropisgivenby:
Case(ii):Flowrateis0.5kg/s:
Reynoldsnumber:
Therefore,thisisthecaseofturbulentflowinanannularduct,insulatedfromoutsideandsubjectedtoconstantheatfluxattheinner
wall.Weassumefullydevelopedflow.AndtheDittusBoeltercorrelationcanbeusedwiththehydraulicdiametersubstitutedfortube
diameterD.
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Frictionfactorforfullydevelopedturb.flowinanannulus,canbereadfromMoodysdiagram,orwecanuseEq.9.154:
Therefore,pressuredropisgivenby:
Example9.18.Waterat20Cflowsthrougha2.5cmID,1mlongpipe,whosesurfaceismaintainedataconstanttemperatureof
50C,atvelocityof5cm/s.Determinetheoutlettemperatureofwater,assumingfullydevelopedhydrodynamicboundarylayer.
Solution.
Data:
Ti:=20CTs:=50CD:=0.025mL:=1mU:=0.05m/s
Weneedthepropertiesofwateratmeanbulktemperature.But,asyet,wedonotknowtheexittemperatureofwater.So,letusassume
themeanbulktemperatureas30Candproceedwiththecalculationslater,wewillcheckthisassumptionandrefineour
calculations,ifrequired.
PropertiesofwateratTb =30C:

3 3
Reynoldsnumber:
Therefore,flowisintheentranceregion
Therefore,weuseEq.9.150b,viz
Now,determinetheoutlettemperaturebyanenergybalance:
Intheaboveequationwehaveassumedthatthemeantemperaturedifferencebetweenthewaterstreamandthesurfaceisthe
differencebetweenthesurfacetemperatureandthearithmeticmeanofwatertemperatureatinletandexit.Strictlyspeaking,we
shouldconsidertheLMTDhowever,theassumptionofarithmeticmeanisgoodenoughandtheerrorisnotmuch.
LetussolvethiseasilybyMathcad.AssumeaguessvalueforTotostartwith,andthenwritetheconstraintaftertypingGiven.Then
thecommandFind(To)givesthevalueofToimmediately:
To:=100(guessvalueofTo)
Given
Therefore,meantemperatureofwateris:(20+25.152)/2=22.5C,whereaswehadassumedameanvalueof30C.Takingthe
propertiesofwaterat22.5C,calculationscannowberepeated:
PropertiesofwateratTb =22.5C:
3 3

Therefore,
Therefore,weuseEq.9.150bi.e.
Now,determinetheoutlettemperaturebyanenergybalance,andusingSolveblockofMathcad:
To:=100(guessvalueofTo)
Given
Therefore,Tb =(20+25.073)/2=22.573C,whichisveryclosetoTb =22.5Catwhichpropertiesofwaterweretaken.So,T0=

25.073C(Ans).
Example9.19.Airat1barand20Cflowsthrougha6mmID,1mlongsmoothpipe,whosesurfaceismaintainedataconstantheat
flux,withvelocityof3m/s.Determinetheheattransfercoefficientiftheexitbulktemperatureofairis80C.Alsodeterminetheexit
walltemperatureandthevalueofhattheexit.
Solution.
Data:
Ti:=20CT0:=80CD:=0.006mL:=1mU:=3.0m/s
Therefore,meanbulktemperatureis(20+80)/2=50C
i.e.Tb =50C(meanbulktemperatureofair)
PropertiesofairatTb =50C:

3 6
Reynoldsnumber:
Sincethetuubelengthisshort,entranceeffectmustbeconsidered.
Nusseltnumber:
Therefore,weshallusefollowingequationassumingdevelopingvelocityprofile:
Exitwalltemperature:
Sincethewallheatfluxisconstant,wehavetherelationforh:
Also,
Therefore,fromEq.a:
Example9.20.Water(underpressure)isheatedinaneconomiserfromatemperatureof30Cto150C.Tubewallismaintained
ataconstanttemperatureof350C.Ifthewaterflowsatavelocityof1.5m/sandthetubediameteris50mm,determinethelengthof
tuberequired.
Solution.
Data:
Ti:=30CTo:=150CTs:=350CD:=0.05mU:=1.5m/s
Therefore,meanbulktemperatureis(30+150)/2=90C
i.eTb :=90Cmeanbulktemperatureofwater
PropertiesofwateratTb =90C:
3 3
:=965.3kg/m :=0.31510 kg/(m/s)Cp:=4206J/(kgC)k:=0.675W/(mC)Pr:=1.96
Reynoldsnumber:
Usingmorerecentcorrelation,
wheren=0.11forheatingoffluids,n=0.25forcoolingoffluids,n=0forconstantheatfluxand istobereplacedby forgases,

temperatureinKelvin
Wehave:
2
f:=(0.79ln(Re)1.64) (9.156)
i.e. f=0.015
and,dynamicviscosityofwateratwalltemperatureof350Cis:

3
s=0.06510 kg/(m/s)
Therefore,
Lengthoftuberequired:
Watertemperaturevariescontinuouslyfrom30Catinletto150Catexit,tubesurfacetemperatureremaininconstantat350C.So,
meantemperaturedifferenceinNewtonsequationisLMTD,tobeveryaccurate.
Applyingenergybalance:
Therefore,
Note:Wecouldhavetakenthemeantemperaturedifferenceasthedifferencebetweensurfacetemperatureandthearithmeticmean
betweeninletandexitofwateri.e.AT=35090=260whereasLMTDwas255.7C.Then,Lwouldhavebeen3.542m,notmuch
differentfrom3.6mhowever,usingLMTDisaccuratemethod.
Alternatively,ifwehadusedDittusBoelterequation,viz.
And,usingLMTDwewouldhavegotL=4.524m
Example9.21.Sodiumpotassiumalloy(25:75),flowingatarateof3kg/s,isheatedinatubeof5cmIDfrom200Cto400C.
Tubesurfaceismaintainedatconstantheatfluxandthetemperaturedifferencebetweenthetubesurfaceandthemeanbulk
temperatureoffluidis40C.Determinetheheattransfercoefficient,heatfluxatthesurfaceandlengthoftuberequired.
Solution.
Data:
Ti:=200CTo:=400CT:=40CD:=0.05mm:=3.0kg/s
Thereforemeanbulktemperatureis(200+400)/2=300C
i.e.Tb =300CmeanbulktemperatureofNaKalloy
PropertiesofNaKalloyatTb =300C:
3 6 2
:=799kg/m v:=0.36610 m /sCp:=1038.3J/(kgC)k:=22.68W/(mC)Pr:=0.0134
Reynoldsnumber:
UsingtherecentcorrelationofNotterandSleicher,foconstantheatfluxconditions
Heatfluxatsurface:
Now,heatfluxisdeterminedfromitsdefinition:
Thisisobtainedbyaheatbalance:
Alternatively:

Also,ifweuseEq.9.174todetermineheattransfercoefficient:
ComparethisvalueofhwiththatobtainedearlierusingEq.9.175.
And,
Example9.22.180kg/hofairatoneatm.pressureiscooledfrom100Cto20Cwhilepassingthrougha3cmIDpipecoilbent
intoahelixof0.7mdiameter.Calculatetheairsideheattransfercoefficient.
Solution.
Data:
Ti:=200CTo:=20CD:=0.03mdc :=0.7m i.e.m=0.05kg/s
Thereforemeanbulktemperatureis(100+20)/2=60C
i.e.Tb :=60C(meanbulktemperatureofair)
PropertiesofairatTb =60C:
3 6
:=1.06kg/m :=20.1010 kg/(ms)Cp:=1005J/(KgC)k:=0.02896W/(mC)Pr:=0.696
Reynoldsnumber:
Nusseltnumberforstraighttube:
UsingtheDittusBoelterequationforturbulentflow:
0.8 n
Nu=0.023Re Pr (for0.7<Pr<160,Re>10,000
(9.170))
0.8 0.3
i.e. Nu:=0.023Re Pr (n=0.3sinceairisbeingcooled.)
i.e. Nu=215.457 (Nusseltnumberforstraighttube)
Nusseltnumberforhelicalcoil:
Wehave:
Therefore,
Example9.23.Inalongannulus(3.125cmID,5cmOD),airisheatedbymaintainingthetemperatureofoutersurfaceoftheinner
tubeat50C.Theairentersat16Candleavesat32Canditsflowvelocityis30m/s.Estimatetheheattransfercoefficientbetween
theairandtheinnertube.UseDittusBoelterequation,viz.
0.8 0.4
NuD=0.023(ReD) Pr Averagepropertiesofairat24Care:
3 6 2
=1.614kg/m ,Cp=1007J/(kgC),k=0.0263W/(mC),Pr=0.7v=15.910 m /s(M.U.1999)
Solution.
Data:
Ti:=16CTo:=32CTs:=50CDi:=0.03125mDo:=0.05mL:=1mU:=30m/s
Reynoldsnumber:
TocalculateRe,weneedhydraulicdiameter,sincethisisannularduct:
Wehave,forhydraulicdiameter:
Wehave:
Also,calculatethepressuredroppermetrelength:
Frictionfactor:
Wehave,fromEq.9.155:
0.2
f:=0.184Re (for104<Re<105(9.155))
i.e. f=0.023 (frictionfactor)
Pressuredrop:
Example9.24.Waterat20Cflowsflowsthroughatube,4cmdiameter9mlength,tubesurfacebeingmaintainedat90C.
Temperatureofwaterincreasesfrom20Cto60C.Findthemassflowrate.UseDittusBoelterequation,viz.NuD=0.023.
0.8 0.4
(ReD) Pr Takepropertiesofwateratmeanbulktemperatureof40Cas:
3 6 2
=993kg/m ,Cp=4170J/kgC),k=0.64W/(mC),v=0.6510 m s(M.U.,1996)
Solution.
Data:
4
Ti:=20CT0:=60CTs:=90CD:=0.04mL:=9m:=vi.e.=6.45510 kg/(ms)
Now,fromDittusBoelterequationwegetNusseltnumber,hencetheheattransfercoefficienththenwritingaheatbalance:
Letmbethemassflowrate(kg/s)ofwater.
Heatgainedbywater=heattransferredbetweenthepipesurfaceandthebulkofwater
9.11 Summary of Basic Equations for Forced Convection
Geometry/details Correlation Restrictions
FlatPlate,
laminarflow:
5
Hydrodynamic Re<510
boundarylayer
thickness
5
Localfriction Re<510
coefficient
5
LocalNusselt Re<510 ,Pr>0.5
number
5
AverageFrction Re<510
coefficient
5
AverageNusselt Re<510 ,Pr>0.5
number
5
LocalNusselt Re<510
numberforliquid Pe=Re.Pr
metals
FlatPlate,
turbulentflow:
5
Hydrody.b.l. Rex>510
thickness
5
Localfriction Rex>510 ,Pr>0.5
coefficient
5
LocalNusselt Rex>510 ,Pr>0.5
number
AverageFriction 5105<ReL<107
coefficient
7 9
AverageFriction 10 <ReL<10
coefficient
FlatPlate,mixed
boundarylayer:
5 7
5 7
AverageFriction 510 <ReL<10
5
coefficient Rex,c =510
5 7
AverageNusselt 0.6<Pr<60,510 <ReL<10
number
7
Cylinderincross 100<Re<10
flow: Re.Pr>0.2
AverageNusselt
number
Cylinderinliquid Nucyl=1.125(RePr)0.413for1<Re.Pr<
metalcrossflow 100
Flowacrossa Forgases&liquids.
4
sphere: 3.5<Re<7.6.10
Comprehensive 0.71<Pr<380,1</s<3.2
equationof
Whitaker.
AverageNusselt
number
Fallingdrop:
AverageNusselt
no.
FlowacrossTube N>20,and0.7<Pr<500,1000<ReD_max<2
6
bank: 10
Turbulentflow
5
(ReD>210 )
FlowacrossTube Gmax=umax
banks: N=No.oftransverserows
Pressuredrop
Frictionfactorin
Eq.9.118
Frictionfactorin
Eq.9.118
Flowthrough 20<ReDp<10,000,0.34<<0.78.
packedbeds: SeetextfordefinitionofReDpand
Heattransfer
betweengasand
packings
Flowthrough Forparticleslikecylinders,
packedbeds: seetextfordefinitionofReDp
Heattransfer
betweenwallsof
bedandgas
Flowthrough Forparticleslikespheres,40<ReDp<2000
packedbeds: seetextfordefinitionofReDp
Heattransfer
betweenwallsof
bedandgas
Flowinside L h_lam=0.05ReD Re<2300laminar

tubes: L t_lam=0.05RePrD Re>4000turbulent
Hydrodynamic L h_turb =L t_turb =10D
andthermal
entrylengths
DarcyWeisbach
equationfor
pressuredrop
Frictionfactor Laminarflowintubes
Flowinside Pr>0.6
tubes:
Nusseltno.forfully
developedlaminar
flow,constantwall
heatflux
Flowinside Pr>0.6
tubes:
Nusseltno.forfully
developedlaminar
flow,constantwall
temperature
Flowinside L/D<60
shorttubes:
Nusseltno.forfully
developedvelocity
profile,laminar
flow,constantwall
temperature
Flowinside
shorttubes:
Nusseltno.forfully
developedvelocity
profile,laminar
flow,constantwall
temperature..Sieder
Taterelation.
0.48<Pr<16,700
0.0044<(/s)9.75
Flowinside
shorttubes:
LocalNusseltno.
forfullydeveloped
velocityprofile,
laminarflow,
constantwallheat
flux.
0.25 4 4
Flowinside f=0.316Re for210 <Re<8<10
0.2 4 5
tubes: f=0.184Re for10 <Re<10 .
2
Frictionfactorfor f=(0.79In(Re)1.64) for3000<Re<5
6
smoothpipes 10
Flowinside Relativeroughness,(/D)isknown
tubes:
Frictionfactorfor
roughpipe
Reynolds
analogy
Colburnanalogy
0.8 n
Flowinside Nu=0.023Re Pr for0.7<Pr<160,Re DittusBoelterequation0.6<Pr<160
tubes: >10,000 Re>10,000L/D>10
Turbulentflow: n=0.4whenfluidisbeingheated,and
Nusseltnumber n=0.3whenfluidisbeingcooled
7
Flowinside SiederTateeqn.0.7<Pr<16,700,6000<Re<10
tubes:
Turbentflow:
Nusseltnumber,
whenthereis
propertyvariation
Flowinside Fitstheexperimentaldatabettern=0.11forheating
tubes: offluids,n=0.25forcoolingoffluids,n=0for
Turbulent constantheatflux,b /s=Ts/Tb ,temperaturein
flow:Nusselt Kelvin
number
0.827 5
Flowofliquid Nu=4.82+0.0185Pe 3600<Re<9.0510 ,100<Pe<10,000
metalsinside
smoothpipes:
constantsurface
heatflux.
0.85 0.93
Flowofliquid Nu=6.3+(0.0167Re Pr ) Recentcorrelationwhichfitsexperimentaldata
metalsinside better.
smoothpipes:
constantsurface
heatflux.
0.8
Flowofliquid Nu=5.0+0.025Pe forTs=constant,Pe
metalsinside >100.
smoothpipes:
constantsurface
temperature.
Helicallycoiled D=diameteroftube
tubes: dc =diameterofhelix
Turbulentflow:
Hausensrelation
9.12 Summary
Convectionisthemodeofheattransferwithfluidmotion.Ifthefluidmotioniscausedbydensitydifferencesasaresultof
temperaturedifferences,thenitiscallednaturalconvectioninstead,ifthefluidmotionisimposedduetoapumporfan,thenitis
calledforcedconvection.Also,theflowmaybelaminarorturbulentinlaminarflow,theflowisorderedandthedifferentlayers
offluidflowparalleltoeachotherinanorderlymanner.Inturbulentflow,theflowischaoticandtheflowishighlydisorderedand
thereismixingbetweendifferentlayersoffluidasaresultofchunksoffluid(eddies)movingbetweenlayers.Dimensionless
numberthatcharacterizestheflowaslaminarorturbulentistheReynoldsnumber.
Inthischapter,westudiedtheprinciplesofforcedconvectionandstatedafewcorrelationsforexternalflowonflatplates,cylinders
andspheres,andalsoforinternalflowthroughcircularandnoncircularpipes.
Mathematicalanalysisofconvectionproblemiscomplicatedsincethetemperatureprofilehastobesolvedinconjunctionwiththe
fluidflowrelations.Boundarylayerconceptsimplifiesthisproblemtosomeextent.Boundarylayerisaverythin,stagnantfluidlayer
thatadherestothewallsurfacewhereinthevelocityandtemperaturegradientsaresignificant.Thus,theflowfieldisconsideredtobe
madeupoftworegions,oneaboundarylayerregionandtheother,aninviscidregion.Derivationofboundarylayerequationsand
theirsolutiontothesimplecaseofaflatplatewasexplainedinsomedetail.Furthersimplificationwiththemethodofintegral
equationswasalsodemonstrated.
Centralprobleminconvectionheattransfersituationistofindouttheheattransfercoefficient,h.Heattransfercoefficientis
generallyrepresentedintermsofthedimensionlessNusseltnumber,Nu.So,intheanalysis,ouraimistogetarelationforNusselt
number.ByDimensionalAnalysis,itwasshownthatinforcedconvection,NusseltnumberisexpressedasfunctionofReynoldsand
Prandtlnumbers.
Wearealsointerestedinthedragforcebetweenthefluidandtheplateandthepressuredropoccursinthepipeifafluidisflowing
throughit.Thisisrelatedtotheshearstressatthewalls,whichinturn,isexpressedintermsofaskinfrictioncoefficientfortheflat
plateandafrictionfactorforinternalflowthroughapipe.Wesolvethemomentumequationtogettheshearstressandthefriction
coefficient,andbysolvingtheenergyequationwegetthetemperatureprofileandthustheheattransfercoefficient.
Thereisasimilarityinthegoverningequationsofmomentumandenergytransfer.Thisleadstotheideaofanalogybetween
momentumandheattransferandwehaveextremelyusefulanalogiessuchasReynoldsanalogyandColburnanalogy.Particularlyfor
roughtubes,anestimateofheattransfercoefficientiseasilymadejustbytheknowledgeoffrictioncoefficient,withthehelpofthese
analogies.
Mostoftheconvectioncorrelationsareempirical,deducedasresultoflargeamountofexperimentaldata.Severalempirical
correlationsforlaminaraswellasturbulent,forcedconvection,formanypracticallyimportantsituationshavebeenpresentedinthis
chapter.
Inthenextchapter,westudyaboutheattransferwithnaturalconvection.
Questions
1.Explainthedifferencebetweennaturalandforcedconvectioninlaminarandturbulentflow.
[M.U.]
2.Writeshortnotesonhydrodynamicandthermalboundarylayers.Whatistheimportanceoftheseboundarylayersinheat
transfer?
[M.U.]
3.Explaintheprincipleofdimensionalanalysis.Whatareitsadvantagesandlimitations?
[M.U.]
4.StateBuckinghamtheorem.
[M.U.]
5.Usingdimensionalanalysis,deriveanexpressionforheattransfercoefficientinforcedconvectionintermsofNusseltnumber,
ReynoldsnumberandPrandtlnumbers.
[M.U.]
6.Explainthephysicalsignificanceof:(a)Reynoldsnumber(b)Prandtlnumber,and(c)Nusseltnumber
[M.U.]
7.Writeashortnoteonapplicationsofdimensionalanalysis.
[M.U.]
8.WriteashortnoteonReynoldsanalogybetweenmomentumandheattransfer,withreferencetoaflatplate.
[M.U.]
9.Inflowacrossacylinder,whatismeantbyfrictiondragandpressuredrag?Atwhatpointonthecylinderistheheattransfer
maximum?
10.Showthatforflowinsideacirculartube,Reynoldsnumbercanbewrittenas:Re=4.m/(Dm)
11.StatethegenerallyacceptedvaluesofcriticalReynoldsnumbersatwhichtheflowchangesfromlaminartoturbulentfor:(a)a
flatplate(b)flowacrossacircularcylinder(c)flowacrossasphere,and(d)flowinsideacircularpipe.
12.Commentonthehydrodynamicandthermalentrylengthsforlaminarandturbulentflowsforanoilinsideacircularpipe.How
wouldtheycompareforaliquidmetal?
13.Whatisthedifferencebetweenfrictionfactorandfrictioncoefficient?
14.Howispressuredropinatuberelatedtothefrictionfactor?
15.Inacirculartube,whereistheheattransfercoefficienthigher,attheentryorexit?Why?
16.Doestheroughnessoftubesurfaceaffecttheheattransferin(a)laminarflow(b)turbulentflow.Explainyouranswer.
Problems
1.Glycerineat10Cflowsoveraflatplate,6mlong,maintainedat30Cwithavelocityof1.5m/s.Determinethetotaldragforce
3
andtheheattransferrateovertheentireplateperunitwidth.Propertiesofglycerineat20Care:=1264kg/m ,v=1180
6 2
10 m /s,Pr=12,500,k=0.2861W/(mK)andCp=2387J/(kgK).
2.Wateratat30Cisflowingwithavelocityof4m/salongthelengthofalong,flatplate,0.3mwide,maintainedat10C.
1.Calculatethefollowingquantitiesatx=0.3m:
(i)boundarylayerthickness(ii)localfrictioncoefficient(iii)averagefrictioncoefficient(iv)localshearstressdueto
friction(v)thicknessofthermalboundarylayer(vi)localconvectionheattransfercoefficient(vii)averageheattransfer
coefficient(viii)rateofheattransferfromtheplatebetweenx=0andx=x,byconvection,and(ix)totaldragforceon
theplatebetweenx=0andx=0.3m
5
2.Also,findoutthevalueofxc (i.e.thedistancealongthelengthatwhichtheflowturnsturbulent,Rec =510 ).
3 6 2
Propertiesofwateratafilmtemperatureof20Care:=1000kg/m ,v=1.00610 m /s,Pr=7.02,k=0.5978W/(mK)
andCp=4178J/(kgK).
3.Considerwaterflowingat30Coveraflatplate1mx1msize,maintainedat10Cwithafreestreamvelocityof0.5m/s.Plot
thevariationoflocalheattransfercoefficientalongthelengthifheatingstartsfrom0.25mfromtheleadingedge.
4.Airatapressureof3atm.and200Cflowsoveraflatplate(1mlongx0.3mwide),atavelocityof7m/s.Iftheplateis
maintainedat40C,findouttherateofheatremovedcontinuouslyfromtheplate.[Hint:heatisremovedfromboththe
surfacesoftheplate.Propertiesk,,Prdonotvarymuchwithpressure,but,variesaspertheIdealgaslaw,viz.=p/(RT),
temperatureinKelvin.]
3 6 2
Propertiesofairat1atm.andafilmtemperatureof120Care:=0.898kg/m ,v=25.4510 m /s,Pr=0.686,k=
0.03338W/(mK)andCp=1009J/(kgK).
5.Inproblem4,applytheColburnanalogytoestimatethedragforceexertedontheplate.
6.Dryairatatatmosphericpressureand30Cisflowingwithavelocityof2m/salongthelengthofaflatplate,(size:1mx0.5
m),maintainedat90C.
UsingBlasiusexactsolution,calculatethetheheattransferratefrom:
(a)thefirsthalfoftheplate(b)fullplate,and(c)nexthalfofplate.
7.Airat25Candatmosphericpressureisflowingwithavelocityof2.5m/salongthelengthofaflatplate,maintainedat55C.
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(i)hydrodynamicboundarylayerthicknessat20cmand40cmfromtheleadingedgebytheapproximatemethod(ii)mass
entrainmentratebetweenthesetwosectionsassumingacubicvelocityprofile,and(iii)heattransferredfromthefirst40cmof
theplate.
8.Anairstreamat20Candatmosphericpressure,flowswithavelocityof4m/soveranelectricallyheatedflatplate(size:0.6m
x0.6m),heaterpowerbeing1kW.Calculate:
(i)theaveragetemperaturedifferencealongtheplate(ii)heattransfercoefficient,and(iii)temperatureoftheplateatthe
trailingedge
9.SodiumPotassiumalloy(25%+75%),at250C,flowswithavelocityof0.5m/soveraflatplate(size:0.3mx0.1m),
maintainedat550C.Calculate:
(i)thehydrodynamicandthermalboundarylayerthicknesses(ii)localandaveragevalueoffrictioncoefficient(iii)heat
transfercoefficient,and(iv)totalheattransferrate
6 2
PropertiesofNakalloyatafilmtemeratureof400Care:=775kg/m3,v=0.30810 m /s,Pr=0.0108,k=22.1W/
(mK)andCp=1000.6J/(kgK).
10.Athinplateoflength2mandwidth1.5misexposedtoaflowofairparalleltoitssurfacealongthe2mside.Thevelocityand
temperatureofthefreestreamflowofairare3m/sand20Crespectively.Theplatesurfacetemperatureis90C.Determine
thelengthwisemeanlocalheattransfercoefficientattheendoftheplateandtheamountofheattransferred.Takethefollowing
propertiesofairat20C:
6 2
v=15.0610 m /s,Pr=0.703,k=0.0259W/(mK),andusetherelation:
0.5 1/3
Nuavg=0.664.ReL .Pr .
[M.U.]
11.A10cmdiametersteampipe,whosesurfaceisat90Cpassesthroughanareawherethewindisblowingacrossthepipeata
velocityof40km/hatatemperatureof10Candpressureof1atm.Determinetherateofheatlossfromthepipeperunit
length.
12.A6mmdiameterelectricalcablecarriesacurrentof60Ampanditsresistanceis0.002ohm/metre.Determinethesurface
temperatureofthecableifairatatemperatureof10Cblowsacrossthecablewithavelocityof50km/h.
13.Anincandescentbulb(60W)canbeconsideredasasphereof10cmdiameter.Only10%oftheenergysuppliedisconvertedto
lightandtheremaining90%oftheenergyisconvertedtoheat.Ifairat20Cblowsacrossthebulbwithavelocityof2.5m/s,
determinetheequilibriumtemperatureoftheglassbulb.
14.Aspheresuspendedinanairstreamisusedasspeedmeasuringdevice.A12mmdiametersphere,whensuspendedinanair
streamflowingat40C,maintainsasurfacetemperatureof50C,whiledissipatinganelectricalenergyof0.6W.Calculatethe
airspeed.
15.A1.5cmdiameterballbearingatatemperatureof100Ciscooledbypassingwateratatemperatureof15Cat0.3m/soverit.
Calculatethevalueofaveragesurfaceheattransfercoefficientbetweentheballbearingandwater.
16.Inapackedbedheatexchanger,airisheatedfrom30Cto370Cbypassingitthrougha10cmdiameterpipe,packedwith
spheresof6mmdiameter.Theflowrateis18kg/h.Pipesurfacetemperatureismaintainedat420C.Determinethelengthof
bedrequired.(Hint:Inthiscase,heatistransferredbetweenthegasandthewallsofthebed).
17.Inaregenerator,(1mdiax2mlong),sphericalrockfillingsofdiameter=25mm,areusedtoheatupair.Voidfractionofthis
bedis40%.Initially,therockfillingsareat25Candtheairisat85C,flowingintheaxialdirectionwithaflowrateof1.2kg/s.
Calculatethevalueofheattransfercoefficient(Hint:Inthiscase,heatistransferredbetweenthegasandthesphericalfillings).
18.Atube15mmIDismaintainedataconstanttemperatureof60C.Waterisflowinginsidethetubeatarateof10g/s.
Temperatureofwateratentryis20Candatadistanceof1mfromentrythetemperatureis40C.Computetheaveragevalue
ofNusseltnumberusingtheappropriatecorrelations.
19.Waterat20Cflowsthrougha15mmID,4mlongtubewithavelocityof2m/s.Tubewallismaintainedataconstant
temperatureof90C.Whatistheheattransfercoefficientandthetotalamountofheattransferred,iftheexittemperatureof
wateris60C?Also,calculatethepressuredrop.
20.If,inproblem15,threeGlobevalvesareintroducedinthepipeline,whatwillbethenewpressuredropvalue?
21.Waterat20Cflowsthrougha15mmID,4mlongtubewithavelocityof2m/s.Tubewallismaintainedataconstantheatflux
byelectricalheating.Whatistheheattransfercoefficientandthetotalamountofheattransferred,andthetemperatureoftube
wallattheexit,iftheexittemperatureofwateris60C?
22.Inaheatexchanger,waterflowsthroughalong2.2cmIDcoppertubeatabulkvelocityof2m/sandisheatedbysteam
condensingat150Contheoutsideofthetube.Thewaterentersat15Candleavesat60C.Findtheheattransfercoefficient
0.8 0.4
forwater.Usetheempiricalrelation:Nu=0.023.Re Pr .Physicalpropertiesofwateratthemeanbulktemperatureof
3
37.5Care:=990kg/m ,=0.00069kg/(ms),Pr=0.0108,k=0.63W/(mK)andCp=4160J/(kgK).[M.U.]
23.Awaterheaterconsistsofathickwalledtubeof20mmIDand40mmOD,insulatedontheoutsidesurface.Electricalheating
5 3
withinthewallprovidesauniformheatgenerationrateof510 W/m .Wateratarateof0.15kg/sentersat20Candleaves
at70C.Calculatethelengthoftuberequired.Whatisthelocalheattransfercoefficientattheexit,iftheinnerwallsurface
temperatureatexitis80C?
24.Waterisflowingthroughatubeof6mmIDatarateof4kg/s.Aconstantheatfluxof250Wpermetrelengthisprovidedat
thesurface.Ifthewaterentersat20Candexitsat70C,whatisthelengthoftuberequired?Also,whatisthesurface
temperatureatexit? Enjoy Safari? Subscribe Today
25.Liquidsodiumistobeheatedfrom170Cto230Catarateof2kg/sina2.5cmdiametertube,heatedelectricallyonits
surface.(Constantheatflux).Calculatethelengthoftuberequiredifthewalltemperatureisnottoexceed280C.Propertiesof
3 2
sodiumataveragebulktemperatureof200Care:=903kg/m ,v=0.506m /s,Pr=0.0075,k=81.41W/(mK)andCp=
1327.2J/(kgK).
26.Asquareductof20cmsidecarriescoolairat10Coveralengthof25m.Averagevelocityatentranceis1.5m/s.Ifthewallsof
ductaremaintainedat30C,determinetheoutlettemperatureofair.
27.Waterflowsthrougharoughpipeof40mmIDand3mlength.Relativeroughness,(/D)forpipe=0.004.Inlettemperature
ofwateris20Candtheinletflowvelocityis1.5m/s.Determinetheoutlettemperatureandalsothepressuredrop.
28.Consideratubebank,madeoftubesof10mmOD,inaninlinearrangement,longitudinalspacingandtransversespacingbeing
15mmand17mmrespectively.Airisheatedfrom20Cto40Cbypumpingitthroughthistubebank.Airapproachesthetube
bankwithavelocityof4m/s,andthetubewallsaremaintainedataconstanttemperatureof150C.Ifthereare10tuberows,
whatistheaverageheattransfercoefficientandthepressuredrop?
29.Waterat20Cflowsacrossatubebundleatafreestreamvelocityof20m/s.ODofthetubesis8cm.Longitudinaland
transversespacingsare22.5cmeach.Tubesareinastaggeredarrangement.Ifthetubesurfacesaremaintainedat50C,
estimatetheheattransfercoefficient.
30.Engineoilistobecooledfrom150Cto90Cinanannulusof15mmIDand30mmOD.Flowvelocityis1m/s.Temperature
ofinsidetubewallismaintainedat25C.Determinetheheattransfercoefficientandthelengthoftuberequired.Propertiesof
3 6 2
engineoilatameanbulktemperatureof120Care:=828kg/m ,v=1210 m /s,Pr=175,k=0.1349W/(mK)andCp
=2307J/(kgK).
31.Waterisflowingattherateof20kg/min.throughatubeofinnerdiameter2.5cm.Thesurfaceofthetubeismaintainedat
100C.Ifthetemperatureofwaterincreasesfrom25Cto55C,findthelengthoftuberequired.Followingempiricalrelation
canbeused:
0.8 0.4
Nu=0.023Re Pr .Physicalpropertiesofwatercanbetakenfromthefollowingtable:
[M.U.]
Example9.2.Airispassingthrougharectangularductofsize20cmx30cmatavelocityof8m/sandatemperatureof40C.
6 2
Propertiesofairat40Care:thermalconductivity(k)=0.02755W/(mK),kinematicviscosity(v)=16.9610 m /s,andthe
Nusseltnumberiscalculatedbyanempiricalrelationtobe450.Findouttheconvectiveheattransfercoefficient.
Solution.
Data:
a=0.3m lengthofflowpassagecrosssection
b=0.2m breadthofflowpassagecross
section
V=8m/s velocityofflow
6 2
n=16.9610 m /s kinematicviscosityofairat40C
k=0.02755W/(mK) thermalconductivityofairat40C
Nu=450 Nusseltnumber
Equivalentdiameter:
Forarectangularcrosssection:
i.e.de=0.24mequivalentdiameterofflowpassage
ReynoldsNumber:
SinceRe>4000,flowisturbulent
Convectiveheattransfercoefficient:
SinceitisgiventhatNu=450,wecanwrite,fromthedefinitionofNusseltsnumber:
Example9.5.Ethyleneglycolat25Cisflowingwithavelocityof0.2m/salongthelengthofaflatplate,6mlong,maintainedat
95C.
Calculate:
(i)hydrodynamicboundarylayerthicknessandthermalboundarylayerthicknessatthetrailingedgeofplate(ii)totaldragperunit
widthononesideofplate(iii)localheattransfercoefficientattheendofplate,and(iv)totalheatflowratefromthesurfaceperunit
width.
Solution.
Data:
L=6.0m lengthofflatplate
W=1.0m widthofflatplate
Ts=95C surfacetemperatureofplate
Ta=25C freestreamtemperatureof
air
U=0.2m/s velocityofethyleneglycol
filmtemperature
Propertiesofethyleneglycolaretobetakenatthefilmtemperatureof60C.Weget,fromdatatables:
3
r=1087.66kg/m densityofethyleneglycolat60C
Cp=2562J/(kgK) specificheatofethyleneglycolat60C
6 2
v=4.7510 m /s kinematicviscosityofethyleneglycolat60C
k=0.260W/(mK) thermalconductivityofethyleneglycolat60C
Pr=51 Prandtlnumber
(i)Hydrodynamicandthermalboundarylayerthicknessatthetrailingedgeofplate:
Now,characteristicdimensiontocalculateReynoldsnumberislengthofplate:
5
Hydrodynamicboundarylayerthickness,:
Thicknessofthernalboundarylayer:
Wehave:
(ii)AveragefrictioncoefficientCa:
(iii)Totaldragforceontheplatebetweenx=0andx=6.0m
(iii)Localconvectionheattransfercoefficientattheendofplate:
Wehave:
(iv)Totalheatflowratefromthesurfaceperunitwidth:
FromEq.9.40,averageheattransfercoefficientbetweenx=0andx=Lisequaltotwicethevalueoflocalheattransfercoefficientat
x=L
Example9.10.SodiumPotassiumalloy(25%+75%),at300C,flowswithavelocityof0.4m/salongaflatplate(size:0.3m
2
0.1m),heatedwithuniformheatfluxof1500kW/m .Calculate:(i)heattransfercoefficient,(ii)theaveragetemperaturedifference
alongtheplate,and(iii)temperatureoftheplateatthetrailingedge.
Solution.
Data:
Ta=300C freestreamtemperatureofNaK
alloy
U=0.4m/s velocityofNaKalloy
L=0.3m lengthofplate
W=0.1m widthofplate
2
qs=1500103W/m heatflux
Notethatpropertieshavetobeevaluatedatthefilmtemperaturehowever,sincethetemperatureoftheplateisnotconstant,but
variesalongthelength,weshallstarttheanalysistakingthepropertiesofNaKalloyat300Candthenrefinethevalueslater.
6 2
v=0.36610 m /s kinematicviscosityofNaKalloyat300C
k=22.68W/(mK) thermalconductivityofNaKalloyat
300C
Pr=0.0134 PrandtlnumberNaKalloyat300C
(i)Localandaverageheattransfercoefficient:
5
Thisvalueislessthan510 so,theboundarylayerislaminarandweshallapplyEq.9.70,
i.e.
Therefore,averagevalueofheattransfercoefficient:
ha=2hL
3 2
i.e. ha=7.712710 W/(m C) averagevalueofheattransfer
coefficient
(ii)Therefore,averagetemperaturedifference:
Now,refinetheresultstakingpropertyvaluesatthenewfilmtemperatureof:
Then,
ThisvalueoflocalNusseltnumberisnotmuchdifferentfromthevaluegotearlier.
So,wesettleforthevalueofhLas:
ha=2hL
3 2
i.e. ha=7.80910 W/(m C) averagevalueofheattransfer
coefficient
(iii)temperatureoftheplateatthetrailingedge
Example9.15.Airat27Cand1atmflowsoveraflatplate(L=1m,W=0.5m)withavelocityof4m/s.Totaldragforceactingon
3
isfoundfromexperiment,tobeF D=2010 N.UsingReynoldsColburnanalogy,estimatethecorrespondingaverageheattransfer
coefficientforthissituation.
Solution.
Data:
Ta=27C freestreamtemperatureofair
U=4m/s velocityofair
L=1.0m lengthofplate
W=0.5m widthofplate
3
F D=2010 N dragforce
Propertiesofairat27C:
Cp=1006J/kgK specificheatofair
Pr =0.708 Prandtlnumberof
air
3
r=1.177kg/m densityofair
Wehave,byReynoldsColburnAnalogy:
Now,skinfrictioncoefficientCfaisdeterminedfromdefinitionofdragforce,viz.
Now,applyingEq.a:
Example9.19.Airat1barand20Cflowsacrossa10mmdiameterspherewithafreestreamvelocityof5m/s.Surfaceofsphereis
maintainedat80C.Determinethevalueofconvectioncoefficientandtheheatlossfromthesphere.
Solution.
Data:
Ts=80C spheresurface
temperature
Ta=20C airtemperature
U=5m/s velocityofair
D=0.01m diameterofsphere
WeshalluseWhitakerscorrelationforasphere,viz.
Here,rememberthatReynoldsnumberisevaluatedatfreestreamtemperature.
PropertiesatfreestreamtemperatureTa
6 2
v=15.710 m /s kinematicviscosity
k=0.0251W/(mK)
Pr=0.71
6 2
a=18.2410 Ns/m dynamicviscosityat
20C
6 2
And,atTw=80C w=20.7910 Ns/m dynamicviscosityat
80C
Reynoldsnumber:
Nusseltsnumber
Then,fromEq.9.97wehave
HeattransferrateQ:
2
Q=h(D )(TsTa)W heattransfer
rate
i.e. Q=1.382W heattransfer

rate
Alternatively:useMcAdamsequation.,viz.

0.6
Nusph=0.37Re for17<Re<70,000(9.95)
Here,allfluidpropertiesmustbetakenatthefilmtemperatureof:Tf=50C
6 2
At50C v=18.510 m /s kinematicviscosity
k=0.0272W/(mK) thermalconductivity
Therefore,
And,fromEq.9.95,wehave:
Nusph=
0.6
0.37Re
i.e. Nusph=42.392
And,heattransfercoefficientis:
2
i.e.h=115.305W/(m K)heattransfercoefficient
Thisisabout57%higherthanthevaluecalculatedearlier.
Example9.22.Wateratanaveragetemperatureof50Cpassesthrougharectangularductof3cm1.5cmsizeatavelocityof5
cm/s.Whatisthepressuredropifthelengthofductis20m?
Solution.
Data:
Ta=50C averagetemperatureof
water
b=0.03m widthofduct
a=0.015m heightofduct
L=20m lengthofduct
U=0.05m/s velocityatentry
Weneedthepropertiesofwaterataveragetemperatureof50C:
3
=988.1kg/m densityofwater
3
=0.54710 kg/(ms) dynamic
viscosity
Reynoldsnumber:
TocalculateRe,weneedhydraulicdiameter,sincethisisrectangularduct:
Wehave,forhydraulicdiameter:
Frictionfactor:
ReferTable9.8or9.9forvalueoffrictionfactor
Pressuredrop:
Therefore,pressuredropisgivenby
i.e.p=42.522Papressuredropfor20mlengthofduct.
Example9.31.Waterflowsthroughatube,2.5cmdiameterataflowrateof1lit./s.Tubesurfaceismaintainedat90C.
Temperatureofwaterincreasesfrom30to70C.Findthelengthoftuberequired.UseDittusBoelterequationviz.NuD=0.023.
0.8 0.4
(ReD) .Pr Takepropertiesofwateratmeanbulktemperatureof50Cas:
3 6 2
=988.1kg/m ,Cp=4178J/(kgC),k=0.6474W/(mC),v=0.55610 m /s
Solution.
Data:
Ti=30C inlettemperatureofwater
To=70C exittemperatureofwater
Ts=90C constantsurface
temperature
D=0.025m innerdiameterofpipe
3 3
V=110 m /s volumeflowrateofwater
Reynoldsnumber:
Wehave:
Thisisdeterminedfromaheatbalance:
Massflowrate,
Heatgainedbywater=heattransferredbetweenthepipesurfaceandthewater
Temperaturedifferencebetweenthepipesurfaceandthebulktemperatureofwatergoesonvaryingalongthelengthoftubeweuse
LMTDtobeaccurate.(Meantemperatureofwaterbetweeninletandexitalsocouldbeused,butanswerwillnotbeveryaccurate).
Byheatbalance:
Ifweconsiderthedifferencebetweenthesurfacetemperatureandthemeanofinletandexittemperatureofwater,insteadofLMTD:
Then,byheatbalance:
Comparethetwovaluesoflengthrequired.
AgainnotethatconsideringLMTDismoreaccurate.
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Chapter 9 - Forced Convection

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Chapter 9 - Forced Convection

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10/1/2016 Chapter9.

Fundamentals of Heat and Mass Transfer

9.2 Physical Mechanism of Forced Convection

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9.3 Newtons Law of Cooling and Heat Transfer Coe icient

9.4 Nusselt Number

9.5 Velocity Boundary Layer

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9.6 Thermal Boundary Layer

9.7 Di erential Equations for the Boundary Layer

9.7.1 Conservation of MassThe Continuity Equation for The Boundary Layer

9.7.2 Conservation of Momentum Equation for The Boundary Layer

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Viscousshearforces: Enjoy Safari? Subscribe Today

9.7.3 Conservation of Energy Equation for The Boundary Layer

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9.8 Methods to Determine Convective Heat Transfer Coe icient

9.8.1 Dimensional Analysis

9.8.1.1 Primary Dimensions and Dimensional Formulas.

9.8.1.2 Buckingham Theorem.

Now,experimentaldatacanbepresentedbyplotting 1against 2 fordifferentvaluesof 3 .

9.8.1.3 Dimensional Analysis for Forced Convection.

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9.8.1.4 Advantages and Limitations of Dimensional Analysis

9.8.1.5 Dimensionless Numbers and their Physical Significance.

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9.8.2 Exact Solutions of Boundary Layer Equations

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9.8.3 Approximate Solutions of Boundary Layer EquationsVon Karman Integral Equations

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where1and2 arethethicknessesofboundarylayeratsectionsx1andx2 respectively.

SubstitutingfromEqs.a, b , c and d andsimplifying,weget:

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i.e. Q=184.858W heattransferredover40cmlengthof

9.8.3.1 Turbulent boundary Layer Flow Over a Flat Plate.

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wherelog(ReL)isthelogarithmtobase10. Enjoy Safari? Subscribe Today

9.8.3.2 Combined laminar and Turbulent Flow Over a Flat Plate.

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x2 :=0.47,0.48,,0.75 (definerangevariablex2 varyingfrom0.47to0.75m,

9.8.4 Analogy Between Momentum and Heat Transfer

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i.e. Q=114.249W (heattransferrateforthefirst0.4m

9.9.1 Flow Across Cylinders and Spheres

0.44 0.989 0.330

440 0.911 0.385

404,000 0.683 0.466

4,00040,000 0.193 0.618

40,000400,000 0.0266 0.805

9.9.2 Flow Across Blu Objects

9.9.3 Flow Through Packed Beds

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i.e. Q=0.016W (heatdissipated=16

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9.9.4 Flow Across a Bank of Tubes