Chapter 13 Radiation

10/1/2016 Chapter13.
RadiationFundamentalsofHeatandMassTransfer
Fundamentals of Heat and Mass Transfer
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Chapter 12. Heat Exchangers Chapter 14. Mass Transfer

Chapter 13
Radiation
13.1 Introduction
Sofar,weconsideredheattransferbyconductionandconvection.Inthesemodesofheattransfer,therewasalwaysamediumpresent
forheattransfertooccur.However,radiationmodeofheattransferisradicallydifferentinthesensethatthereisnoneedfora
mediumtobepresentforheattransfertooccur.Justasconductionandconvectionheattransfersoccurwhenthereisatemperature
gradient,netradiationheattransferalsooccursfromahighertemperatureleveltoalowertemperaturelevel.Therearetwotheories
concerningtheradiationheattransfer:one,classicalelectromagneticwavetheoryofMaxwell,accordingtowhichenergyis
transferredduringradiationbyelectromagneticwaves,whichtravelasraysandfollowthelawsofopticssecond,theQuantumtheory
ofphysics,accordingtowhichenergyisradiatedintheformofsuccessive,discretequantaofenergy,calledphotons.Boththe
theoriesareusefultoexplaintheradiationphenomenonandproperties.
Radiationheattransferisproportionaltothefourthpowerofabsolutetemperatureoftheradiatingsurface.Therefore,radiation
becomesthepredominantmodeofheattransferwhenthetemperatureofthebodyishigh.Withthisinmind,wecanciteafew
importantapplicationsofradiationheattransfer:
1.industrialheating,suchasinfurnaces
2.industrialairconditioning,wheretheeffectofsolarradiationhastobeconsideredincalculatingtheheatloads
3.jetengineorgasturbinecombustors
4.industrialdrying
5.energyconversionwithfossilfuelcombustion,etc.
Followingaresomeofthefeaturesofradiation:
10
1.Theelectromagneticmagneticwavesareofallwavelengths,travellingatthevelocityoflight,i.e.c=310 cm/s
2.Frequency(f)andwavelength()areconnectedbytherelation:c=.f,whichmeansthathigherthefrequency,lowerthe
wavelength
3.Smallerthewavelength,morepowerfulistheradiation,andalsomoredamaging,e.g.XraysandGammarays.
AsketchoftheelectromagneticspectrumisshowninFig.13.1.Differentpartsoftheelectromagneticspectrumhavewavelengths()as
showninTable13.1.
Inthischapter,weareinterestedinradiations,whichonabsorption,resultinproductionofheat,i.e.thermalradiation.Itmaybe
6
observedthatthermalradiationfallsinthewavelengthrangeof0.1to100microns(Unitofwavelengthis1micron=10 m,and1
10
Angstrom=10 m),i.e.thermalradiationincludesentirevisible(i.e.=0.4to0.8microns)andinfraredandpartofultraviolet
range.Asamatterofinterest,itmaybestatedthatmostoftheradiationfromthesun(temperature:5600Capproximately)isinthe
lowerendof0.1to0.4micronsand,forcomparison,radiationfromanincandescentlampisintherangeof1to10microns.
Whilemostofthesolidsandliquidsemitradiationinacontinuousspectrum,gasesandvapoursradiateonlyincertainwavelength
bandstherefore,theyareknownasselectiveemitters.
TABLE13.1Wavelengthsofdifferenttypesofradiation
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10/1/2016 Chapter13.RadiationFundamentalsofHeatandMassTransfer
Kindofradiation Wavelength,
7
Cosmicrays upto410 m
7 4
Gammarays 410 to1.410 m
5 2
Xrays 1.010 to210 m
Ultraviolet 0.01to0.39m
Visibleradiation 0.39to0.78m
Thermalradiation 0.1to100m
Infrared 0.78to1000m
Microwave 0.8to1000mm
Radiowaves Beyond1m
FIGURE13.1Electromagneticspectrum
13.2 Properties and Definitions

Often,weusethetermspectralitmeans,dependenceonwavelength.
And,valueofaquantityatagivenwavelengthiscalledmonochromaticvalue.
Absorptivity,ReflectivityandTransmissivity:
Ingeneral,whenradiantenergy(Qo)isincidentonasurface,partofitmaybeabsorbed(Qa),partmaybereflected(Qr )andpartmay
betransmitted(Qt)throughthebody.Then,obviously,
where,=absorptivity=fractionofincidentradiationabsorbed
=reflectivity=fractionofincidentradiationreflected
=fractionofincidentradiationtransmitted.
Mostofthesolidsandliquidsareopaque,i.e.theydonottransmitradiation,and=0so,formostsolidsandliquids:+=1.
Gasesreflectverylittleso,forgases:+=1.
If=1,entireradiationpassesthroughthebodysuchabodyistransparentordiathermaneous.
If=1,thebodyabsorbsalltheincidentradiationandsuchabodyiscalledablackbody.
If=1,alltheincidentradiationisreflected,anditisaperfectlywhitebody.
Inreality,therearenoperfectlyblack,whiteortransparentbodies.
However,somebodiesaretransparenttoonlywavesofcertainwavelengthforexample,rocksaltistransparenttoheatrays,butnon
transparenttoultravioletrays.And,windowglassistransparenttovisiblelight,butalmostnontransparenttoultravioletandinfra
redrays.Therefore,aspacecoveredwithglass(orplastic)enclosure,allowssolarradiationtopassthroughitandtheobjectsinside
theenclosuregetheateduptheheatedobjectsradiate,butthisradiationisinthehigherwavelengthrange(infrared)towhichglass
orplasticisopaque.So,theheatgetstrappedinsidetheenclosureandthetemperatureinsidetheenclosurerisesabovethatof
ambient.ThisisknownasGreenhouseeffectandisusedtokeeptheplantswarmincoldweather.Anotherexampleof
Greenhouseeffectismanifestedinheatinguptheinteriorofacartoatemperaturemuchabovetheambienttemperaturewhenthecar
isparkedinhotsun,withallitswindowsclosed.
Absorptionandreflectionofheatraysdependratheronthestateofthesurfacethanonthecolourofthesurface.Forexample,snow
hasanabsorptivityof0.985andisnearlyblackforthermalradiation!
Absorptivityofasurfacecanbeincreasedbyapplyingcoatingsofdarkpaintsusually,lampblackisusedforthispurpose.
FIGURE13.2Spectralandspatialenergydistribution
SpectralandSpatialenergydistribution:
Distributionofradiantenergyisnonuniformwithrespecttobothwavelengthanddirection,asshowninFig.13.2.
PerfectblackbodyAperfectblackbodydoesnotexistinnaturehowever,aperfectblackbodycanbeapproximatedinthe
laboratorybyhavingaspherecoatedblackontheinsidethen,ifthereisasmallholeonthewallofthesphere,theradiationQ
n
enteringtheholegoesthroughmultiplereflectionsandafternreflections, .Qistheemergentenergyflux.Obviously,theemerging
fluxtendstobezerowhenntendstoinfinity,i.e.thepinholeinthespheresimulatesablackbody.ThisisknownasHohlraum.See
Fig.13.3.
Notethefollowingpointsinconnectionwithablackbody:
1.Ablackbodyabsorbsalltheincidentradiation,ofallwavelengthsandfromalldirections
2.Foragiventemperatureandwavelength,energyemittedbyablackbodyisthemaximumascomparedtoanyotherbody
3.Blackbodyisadiffuseemitter,i.e.theradiationemittedbyablackbodyisindependentofdirection
4.Ablackbodydoesnotreflectortransmitanyofincidentradiation
ReflectionReflectionmaybespecular(ormirrorlike)ordiffuse.SeeFig.13.4
Inspecularreflection,theangleofincidenceisequaltotheanglemadebythereflectedraywiththenormaltothesurface.Incaseof
diffusereflection,magnitudeofreflectedenergyinagivendirectionisproportionaltothecosineoftheangleofthatdirectiontothe
normal.Roughnessofthesurfacedeterminesifthereflectionisspecularordiffuse:iftheheightofcorrugationsonthesurfaceis
muchsmallerthanthewavelengthofincidentradiation,thesurfacebehaviourisspecularotherwise,itisdiffuse.
Emissivepower(E)Thetotal(orhemispherical)emissivepoweristhetotalthermalenergyradiatedbyasurfaceperunittime
andperunitarea,overallthewavelengthsandinalldirections.Note,inparticular,thatonlytheoriginal,emittedenergyistobe
consideredandthereflectedenergyisnottobeincluded.Totalemissivepowerdependsonthetemperature,materialandthesurface
condition.
SolidangleSolidangleisdefinedasaregionofasphere,whichisenclosedbyaconicalsurfacewiththevertexoftheconeatthe
centreofthesphere.SeeFig.13.5.
IfthereisasourceofradiationofasmallareaatthecentreofthesphereO,thentheradiationpassesthroughtheareaAnonthe
surfaceofthesphereandwesaythattheareaAnsubtendsasolidanglewhenviewedfromthecentreofthesphere.Notethatwith
thisdefinition,Anisalwaysnormaltotheradiusofthesphere.Mathematically,solidangleisexpressedas:
FIGURE13.3SimulationofablackbodyinlaboratoryHohlraum
However,inapracticalcase,thesurfacemaynotbepartofaspherebut,ifaplaneareaAinterceptsthelineofpropagationof
radiationsuchthatthenormaltothesurfacemakesananglewiththelineofpropagation,thenweprojecttheincidentareanormal
tothelineofpropagation,suchthat,thesolidangleisnowdefinedas:
Notethat,A.cos()=Anistheprojectedareaoftheincidentsurface,normaltothelineofpropagation.
FIGURE13.4Specularanddiffusereflection
Intensityofradiation(Ib)Intensityofradiationforablackbody,Ib isdefinedastheenergyradiatedperunittimeperunitsolid
angleperunitareaoftheemittingsurfaceprojectednormaltothelineofviewofthereceiverfromtheradiatingsurface.
Mathematically,thisisexpressedas:
FIGURE13.5Definitionofsolidangle
NotethatEmissivepowerEb ofablackbodyreferstounitsurfaceareawhereasIntensityIb ofablacksurfacereferstounitprojected

area.
Ibistheintensityofblackbodyradiationforradiationofagivenwavelength.And,Ib isthesummationoverallthewavelengths,i.e.
Considerasmall,blacksurfacedAemittingradiationalloverahemisphereaboveit.SeeFig.13.6.Letaradiationcollectorbelocated
onthehemisphericalsurfaceatazenithangletothenormaltothesurfaceandazimuthanglefurther,letthecollectorsubtenda
solidangledwhenviewedfromapointontheemitter.Then,itwillbeobservedthatmaximumamountofradiationismeasured
whenthecollectorisverticallyabovetheemitter,normaltotheemitter.Inanydirectionfromthenormal,rateofenergyradiatedis
givenbyLambertscosinelaw:Adiffusesurfaceradiatesenergysuchthattherateofenergyradiatedinadirectionfromthe
normaltothesurfaceisproportionaltothecosineoftheangle,i.e.
Q =Qncos()
FIGURE13.6Lambertscosinelaw
Ingeneral,forrealsurfaces,intensitydoesnotvarywith,butdependsonhowever,withtheintensityofradiationasdefinedabove,
i.e.onbasisofunitprojectedarea,itcanbeshownthatforablacksurface,theintensityisthesameinalldirections.Suchasurfaceis
knownasdiffusesurface.
Foradiffuse,blacksurface,radiationintensityisindependentofdirectionandsuchsurfacesarealsoknownasLambertonian
surfaces.
Intensitycanbethoughtofasbrightnesslookingdownverticallyalongthenormal,aviewerseesalloftheblacksurfacedAata
particularlevelofbrightnessandlookingdownalongalinethatmakesananglewiththenormal,theviewerwillseeonlythe
projectedareadA.cos(),butatthesamelevelofbrightness.
Manyrealbodies,whicharenotdiffuse,donotobeyLambertslawandtheirradiationintensitychangeswiththedirectionfor
example,forpolishedmetals,thebrightnessisamaximumnotinthedirectionnormaltothesurface,butat60to80deg.fromthe
normal,andwithfurtherincreasein,thebrightnessdropsabruptlytozero.Butformaterialslikecorundumandcopperoxide,the
intensity(orbrightness)isgreateralongthenormalthanthatinotherdirections.
13.3 Laws of Black Body Radiation
13.3.1 Plancks Law for Spectral Distribution

Radiationenergyemittedbyablacksurfacedependsonthewavelength,temperatureofthesurfaceandthesurfacecharacteristics.
Plancksdistributionlawrelatestothespectralblackbodyemissivepower,Ebdefinedastheamountofradiationenergy
emittedbyablackbodyatanabsolutetemperatureTperunittime,perunitsurfacearea,perunitwavelengthaboutthewavelength.
2
UnitsofEbare:W/(m m).Thefirstsubscriptbindicatesblackbodyandthesecondsubscriptstandsforgivenwavelength,or
monochromatic.PlanckderivedhisequationforEbin1901inconjunctionwithhisquantumtheory.
Plancksdistributionlawisexpressedas:
8 4 2
where,C1=3.74210 Wm /m
4
and,C2 =1.438710 mK.
PlotsofEbvs.forafewdifferenttemperaturesareshowninFig.13.7.
ToplotthePlancksdistributionforablackbody,usingMathcad,first,defineEbasafunctionofTandasfollows:
FIGURE13.7Plancksdistributionlawforablackbody
Then,definearangevariablevaryingfrom0.01mo1000m:
:=0.01,0.02,,1000.
Now,selectthexyplotfromthegraphpaletteonxaxisplaceholder,typeandontheyaxisplaceholder,fillinEb(,100),Eb
(,500),Eb(,1000),andEb(,5800).Clickanywhereoutsidethegraphregion,andthecurvesappearimmediately.
Thisisanimportantgraphthattellsusquitealotaboutthecharacteristicsofblackbodyradiation:
1.AtagivenabsolutetemperatureT,ablackbodyemitsradiationoverallwavelengths,rangingfrom0to.
2.Spectralemissivepowercurvevariescontinuouslywithwavelength.
3.Atagivenwavelength,astemperatureincreases,emissivepoweralsoincreases.
4.Atagiventemperature,emissivepowercurvegoesthroughapeak,andamajorportionoftheenergyradiatedisconcentrated
aroundthispeakwavelengthmax.
5.Asignificantpartoftheenergyradiatedbysun(consideredasablackbodyatatemperatureof5800K)isinthevisibleregion
(=0.4to0.7microns),whereasamajorpartoftheenergyradiatedbyearthat300Kfallsintheinfraredregion.
6.Astemperatureincreases,thepeakofthecurveshiftstotheleft,i.e.towardstheshorterwavelengths.
7.Areaunderthecurvebetweenand(+d)=Eb.d=radiantenergyfluxleavingthesurfacewithintherangeofwavelength
to(+d).Integratingovertheentirerangeofwavelengths,
Eb isthetotalemissivepower(alsoknownasradiantenergyfluxdensity)perunitarearadiatedfromablackbody,andisthe
8 2 4
StefanBoltzmannconstant=5.6710 W/(m K ).
CorollariesofPlanckslaw:
(a)Forshorterwavelengths,(C2 /.T)becomesverylarge,andexp(C2 /.T)>>1.Then,Plancksformula(Eq.13.7)reducesto:
ThisequationisknownasWeinslawandisaccuratewithin1%for.T<3000mK.
(b)Forlongerwavelengths,thefactor(C2 /.T)becomesverysmall,andexp(C2 /.T)canbeexpandedinaseriesasfollows:
and,Planckslawbecomes:
5
ThisisknownasRayleighJeanslawandisaccuratewithin1%for11.T>810 mK.Thislawisusefulinanalysinglongwave
radiationssuchasradiowaves.
13.3.2 Weins Displacement Law

ItisclearfromFig.13.7thatthespectraldistributionofemissivepowerofablackbodyatagivenabsolutetemperaturegoesthrougha
maximum.Tofindoutthevalueofmax,thewavelengthatwhichthismaximumoccurs,differentiatePlancksequationw.r.t.and
equatetozero.Weget:
Simplifying,
SolvingthistransendentalEq.forC2 /.Tbytrialanderror,weget:
i.e.maxisinverselyproportionaltotheabsolutetemperatureT,andthemaximumspectralintensityshiftstowardsshorter
wavelengthsastheabsolutetemperatureisincreased.
Weinsdisplacementlawisstatedas:productofabsolutetemperatureandwavelengthatwhichemissivepowerofablackbodyisa
maximum,isconstant.
Valueofmaximummonochromaticemissivepowerofablackbodyatagiventemperatureisobtainedbysubstitutingthisvalueof
maxT(=2898mK)inPlancksequation,i.e.
Thisisanimportantequationwhichtellsusthatthemaximummonochromaticemissivepowerofablackbodyvariesasthefifth
poweroftheabsolutetemperatureofthebody.
Inpractice,thislawisappliedtopredictveryhightemperaturessimplybymeasuringthewavelengthofradiationemitted.
Dividingmonochromaticemissivepowerofablackbody,Eb,byitsmaximumemissivepoweratthesametemperature, ,we
getthedimensionlessratio:
i.e. (where,isinmicrons,andTinKelvin(13.12a))
NotethatRHSofEq.13.12aisafunctionofTonly.Therefore,todeterminethemonochromaticemissivepower,Eb,ofablackbody
atanygiventemperatureTandwavelength,firstfindout(Eb/Ebmax)fromEq.13.12a,thenevaluateEbmaxfromEq.13.12,and
thenmultiplythemtogether.
13.3.3 StefanBoltzmann Law

MonochromaticemissivepowerofablackbodyisobtainedfromthePlanckslaw.Then,thetotalemissivepowerofablackbody
overtheentirewavelengthspectrumisobtainedbyintegratingEb.Totalemissivepower(or,hemisphericaltotalemissivepower)is
denotedbyEb ,andisgivenas:
Performingtheintegration,weget:

4 2
Eb =T W/m (13.13)
8 2 4
where,=5.6710 W/(m K )
isknownasStefanBoltzmannconstant.
Eq.13.13isthegoverningrateequationforradiationfromablackbody.Itssignificanceliesinthefactthatjustwithaknowledgeof
theabsolutetemperatureofasurface,onecancalculatethetotalamountofenergyradiatedinalldirectionsovertheentirewavelength
range.
NetradiantenergyexchangebetweentwoblackbodiesattemperaturesT1andT2 is,therefore,givenby:
13.3.4 Radiation from a Wave Band

Often,itisrequiredtoknowtheamountofradiationemittedinagivenwaveband,i.e.inawavelengthintervalbetween1and2 .This
isexpressedasafractionofthetotalemissivepowerandiswrittenasF 12 .Then,wecanwrite:
Aboveformulaisnotveryconvenienttouse,sinceEbdependsonabsolutetemperatureT,anditisnotpracticabletotabulateF 0
foreachT.ThisdifficultyisovercomebyexpressingF 0asfollows:
i.e.now,F 0_isexpressedasafunctionoftheproductofwavelengthandabsolutetemperature(=.T)only.
ValuesofF 0_vs..TaretabulatedinTable13.2andplottedinFig.13.8.
Notethattheunitsofproduct.Tis(micronKelvin).
Therefore,
13.3.5 Relation Between Radiation Intensity and Emissive Power

ConsideradifferentialblackemitterdA1radiatingintoahemisphereofradiusr,withthecentreofthehemispherelocatedatdA1.To
getarelationbetweentheintensityofradiationandtheemissivepower,wefirstcalculatetherateofenergyfallingonadifferential
areadA2 onthesurfaceofthehemisphereusingthedefinitionofintensity,thencalculatetherateofenergyfallingonthewholeofthe
hemispherebyintegrating,andthenequatethisamounttotherateofradiantenergyissuingfromtheblacksurfacedA1.
FIGURE13.8Fractionofblackbodyradiationintherange(0.T)
TABLE13.2Radiationfunctions
2
LettherateofradiantenergyfallingondA2 bedQ.SolidanglesubtendedbydA2 atthecentreofthesphere,d=dA2 /r .Projected
areaofdA1onaplaneperpendiculartothelinejoiningdA1anddA2 =dA1.cos().Then,bydefinition,intensityofradiationistherate
ofenergyemittedperunitprojectedareanormaltothedirectionofpropagation,perunitsolidangle,i.e.
But,itisclearfromFig.13.9thatdifferentialareadA2 isequalto:
dA2 =(rd)(rsin()d)
2
i.e.dA2 =r sin()dd(13.19)
Then,fromEqs.13.18and13.19,
dQ=Ib .dA1.sin().cos().d.d
Then,totalrateofradiantenergyfallingonthehemisphere,Q,isobtainedbyintegratingthisvalueofdQovertheentirehemispherical
surface.Notingthatthewholeofhemisphericalsurfaceiscoveredbytakingfrom0to(/2)and,from0to(2.),wewrite:
But,Qisalsoequalto:Eb.dA1
Therefore,Eb dA1=Ib dA1
or,Eb =Ib (13.21)
i.e.Totalemissivepowerofablack(diffuse)surfaceisequaltotimestheintensityofradiation.
FIGURE13.9RadiationfromadifferentialareadA1tosurroundinghemisphere
Thisisanimportantrelation,whichwillbeusedwhilecalculatingtheviewfactorsrequiredtodeterminenetenergyexchangebetween
surfaces.
13.3.6 Emissivity, Real Surface and Grey Surface

Asalreadystated,ablackbodyisanideal,anditemitsmaximumamountradiationatagiventemperatureablackbodyalsoabsorbs
alltheradiationincidentonit.Aperfectblackbodydoesnotexistinpractice,butthisconceptisusefulasastandardtocompare
radiationpropertiesofdifferentbodies.
Realsurfacesalwaysemitlessradiationascomparedtoablackbody.
Emissivity()ofasurfaceisdefinedastheratioofradiationemittedbyasurfacetothatemittedbyablackbodyatthesame
temperature.Valueofvariesbetween0and1.Forablackbody,=1,andemissivityofasurfaceisameasureofhowcloselythat
surfaceapproachesablackbody.
Emissivityofasurfaceisnotaconstant,butdependsonnatureofthesurface,temperature,wavelength,methodoffabrication,etc.For
example,oxidefilmonametalsurfaceincreasesitsemissivity.Emissivityofalloysisgreaterthanthatofpuremetals.And,emissivity
ofsemiconductorsisgreaterthan0.8at100deg.Candgoesondecreasingwithrisingtemperature.Dielectricmaterialshavehigher
valuesofemissivityascomparedtothatofpuremetals,andinthiscasealso,emissivitydecreaseswithincreasingtemperature.
referstotheemissivityatagivenwavelength,,andisknownasspectralemissivity.Whenitisaveragedoverallwavelengths,it
isknownastotalemissivity.
Similarly, referstoemissivityinagivendirection,,whereistheanglemadebythedirectionconsideredwiththenormaltothe
surfacethisisknownasdirectionalemissivity.When isaveragedoveralldirections,itisknownashemispherical
emissivity.Thus,thetotalhemisphericalemissivity()ofasurfaceistheaverageemissivityoveralldirectionsandall
wavelengthsandisexpressedas:
where,E(T)istheemissivepoweroftherealsurface.Similarly,spectralemissivityisdefinedas:
TABLE13.3Emissivityvaluesforafewsurfacesatroomtemperature
Surface

Aluminium:
0.03
Polished
0.84
Anodised
0.05
Foil

Copper:
0.03
Polished
0.75
Tarnished

StainlessSteel:
0.21
Polished
0.60
Dull
0.88
Concrete
0.95
Whitemarble
0.93
Redbrick
0.90
Asphalt
0.97
Blackpaint
0.97
Snow
0.97
Humanskin
EmissivityvaluesforafewsurfacesatroomtemperaturearegiveninTable13.3.MoredetailedlistingisgiveninHandbooks.
FIGURE13.10Variationofemissivitywithdirection
Generally,forsimplificationofcalculationsinradiationheattransfer,wemakegreyanddiffuseapproximations.
Asurfaceissaidtobegreyifitspropertiesareindependentofwavelength,andasurfaceisdiffuseifitspropertiesareindependentof
direction.
Ablackbodyisperfectlydiffuse,and,realbodies,thoughnotperfectlydiffuse,comequiteclosetoit.Asanexample,aqualitative
graphofdirectionalemissivity, with,forelectricalconductorsandnonconductors,isgiveninFig.13.10(ismeasuredfromthe
normaltothesurface,and=0meansnormaltothesurface).
Itmaybeobservedthatforconductors, isnearlyconstantforabout<40deg.andfornonconductors(suchasplastics),0
remainsconstantfor0<70deg.Therefore,directionalemissivityinthenormaldirection(i.e.=0)istakenastruerepresentativeof
hemisphericalemissivityfurther,inradiationanalysis,generally,thesurfacesareassumedtobediffuseemitters.
Emissivitiesandemissivepowersofblackbody,realsurfaceandgreysurfacesarecomparedinFig.13.11.
Greysurfaceapproximationimpliesthatofgreysurfaceisaconstant,butlessthanthatofablacksurface(=1).IntheaboveFig.the
greysurfacecurveisdrawnsuchthatareasundertheemissioncurvesoftherealandgreysurfacesareequal.i.e.
Therefore,averageemissivityisgivenby:
FIGURE13.11Emissivityandemissivepowerforblackbody,greyandrealsurfacesatagiventemperature
IntegrandontheRHSoftheaboveequationhasgenerallytobeevaluatednumerically.However,ifthewavelengthspectrumcanbe
dividedintosufficientnumberofwavebandsandtheemissivitycanbeassumedtobeconstant(butdifferent)ineachband,thenthe
integrationcanbeperformedquiteeasily.
Forexample,letthevariationofspectralemissivitywithwavelengthbeasfollows:
1=constant,01
2 =constant,12
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Then,theaverageemissivityiscalculatedusingEq.13.24asfollows:
i.e.(T)=1.F 01(T)+2 .F 12 (T)+3 .F 2(T)(13.26)
FactorsF 01(T),etc.,caneasilybedeterminedusingTable13.2.
Itshouldbeclearlyunderstoodthatemissivityvaluesstronglydependonthesurfaceconditions,oxidation,roughness,cleanliness,
typeoffinish,etc.So,thereisalwaysanelementofuncertaintywhileusingreportedvalues.
13.3.7 Kirchhos Law

Kirchhoffslawestablishesarelationbetweenthetotal,hemisphericalemissivity,ofasurfaceandthetotal,hemispherical
absorptivity.Thisisaveryusefulequationincalculatingthenetradiantheatlossfromsurfaces.
Considerasmall,greybodyofareaA,emissivityandtemperatureTbelocatedinsideanisothermalenclosuremaintainedatthe
sametemperatureT.Sincetheenclosure(or,cavity)isisothermal,itsbehaviourcanbetakenasthatofablackbody,irrespectiveof
itssurfaceproperties.Also,sincethegreybodyinsidetheenclosureissmall,itdoesnotaffecttheblackbodynatureoftheenclosure.
FIGURE13.12KirchhoffsLaw
4
Now,radiationincidentonthesmallbodyisequaltotheradiationemittedbytheblackbodyattemperatureT,i.e.G=Eb (T)=.T ,
4
perunitsurfacearea.And,theradiationabsorbedbythesmallbodyperunitsurfacearea=Gabs=.G=..T .Further,radiation
4
emittedbythesmallbodyperunitareaofitssurface=E=..T .
Sinceboththesmallbodyandtheenclosureareatthesametemperature,T,theywillbeinthermalequilibriumandthenetheat
transferratetothesmallbodymustbeequaltozero.
i.e.radiationemittedbythesmallbody=radiationabsorbedbythesmallbody,

4 4
i.e.A...T =A...T
or,
(T)=(T)(13.27)
Eq.(13.27)representsKirchhoffslaw.Kirchhoffslawstatesthatthetotalhemisphericalemissivity,ofagreysurfaceata
temperatureTisequaltoitsabsorptivity,forblackbodyradiationfromasourceatthesametemperatureT.
NotetheimportantrestrictionsonEq.13.27:one,incidentradiationmustbefromablackbody,and,second,blackbodymustbeat
thesametemperatureasthatoftheotherbody.However,forpracticalpurposes,weassumethattheemissivityandabsorptivityofa
surfaceareequal,evenwhenthatsurfaceisnotinthermalequilibriumwiththesurroundings,sinceabsorptivityofmostofthereal
surfacesisnotverymuchsensitivetotemperatureandwavelength.
SimilartoEq.13.27,wecanwriteformonochromaticradiation,
(T)= (T)(13.28)
2 2
Example13.1.Incidentradiation(G=1577W/m )strikesanobject.Theamountofenergyabsorbedis472W/m andtheamount
2
ofenergytransmittedis78.8W/m .Whatisthevalueofreflectivity?
Solution.
Data:

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G:=1577W/m Qa:=472W/m Qt:=78.8W/m
a t
LetQr bethereflectedradiation.
Then,wehave:Qr :=GQaQt
3 2
i.e.Qr =1.02610 W/m (reflectedradiation)
Therefore,reflectivityisgivenby:
2
Example13.2.AholeofareadA=2cm isopenedonthesurfaceofalargesphericalcavitywhoseinsideismaintainedat1000K.
Calculate:(a)theradiationenergystreamingthroughtheholeinalldirectionsintospace,(b)theradiationenergystreamingperunit
solidangleinadirectionmakinga60deg.anglewiththenormaltothesurfaceoftheopening.
Solution.SeeFig.Ex.13.2.
Data:
(a)Radiationstreamingoutinalldirections:
Sincethesphericalcavitycanbeconsideredasablackbody,energystreamingoutisgivenbyStefanBoltzmannlaw:
4
i.e.Q:=dAT
or,Q=11.34W(radiationenergystreamingthroughthehole.)
(b)Radiationstreamingoutthroughunitsolidangle,inadirectionmaking60deg.withnormal:
Now,wehavetherelation:Eb =.l b ,whereEb =Emissivepower,andl b =Intensityofradiation.
FIGUREExample13.2Radiationstreamingoutfromaholeonthesurfaceofasphere
and,radiationstreamingoutinthatdirection:
Q:=Ib dAcos()W(whereisinradians(Note:whileusingMathcad,mustbeinradianswhilecalculatingcos().))
i.e.Q=1.805W(radiaionthroughasolidangleofunity,inadirectionof60deg.withnormaltothesurface.)
Example13.3.Itisobservedthatintensityofradiationismaximumincaseofsolarradiationatawavelengthof0.49microns.
2
Assumingthesunasablackbody,estimateitssurfacetemperatureandemissivepower.Weindisplacementconstant=0.28910
mK.
Solution.
Data:
8 2 4
8 2 4
max:=0.49microns:=5.6710 W/(m K )(StefanBoltzmannconstant)
ByWeinsdisplacementlaw,wehave:
maxT=2890micronsK
Therefore,
HeatfluxatthesurfaceEb :
Suncanbeconsideredasablackbodythen,fromStefanBoltzmannlaw:
4
Eb :=T
7 2
i.e.Eb =6.8610 W/m (heatfluxatthesurfaceofsun.)
2
Example13.4.Thetemperatureofabodyofarea0.1m is900K.Calculatethetotalrateofenergyemission,intensityofnormal
2
radiationinW/(m sr),maximummonochromaticemissivepower,andwavelengthatwhichitoccurs.
Solution.
Data:
2 8 2 4
T:=900KA:=0.1m :=5.6710 W/(m K )(StefanBoltzmannconstant)
Totalrateofenergyemission:
4
Eb :=T (fromStefanBoltzmannlaw)
4 2
i.e.Eb =3.7210 W/m (totalemissivepower)
Therefore,
Q:=Eb A
3
i.e.Q=3.7210 W(totalenergyemissionfromsurface)
Intensityofnormalradiation:
(Notethatforablack(diffuse)surface,intensityisthesameinalldirections.)
Wavelengthofmaximummonochromaticemissivepower:
FromWeinsdisplacementlaw,wehave:
mT=2898mK
Therefore,
i.e.m=3.22m(wavelengthformaximummonochromaticemissivepowerat900K.)
Maximummonochromaticemissivepower:
WeusePlanckslaw,withvaluesofconstants,C1andC2 :
8 4 2
C1:=3.74210 W/(m /m )
4
and,C2 :=1.438710 mK
(maximummonochromeemissivepower.)
Alternatively:
WecandirectlyapplyEq.13.12:

5 5 3
Ebm:=1.28710 T W/m .(13.12)
9 3 3
i.e.Ebm=7.610 W/m =7.610 W/(m2m)(sameasobtainedabove.)
Example13.5.Windowglasstransmitsradiantenergyinthewavelengthrange0.4mto2.5m.Determinethefractionoftotal
radiantenergywhichistransmittted,whenthesourcetemperatureis:(a)5800K(i.e.sunssurfacetemperature),and(b)300K(i.e.
roomtemperature).
Solution.
Data:
T1:=5800KT2 :=300K1:=0.4m2 :=2.5m

8 2 4
=5.6710 W/(m K )(StefanBoltzmannconstant)
Case(a):SourcetemperatureT 1=5800K
WeuseTable13.2whereradiationfunctionsaretabulatedagainsttheproduct(.T).
Wehave:

3
1T1=2.3210 m/K
4
2 T1=1.4510 m/K
CorrespondingtotheseTvalues,weget,fromTable13.2:
Therefore,fractiontransmmittedisequalto:
0.96610.12454=0.842
i.e.84.2%oftheenergycomingfromthesun(at5800K)istransmittedthroughthewindowglass.
Case(b):SourcetemperatureT 2=300K
Again,weuseTable13.2where,radiationfunctionsaretabulatedagainsttheproduct(.T).
Wehave:
1T2 =120mK
2 T2 =750mK
CorrespondingtotheseTvalues,weget,fromTable13.2:
i.e.practicallynoenergywillbetransmittedthroughthewindowglassinthiswavelengthrange,ifthesourcetemperature=300K.In
otherwords,glassisopaquetoradiationat300Kinthewavelengthrange0.4mto2.5m.
Asmentionedintext,thisistheprincipleofGreenhouseeffect,whereinradiationfromahightemperaturesource(i.e.sun)is
allowedtopassthroughtheglassintotheenclosureofthegreenhouse,whileradiationatarelativelylowtemperaturefromwithinthe
enclosure,isnotallowedtoescapeout.This,ineffect,causesanincreaseinthetemperatureofthespacewithintheenclosure.
Example13.6.Spectralemissivityofaparticularsurfaceat800Kisapproximatedbyastepfunction,asfollows:1=0.1for=0
to2m,2 =0.5for=2to15m,and3 =0.8for=15.toCalculate(i)thetotal(hemispherical)emissivepower,and(ii)total
hemisphericalemissivity,overallwavelengths.
Solution.
Data:
T:=800K(temperature)
1:=0.1(emissivityinwavelengthrange:0to2m)
2:=0.5(emissivityinwavelengthrange:2to15m)
3:=0.8(emissivityinwavelengthrange:15mto.)
8 2 4
:=5.6710 W/(m K )(StefanBoltzmannconstant)
l1:=2m
l2:=15m
l3:=
FIGUREExample13.6Spectralemissivitydistributionagainstwavelength
Planckslawgivesspectralemissivepowerofablackbody.
Foranongreysurfaceconsideredinthisproblem,wecanwrite:
Variationofwithisspecifiedintheproblem.
Therefore,splittingtheaboveintegralintoparts:
ValuesofF 01,etc.,areobtainedfromTable13.2.Wehave
Wehave
Then,fromEq.a
:=0.0197+0.5(0.94510.0197)+0.8(10.9451)
i.e.=0.516(Totalhemisphericalemissivityoverallwavelengths.)
And,totalemissivepowerofthissurfaceisgivenby:
4 2
E:=T W/m (totalemissivepower)
4 2
i.e.E=1.19910 W/m (totalemissivepower.)
13.4 The View Factor and Radiation Energy Exchange Between Black Bodies
Sofar,westudiedthefundamentallawsofradiationandradiativepropertiesofsurfaces.But,inpracticalsituations,wearemostly
interestedinradiativeheatexchangebetweensurfaces.Theradiativeheatexchangemaybeonlybetweentwosurfaces,orfromoneor
moresurfacesinanenclosure.Ifthesurfacesinvolvedareblack,then,theproblemissimplifiedsincetheradiationfallingonablack
surfaceiscompletelyabsorbedandnoneisreflectedhowever,ifthesurfacesaregrey,thentheproblemisslightlymorecomplicated
sinceonehastotakeintoaccountthemultiplereflectionsfromsurfaces.Ineithercase,theradiativeheatexchangedependson:
1.absolutetemperaturesofsurfaces
2.radiativepropertiesofsurfaces,and
3.geometryandrelativeorientationofthesurfacesinvolved.
Point(iii)mentionedaboveisobvioussince,generally,inengineeringproblems,weassumethesurfacestobediffuse,i.e.radiationis
emittedinallpossibledirections,andalloftheenergyemittedbysurface1maynotbeinterceptedbysurface2.Thisstatementis
quantifiedbywhatisknownasViewfactor.Viewfactorisalsoknownbyothernamessuchas:configurationfactor,shapefactor,
anglefactor,etc.
Viewfactorisdefinedasthefractionofradiantenergyleavingonesurfacewhichstrikesasecondsurfacedirectly.Here,directly
meansthatreflectionorreradiatedenergyisnotconsidered.ViewfactorisdenotedbyF 12 ,wherethefirstsubscript,1standsforthe
emittingsurface,andthesecondsubscript,2standsforthereceivingsurface.
Wehave:
F 12 =(Directradiationfromsurface1incidentonsurface2)dividedby(Totalradiationfromemittingsurface1).
Wedesiretodevelopageneralrelationforviewfactorbetweentwosurfaces.
Infinetisimalareas:
Asafirststep,considerdifferentialareasdA1anddA2 ontwoblacksurfacesA1andA2 exchangingheatbyradiationonly.SeeFig.

13.13.
dA1anddA2 areatadistancerapartandthenormalstotheseareasmakeangles 1and 2 withthelineconnectingthem,asshown.

Then,usingthedefinitionofintensity,wecanwrite:
EnergyleavingdA1andfallingondA2 =dQ12 =IntensityofblackbodydA1projectedareaofdA1onaplaneperpendiculartoline

joiningdA1anddA2solidanglesubtendedbydA2 atdA1.
Now,totalenergyradiatedfromdA1isgivenby:
dQ1=Eb1dA1
i.e.dQ1=(Ib1)dA1(13.30)
Then,bydefinition,theviewfactorF dA1dA2 istheratioofdQ12 todQ1:
FIGURE13.13Areasandanglesusedinderivationofviewfactorrelation
Notethattheviewfactorinvolvesgeometricalquantitiesonly.
Eq.13.31givestheviewfactorbetweentwoinfinetisimalareas.Suchasituationisencounteredevenwhenfiniteareasareinvolved,
whenthedistancebetweenthesetwoareasr,isverylarge.
Infinitesimaltofinitearea:i.e.theemitterisverysmallandthereceivingsurfaceisoffinitesize.Here,integrationovertheentire
surfaceA2 hastobeconsidered.
Again,rememberingthedefinitionofviewfactor,andformingtheratioofdQ12 todQ1:
SincebothIb1anddA1areindependentofintegration,wecanwrite:
Practicalsituationofcalculatingviewfactorsbetweeninfinitesimaltofiniteareasareencounteredinthecaseofasmallthermocouple
beadlocatedinsideapipeorasmall,sphericalpointsourceradiatorlocatedbythesideofawall,etc.
Finitetofinitearea:onceagain,fromthedefinitionofviewfactor:
ForconstantIb1,aboveequationbecomes:
ItisclearfromEqs.13.31,13.32and13.33thattheviewfactordependsonlyontherelativeorientation(orspatialrelation)ofthetwo
bodiesitdoesnotdependontheemissivitiesofthesurfacesorthetemperatures.Further,alsonotethatthesurfacesareassumedto
beisothermalanddiffuseemitters.
Ingeneral,wewriteEq.13.33compactlyas:
Here,F 12 meanstheviewfactorfromsurface1tosurface2.
Similarly,ifwedesiretogettheviewfactorfromsurface2tosurface1,wesimplyinterchangesuffixes1and2:
NotethatinEqs.13.34and13.35,thedoubleintegralsdifferonlyintheorderofintegration,andassuch,yieldthesameresult.Then,
multiplyingEq.13.34byA1,andEq.13.35byA2 ,andequatingthedoubleintegrals,weget:
A1F 12 =A2 F 21(13.36)
Eq.13.36isknownasreciprocitytheoremandisaveryusefulandimportantrelation.Ithelpsonetofindoutoneoftheview
factorswhentheotheroneisknown.Inpractice,oneoftheviewfactorswhichiseasiertocalculateisobtainedfirst,andtheother
viewfactorisfoundoutnext,byusingthereciprocitytheorem.
Note:ItiseasiertoremembertheviewfactorrelationgiveninEq.13.34as:
Radiationenergyexchangebetweenblackbodies:
Asalreadymentioned,analysisofheatexchangebetweentwoblackbodiesissimplersinceablackbodyabsorbsalltheradiation
impingingonitandnoneisreflected.
ConsidertwoblacksurfacesA1andA2 exchangingradiationenergywitheachother.
Then,rateofenergyemittedbysurface1,whichdirectlystrikessurface2isgivenby:
Thisenergyiscompletelyabsorbedbysurface2,sincesurface2isblack.
Similarly,ofenergyemittedbysurface2,whichdirectlystrikessurface1isgivenby:
and,netradiationexchangebetweenthetwosurfacesis:
13.5 Properties of View Factor and View Factor Algebra

Weshallenumeratethesalientfeaturesofviewfactor.Viewfactorsofsomegeometriesareeasilycalculatedhowever,moreoften,
calculationofviewfactorsformorecomplexshapesisquitedifficult.Inmanycases,thecomplexshapescouldbebrokendowninto
simplershapesforwhomtheviewfactorsarealreadyknownorcouldeasilybecalculated.Then,withthisknowledge,theviewfactor
forthedesiredcomplexshapecouldbecalculatedbyrememberingthedefinitionofviewfactorasthefractionofenergyemittedby
surface1,whichisintercepteddirectlybysurface2,andtheinterrelationbetweenthevariousviewfactors.Thisisknownasview
factoralgebra.
Propertiesofviewfactor:
1.Theviewfactordependsonlyonthegeometricsofbodiesinvolvedandnotontheirtemperaturesorsurfaceproperties.
2.Betweentwosurfacesthatexchangeenergybyradiation,themutualshapefactorsaregovernedbythereciprocityrelation,
namely,A1.F 12 =A2 .F 21.
3.Whenaconvexsurface1iscompletelyenclosedbyanothersurface2,itisclearfromFig.13.14(a)thatalloftheradiantenergy
emittedbysurface1isinterceptedbytheenclosingsurface2.Therefore,viewfactorofsurface1w.r.t.surface2isequaltounity.
i.e.F 12 =1.And,theviewfactorofsurface2w.r.t.surface1istheneasilycalculatedbyapplyingthereciprocityrelation,i.e.A1.1
=A2 .F 21,or,F 21=A1/A2 .
4.Radiationemittedfromaflatsurfaceneverfallsdirectlyonthatsurface(seeFig.13.14(b)),i.e.viewfactorofaflatsurfacew.r.t.
itselfisequaltozero,i.e.F 11=0.Thisisvalidforaconvexsurfacetoo,asshowninFig.13.14(c).
5.Foraconcavesurface,itisclearfromFig.13.14(d)thatF 11isnotequaltozerosincesomefractionofradiationemittedbya
concavesurfacedoesfallonthatsurfacedirectly.
FIGURE13.14Viewfactorsforafewsurfaces
6.Iftwo,planesurfacesA1andA2 areparalleltoeachotherandseparatedbyashortdistancebetweenthem,practicallyallthe
radiationissuingfromsurface1fallsdirectlyonsurface2,andviceversa.Therefore,F 12 =F 21=1.
7.Whentheradiatingsurface1isdividedinto,say,twosubareasA3 andA4,asshowninFig.13.15(a),wehave:
8.Instead,ifthereceivingsurfaceA2 issubdividedintopartsA3 andA4asshowninFig.13.15(b),wehave:
i.e.viewfactorfromtheemittingsurface1toasubdividedreceivingsurfaceissimplyequaltothesumoftheindividualshape
factorsfromthesurface1totherespectivepartsofthereceivingsurface.ThisisknownasSuperpositionrule.
FIGURE13.15Viewfactorsforsubdividedsurfaces
9.SymmetryruleIftwo(ormore)surfacesaresymmetricallylocatedw.r.t.theradiatingsurface1,thentheviewfactorsfrom
surface1tothesesymmetricallylocatedsurfacesareidentical.Acloseinspectionofthegeometrywillrevealifthereisany
symmetryinagivenproblem.
10.SummationruleSinceradiationenergyisemittedfromasurfaceinalldirections,invariably,weconsidertheemitting
surfacetobepartofanenclosure.Evenifthereisanopening,weconsidertheopeningasasurfacewiththeradiativeproperties
ofthatopening.Then,theconservationofenergyprinciplerequiresthatsumofalltheviewfactorsfromthesurface1toall
othersurfacesformingtheenclosure,mustbeequalto1.SeeFig.13.16,wheretheinteriorsurfaceofacompletelyenclosed
spaceissubdividedintonparts,eachofareaA1,A2 ,A3 ,,An.
Then,
11.Inanenclosureofnblacksurfaces,maintainedattemperaturesT1,T2 ,,Tn,netradiationfromanysurface,say,surface1,is
givenbysummingupthenetradiationheattransfersfromsurface1toeachoftheothersurfacesoftheenclosure:
FIGURE13.16Viewfactorsummationruleforradiationinanenclosure
Note:Often,whilesolvingradiationproblems,determinationoftheviewfactoristhemostdifficultpart.Itwillbeusefultokeepin
mindthedefinitionofviewfactor,summationrule,reciprocityrelation,superpositionruleandsymmetryrulewhileattemptingto
findouttheviewfactors.
13.6 Methods of Determining View Factors

Whilesolvingproblemsinradiationheattransfer,requirednumericalvaluesofviewfactorsmaybeobtainedbythefollowing
methods:
1.ByperformingthenecessaryintegrationsinEqs.13.31,13.32or13.33.However,exceptinverysimplecases,mostofthetime,
thedirectintegrationprocedureisquitedifficult.
2.Useofreadilyavailableanalyticalformulasorgraphspreparedbyresearchersforthespecificgeometryinquestion.
3.Useofviewfactoralgebrainconjunctionwithdefinitionofviewfactor,summationrule,reciprocityrelation,superposition
ruleandsymmetryrule. Enjoy Safari? Subscribe Today
4.Experimentalandgraphicaltechniques.
13.6.1 By Direct Integration

Weshalldemonstratedirectintegrationprocedurewithtwoexamples:
Example13.7.FindouttheviewfactorfromanelementaldiskdA1toamuchlargerdiskA2 ofradiusR,locateddirectlyaboveand
paralleltothesmalldiskataverticaldistanceLfromthesmalldisk,asshowninFig.Example13.7.
Solution.AreadA1ismuchsmallerthanareaA2 so,thisisthecaseoffindingouttheviewfactorfromadifferentialareatoafinite
area.So,weshallapplyEq.13.32,i.e.
Now,onareaA2 ,consideradifferentialareadA2 ofradiusxandwidthdxasshown.Angles1and2 ,madebythelinerconnecting

dA1anddA2 withthetwonormalsareequal,sincethedisksareparallel.
Then,fromEq.13.32weget:
FIGUREExample13.7ViewfactorfromanelementalareadA1toalargerareaA2
2 2
Now,let:u=x +L
Then,du=2xdx
Then,expressionforaboveintegralbecomes:
Therefore,puttingthelimitsforxfrom0toR:
Wecanalsowrite:
2
i.e.F 12 =sin ()(where,2aistheanglesubtendedbytheareaA2atdA1asshowninFig.Example13.7.)
Example13.8.FindouttheviewfactorsF 12 andF 21betweentwosquaresurfaces1and2,orientedtowardseachotherasshownin

2 2
Fig.Example13.8.Plate1hasanareaof0.08m andplate2hasanareaof0.05m .
Solution.
Sinceboththeplanesurfacesaresmallcomparedtothedistancebetweenthem,theycanbeapproximatedasdifferentialareas,i.e.we
canapplyEq.13.31togettheviewfactors:
Data:
Note:1and2 areexpressedinradians,sinceMathcadrequiresthattheanglesbeinradianswhileevaluatingtrigonometricfunctions
suchassin(),cos(),etc.
Therefore,cos(1)=0.966
and,cos(2 )=0.766
Then,fromEq.13.31,weget:
FIGUREExample13.8Viewfactorsbetweentwosmallplatesseparatedbyalargedistance
i.e.viewfactorfromsurface1tosurface2is0.00047106.
Next,todeterminetheviewfactorfromsurface2to1,wecanconvenientlyusethereciprocityrule,i.e.
A1F 12 =A2 F 21
Inthepresentcase,wewrite:
i.e.viewfactorfromsurface2tosurface1is0.0007537.
13.6.2 By Analytical Formulas and Graphs

Asstatedearlier,determinationofviewfactorsbydirectintegrationisratherinvolvedbecauseofthecontourintegrationstobe
performedoverthesurfaces.However,severalresearchworkershavepublishedanalyticalrelationsandgraphsformanyofthe
commonlyencounteredgeometries.
Figs.13.17and13.18showafewtwodimensionalandthreedimensionalgeometriesandTables13.4and13.5givecorrespondingview
factorrelations.
1
Note:InTable13.5,atan(x)meansarctan(x)ortan (x).
FIGURE13.17Fewtwodimensionalgeometries,infinitelylong
FIGURE13.18Fewthreedimensionalgeometries
TABLE13.4Viewfactorsforafewtwodimensionalgeometries
Geometry Viewfactorrelation
Parallelplateswithmidlinesconnectedbyperpendicular
(SeeFig.13.17,a)
Inclinedparallelplatesofequalwidthandwithacommon
edge(SeeFig.13.17,b)
Perpendicularplateswithacommonedge(SeeFig.13.17,c)
Threesidedenclosure(SeeFig.13.17,d)
Infiniteplaneandrowofcylinders(SeeFig.13.17,d)
Table13.5givesviewfactorrelationsforthreeimportantthreedimensionalgeometries,oftenrequiredinpractice.Forexample,view
factorsbetweenalignedparallelrectangleswillbeusefultocalculateheattransferbetweenthefloorandceilingofaroomora
furnaceviewfactorsbetweencoaxialparalleldiskswillberequiredtocalculatetheheattransferbetweenthetopandbottomofa
cylindricalfurnace,andtheviewfactorsbetweenperpendicularrectanglesisnecessarytocalculatethefractionofenergyenteringa
floorthroughawindowontheadjacentwall,ortodeterminethefractionofenergyradiatedfromthedoorofafurnacetothefloor
outside,etc.
ItmaybeobservedfromtheviewfactorrelationsgiveninTable13.5thatevenforthesesimplecases,therelationsarerathercomplex
anddifficulttocalculate.So,generally,viewfactorsforthese(and,manyother)geometriesarepresentedingraphicalform.Itis
convenienttousethegraphstodeterminetheviewfactorsquickly,butwiththesacrificeofalittleaccuracy.However,ifacomputeris
available,itissuggestedthattheanalyticalrelationsgiveninTables13.4and13.5couldbeusedforbetteraccuracy.
Viewfactorrelationforaligned,parallelrectanglesofFig.13.18a,isshowningraphicalforminFig.13.19.Thisgraphisdrawnwith
Mathcad.Here,F ijisplottedagainstX/Lvaryingfrom0.1toabout30,forgivenvaluesofY/L(withY/L=0.1,0.2,0.4,0.6,1.0,2.0,
4.0and10.0).
TABLE13.5Viewfactorsforafewthreedimensionalgeometries
Geometry Viewfactorrelation
Alignedparallelrctangles(SeeFig.13.18,a)
Coaxialparalleldisks(SeeFig.13.17,b)
Perpendicularrectangleswithacommonedge
(SeeFig.13.18,c)
Graphofviewfactorforcoaxialparalleldisks(ofFig.13.18,b)isdrawnusingMathcadandisshowninFig.13.20.Here,viewfactor
F ijisplottedagainstL/rifordifferentvaluesofrj/L.
And,graphofviewfactorsforperpendicularrectangleswithacommonedge(ofFig.13.18,c),drawnusingMathcad,isshowninFig.
13.21.Here,viewfactorF ijisplottedagainstZ/XfordifferentvaluesofY/X.
Anotherpracticallyimportantgeometryisthatoftwoconcentriccylindersoffinitelength.Viewfactorsassociatedwiththisgeometry
areshowninFig.13.22.
WeshallillustratetheuseofanalyticalrelationsforviewfactorsgiveninTable13.5ortheFigs.13.19to13.21,withanexample:
Example13.9.Findoutthenetheattransferredbetweentwocirculardisks1and2,orientedoneabovetheother,paralleltoeach
otheronthesamecentreline,asshowninFig.Example13.9.Disk1hasaradiusof0.5mandismaintainedat1000K,anddisk2has
aradiusof0.6mandismaintainedat600K.Assumeboththediskstobeblacksurfaces.
FIGURE13.19Viewfactorforaligned,parallelrectangles(SeeFig.13.18a)
FIGURE13.20Viewfactorforcoaxial,paralleldisks(SeeFig.13.18b)
FIGURE13.21Viewfactorsforcoaxial,perpendicularrectangleswithacommonedge(SeeFig.13.18c)
Solution.
Data:
Thisisthecaseofheattransferbetweentwoblacksurfaces.So,weuseEq.(13.40),i.e.
So,theproblemreducestocalculatingtheviewfactorF 12 orF 21.WecaneasilyfindoutF 12 usingFig.13.20.However,wecan

determineF 12 analyticallymoreaccuratelywithMathcadusingtheviewfactorrelationgiveninTable13.5forcoaxialparalleldisks.
WerewritetheviewfactorrelationgiveninTable13.5asfollows,foreaseofcalculationwithMathcad:
FIGURE13.22Viewfactorsfortwoconcentriccylindersoffinitelength:(a)outercylindertoinnercylinder(b)outercylinderto
itself(Source:Cengel,YunusA.[1998].HeatTransfer:APracticalApproach.Pub.:McGrawHill)
FIGUREExample13.9Coaxialparalleldisks
Here,first,SiswrittenasafunctionofRiandRjwhere,Ri=ri/LandRj=rj/L.Then,F 12 isexpressedasafunctionofRiandRj.Now,
F 12 iseasilyobtainedforanyvaluesofRiandRjbysimplywritingF 12 (Ri,Rj)=.
Therefore,inthiscase,Ri=0.5
and,Rj=0.6
Weget:F 12 (0.5,0.6)=0.232
VerifyThisresultmaybeverifiedfromFig.13.20where,F 12 isplottedagainstL/rjforvariousvaluesofrj/L.Now,forourproblem,
L/ri=1/0.5=2,andrj/L=0.6/1=0.6.Then,fromFig.13.20,wereadF 12 =0.232,approximately,
i.e.F 12 :=0.232
Therefore,nettransferbetweendisks1and2:
13.6.3 By Use of View Factor Algebra

Often,wehavetofindoutviewfactorsforgeometriesforwhichreadilynoanalyticalrelationsorgraphsareavailable.Insuchcases,
sometimes,itmaybepossibletogettherequiredviewfactorintermsofviewfactorsofalreadyknowngeometries,bysuitable
manipulationusingviewfactoralgebra.Forthispurpose,werememberthedefinitionofviewfactor(asthefractionofenergyemitted
bysurface1anddirectlyfallingonsurface2),andinvokethesummationrule,reciprocityrelation,andinspectionofgeometry.
Weshallillustratethisprocedurewithsomeimportantexamples:
Example13.10.FindoutthenetheattransferredbetweentheareasA1andA2 showninFig.Example13.10.Area1ismaintainedat
700K,andarea2ismaintainedat400K.Assumeboththesurfacestobeblack.
Solution.Thisisthecaseofheattransferbetweentwoblacksurfaces.So,weuseEq.13.40i.e.
FIGUREExample13.10Perpendicularrectangleswithacommonedge
So,theproblemreducestocalculatingtheviewfactorF 12 orF 21.WeseethattocalculateF 12 forareasA1andA2 asorientedintheFig.

Example13.10wedonotreadilyhaveananalyticalrelationoragraph.Letusdenotethecombinedareas(A1+A3 )byA5and(A2 +
A4)byA6.Then,weseethatA5andA6areperpendicularrectangleswhichhaveacommonedge,andwehavegraphsoranalytical
relationfortheviewfactorforsuchanorientation.Then,weresorttoviewfactoralgebra,asfollows:
Rememberthatbydefinition,viewfactorF 12 isthefractionofradiantenergyemittedbysurface1whichfallsdirectlyonsurface2.
LookingattheFig.Example13.10wecansaythatfractionofenergyleavingA1andfallingonA2 isequaltothefractionfallingonA6
minusthefractionfallingonA4.
i.e.F 12 =F 16F 14(bydefinitionofviewfactor)
Now,observethatviewfactorsF 65,F 63 ,F 45andF 43 refertoperpendicularrectangleswithacommonedge,andcanbereadily

obtainedfromFig.13.21,orbyanalyticalrelationgiveninTable13.5.
Werewritetheviewfactorrelationforperpendicularrectangleswithacommonedge,giveninTable13.5asfollows,foreaseof
calculationwithMathcad:
TofindF 65:
Therefore,
F ij(1,1)=0.2(substitutinginEq.B)
i.e.F 65:=0.2(viewfactorfromareaA6toA5)
Note:ThisvaluecanbeverifiedfromFig.13.21also.
TofindF 63 :
Therefore,
F ij(0.6,1)=0.161(substitutinginEq.B)
i.e.F 63 :=0.161(viewfactorfromareaA6toA3 )
Note:ThisvaluealsocanbeverifiedfromFig.13.21.
TofindF 45:
Therefore,
F ij(1,0.6)=0.269(substitutinginEq.B)
i.e.F 45:=0.269(viewfactorfromareaA4toA5)
TofindF 43 :
Therefore,
F ij(0.6,0.6)=0.231(substitutinginEq.B)
i.e.F 43 :=0.231(viewfactorfromareaA4toA3)
Areas:
FromFig.Example13.10,wehave:
Then,fromEq.A: Enjoy Safari? Subscribe Today
Note:F 21canbecalculated,ifrequired,byreciprocityrelation,i.e.A1.F 12 =A2 .F 21
Therefore,netheattransferbetweensurfaces1and2:
Here,wehave:
T1:=700K(temperatureofsurfaceA1)
T2 :=400K(temperatureofsurfaceA2 )
8 2
:=5.6710 W/m K(StefanBoltzmannconstant)
Therefore,
i.e
Example13.11.FindouttherelevantviewfactorsforthegeometriesshowninFig.Example13.11:
1.alongtubewithcrosssectionofanequilateraltriangle
2.ablackbodycompletelyenclosedbyanotherblackbody
3.diagonalpartitioninsidealongsquareduct
4.sphereofdiameterdinsideacubicalboxofsides,L=d
5.hemisphericalsurfaceclosedbyaplanesurface,and
6.theendandsurfaceofacircularcylinderwhoselengthisequaltodiameter.
Solution.Generalprincipleinsolvingtheseproblemsistoinvoke:Summationrule,reciprocitytheorem,inspectionofgeometry
forsymmetry,andofcourse,rememberingthedefinitionofviewfactor:
FIGUREExample13.11Differentgeometries
(a)Longtubewithcrosssectionofequilateraltriangle:SeeFig.13.11a.
Now,byinspectionofgeometry,wefindthatsurfaces2and3arelocatedsymmetricallyw.r.t.surface1,sinceitisanequilateral
triangle.Therefore,radiationfromsurface1isdividedequallybetweensurfaces2and3.
i.e.F 12 =F 13 =0.5
Similarly,forsurface2,wewrite:
(b)Blackbodyenclosedinsideablackenclosure:SeeFig.Ex.13.11b
(c)Diagonalpartitionwithinalongsquareduct:SeeFig.Ex.13.11c.
(d)Sphereinsideacubicalbox:SeeFig.Ex.13.11d
(e)Hemisphericalsurfaceclosedbyaflatsurface:SeeFig.Ex.13.11e.
(f)Endandsidesofacircularcylinder(L=d):SeeFig.Ex.13.11f.
FromtheFig.notethatthetwoendsurfacesaredenotedby1and3andthesidesurfaceisdenotedby2.
ViewfactorF 13 :Surfaces1and3canbeconsideredastwoconcentricparalleldisks.Therefore,F 13 canbefoundoutfromFig.13.20

orbyanalyticalrelationgiveninTable13.5.Letususetheanalyticalrelation:
Wehave:
Now,foracylinderwithL=d:
Example13.12.Findouttheviewfactor(F 11)ofacavitywithrespecttoitself.Hence,findouttheviewfactorF 11forthefollowing:
1.acylindricalcavityofdiameterdanddepthh
2.aconicalcavityofdiameterdanddepthh
3.ahemisphericalbowlofdiameterd.
Solution.SeeFig.Example13.12
FIGUREExample13.12Viewfactorsforcavities
Viewfactorofageneralcavityw.r.t.itself:
SeeFig.Example13.12a.
WedesiretofindF 11.ItisobviousfromtheFig.Example13.12thatpartoftheradiationemittedbythecavitysurface1,fallsonitself
andtherefore,F 11exists.
Closetheopening(ormouth)ofthecavitybyahypotheticalflatsurface2.Then,surfaces1and2togetherformanenclosure.Wecan
write:
Eq.bisanimportantresult,sinceitgivestheshapefactorofanygeneralcavityw.r.t.itself.
Now,thisresultwillbeappliedtofollowingspecificcavities:
(a)F11foracylindricalcavityofdiameterdanddepthh:SeeFig.Example13.12b.
(b)F11foraconicalcavityofdiameterdanddepthh:SeeFig.Example13.12c.
Alternatively:
TogetF 11intermsofdepthh,wewrite:
(c)F11forahemisphericalbowlofdiameterd:SeeFig.Example13.12d.
Thisresultmeansthatforanyhemisphericalcavity,halfoftheradiationemittedbythesurface1fallsonitselfitalsomeansthatthe
remaininghalffallsontheclosingsurface2.
13.6.4 By Graphical Techniques

Insomecases,itispossibletogetviewfactorsforsomegeometriesbysomesimplegraphicalconstruction.Letusillustratethe
principleofthismethodasfollows:(SeeFig.13.23).
dA1anddA2 aretwodifferentialareasatadistancerasshown.1and2 aretheanglesmadebythenormalstodA1anddA2 withthe

lineconnectingdA1anddA2 .
FIGURE13.23GraphicaldeterminationofviewfactorbetweentwodifferentialareasdA1anddA2
Now,letusmakeagraphicalconstructionasfollows:ConstructahemisphereofradiusequaltounitywithdA1asthecentre,and
projecttheelementdA2 onthesurfaceofthishemispherethisprojectionisshownasdA3 intheFig.13.23Fromgeometry,weknow
2
thatdA3 =dA2 .cos(2 )/r .Next,projectdA3 onthetangentialplanedrawnthroughdA1,i.e.onthebaseofthehemisphere.This
projectionisdA4inthefigureabove.Again,dA4isequaltodA3 multipliedbythecosineoftheangle1formedbetweenthetwo
projections.Thus,wehave:
Now,baseofthehemisphereisacircleofunityradius,whoseareaisequalto.Therefore,areadA4dividedbytheareaofcircleof
unityradiusis:
Now,recollectthatwehavealreadyprovedtheviewfactorbetweentwodifferentialareasdA1anddA2 tobe:
i.e.fromtheabovetwoexpressions,itisclearthatviewfactorfromdA1todA2 isgivenastheratiooftwoareasviz.dA4to,where
dA4istheprojectedareaofdA3 onthebaseofthehemisphereanddA3 istheprojectionofdA2 onthesurfaceofthehemisphereof
unityradius.
FIGURE13.24Crossedstringsmethodtodetermineviewfactorbetweentwoinfinitelylongsurfaces
IftheviewfactorisdesiredfromadifferentialareadA1toafiniteareaA2 (insteadoftoadifferentialareadA2 ),thesameprocedureis

followed:areaA2 isprojectedoverthesurfaceofthehemisphereofunityradius,andtheresultingareaisfurtherprojectedonthebase
ofthehemisphere,andthentheviewfactoriscomputedastheratioofthisprojectedareato.
Manygraphicalandopticalintegratorshavebeendevelopedtofindoutviewfactorsbetweentwosurfaces,basedonthisprinciple.
However,abovemethodisdifficulttoapplyforthecaseofcomplexgeometries.Insuchcases,experimentaltechniqueshavebeen
adoptedwithsuccess,usingscalemodels,theunderlyingprinciplebeing:viewfactorsofgeometricallysimilarsystemsareidentical.
HottelscrossedstringsmethodThisisanextremelysimplemethodtofindouttheviewfactorsbetweeninfinitelylongsurfaces
generally,channelsandductswhichhaveaconstantcrosssectionandareverylongcanbemodelledastwodimensionalandinfinitely
long.ConsiderFig.13.24:
A,BandC,Daretheendpointsoftwosurfaces1and2.Theseareconnectedbytightlystretchedstringsasshown.Then,theview
factorF 12 betweensurfaces1and2isgivenby:
Notethatthismethodcanbeappliedevenwhenthetwosurfaces1and2haveacommonedge(asinthecaseofatriangle)then,the
commonedgeistreatedasanimaginarystringofzerolength.Also,notethatsurfaces1and2maybecurvedsurfaces,butL 1andL 2 are
thestraightlengthsconnectingtheedgesoftherespectivesurfaces.
Table13.4givesviewfactorsforafewtwodimensionalgeometries.
Example13.13.FindouttheviewfactorsF 12 andF 21fortwoinfinitelylong,parallelplaneswhosecentrelinesareonthesame

verticalline,asshowninFig.Example13.13.Plate1is1mwide,plate2is0.5mwideandtheyarespaced0.6mapart.
Solution.
Data:
L 1:=1mL 2 :=0.5mS:=0.6m
Toapplycrossedstringsmethod,wecalculateL 3 ,L 4L 5andL 6:
Now,wehave:
FIGUREExample13.13Crossedstringsmethodtodetermineviewfactorbetweentwoinfinitelylongsurfaces
Alternatively:
WeanusethereadyformulagiveninTable13.4,
(parallelplateswithmidlinesconnectedbyperpendicular.)
Intheaboveformula,notationsarewithreferencetoFig.13.17a.Inthepresentcase,accordingtothenotationofFig.Example13.13,i
standsforplate2andjstandsforplate1,andthespacingLstandsforS.
i.e.F 21=0.621(viewfactorfromsurface2tosurface1sameasobtainedearlier.)
13.7 Radiation Heat Exchange between Grey Surfaces

Sofar,weconsideredradiationheatexchangebetweenblackbodies.Thiswasrelativelysimplesinceablackbodyabsorbsallthe
energyfallingonitandnoneisreflected.However,inthecaseofgreybodies,absorptivityislessthanunityandtheeffectofmultiple
reflectionshastobetakenintoaccount,andthismakestheanalysismorecomplex.
Generally,therearethreemethodstodealwiththeproblemofradiationheatexchangebetweengreybodies:
1.Thereflectionmethod
2.Theelectricalnetworkmethod,and
3.Theabsorptionfactormethod.
Ofthese,thereflectionmethodisappliedtothesimplestofcases,wherethenumberofreflectionsbetweentheinteractingsurfacesis
finite,orwhenthesurfacesareblack.Theelectricalnetworkmethodisappliedtocasesofmoderatecomplexitywherethenumberof
reflectionsinvolvedareinfinite,butthenumberofsurfacesinvolvedarenotmorethanfourorfivethismethodisverysimple,since
thestandardtechniquesofsolvingelectricalnetworksareappliedtosolvetheequivalentthermalnetworks.Theabsorptionfactor
methodisusedtosolveradiationproblemsthatcanbegradedasdifficulthere,theresultingsystemoflinearalgebraicequations
havetobesolvedbythestandardmathematicaltechniques(suchas:matrixmethodsorusingstandardcomputerlibraryprograms).
Whateverthemethodfollowed,followingassumptionsaremadetosimplifythesolution:
1.Allthesurfacesoftheenclosureareopaque(=0),diffuseandgrey
2.Radiativepropertiessuchas,andareuniformandindependentofdirectionandfrequency
3.Irradiationandheatfluxleavingeachsurfaceareuniformoverthesurface
4.Eachsurfaceoftheenclosureisisothermal,and
5.Theenclosureisfilledwithanonparticipatingmedium(suchasvacuumorair).
Inthisbook,weshalldiscussonlytheelectricalnetworkmethod,sinceitissimpletoapplyandgivesaphysicalfeeloftheproblem.
However,beforeweproceedwiththediscussionofelectricalnetworkmethod,weshallstudyaspecialcaseofradiativeheattransfer
betweensmallgreybodies.
13.7.1 Radiation Exchange between Small, Grey Surfaces

Letusconsiderradiativeheatexchangebetweentwosmall,greybodies,1and2.Bysmall,wemeanthattheirsizeisverysmall
comparedtothedistancebetweenthem.Lettheemissivitiesofsurfaces1and2be1and2 ,respectively,andtheirabsorptivitiesbe 1
and 2 ,respectively.Sincethesurfacesaregrey(notblack),surelywehavetoconsidertheeffectofmultiplereflectionshowever,
implicationofsmallbodyisthattheportionofradiationemittedbyeitherbodythatisreflectedbytheotherbodyisconsideredtobe
lostinspaceanddoesnotreturntotheoriginatingsurface.
Then,wewrite:
Energyemittedbybody1andincidentonbody2
Ofthisenergy,amountabsorbedbybody2
Therefore,energytransferredfrombody1tobody2:
Similarly,energytransferredfrombody2tobody1is:
and,netradiantenergyexchangebetween1and2is:
Theproduct,(1.2 )isknownasequivalentemissivity(eq )forasystemoftwosmallgreybodies.
13.7.2 The Electrical Network Method

Thismethod,introducedbyOppenheiminthe1950s,issimpleanddirectitemphasisesonthephysicsoftheproblem,andiseasyto
apply.Beforeweintroducethismethod,letusdefinetwonewquantities,namelyirradiationandradiosity:(SeeFig.13.25).
2
Irradiation,(G)isthetotalradiationincidentuponasurfaceperunittime,perunitarea(W/m ).
Radiosity,(J)isthetotalradiationleavingasurface,withnoregardforitsorigin(i.e.reflectedplusemittedfromthesurface)per
2
unittime,perunitarea(W/m ).
Now,fromFig.13.25,itisclearthattotalradiationleavingthesurface(i.e.radiosity,J)is:
J=G+Eb
Foragrey,opaque(=0)surface,wehave:
FIGURE13.25Irradiationandradiosity
=(1)=(1)(fromKirchhoffslaw)
Therefore,
Now,netrateofradiationenergytransferfromthesurfaceisgivenby:(rateofradiationenergyleavingthesurfaceminustherateof
radiationenergyincidentonthesurface),i.e.
Therefore,
ByanalogywithOhmslaw,wecanthinkofQinEq.13.48asacurrentflowingthroughapotentialdifference(Eb J),andthefactor(1
)/A.astheresistance.Now,thisresistanceistheresistancetotheflowofradiantheatduetothenatureofthesurfaceandisknown
assurfaceresistance(R).
i.e.
SurfaceresistanceforasurfaceiisshownschematicallyinFig.13.26a.
FIGURE13.26Surfaceresistanceandspaceresistance
FromEq.13.48,weseethatifEbi>Ji,i.e.iftheemissivepowerisgreaterthantheradiosity,thenQiwillbepositive,whichmeansthat
thenetheattransferisfromthesurfacei.Ontheotherhand,ifEbi<Ji,i.e.iftheemissivepowerislessthantheradiosity,thenQiwill
benegative,andthismeansthatthenetheattransferistothesurfacei.
Forablackbodyemissivity=1so,thesurfaceresistanceiszero,and
Also,manysurfacesinnumerousapplicationsareadiabatic,i.e.wellinsulated,andnetheattransferthroughsuchasurfaceiszero,
sinceinsteadystate,alltheheatincidentonsuchasurfaceisreradiated.Theseareknownasreradiatingsurfaces.Wallsofa
furnaceisthefamiliarexampleofareradiatingsurface.Obviously,forareradiatingsurface,Qi=0,andfromEq.13.48weget:
Notethatthetemperatureofareradiatingsurfacecanbecalculatedfromtheaboveequationfurther,notethatthistemperatureis
independentoftheemissivityofthesurface.
Again,considertwodiffuse,greyandopaquesurfacesiandj,maintainedatuniformtemperaturesTiandTj,exchangingheatwitheach
other.Then,rememberingthedefinitionsofradiosityandviewfactor,wecanwritefortheradiationleavingsurfaceithatstrikes
surfacej:
Qi=AiF ijJi
Similarly,forsurfacej,wehave:
Qj=AjF jiJj
Therefore,netheatinterchangebetweensurfacesiandjis:
Again,byanalogywithOhmslaw,wecanwriteEq.13.52as:
Rijisknownasspaceresistanceanditrepresentstheresistancetoradiativeheatflowbetweentheradiositypotentialsofthetwo
surfaces,duetotheirrelativeorientationandspacing.
SpaceresistanceisillustratedinFig.13.26b.NotefromEq.13.52thatifJi>Jj,netheattransferisfromsurfaceitosurfacej
otherwise,thenetheattransferisfromsurfacejtosurfacei.
Thus,foreachdiffuse,grey,opaquesurface,inradiantheatexchangewithothersurfacesofanenclosure,therearetworesistances,i.e.
thesurfaceresistance,ri=(1i)/(Ai.i),andaspaceresistance,Rij=1/(Ai.F ij).
ForaNsurfaceenclosure,netheattransferfromsurfaceishouldbeequaltothesumofnetheattransfersfromthatsurfacetothe
remainingsurfaces,i.e.
where,RiisthesurfaceresistanceandRijisthespaceresistance.
ThissituationisshowninFig.13.27.
AscanbeseenfromFig.13.27rateofradiationcurrentflowtosurfaceithroughitssurfaceresistancemustbeequaltothesumofall
theradiationcurrentflowsfromsurfaceitoallothersurfacesthroughtherespectivespaceresistances.
Ingeneral,therearetwotypesofradiationproblems:first(andmostcommon),whenthesurfacetemperatureTi,andtherefore,the
emissivepowerEbiisknownand,thesecondtypeiswhenthenetradiationheattransferatthesurfaceiisknown.Eq.13.55isuseful
insolvingthefirsttypeofproblems,i.e.whenthesurfacetemperatureisknowninstead,ifthenetheattransferrateatthesurfaceis
theknownquantity,Eq.13.52istheapplicableequation.Essentially,theproblemistosolvefortheradiositiesJ1,J2 ,,Jn.As
mentionedearlier,electricalnetworkmethodisconvenienttouseifthenumberofsurfacesinanenclosureislimitedtoaboutfive
however,ifthenumberofsurfacesismorethanfive,thedirectapproachistoapplyEq.13.55foreachsurfacewhosetemperatureis
known,andEq.13.52foreachsurfaceatwhichthenetheattransferrateisknown,andsolvetheresultingsetofNlinear,algebraic
equationsfortheNunknowns,namely,J1,J2 ,,Jnbystandardmathematicalmethods.Oncetheradiositiesareknown,Eq.13.48may
beappliedtodetermineeithertheheattransferrateorthetemperature,asthecasemaybe.
FIGURE13.27RadiationheattransferfromsurfaceitoothersurfacesinaNsurfaceenclosure
FIGURE13.28Twosurfaceenclosureanditsradiationnetwork
13.7.3 Radiation Heat Exchange in Two-zone Enclosures

Now,withthebackgroundofabovediscussiononthesurfaceresistanceandspaceresistanceinconnectionwithdiffuse,grey,opaque
surfaces,letusconsidertheradiantheattransferinatwozoneenclosure.Thissimplymeansthatthetwosurfaces,together,makeup
theenclosureandseeonlythemselvesandnothingelse.Many,practicallyimportantgeometriesmaybeclassifiedastwozone
enclosures,e.g.asmallbodyenclosedbyalargebody,apipepassingthroughalargeroom,concentricspheres,concentriclong
cylinders,long,parallelplanesurfaces,etc.
Fig.13.28showsaschematicofatypicaltwozoneenclosureandtheassociatedradiation(or,thermal)network.
Surfaces1and2formingtheenclosurearediffuse,greyandopaque.Lettheiremissivities,temperaturesandareasbe(1,T1,A1)and
(2 ,T2 ,A2 ),respectively.TheradiationnetworkisshowninFig.13.28.Eachsurfacehasonesurfaceresistanceassociatedwithitand
thereisonespaceresistancebetweenthetworadiositypotentials,andalltheresistancesareinseries,asshown.Theheatcurrent
(Q12 )inthiscircuitiscalculatedbydividingthetotalpotential(Eb1Eb2 )bythetotalresistance(R1+R12 +R2 ).So,wewrite:
FIGURE13.29Radiationnetworkfortwoblacksurfacesforminganenclosure
Eq.13.56isanimportantequation,whichgivesnetrateofheattransferbetweentwogrey,diffuse,opaquesurfaceswhichform
anenclosure,i.e.whichseeonlyeachotherandnothingelse.
Now,letusconsiderafewspecialcasesoftwosurfaceenclosure.Basicradiationnetworkforallthesecasesisthesameasgivenin
Fig.13.28andthebasic,governingequationisEq.13.56,whichismodifieddependinguponthecaseconsidered.
Case(i):Radiantheatexchangebetweentwoblacksurfaces:
Forablackbody,=1,andJ=Eb ,asexplainedearlier.i.e.surfaceresistance[=(1)/(A.)]ofablackbodyiszero.Then,the
radiationnetworkwillconsistofonlyaspaceresistancebetweenthetworadiositypotentials,asshowninFig.13.29:
Then,fromEq.13.56,weget:
Next,weshallconsiderfourcasesofpracticalinterestwheretheviewfactorbetweentheinnersurface1andtheoutersurface2(i.e.
F 12 )isequalto1,andalsothenetradiationfromagreycavity.
Case(ii):Radiantheatexchangeforasmallobjectinalargecavity:
SeeFig.13.30(a).Apracticalexampleofasmallobjectinalargecavityisthecaseofasteampipepassingthroughalargeplantroom.
Forthiscase,wehave:
And,Eq.13.56becomes:
Case(iii):Radiantheatexchangebetweeninfinitelylargeparallelplates:
SeeFig.13.30(b).Inthiscase,A1=A2 =A,say,andF 12 =1
Then,Eq.13.56becomes:
Case(iv):Radiantheatexchangebetweeninfinitelylongconcentriccylinders:
SeeFig.13.30(c).Inthiscase:
F 12 =1
where,
RememberthatA1referstotheinner(orenclosed)surface.
Eq.13.60isknownasChristiansensequation.
Case(v):Radiantheatexchangebetweenconcentricspheres:
SeeFig.13.30(d).Inthiscase:
F 12 =1
Then,Eq.13.56becomes
where,
Remember,again,thatA1referstotheinner(orenclosed)surface.
Case(vi):Energyradiatedfromagreycavity:
ConsideragreycavityasshowninFig.13.31.Let1,A1andT1beitsemissivity,areaandtemperature(inKelvin),respectively.Now,
energywillstreamoutofthecavityintothesurroundingspacethroughtheopening(or,mouth)ofthecavity.Lettheopeningbe
coveredbyanimaginarysurfaceA2 .Thus,itisatwosurfaceenclosure.Now,sincethecavityisverysmallcomparedtothespace
outside,practicallyalltheenergyemittedbythecavitywillbeabsorbedbyspace,anditisreasonabletoassumethatradiationcoming
tothecavityfromspaceisnegligible,i.e.thespaceactslikeablackbodyatatemperatureofzeroKelvinasfarasthecavityis
concerned.So,surface2isblackatzeroKelvinforouranalysis.Implicationofthisisthatsurfaceresistanceofsurface2iszero,and
radiosityofsurface2isequaltoitsemissivepower,whichinturn,isequaltozerosincethetemperatureiszeroKelvin.So,the
radiationnetworkforthiscasewillbeasshowninFig.13.31:
FIGURE13.30FewtwosurfaceenclosureswhereF 12 =1
FIGURE13.31Radiationfromagreycavity
Therefore,netenergyradiatedfromthegreycavityisgivenby:
Then,Q12 becomes:
FIGUREExample13.14TwosurfaceenclosurewithA1<<A2
Eq.13.62isanimportantresult,whichgivesnetradiationfromagreycavitytosurroundingspace.Ifitisdesired,forexample,to
calculatethenetradiationfromablindholedrilledinaflange,thentherelationtouseistheEq.13.62.
Example13.14.Alongpipe,50mmindiameter,passesthrougharoomandisexposedtoairat20deg.C.Pipesurfacetemperature
is93deg.C.Emissivityofthesurfaceis0.6.Calculatethenetradiantheatlosspermetrelengthofpipe.
(M.U.1991)
Solution.Thepipeisenclosedbytheroomso,itistwosurfaceenclosureproblem.Further,areaofthepipeisverysmall,
comparedtotheareaoftheroom.Therefore,thisisacaseofasmallobjectsurroundedbyalargearea,andwehave:
Data:
Then,applyingEq.13.58,weget:
FIGUREExample13.15Twoinfinitelylargeparallelplates
2
Example13.15.Calculatethenetradiantheatinterchangeperm fortwolargeparallelplatesmaintainedat800Cand300C.The
emissivitiesoftwoplatesare0.3and0.6,respectively.(M.U.1993)
Solution.Theplatesareparalleltoeachother,andareverylargeso,itisatwosurfaceenclosureproblem,withtwoinfinite
parallelplates.Wehave:
Data:
Forinfiniteparallelplates,wehavetherelation:
Example13.16.Asphericalliquidoxygentank,0.3mindiameterisenclosedconcentricallyinasphericalcontainerof0.4m
diameterandthespaceinbetweenisevacuated.Thetanksurfaceisat183Candhasanemissivityof0.2.Thecontainersurfaceisat
25Candhasanemissivityof0.25.Determinethenetradiantheattransferrate.(M.U.)
Solution.Thisisthecaseoftwosurfaceenclosure,withonesphereenclosedbyanothersphere.If1denotesinnersphere,and2
outersphere,wehaveforviewfactors:F 11=0andF 12 =1
Data:

Now,forthecaseofconcentricspheres,wehave:
Therefore,
Q12 =18.748W(netradiantheatinterchangebetweeninnerandouterspheres.)
FIGUREExample13.17Radiationnetworkforaconvexgreybodycompletelyenclosedbyanothergreybody
Note:Negativesignindicatesthatheatflowsfromouterspheretoinnerspherethisiscertainlyso,sincetheinnersphereisatalower
temperaturethantheoutersphere.
2
Example13.17.Aconvexgreybodyhavingasurfaceareaof4m has1=0.35andT1=680K.Thisiscompletelyenclosedbya
2
greysurfacehavinganareaof36m ,2 =0.75andT2 =310K.FindthenetrateofheattransferQ12 betweenthetwosurfaces.
(M.U.1999)
Solution.Thisisthecaseofatwosurfaceenclosure.Innersurfaceisconvexso,viewfactorF 11=0.Also,F 12 =1sincetheinner

bodyiscompletelyenclosedbytheoutersurface.
TheradiationnetworkforthisproblemisshowninFig.Example13.22below:
Data:
Then,netrateofheattransferbetweensurfaces1and2isgivenby:
Alternatively:
Wecanapplythedirectformulaforatwosurfaceenclosure,forwhichF 11=0,F 12 =1,i.e.
Example13.18.Ahemisphericalfurnaceofradius1.0mhasarooftemperatureofT1=800Kandemissivity1=0.8.Theflat
circularfloorofthefurnacehasatemperatureofT2 =600Kandemissivity2 =0.5.Calculatethenetradiantheatexchangebetween
theroofandthefloor.(M.U.1998)
Solution.Thisisatwozoneenclosureproblem.Fig.Example13.18showstheradiationnetworkforthisproblem.Wehave:
where,R1,andR2 arethetwosurfaceresistancesandR12 isthespaceresistancebetweenthetworadiositypotentials.
FIGUREExample13.18Radiationnetworkforheattransferbetweenahemisphericalfurnaceanditsfloor
Data:
Viewfactors:
Resistances:
Therefore,
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Then,netrateofheattransferbetweensurface1and2isgivenby:
4
i.e.Q12 =2.34710 Watt.
Additionally:
IfboththesurfaceareblackNow,boththesurfaceresistancesbecomezero,since=1forboththeblacksurfaces.Then,
Example13.19.RefertoFig.Example13.19.Threethinwalled,long,circularcylinders1,2and3,ofdiameters15cm,25cmand
35cm,respectively,arearrangedconcentricallyasshown.Temperatureofcylinder1is80Kandthatofcylinder3is300K.
Emissivitiesofcylinders1,2and3are0.05,0.1and0.2,respectively.Assumingthatthereisvacuuminsidetheannularspaces,
determinethesteadystatetemperatureattainedbycylinder2.
Solution.Thisisthecaseofradiantheattransferbetweenlong,concentriccylinders.
FIGUREExample13.19Threeconcentriccylinders
Data:
LetLbethelengthofcylinders.Then,
and,
Insteadystate,netradiantheattransferbetweencylinders1and2mustbeequaltothenetradiantheattransferbetweencylinder2and
3.
i.e.Q12 :=Q23 (A)
WeapplyEq.13.60,namely,
ApplyingEq.13.60inheatbalanceEq.A:
Intheaboveequation,T2 istheonlyunknown.SimplifyingEq.B:
Alternatively:
WecangetvalueofT2 veryeasilybyapplyingsolveblockofMathcad.
StartwithaguessvalueforT2 ,andwritetheconstraint,i.e.Eq.BimmediatelyafterGiveninthesolveblockthen,typingFind(T2 )
=givesthevalueofT2 :
T2 :=200Kguessvalue)
Given
Note:Whilewritingtheconstraintequationinthesolveblockabove,wehavesubstitutedd1/d2 forA1/A2 ,andd2 /d3 forA2 /A3 .

Onceagain,itisdemonstratedthatusingsolveblockofMathad,verymuchsimplifiesthesolution,andreducesthelabourinvolved.
FIGUREExample13.20Grey,cylindricalcavity
Example13.20.Ablindcylindricalholeofdiameter2cmandlength3cmisdrilledintoametalslabhavingemissivity0.6.Ifthe
metalslabismaintainedatatemperatureof350C,findtheheatescapingoutoftheholebyradiation.
(M.U)
Solution.Thisisaproblemondeterminingenergyesapingfromagreycavity.WeuseEq.13.62,i.e.
(netradiationfromgreycavity)
Data:
Now,F 11foracavityisalreadyshowntobe:
Therefore,
Then,fromEq.13.62:
Example13.21.Ahohlraumistobeconstructedoutofathincoppersphereofdiameter=15cm.Itsinternalsurfaceishighly
oxidised.Whatshouldbetheareaofasmallopeningtobemadeonthesurfaceofthesphere,ifthedesiredabsorptivityis0.95?
Solution.
Data:
FIGUREExample13.21Holeonthesurfaceofasphereholhraum
Theinsidesurfaceofthespheremustabsorb95%oftheenergy,whichmeansthat5%oftheenergyescapesoutthroughtheopeningof
area=A2 ,say.
Let Q2 =energyescapingthroughthehole,and
Q1=energyradiatedfromthespherical
cavity
Then,wehave:
Solving,

But,wealsohave,fortheviewfactorofcavity,w.r.t.itself:

2
Now,As:=D
2
i.e.As=0.071m (totalareaofsphericalsurface)
Therefore,
Solving,
3 2
i.e.A2 =3.23810 m (areaoftheopeningonthesurfaceofsphere)
2
i.e.A2=32.38cm (areaoftheopeningonthesurfaceofsphere.)
13.7.4 Radiation Heat Exchange in Three-zone Enclosures

Fig.13.32(a)showsanenclosuremadeofthreeopaque,diffuse,greysurfaces.LetthesurfacesA1,A2 ,A3 bemaintainedatuniform
temperaturesofT1,T2 andT3 ,respectively.Also,lettheemissivitiesbe1,2 and3 ,respectively.Theradiationnetworkforthis
systemofthreesurfaceenclosureisshowninFig.13.32(b).Whiledrawingtheradiationnetwork,theprincipletobefollowedisquite
simple:first,drawthesurfaceresistanceassociatedwitheachgreysurfacethen,connecttheradiositypotentialsbetweensurfacesby
therespectivespaceresistances.
FIGURE13.32Threesurfaceenclosureanditsradiationnetwork
Itisconsideredthatthetemperatureofeachsurfaceisknown,i.e.emissivepowerEb foreachsurfaceisknown.Then,theproblem
reducestodeterminingtheradiositiesJ1,J2 andJ3 .ThisisdonebyapplyingKirchhoffslawofdccircuitstoeachnode:i.e.sumofthe
currents(or,rateofheattransfers)enteringintoeachnodeiszero.Doingthis,wegetthefollowingthreealgebraicequations:
Solvingthesethreeequationssimultaneously,wegetJ1,J2 andJ3 .
Remembertowriteeachequationsuchthatcurrentflowsintothenodethen,themagnitudesoftheradiositieswouldadjust
themselveswhenallthethreeequationsaresolvedsimultaneously.Oncethemagnitudesoftheradiositiesareknown,expressionsfor
netheatflowsbetweenthesurfacesare:
and,netheatflowfromeachsurfaceis:
Eq.set13.64isasetofgeneralequationsforthreediffuse,opaque,greysurfaces.However,theseequationswillbemodifieddepending
4
uponanyconstraintthatmaybeattachedtoanyofthesurfaces,i.e.say,ifthesurfaceisblackorreradiating:Ji=Ebi=.Ti .And,Qi
=0forareradiatingsurface.IfQiatanysurfaceisspecifiedinsteadofthetemperature(i.e.Ebi),then,(EbiJi)/RiisreplacedbyQi.
Weshallstudyafewsuchspecialcasesofthreezoneenclosuresbelow:
Case(i):Twoblacksurfacesconnectedtoathirdrefractorysurface:
Thisisathreezoneenclosure,withtwoofthesurfacesbeingblackandthethirdsurfacebeingareradiating,insulatedsurface.
Typicalexampleisafurnacewhosebottomisthesourceandthetopisthesinkandthetwosurfacesareconnectedbyarefractory
wallwhichactsasareradiatingsurface.Ineffect,thesourceandsinkexchangeheatthroughthereradiatingwallhowever,insteady
state,thereradiatingwallradiatesasmuchheatasitreceives,whichmeansthatnetheatexchangethroughthereradiatingwall(=Q)
iszero,i.e.Eb =Jforthereradiatingwall.Therefore,onceJ(i.e.Eb )iscalculatedforthereradiatingsurface,itssteadystate
4
temperaturecaneasilybecalculatedfrom:Eb =.T .
FIGURE13.33Twoblacksurfacesconnectedbyathirdreradiatingsurfaceanditsradiationnetwork
Fig.13.33(a)showstheradiationnetworkforthiscase.Theradiationnetworkisdrawnveryeasilybyrememberingtheusual
principles:forablacksurface,thesurfaceresistanceiszero,i.e.Eb =J.Forareradiatingsurfacetoo,Eb =J,asalreadyexplained
further,forareradiatingsurface,Q=0.Betweentwogivensurfaces,theradiositypotentialsareconnectedbytherespectivespace
resistances,asshown.ItmaybeobservedthatthesystemreducestoaseriesparallelcircuitofresistancesasshowninFig.13.33(b).
So,wewrite,forthetotalresistanceofthecircuit,Rtot:
Here,Q12 isthenetradiantheattransferredbetweensurfaces1and2.Similarexpressionscanbewrittenforheattransferbetween
surfaces2and3(=Q23 )andtheheattransferbetweensurfaces1and3(=Q13 ).
Case(ii):Twogreysurfacessurroundedbyathirdreradiatingsurface:
Inthiscase,therearetwogreysurfaces,andthethirdsurfaceisaninsulated,reradiatingsurface.Asalreadyexplained,there
radiatingsurfaceradiatesasmuchenergyasitreceivestherefore,netradiantheattransferforthatsurfaceiszero,i.e.
4
i.e.oncetheradiosityofthereradiatingsurfaceisknown,itstemperaturecaneasilybecalculated,sinceEb3 =.T3 .Further,note
thatT3 isindependentoftheemissivityofsurface3.
FIGURE13.34Twogreysurfacessurroundedbyareradiatingsurface
Now,theradiationnetworkreducestoasimpleseriesparallelcircuitoftherelevantresistances.Expressionforheatflowrateis:
where,Rtotistheresistance,givenby:
13.7.5 Radiation Heat Exchange in Four-zone Enclosures

(a)WhenallthefoursurfacesareblackRememberingtheprinciplesalreadyexplained,iftheradiationnetworkforan
enclosurecomprisingoffourblacksurfacesisdrawn,itwilllookasshowninFig.13.35.
Expressionfornetradiantheatflowratefromsurface1is:
FIGURE13.35Radiationnetworkforanenclosureoffourblacksurfaces
Similarexpressionscanbewrittenforthenetheatflowfromotherthreesurfaces.
(b)WhenallthefoursurfacesaregreyNow,foreachsurface,asurfaceresistancealsohastobeincluded,andtheradiation
networkforthissystemwillbeasshowninFig.13.36:
Expressionfornetradiantheatflowratefromsurface1is:
Similarexpressionscanbewrittenforthenetheatflowfromotherthreesurfaces.
FIGURE13.36Radiationnetworkforanenclosureoffourgreysurfaces
Example13.22.Alongductofequilateraltriangularsection,ofsidew=0.75m,showninFig.Example13.22,hasitssurface1at
700K,surface2at1000K,andsurface3isinsulated.Further,surface1hasanemissivityof0.8andsurface2isblack.Determinethe
rateatwhichenergymustbesuppliedtosurface2tomaintaintheseoperatingconditions.
Solution.Sincetheductisverylong,theendeffectscanbeneglected.Therefore,thisisathreezoneenclosure,withsurface1being
grey,surface2beingblack,andsurface3beinginsulated(or,rerediating).
FIGUREExample13.22Oneblacksurface,oneinsulatedsurface,andonegreysurfaceforminganenclosure,anditsradiation
network
Fig.Example13.22alsoshowstheradiationnetworkforthisproblem.Thisisdrawnrememberingtheprinciplesalreadystated,i.e.
(a)forablacksurface,thesurfaceresistanceiszero,andEb =J,(b)foraninsulated(orreradiating)surface,Q=0andJ=Eb ,(c)for
agreysurface,addasurfaceresistance,(1)/(A.),and(d)connecttheradiositypotentialsbytherespectivespaceresistances
(1/Ai.F ij).
Data:
Letthelengthoftheductbe1m
i.e.L:=1m(lengthofduct)W:=0.75m(sideofequilateraltriangle)T1:=700K1:=0.8
8 2
T2 :=1000K:=5.6710 W/(m K)(StefanBoltzmannconstant)
Now,wehave,forviewfactors:
F 11+F 12 +F 13 =1 (bysummationrule)
But, F 11=0 (sincesurface1isflat,andcannotsee

itself.)
Then, F 12 +F 13 =1
Further,bysymmetry,F 12 =F 13 forequilateraltriangle.
Therefore, F 12 =0.5
and, F 12 =0.5
Similarly, F 12 =0.5
Sincesurface3isreradiatingsurface,netheattransferforthatsurfaceQ3 =0.
Therefore,Q1=Q2
And,radiationnetworkisasimpleseriesparallelnetworkasshowninFig.Example13.22(b)above.Then,Q1isdetermineddirectly
as:
Areas:

2
A1:=WLi.e.A1=0.75m (areaofsurface1)
and,forequilateraltriangle:
A2 :=A1
and, A3 :=A1
Resistances:
Spaceresistances:
Therefore,fromEq.a:
4
and, Q2 =Q1=2.04110 W (energytobesuppliedtoheatedsurface2per
metrelength.)
Example13.23.Twocoaxialcylindersof0.4mand1mdiameterare1mlong.Theannulartopandbottomsurfacesarewell
insulatedandactasreradiatingsurfaces.Theinnersurfaceisat1000Kandhasanemissivityof0.6.Theoutersurfaceismaintained
at400Kanditsemissivityis0.4.
1.Determinetheheatexchangebetweenthesurfaces
2.Iftheannularbasesurfacesareopentothesurroundingsat300K,determinetheradiantheatexchange.
Iftheoutercylinderissurface2,takeF 21=0.25andF 22 =0.27.
(M.U.Dec.1998)
FIGUREExample13.23Twograysurfacessurroundedbyareradiatingsurface
Solution.SeeFig.Example13.23.Lettheinnersurfacebedenotedby1,outersurfaceby2,andthetwoannularsurfacesby3.Then,
surfaces1,2and3formanenclosure.And,therediationnetworkwilllookasshownintheFig.Example13.23.
Data:
D1:=0.4mD2 :=1mL:=1mT1:=1000KT2 :=400K1:=0.62 :=0.4
F 21:=0.25F 22 :=0.27
8 2
:=5.6710 W/(m K)(StefanBoltzmannconstant)
Areas:
2
A1:=D1Li.e.A1=1.257m (surfaceareaofinnercylinder1)
2
A2 :=D1Li.e.A2 =3.142m (surfaceareaofoutercylinder2)
TofindF12:
Emissivepowers:
Resistances:
Case(i):Whenboththeannularsurfacesactasreradiatingsurfaces:
Theradiationnetworkisasshownabove.Fortheseriesparallelnetworkofresistances,weobservethatR12 and(R13 +R23 )arein

parallel.Therefore,effectiveresistanceReffisgivenby:
Therefore,
Inaddition,forcase(i),ifwewishtodeterminethetemperatureofreradiatingsurface:
Applytheconditionthatforreradiatingsurface,insteadystate,
heatreceivedbythesurface=heatlostbythesurface
So,wehavetodetermineJ1andJ2 .
Case(ii):Whenboththeannularsurfacesareopentosurroundingsat300K:
TofindJ1andJ2ApplyKirchhoffslawtonodesJ1andJ2 :
TogetvaluesofJ1andJ2 solveEqs. a and b simultaneously:
WeshallusesolveblockofMathcadtosolveEqs. a and b :
First,choosetrial(or,guess)valuesforJ1andJ2 .Then,immediatelyafterGiven,writetheconstraints,i.e.Eqs. a and b .Now,
typeFind(J1,J2 )=,andtheresultappearsimmediately:
J1:=100J2 :=100(trialvalues)
Given
Therefore,heatlostbysurface1:
And,heatlostbysurface2:
Notethatnegativesignindicatesthatflowisintothesurface.
Heatgainedbysurroundings:
Verify:
Heatgainedbythesurroundingsmustbeequaltohealostbythesurfaces.

i.e. Qs=Q1+Q2
4
Q1+Q2 =2.69910 =Qs (verified.)
Example13.24.Twoparallelplates,0.5m1meach,arespaced0.5mapart.Theplatesareattemperaturesof1000Cand500C
andtheiremissivitiesare0.2and0.5,respectively.Theplatesarelocatedinalargeroom,thewallsofwhichareat27C.Thesurfaces
oftheplatesfacingeachotheronlyexchangeheatbyradiation.Determinetheratesofheatlostbyeachplateandheatgainofthewalls
byradiation.Useradiationnetworkforsolution.
Assumeshapefactorbetweenparallelplates:F 12 =F 21=0.285.
(M.U.1996)
FIGUREExample13.24Twogreysurfacessurroundedbyalargeroom
Solution.
Thisisathreezoneenlosure,andtheradiationnetworkforthissystemisshowninFig.Example13.24(b)above.SincetheareaA3 of
theroomisverylarge,wecantakethesurfaceresistanceofA3 asequaltozero.
ThismeansthatEb3 =J3 ,i.e.alargeroomisequivalenttoablacksurface.
Data:
2 2
A1:=0.5m A2 :=0.5m T1:=1000+273KT2 :=500+273KT3 :=27+273K1:=0.2
8 2
2 :=0.5F 12 :=0.285F 21:=0.285s:=5.6710 W/(m K)(StefanBoltzmannconstant)
Resistances:
Heatlostbyeachsurface:
And,heatgainbysurface3:
Therefore,theproblemreducestocalculatingtheradiosities,J1,J2 andJ3 .
TocalculatetheradiositiesJ1andJ2 ,applyKirchhoffslawofelectriccircuitsofnodesJ1andJ2 :
Emissivepowers:
TogetJ1andJ2 ,solveEqs. a and b simultaneously.Todothis,weshallusesolveblockofMathcad.
First,choosetrial(or,guess)valuesforJ1andJ2 .Then,immediatelyafterGiven,writetheconstraintsi.e.Eqs. a and b .Now,type
Find(J1,J2 )=,andtheresultappearsimmediately:
J1:=100J2 :=100trialvalues
Given
Therefore,
Heatlostbyeachsurface:
Now,heatlostbybothsurfaces1and2isgainedbythesurroundingsso,heatgainedbysurroundings=Q3 =Q1+Q2
13.8 Radiation Shielding

Inpractice,quiteoften,oneormoreradiationshieldsareusedtoreduceradiantheattransferbetweentwogivensurfaces.Radiation
shieldis,simplyathin,highreflectivitysurfaceplacedinbetweenthesurfaceswhichexchangeheatbetweenthemselves.Radiation
shieldsmaybemadeofaluminiumfoils,copperfoils,oraluminisedmylarsheets,etc.Radiationshieldsareextensivelyusedin
buildingindustrytoreduceradiantheatlossfromortothewallsincryogenicindustryassuperinsulation(i.e.alternatelayersofan
insulatorandreflector,e.g.glassfibremat+aluminiumfoilsor,aluminisedmylarsheets,about25numbersperinch)toreducethe
heatleakageintocryogenicvesselsorcryostats,inspaceindustry,againassuperinsulationtoreduceheatinleaks,etc.Radiation
shielddoesnotparticipateinheattransfer,i.e.itdoesnotaddorremoveheatfromthesystemassuch,butreducestheheattransferby
interposingadditionalresistanceinthepathofheattransfer.
Weshallstudyhowtheheattransferisreducedbytheuseofradiationshields,withreferencetotwoinfinite,parallelplates,which
exchangeheatbetweenthemselves.
Fig.13.37(a)showstwolargeparallelplates,1and2exchangingheatbetweenthemselveslettheirareas,temperatures(inKelvin)and
emissivitiesbe(A1,T1,1)and(A2 ,T2 ,2 ).Letaradiationshield3,beplacedbetweentheseplates.Plate3isthinandmadeofa
materialofhighreflectivity.Lettheemissivitiesoftwosidesoftheradiationshieldbe31and32 asshown.Radiationnetworkfor
thissystemisshowninFig.13.37(b).Thisisdrawn,asusual,rememberingthateachgreysurfacehasasurfaceresistanceassociated
withit,andthetworadiositypotentialsareconnectedbyaspaceresistance.
FIGURE13.37Radiationshieldbetweentwoparallelplates,andassociatedradiationnetwork
Whenthereisnoshield,theradiationheattransferbetweenplates1and2isalreadyshowntobe:
Withoneshieldplacedbetweenplates1and2,theradiationnetworkwillbeasshowninFig.13.17(b)above.Notethatnowallthe
relevantresistancesareinseries.Netheattransferbetweenplates1and2isgivenas:
Q12=oneshield=(Eb1Eb2 )/Rtotwhere,Rtotisthetotalresistance.
i.e.
Now,fortwolargeparallelplates,wenote:
F 13 =F 32 =1and,A1=A2 =A3 =A
Then,Eq.13.70simplifiesto:
NotethatascomparedtoEq.13.59forthecaseofnoshield,wehave,withoneshield,anadditionaltermappearinginthe
denominatorofEq.13.71.Therefore,ifthereareNradiationshields,wehave,fornetradiationheattransfer:
Ifemissivitiesofallsurfacesareequal,Eq.13.72becomes:
Notethisimportantresult,whichimpliesthat,whenallemissivitiesareequal,presenceofoneradiationshieldreducestheradiation
heattransferbetweenthetwosurfacestoonehalf,tworadiationshieldsreducetheheattransfertoonethird,9radiationshields
reducetheheattransfertoonetenth,etc.
Foramorepracticalcaseofthetwosurfaceshavingemissivitiesof1and2 ,andallshieldshavingthesameemissivityofs,Eq.
13.72becomes:
Todeterminetheequilibriumtemperatureoftheradiationshield:
OnceQ12 isdeterminedfromEq.13.71,thetemperatureoftheshieldiseasilyfoundoutbyapplyingtheconditionthatinsteadystate:
Q12 =Q13 =Q32 (13.75)
Wecanuseeitheroftheconditions:Q12 =Q13 orQ12 =Q32 .
Q13 orQ32 isdeterminedbyapplyingEq.13.59i.e.weget:
or,
Inboththeaboveequations,T3 istheonlyunknown,whichcaneasilybedetermined.
Foracylindricalradiationshieldplacedinbetweentwo,longconcentriccylinders:
Considerthecaseofradiationheattransferbetweentwolong,concentriccylinders.Theradiationheattransferbetweentwolong,
concentriccylindersisalreadyshowntobe:
where,
Now,letacylindricalradiationshield,3,beplacedinbetweentheinnercylinder(1)andtheoutercylinder(2),asshowninFig.13.38.
TheradiationnetworkforthissystemisshowninFig.13.38(b)anditisexactlythesameasshowninFig.13.37(b).And,theradiation
heattransferbetweencylinders1and2,whentheshieldispresent,isgivenby:
FIGURE13.38Radiationshieldbetweentwoconcentriccylinders,andassociatedradiationnetwork
Now,forthecylindricalsystem,wehave:
F 13 =F 32 =1
A1=2r1L
A2 =2r2 L
and, A3 =2r3 L
Then,Eq.13.70reducesto:
InEq.13.77,wehave:(A1/A2 )=(r1/r2 ),and(A1/A3 )=(r1/r3 ).

Notethatascomparedtotherelationfortwoconcentriccylinderswithnoshield(i.e.Eq.13.60),anadditionaltermappearsinthe
denominatorofEq.13.77(i.e.thethirdterm)whenoneradiationshieldisintroducedifthereisasecondradiationshield,say(4),
thenonemoresimilartermwillhavetobeaddedinthedenominatortotakecareoftheresistanceofthatshield.
Inthiscase,too,theequilibriumtemperatureoftheshieldisdeterminedbyapplyingtheprinciplethat,insteadystate,
Q12 =Q13 =Q32 .
Forasphericalradiationshieldplacedinbetweentwoconcentricspheres:
ThiscaseisalsorepresentedbyFig.13.38(a),whereinnersphere1isenclosedbyanoutersphere2,andaradiationshield3,isplaced
inbetween.TheradiationnetworkforthissystemisshowninFig.13.38(b).
Whenthereisnoradiationshield,radiationheattransferbetweensurfaces1and2isgivenbyEq.13.61,i.e.
where,
Again,whentheradiationshieldispresent,thegeneralrelationforradiationheattransferbetweensurfaces1and2isEq.13.70.
Rememberingthatforconcentricspheres,
relationforradiantheattransferbetweensurfaces1and2,isexactlyasEq.13.77,i.e.
InEq.13.78,wehave:
Inthiscasealso,equilibriumtemperatureoftheshieldisdeterminedbyapplyingtheprinciplethat,insteadystate,
Q12 =Q13 =Q32 .
Example13.25.Twolargeparallelplanesfacingeachotherandhavingemissivities0.3and0.5aremaintainedat827Cand527C,
respectively.Determinetherateatwhichheatisexchangedbetweenthetwosurfacesbyradiation.Ifaradiationshieldofemissivity
0.05onbothsidesisplacedparallelbetweenthetwosurfaces,determinethepercentagereductionintheradiantheatexchange
rate.(M.U.,Jan.2002)
Solution.Thisisthecaseofoneradiationshieldplacedinbetweentwoparallelplates.SeeFig.Example13.25.
Data:
T1:=827+273KT2 :=527+273K1:=0.32 :=0.531:=0.0532 :=0.05

8 2 2
:=5.6710 W/(m K)(StefanBoltzmannconstant)A:=1m (surfaceareaofplatesassumed)
(a)Heatexchangebetweensurfaces1and2,whenthereisnoshield:
FIGUREExample13.25Radiationshieldbetweentwoparallelplates,andassociatedradiationnetwork
4 2
i.e.Q12 =1.3810 W/m (radiantheattransfer,withoutshield.)
Now,wehaveforradiantheattransferbetweensurfaces1and2whenthereisoneshieldinbetween1&2:
Therefore,percentagereductioninheattransferduetoradiationshield:
Inaddittion,ifwewishtofindoutequilibriumtemperatureofshield:
LettheequilibriumtemperatureofshieldbeT3 .
Insteadystate,wehave:
Q12_one_shield=Q13 =Q32
Q12 isalreadycalculated.Q13 orQ32 iscalculatedusingEq.13.59.
Letustake:Q12=one=shield=Q13
Verify:Usetheequation:Q12_one_shield=Q32
Weget,writingforQ32 :
i.e.T3 =979.537K(sameresultasobtainedabove.)
Example13.26.Twoverylargeparallelplateswithemissivities0.3and0.7exchangeheat.Findthepercentagereductioninheat
transferwhentwopolishedaluminiumradiationshields(E=0.4)areplacedbetweenthem.(M.U.,Dec.2000)
Solution.Thisisthecaseoftworadiationshieldsplacedinbetweentwoparallelplates.
Data:
1:=0.32 :=0.73 :=0.4
Then,withnoradiationshield,wehavetheradiantheattransfer:
and,with2radiationshields,theradiantheattransferis:
Therefore,dividingtheabovetwoequations,wehave:
i.e.byintroducing2radiationshields,theheattransferisreducedto32%ofthatwithouttheshields.
Example13.27.ThenetradiationfromthesurfaceoftwoparallelplatesmaintainedattemperaturesT1andT2 istobereducedby
79times.Calculatethenumberofscreenstobeplacedbetweentwosurfacestoachievethisreductioninheatexchange,assumingthe
emissivityofscreensas0.05andthatofsurfacesas0.8.(M.U)
Solution.Thisproblemisonparallelplateswithmorethanoneradiationshields.
Data:
LetNbethenumberofscreensrequired.
Then,withnoradiationshield,wehavetheradiantheattransfer:
and,withNradiationshields,theradiantheattransferis:
SolvingEq.a,wegetN,thenumberofscreensrequired.
Weget:
i.e. N=3 (numberofscreensrequiredtoreduceheatlossby79

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Example13.28.A10mmODpipecarriesacryogenicfluidat80K.Thispipeisencasedbyanotherpipeof15mmOD,andthe
spacebetweenthepipesisevacuated.Theouterpipeisat280K.Emissivitiesofinnerandoutersurfacesare0.2and0.3,respectively.
(a)Determinetheradiantheatflowrateoverapipelengthof5m.(b)Ifaradiationshieldofdiameter12mmandemissivity0.05on
bothsidesisplacedbetweenthepipes,determinethepercentagereductioninheatflow.(c)Whatistheequilibriumtemperatureof
theshield?
Solution.
FIGUREExample13.28Radiationshieldbetweentwoconcentriccylinders,andassociatedradiationnetwork
Data:
r1:=0.005mr2 :=0.0075mr3 :=0.006mT1:=80KT2 :=280K1:=0.22 :=0.3

8 2
31:=0.0532 :=0.05:=5.6710 W/(m K)L:=5m
Surfaceareasfor5mlength:
2
A1:=2r1L i.e. A1=0.157m (surfaceareaofinnerpipe)
2
A2 :=2r2 L i.e. A2 =0.236m (surfaceareaofouterpipe)
2
A3 :=2r3 L i.e. A3 =0.188m (surfaceareaofradiation
shield)
(a)Heattransferwithouttheshieldbeingpresent:
Wehave:
Notethatnegativesignindicatesthatheatflowisfromoutsidetoinnerpipe.
(b)Heattransferwithoneshieldbeingpresent:
Now,wehave,forheattransfer,
Again,notethatnegativesignindicatesthatheatflowisfromoutsidetoinnerpipe.
Thereforepercentagereductioninheatflowduetoshield:
i.e.Reduction=83.219%.
(c)Equilibriumtemperatureofshield:
LettheequilibriumtemperatureofshieldbeT3 .
Q12 withoneshieldisalreadycalculated.Q13 orQ32 iscalculatedusingEq.13.59.
Letustake:Q12_one_shield=Q13 Enjoy Safari? Subscribe Today
Weget,writingforQ32
Example13.29.AsphericaltankwithdiameterD1=40cm,filledwithacryogenicfluidatT1=100K,isplacedinsideaspherical
containerofdiameterD2 =60cm,maintainedatT2 =300K.Emissivitiesofinnerandoutertanksare1=0.10and2 =0.20,
respectively.
1.Findtherateofheatlossintotheinnervesselbyradiation
2.IfasphericalradiationshieldofdiameterD3 =50cm,withanemissivity3 =0.05onbothsurfacesisplacedbetweenthe
spheres,whatisthenewrateofheatloss?(M.U.Jan.2002)
Solution.Thisisaproblemonsphericalradiationshield.SeeFig.Example13.29forschematicandtheassociatedradiation
network.
Data:
Areas:
(a)Whenthereisnoradiationshield:
Wehave,forradiationheattransferbetweentwoconcentricspheres:
FIGUREExample13.29Radiationshieldbetweentwoconcentricspheres,andassociatedradiationnetwork
i.e. Q12=19.359W (radiationheattransferwhenthereisnoshield.)
Note:Negativesignindicatesthatheattransferisradiallyinwards,i.e.fromouterspheretoinnersphere.
(b)Whentheradiationshieldispresent:
Forradiationheattransferbetweenconcentricsphereswitharadiationshieldplacedinbetween,wecandirectlyusetheEq.13.78.
However,weshallworkfromfundamentals,andusetheEq.13.70,writtenfortheradiationnetworkshownabove,andthenverifythe
resultfromEq.13.78:
Now,wehavefromEq.(13.70):
Emissivepowers:
Viewfactors:
F 13 :=1 (sinceallradiationemittedbysurface1isinterceptedbysurface3)
F 32 :=1 (sinceallradiationemittedbysurface3isinterceptedbysurface
2)
Resistances: Enjoy Safari? Subscribe Today
Then,fromEq.13.70:
Note:Negativesignindicatesthatheattransferisradiallyinwards,i.e.fromouterspheretoinnersphere.
Verify:
Wehave,fromEq.13.78:
i.e.weget:
Inaddition,ifwewishtofindouttheequilibriumtemperatureoftheshield:
(c)Equilibriumtemperatureofshield:
LettheequilibriumtemperatureofshieldbeT3
Q12 withoneshieldisalreadycalculated.Q13 orQ32 iscalculatedusingEq.13.61.
Letustake:Q12_one_shield=Q13
i.e. T3 =264.919K
or, T3 =8.081C (equilibriumtemperatureofshield.)
VerifyUsetheequation:Q12_one_shield=Q32
Weget,writingforQ32
i.e. T3 =264.919K (sameresultasobtained

above.)
13.9 Radiation Error in Temperature Measurement

Animportantapplicationofradiationshieldsisinreducingtheradiationerrorintemperaturemeasurement.Toexplainthis,consider
thecaseofahotfluidatatemperatureTf,flowingthroughachannel,whosewallsareatatemperatureTw.Lettheconvectiveheat
transfercoefficientbetweenthefluidandthethermometerbulbbeh.Tomeasurethetemperatureofthefluid,athermometer(ora
thermocouple)isintroducedintothestream,asshowninFig.13.39(a).
FIGURE13.39Radiationshieldingofthermometers
LetthereadingshownbythethermometerbeTc .Thisreading,however,doesnotrepresentthetruetemperatureofthefluidTf,since
thethermometerbulbwillloseheatbyradiationtothewallsofthechannelwhichareatalowertemperatureTw(whichisusuallythe
case).So,insteadystate,thethermometerbulbwillgainheatbyconvectionfromtheflowingfluidandwillloseheatbyradiationto
thewalls,andasaresult,thetemperatureTc shownbythethermometerwillbesomevalueinbetweenT f
andTw.
WewishtofindoutthetruetemperatureofthefluidTf,byknowingthethermometerreadingTc .
Makinganenergybalanceonthethermometerbulb,insteadystate,wehave:
Withoutradiationshield:
where,
Ac =surfaceareaofthermometerbulb,
c =emissivityofthermometerbulbsurface.
Eq.13.79givesthetruetemperatureofthefluidTf.SecondtermontheRHSofEq.13.79representstheerrorintemperature
measurementduetoradiationeffect.Itisclearthatradiationerrorcanbeminimisedby:
1.havinglowvalueofc ,i.e.highreflectivityforthebulbsurface
2.highvalueforconvectiveheattransfercoefficient,h.
Inpractice,evenifwestartwithathermometerbulbsurfaceofhighreflectivity,soon,theemissivityvaluerisestoabout0.8or0.9
duetodepositformation,corrosionorerosionofthebulbsurface,etc.
So,themostpracticalwaytoreducetheradiationerrorintemperaturemeasurementistoprovideacylindricalradiationshield
aroundthethermometerbulb,asshowninFig.13.39(b).Then,insteadystate,theshieldtemperature(Ts)willstabilisesomewherein
betweenthefluidtemperatureTfandthewalltemperatureTw.Then,inEq.13.79,Twwillbereplacedbytheeffectiveshield
temperatureTs.
Energybalanceonthethermometerbulb:
Heattransferredtothebulbfromthefluidbyconvection=Heattransferredfromthebulbtotheshieldbyradiation,
InEq.13.80,F cs=viewfactorofthermometerbulbw.r.t.theshieldandis,generallyequalto1.
IntheRHSofeqn.(13.80),firstterminthedenominatorrepresentssurfaceresistanceofthebulb,secondtermisthespaceresistance
betweenthebulbandtheshieldandthethirdtermisthesurfaceresistanceoftheshield.
Now,makinganenergybalanceontheshield:
(heattransferredtoshieldfromthefluidbyconvection+heattransferredtoshieldfrombulbbyradiation)=heattransferredfrom
shieldtowallsbyradiation
where, As=areaofshieldononeside
s=emissivityofshieldsurface
Ac =areaofbulbsurface
c =emissivityofbulbsurface
F cs=viewfactorofbulbw.r.t.shield.
Inthefirsttermoftheaboveequationfactor2appearssinceconvectiveheattransfertotheshieldoccursonbothsurfacesofthe
shield.Also,inwritingtheRHS,theinherentassumptionisthat:
F sw=1(viewfactorbetweentheshieldandthewalls)
and,
SolvingEqs.13.80and13.81simultaneously,weobtaintheshieldtemperatureTsandthethermometerreadingTc ,(ifTfisknown),or
Tf(ifTc isknown).
Example13.30.HotairisflowinginaductwhosewallsaremaintainedatatemperatureTw=450K.Athermocoupleplacedinthe
streamshowsareadingof650K.Iftheemissivityofthethermocouplejunctionisec =0.8andtheconvectiveheattransfercoefficient
2
betweentheflowingairandthethermocoupleish=85W/(m C),findoutthetruetemperatureoftheflowingstream.
(b)Now,ifaradiationshield(s=0.3)isplacedbetweenthethermocoupleandthewalls,whatwillbenewvalueofTc readbythe
thermocouple?And,howmuchisthetemperatureerror?TakeAc /As=1/5.
Solution.Incase(a),thereisnoradiationshieldandincase(b),theradiationshieldispresent.BoththesecasesareshowninFig.
Example13.30(a)and(b).
Data:
8 2
:=5.6710 W/(m K)(StefanBoltzmannconstant.)
Case(a):Whenthereisnoradiationshield:
Insteadystate,makingaheatbalanceonthethermocouplebead,wehave:
qconv=qrad
FIGUREExample13.30Radiationshieldingofthermometers
Therefore,radiationerror=TfTc =73.376deg.
Case(b):Whentheradiationshieldispresent:
Makingaheatbalanceonthethermocouplebead:
Next,makingaheatbalanceontheshield:
where,
As=areaofshieldononeside
s=emissivityofshieldsurface
Ac =areaofbulbsurface
c =emissivityofbulbsurface
F cs=viewfactorofbulbw.r.t.shield=
1
F sw=1(viewfactorbetweentheshieldandthewalls)
and,
Now,Tfisalreadyknown,andsolvingEqs. a and b simultaneously,wegetTc andTs.
Todothis,weusesolveblockofMathcad.WestartwithtrialvaluesofTc andTs,andwritetheconstraintEqs. a and b
immediatelyaftertypingGiven.Then,typingFind(Tc ,Ts)=givesimmediatelythevaluesofTc andTs.
Tc :=100Ts:=100
Given
Therefore,radiationerror=TfTc =7.049deg.
Note:Whenthereisnoradiationshield,theerrorinthermocouplereadingis73.376deg.andwhentheradiationshieldisintroduced,
theradiationerrorisreducedtojust7.049deg.
13.10 Radiation Heat Transfer Coeicient (hr)

Conceptofradiationheattransfercoefficientisusefulinsolvingproblemswhereheattransferoccursbybothconvectionand
radiation.Typicalexamplesofsuchasituationare:heatlossfromasteampipepassingthrougharoom,heatlossfromhot
combustionproductspassingthroughaduct,heatlossfromthewallsanddoorofafurnace,etc.
Radiationheattransfercoefficientisdefinedinamanneranalogoustoconvectionheattransfercoefficient.Considerhotgasesata
temperatureTgflowingthroughatubewhosewallsareatatemperatureofTw.Then,recollectthattheconvectiveheatfluxisgivenby:
qconv=hc (TgTw)
where,hc =convectiveheattransfercoefficient.
Inasimilarmanner,wewriteforradiantheatfluxfromthepipe:
qrad=hr (TgTw)
where,hr =radiationheattransfercoefficient.
Fortheabovecase,hr isdeterminedfrom:
Then, qtot = qconv+qrad,byalinearsuperpositionofbothheatfluxes.
= hc (TgTw)+hr (TgTw)
= (hc +hr )(TgTw) (13.83)
Foranyotherconfiguration,wecandeterminehr ifweknowtheexpressinforradiantheatflux.Forexample,forradiantheattransfer
betweentwolargeparallelplates,wehave:
Notethatradiationheattransfercoefficientisastrongfunctionoftemperature,unliketheconvectiveheattransfercoefficient.
FIGURE13.40Absorptionofmonochromaticradiationinagaslayer
13.11 Radiation from Gases, Vapours and Flames

Sofar,wehavedealtwithradiationheatexchangebetweensurfacesinanenclosure,withanonparticipatingmedium,inbetween,i.e.
theinterveninggasneitherabsorbsnorscatterstheradiationnordoesitemitanyradiationinotherwords,theinterveninggasdoes
not,inanyway,affecttheradiantheattransferbetweenthesurfaces.Suchanassumptionisvalidformonoatomicgasessuchasargon
andhelium,andfordiatomicgasessuchasoxygenandnitrogenthesegasesareextremelyinerttothermalradiation.However,the
samethingisnottrueforpolyatomicgasessuchasCO2 ,H2 O(vap),NH3 andhydrocarbongasesthesegasesdoabsorbandemit
radiation.Further,radiationfromsolidsandliquidsgenerallycoverstheentirewavelengthrangewhereasradiationfromgasesisover
selectedwavelengthbands.Also,notethatradiationfromsolidsisasurfacephenomenonwhereasthatfromgasesisavolumetric
phenomenon.
13.11.1 Volumetric Absorption and Emissivity

Ingases,absorptionofradiationdependsupontheabsorptioncoefficientK(1/m)andthicknessLofthegaslayer,inadditiontothe
temperatureTgofthegas.Fig.13.40showsamonochromaticbeamofintensityI0impingingonthegaslayeratx=0itsintensity
decreasesasaresultofabsorptionandatx=L,lettheintensitybeIL.
Wewishtodeveloparelationbetweentheinitialandfinalintensities:IfIistheintensityatanyx,thereductioninintensityoccurring
inaninfinitesimallayerofthicknessdxisgivenby:
dI(x)=kI(x)dx
Separatingthevariablesandintegratingfrom0toL,i.e.overtheentirethicknessofgaslayer,weget:
where,theabsorptioncoefficientKisassumedtobeindependentofx.
Weget:
ThisisknownasBeersLaw.
i.e.theintensityofradiationdecreasesexponentiallywiththicknessasittravelsthroughthegaslayer.
LHSofEq.13.85ismonochromatictransmissivityofthegas.Also,ingeneral,gasesdonotreflectradiation,i.e.theirreflectivityis
zero.Therefore,wewrite:
Then,fromKirchhoffslaw,sinceabsorptivityisequaltoemissivity,wehave:
i.e. =1exp(kL) (spectralemissivityofgas

(13.87))
FromEq.13.87,onecanseethatifgaslayerthickness,Lisverylarge,
==1
i.e.forverythicklayers,radiationfromthegasisequivalenttoablackbodyradiation.
13.11.2 Gaseous Emission and Absorption

Asmentionedearlier,gasesareselectiveabsorbersandemitters,i.e.gasesabsorboremitradiantenergyonlywithincertain
wavelengthbands.Beyondthesewavelengthbands,thesegasesaretransparent(ordiathermic)tothermalradiation.Inthermal
engineering,weareparticularlyinterestedinCO2 andH2 Ovapour,sincethesearethemainproductsofcombustionoffuels.
FollowingwavelengthbandsareofimportanceforCO2 andH2 Ovapour:
ForCO2 :
Band1:=2.40to3.80microns
ForH2 Ovapour:
Band3:=12.0to25microns.
Asdiscussedearlier,intensityofradiationdecreasesasitpassesthroughagaslayerthisattenuationinintensityisproportionaltothe
pathlengthLandthepartialpressurepofthegas(inamixtureofgases).Emissivepowerofagasisproportionaltothegas
temperatureTgandtheproduct(p.L).FromtheexperimentaldataforCO2 andH2 O,followingempiricalrelationsfortheemissive
powersofCO2 andH2 Ohavebeensuggested:
where,p=partialpressure(atm)andL=layerthickness(m).
2 3 2
(Note:1kcal/(m hr)=1.16210 kW/m ).
Foradiffusesurface,radiationisemittedinalldirections.Therefore,pathlengthLdependsondirectionandshapeofthebody.For
calculationpurposes,ameanpathlengthofbeam(L)isdefinedasfollows:
3 2
where,Visthevolueofthebody(m ),andAisthesurfaceareaofenclosure(m ).
EmissivityofgasesisafunctionofgastemperatureTg,totalpressurepofthegasmixture,partialpressurepgoftheradiatinggasand
themeanpathlength,L.
FIGURE13.41Emissivityofwatervapourinamixtureofothergaseswhicharenonradiating,atatotalpressureof1atm.(Source:
Incropera,FrankP.andDavidP.Dewitt[1998].FundamentalsofHeatandMassTransfer.Pub.:JohnWiley&Sons)
Emissivityofwatervapour(w)inamixtureofothergaseswhicharenonradiating,atatotalpressureof1atm.areplotted,asa
functionofgastemperatureTgandtheproductofpartialpressureofwatervapourandthemeanpathlength,(pw.L),inFig.13.41:
Todetermineemissivityofwatervapourwhenthetotalpressureisdifferentfromoneatm.,multiplythevalueobtainedfromFig.
13.41byacorrectionfactor(Cw),obtainedfromFig.13.42:
Similarly,Fig.13.43showsaplotofemissivityofcarbondioxidegasinamixtureofothergaseswhicharenonradiating,atatotal
pressureof1atm.andtheFig.13.44showscorrectionfactorCc foremissivityofcarbondioxide,whenthetotalpressureisotherthan1
atm.
Whenwatervapourandcarbondioxideappeartogetherinamixtureofothernonradiatinggases,totalgasemissivity(g)isexpressed
as:
g=w+c (13.91)
InEq.13.91,Deisthecorrectionfactor,readfromFig.13.45.Notethattotalemissivityislessthanthesumoftheindividual
emissivitiesofwatervapourandcarbondioxidebecauseofmutualabsorptionofradiationbetweenthesetwogases.
Meanpathlength(L)tobeusedinFigs.13.41to13.45,forvariousgeometries,aregiveninTable13.6:
FIGURE13.42Correctionfactorforemissivityofwatervapourwhenthetotalpressureofmixtureisotherthan1atm.(Source:
IncroperaandDewitt[1998].op.cit.)
FIGURE13.43Emissivityofcarbondioxideinamixtureofothergaseswhicharenonradiating,atatotalpressureof1atm.(Source:
Oncetheemissivity(g)ofthegasmassinthegivengeometryisdetermined,wecanproceedtofindouttheradiantheattransferfrom
thegasmasstothesurfaceofenclosure:
Ifthesurfaceisblack:Radiationemittedbythegasmassiscompletelyabsorbedbytheblacksurfaceblacksurfacealsoemits
radiationwhich,inturn,isabsorbedbythegasdependinguponitsabsorptivity.Therefore,thenetradiantheatexchangebetweenthe
gasmassatatemperatureTgandthesurfaceatatemperatureTsis:
FIGURE13.44Correctionfactorforemissivityofcarbondioxidewhenthetotalpressureofmixtureisotherthan1atm.(Source:
FIGURE13.45Correctionfactorformixturesofcarbondioxideandwatervapour.(Source:IncroperaandDewitt[year].op.cit.)
Theabsorptivity, gforwatervapourandcarbondioxideiscalculatedasfollows:
Forwatervapour:
Forcarbondioxide:
CorrectionfactorsCwandCc areobtainedfromFigs.13.42and13.44,respectively.Emissivitieswandc areobtainedfromFigs.

13.41and13.43,respectively,however,replacingTgbyTsinthexaxis,andreplacing(pw.L)or(pc .L)by{pw.L.(Ts/Tg)}or{pc .L.
(Ts/Tg)},respectively.
Whenbothwatervapourandcarbondioxidearepresentingasmixture,totalgasabsorptivity,( g)isobtainedas:
TABLE13.6Meanbeamlengthsforvariousgasgeometries
Geometry Characteristicdimension Meanpathlength(L)
Cylinder(height=diameter), Diameter,D 0.60D
radiatingtowholesurface
Cylinder(height=diameter), Diameter,D 0.71D
radiatingtocentreofbase
Cylinder(height=0.5diameter), Diameter,D
radiatingto:
(a)end 0.43D
(b)side 0.46D
(c)wholesurface 0.45D
Sphere,radiatingtoentiresurface Diameter,D 0.65D
Hemisphere,radiatingtoelement Radius,R R
incentreofbase
Cube,radiatingtoanyface Edge,L 0.60L
Twoinfiniteplanes Separationdistance,L 1.8L
Bankoftubes,diameter=D,
distancebetweensurfacesoftubes=x
(a)triangulararrangement,x=D (2.8)x
(b)triangulararrangement,x=2D (3.8)x
(c)squarearrangement,x=D (3.5)x
Arbitraryshapeofvolume,V Volumetoarearatio,(V/A) 3.6(V/A)
(radiationtosurfaceofarea,A)
g= w+ c (13.95)
where,=isobtainedfromFig.13.45.
Ifthesurfaceisgrey:Thisisthemostprobablecase,sincewithpassageoftime,enclosurewallswillgetdirty,andthesurface
emissivitysbecomeslessthanunity.However,effectiveemissivityofthesurfaceseffinthepresenceofgasmassisgreaterthans
fors=0.8to1.0,wehavetheapproximateformulaforseff:
Then,thenetradiantheatexchangebetweenthegasmassatatemperatureTgandthesurfaceatatemperatureTsisgivenby:
RadiationfromflamesFlameisproducedduringcombustion(ofafuel).Radiationfromflamesoccursinfurnaces,jetengine
burners,etc.Flamesmaybeluminousornonluminous.Flamesproducedbyhouseholdstoves(burningkeroseneorwood)arenot
luminous.Luminousflameshaveglowingparticlesofcarbon,sootandflyingash,andinvolvehightemperatures.Radiationfromthe
flame,obviously,dependsontheemissionofparticlescontainedintheflame,whichinturn,dependsonthekindoffuelburnt,mode
ofcombustion,designofthefurnace,amountofairintroduced,etc.Netradiationheatexchangebetweenaflameanditsenclosureis
givenby:
where,Afistheareaoftheflameenvelope,subscriptsfandwrefertotheflameandwallsurface,respectively.
Effectiveflametemperature,Tf,(inKelvin)isgenerallycalculatedasthegeometricmeanofthetheoreticaltemperatureof
combustionT1andthetemperatureofcombustionproducts,T2 ,atthefurnaceoutlet.
Approximatevaluesofflameemissivity(f)forflamesofdifferentfuelsaregiveninTable13.7:
Example13.31.Asphericalchamberof0.8mdiameterisfilledwithagasmixtureat1atm.andisat1500K.Thegasmixture
contains20%CO2 byvolume,andtherestofthemixtureisnonradiatinggases.Determinetheemissivityofthegasbody.
TABLE13.7Flameemissivity(f)foraninfinitelythicklayer
Kindofflame Flameemissivity,
f
0.40
Nonluminousgasflame(or,anthraciteingratestokercombustion)
0.45
Luminousflameofpulverisedanthracite
0.60
Luminousflameofleancoal
0.70
Luminousflameofcoalwithlargevolatilecontent(browncoal,peat,etc.,burnedina
layerorpulverised)
0.85
Luminousmasutflame
(b)Ifthevolumeisfilledtoapressureof3atm.,butwiththefractionofCO2 stillbeing20%,whatwillbethevalueofemissivityof
gasbody?
Solution.Thisisasphericalgasbody.FromTable13.6,weseethatforasphericalbody,themeanpathlengthofbeamis0.65D,
whereDisthediameterofsphere.
D:=0.8mTg:=1500KL:=0.65Di.e.L=0.52mp:=1atm.pc :=0.2atm.
Therefore, pc L=0.104m.atm.
i.e. pc L=0.1043.28ft.atm.
i.e. pc L=0.341ft.atm.
Now,refertoFig.13.43.ForTg=1500K,andpc L=0.341ft.atm.,weread:
c =0.09(emissivityofcarbondioxide=emissivityofgasmixture)
(b)Whenthetotalpressureis3atm.,withvolumefractionofCO2being20%:
Now,Lremainsthesame,butpc willbe:
pc =0.23atm.
i.e. pc =0.6atm.
Then, pc L=0.312m.atm.
i.e. pc L=0.3123.28ft.
atm.
i.e. pc L=1.023ft.atm.
Now,refertoFig.13.43.ForTg=1500K,andpc L=1.023ft.atm.,weread:
c =0.14(emissivityofcarbondioxide.)
However,thisvalueofemissivityisforatotalpressureof1atm.Inthepresentcase,totalpressureis3atm.Therefore,obtainedvalue
of0.14hastobemultipliedbyacorrectionfactor,readfromFig.13.44.Weget,fromFig.13.44,fortotalpressure,p=3atm.And,pc
L=1.023ft.atm.,
Cc =1.35(correctionfactor)
Therefore,emissivityofCO2 whenthemixturepressureis3atm.:
c =0.141.35
i.e. c =0.189 (emissivityofCO2whenthemixturepressureis3

atm.)
13.12 Solar and Atmospheric Radiation

Wegiveabriefintroductiontothisfascinatingtopicbecauseofitsimportanceinthecontextoftheenergycrisisandtheresulting
interestinrenewableenergysourcesfurther,thisisatopicwhichaffectsourdailylife.
Energyemittedbythesunisknownassolarenergy.Inexhaustibleenergyofsunisproducedasaresultofnuclearfusionreaction
betweentwohydrogenatomstoformoneatomofhelium.Atmosphericradiationistheradiationemittedorreflectedbythe
constituentsoftheatmosphere.
9 11
SunisasphericalbodyofdiameterD=1.3910 mandislocatedatameandistanceofL=1.5010 mfromtheearth.Even
thoughthesunradiatesanenormousamountofenergy,onlylessthanabillionthofthisenergyreachestheearthssurface.Solar
radiationtravelsthroughthevacuumofspacetillitencountersearthsatmosphere.Byconductingexperimentswithhighaltitude
aircraftorballoons,andspacecrafts,scientistshaveshownthataveragevalueofsolarenergyreachingtheuppersurfaceofearths
2
2
atmosphereisabout1353W/m .Thisvalueisknownassolarconstant,Gs.Thesolarconstantistherateatwhichsolarenergyis
incidentonasurfacenormaltothesunsraysattheouteredgeoftheatmospherewhentheearthisatitsmeandistancefromthesun.
Sincetheearthmovesinanellipticalorbitaroundthesun,thismeandistance(L)varieswiththepositionoftheearthandthevalueof
2
Gsalsovarieshowever,theaveragevalueofGstakenis1353W/m .Constituentsoftheatmosphereabsorband/orscatterradiations
ofdifferentwavelengthscontainedinsolarradiation.Asaresult,theamountofsolarenergyactuallyreachingtheearthssurfaceis
2
about950W/m .
FIGURE13.46Estimationofsurfacetemperatureofsunwhenthesolarconstantisknown
Fromthemeasuredvalueofsolarconstant,wecaneasilydeterminethesurfacetemperatureofthesun.SeeFig.13.46.
Weusetheconditionthattotalenergyradiatedbythesun(consideredasablackbody)mustbeequaltotheenergypassingthrough
thesurfaceofaspherewhoseradiusisequaltothemeandistancebetweenthesunandtheearth(=L),i.e.
where,r=radiusofthesun,andL=meandistancebetweenthesunandearth.Bythismethod,effectivesurfacetemperatureofthesun
isdeterminedtobe5762K.
Solarenergyincidentonearthssurfaceconsistsoftwoparts:directsolarradiation,GD(whichreachesthesurfacewithoutany
attenuationintheatmosphere)anddiffusesolarradiationGd(scatteredradiationcominguniformlyfromalldirections).Then,
totalsolarenergyincidentonahorizontalsurfaceis:

2
Gsolar=GDcos()+GdW/m (13.97)
where,istheanglebetweenthesunsraysandthenormaltothesurface.
Constituentsoftheatmosphereabsorb/scattersomeofthesolarradiation,asalreadymentionedinaddition,theyalsoemitradiation.
MainconstituentscontributingtothisatmosphericradiationareCO2 andH2 Omolecules.Effectiveskytemperature,T sky ,is
calculatedassumingtheatmospheretobeablackbody,i.e.
ValueofTskyvariesfrom230Kto285K,dependingontheatmosphericconditions.
Skyradiationabsorbedbyasurfaceis:
ForasurfaceattemperatureTs,exposedtobothsolarandatmosphericradiation,netrateofheattransfertothesurfaceis:
Rememberthatincidentsolarenergycomingfromthesunoriginatesataveryhightemperature,andtherefore,itsspectral
distributionisconcentratedonshortwavelengthregionhowever,radiationemittedbythesurfaceisfromarelativelylow
temperature,anditsspectraldistributionisconcentratedatinfraredregion.Thismeansthatradiationproperties(suchas
absorptivityandemissivity)forasurfacearequitedifferentforincidentandemittedradiations.Table13.8listsvaluesofsolar
absorptivity, sandemissivity(at300K)forsomecommonmaterials.Obviously,solarcollectors,widelyusedinsolarenergy
applications,mustbemadeofmaterialshavinghigh sandlow.
TABLE13.8Solarabsorptivity( s)andemissivity()atroomtemperatureforafewsurface
Surface
s
Aluminium
0.09 0.03
Polished
0.14 0.84
Anodized
0.15 0.05
Foil

Copper
0.18 0.03
Polished
0.65 0.75
Tarmished

Stainless
steel
0.37 0.60
Polished
0.50 0.21
Dull
0.60 0.88
Concrete
0.46 0.95
White
marble
0.63 0.93
Redbrick
0.90 0.90
Aspholt
0.97 0.97
Blackpaint
0.14 0.93
Whitepaint
0.28 0.97
Snow
0.62 0.97
Humanskin
13.13 Summary
Radiationheattransferisuniqueascomparedtoothertwomodesofheattransfer,namely,conductionandconvection,inthesense
thatnomediumisrequiredforradiationheattransfertooccur.Radiationinvolveselectromagneticwavesofallwavelengths,ranging
fromzerotoinfinity.AllbodiesattemperaturesabovezeroKelvinemitradiationourinterestinthischapterhasbeenonthermal
radiation,i.e.radiationsinthewavelengthrangeof0.1to100microns.
Afterstudyingfundamentallawsgoverningradiationheattransfer,westudiedradiationpropertiesofsurfaces,suchasabsorptivity(),
emissivity()andtransmissivity(),sincethesepropertiesaffecttheradiationheattransfer.
Radiationheattransferbetweensurfacesisalsodependentontherelativesizeandorientationofthesurfaces.Thisistakencareofin
calculationsbyintroducingtheconceptofviewfactor.Analyticalrelationsforviewfactorareavailableonlyforsimplegeometries,
andmostly,graphicalsolutions,availableinheattransferhandbooks,havetobereferredto.Analyticalrelationsandgraphsforview
factorsforsomeofthecommonlyrequiredgeometrieshavebeengiven.Viewfactoralgebraenablesonetogetviewfactorsforsome
complicatedgeometries,bybreakingdownthesegeometriesintosimplergeometriesforwhichvaluesofviewfactorsareeither
alreadyknownortabulated.
Next,radiationheattransferbetweensurfacesintwosurfaceandthreesurfaceenclosureswereconsidered,usingtheradiation
networkmethod.Thismethodgreatlysimplifiestheanalysisandgivesaphysicalfeeloftheproblem.Importantpracticalexamples
oftwosurfaceenclosureare:twoinfinite,parallelplanes,longconcentriccylindersandconcentricspheres.Furnaceswithre
radiating(insulated)surfacesareexamplesofthreesurfaceenclosure.
Radiationshieldingtoreducetheradiationheattransferbetweensurfaceswasstudiednext.Importanceofradiationshieldingin
reducingtheradiationerrorintemperaturemeasurementwasstudied.
Radiationhastobegenerallyconsideredwhentheoperatingtemperaturelevelishighasarule,itwillbeprudenttocheckits
relevanceinproblemsinvolvingnaturalconvectionandforcedconvectionathightemperatures.Typicalexampleisheattransferfrom
wallsanddoorsoffurnaces.Insuchproblems,conceptofradiationheattransfercoefficientsimplifiesthenumericalcalculations.
Finally,aftergivingabriefintroductiontoradiationheattransferfromgases,vapoursandflames,wemadeamentionofsolarand
atmosphericradiation,inviewofitsimportanceinthecontextofrenewableenergysources.
Questions
1.Whatismeantbythermalradiation?Towhichpartofelectromagneticspectrumitbelongs?
2.Whatisvisiblelight?Towhichpartofelectromagneticspectrumitbelongs?
3.Alocalradiostationbroadcastsradiowavesatawavelengthof480m.Whatisthefrequencyofthoseradiowaves?
4.Define:absorptivity,reflectivityandtransmissivity.[M.U.]
5.Explainthefollowing:(i)BlackbodyandGreybody(ii)SpecularreflectorandDiffusereflector(iii)Radiosityand
Irradiation.[M.U.]
6.StatePlanckslawofmonochromaticradiation.Whatisitssignificance?[M.U.]
7.StateandexplainKirchhoffslawofradiation.[M.U.]
8.StateWeinslawofdisplacementandprovethatmonochromaticemissivepowerofablackbodyismaximumwhenm.T=
2900mK.[M.U.]
9.Whatisintensityofradiation?Provethattotalemissivepoweristimestheintensityofradiation.[M.U.]
10.ExplainwhatismeantbyGreenhouseeffect.
11.Whatismeantbyviewfactor?Whenistheviewfactorofasurfacetoitselfequaltozero?
12.Writeashortnoteonpropertiesofviewfactor.[M.U.]
13.Explaincrossedstringsmethodoffindingoutviewfactors.Whenisitapplicable?
14.Deriveageneralequationtofindouttheviewfactorofanycavityw.r.t.itself.
15.Whatismeantbyviewfactoralgebra?Whenisitresortedto?
16.Writeashortnoteonelectricalnetworkmethodtodetermineradiantheatexchangebetweengreysurfaces.
17.Whatisaradiationshield?Whenisitused?
18.Whatisradiationerrorintemperaturemeasurement?Explainhowradiationerrorcanbereducedbytheuseofradiation
shields.
19.Howisradiationfromagasmassdifferentfromradiationfromasolid?
20.Whatismeanpath(orbeam)length?
21.Howdoyoufindouttheemissivityofagasmasscontainingcarbondioxideor/andwatervapour,themixturepressurebeing
oneatmosphere?
22.Whatissolarconstant?Howistheeffectivesurfacetemperatureofsundeterminedwhenthevalueofsolarconstantisknown?
23.Whatismeantbyeffectiveskytemperature?
24.Whyissolarabsorptivityofagivensurfacequitedifferentfromitsabsorptivityforradiationfromothersurroundingbodies?
Problems
2
1.AholeofareadA=2cm isopenedonthesurfaceofalargesphericalcavitywhoseinsideismaintainedat900K.Calculate:
(a)theradiationenergystreamingthroughtheholeinalldirectionsintospace,(b)theradiationenergystreamingperunitsolid
angleinadirectionmakinga45deg.anglewiththenormaltothesurfaceoftheopening.
2
2.Thetemperatureofabodyofarea0.1m is700K.Calculatethetotalrateofenergyemission,intensityofnormalradiationin
2
W/(m sr),maximummonochromaticemissivepower,andwavelengthatwhichitoccurs.
3.Treatingsunasablackbodywithasurfacetemperatureof5800K,determinetherateatwhichinfraredradiation(=0.76
100m)isemittedbythesun.
4.Filamentofanincandescentlightbulbisat2800K.Treatingitasablackbody,determinethefractionoftheradiantenergy
emittedbythefilamentthatfallsinthevisiblerange.Also,findoutatwhatwavelengthistheemissionofradiationfromthe
filamentbecomesmaximum.
5.Windowglasstransmitsradiantenergyinthewavelengthrange0.4mto2.5m.Determinetherateofradiantenergywhichis
transmitted,throughaglasswindowofsize:2m2m,whentheblackbodysourcetemperatureis:(a)5800K(i.e.suns
surfacetemperature),and(b)1000K.
6.Spectralemissivityofaparticularsurfaceat900Kisapproximatedbyastepfunction,asfollows:1=0.3for=0to2m,2
=0.6for=2to10m,and3 =0.3for=10mto.Calculate(i)averageemissivityofthesurface,and(ii)rateof
radiationemissionfromthesurface.
7.Twodiffusesurfaces,asmalldiskofareaA1andalargediskofareaA2 ,areparalleltoeachotheranddirectlyopposed,i.e.a
linejoiningtheircentresisnormaltoboththesurfaces.ThelargediskhasaradiusRandislocatedatheightLfromthesmaller
disk.Obtainanexpressionfortheviewfactorofsmalldiskw.r.t.thelargedisk.[M.U.]
8.Findoutthenetheattransferredbetweentwocirculardisks1and2,orientedoneabovetheother,paralleltoeachotheronthe
samecentrelineasshowninFig.13.18.Disk1hasaradiusof0.6mandismaintainedat900K,anddisk2hasaradiusof0.7m
andismaintainedat600K.Assumeboththediskstobeblacksurfaces.
9.Findoutthenetheattransferredbetweentwoalignedparallelrectangles,asshowninFig.13.18.(X=1m,Y=1.5mandL=1.5
m).Surface1ismaintainedat600K,andsurface2ismaintainedat1000K.Assumeboththesurfacestobeblacksurfaces.
10.FindoutthenetheattransferredbetweentheareasA2 andA3 showninFig.Example13.10(Seetextforthefigure).Area1is
maintainedat700K,andarea2ismaintainedat400K.Assumeboththesurfacestobeblack.
11.Determinetheviewfactorfromthesidesurfacetothebaseofacylindricalenclosurewhoseheightistwiceitsdiameter.
12.Determinetheviewfactorsfromthebaseofacubetoeachoftheotherfivesurfaces.
13.Findouttheviewfactorfromthedomeofahemisphericalfurnacetoitscircularbase.
14.Findouttheviewfactor(F ij)betweentheplatesiandjshowninFig.Example13.17a.Given:wi=1m,wj=2mandL=0.70.
15.A0.3m0.3mingot,1.2minheight,atatemperatureof1000deg.C,istakenoutofafurnaceandrestsonthefloorofa
foundryroom.Assumingthatthesurroundingsareatatemperatureof30deg.C,andtheemissivityofthesurfaceoftheingotto
be0.8,calculatethenetradiantheatlossfromtheingot.
16.Asphericalliquidoxygentank,0.3mindiameterisenclosedconcentricallyinasphericalcontainerof0.4mdiameterandthe
spaceinbetweenisevacuated.Thetanksurfaceisat183Candhasanemissivity=0.2.Thecontainersurfaceisat25Cand
hasanemissivity=0.25.Determinethenetradiantheattransferrate.[M.U.]
17.Ahemisphericalfurnaceofradius1.6mhasarooftemperatureofT1=900Kandemissivity0.8.Theflatcircularfloorhasa
temperatureof500Kandemissivityof0.5.Calculatethenetradiantheatexchangebetweentheroofandfloor.[M.U.]
18.Threethinwalled,long,circularcylinders1,2and3,ofdiameters20cm,30cmand40cm,respectively,arearranged
concentrically.Temperatureofcylinder1is100Kandthatofcylinder3is300K.Emissivitiesofcylinders1,2and3are0.05,
0.1and0.2,respectively.Assumingthatthereisvacuuminsidetheannularspaces,determinethesteadystatetemperature
attainedbycylinder2.
19.Alongpipe,50mmdiameterpassesthrougharoomandisexposedtoairat20C.Thepipesurfacetemperatureis93C.
Assumingthattheemissivityofpipesurfaceis0.6,calculatetheradiationheatlosspermetrelengthofthepipe.[M.U.]
20.Calculatethenetradiantheatinterchangepersquaremetrefortwolargeparallelplatesmaintainedat800Cand300C.The
emissivitiesoftwoplatesare0.3and0.6,respectively.
21.Pipecarryingsteam,OD=20cm,isexposedinalargeroomat30C.Pipesurfacetemperature=400Candemissivityofpipe
surfaceis0.8.Calculateheatlossbypipebyradiation.Whatwouldberateoflossofheatifpipeisenclosedina40cm
diameterbrickconduitofemissivity0.91?
22.Ablindcylindricalholeofdiameterandlength3cmisdrilledintometalslabhavingemissivity0.6.Ifthemetalslabis
maintainedattemp350C,findtherateofheatescapingoutoftheholebyradiation.[M.U.]
23.Calculatetheradiationheattransferfromahemisphericalcavityifinsidetemperatureis800Kanditsemissivityis0.6.
Diameterofcavityis500mm.
24.Ahohlraumistobeconstructedoutofathincoppersphereofdiameter=20cm.Itsinternalsurfaceishighlyoxidised.What
shouldbetheareaofasmallopeningtobemadeonthesurfaceofthesphere,ifthedesiredabsorptivityis0.95?
25.Alongductofequilateraltriangularsection,ofsidew=1.0m,showninFig.Example13.22,hasitssurface1at600K,surface
2at1100K,andsurface3isinsulated.Further,surface1hasanemissivityof0.8andsurface2isblack.Determinetherateat
whichenergymustbesuppliedtosurface2tomaintaintheseoperatingconditions.
26.Twocoaxialcylindersof0.5mand1mdiameterare1.2mlong.Theannulartopandbottomsurfacesarewellinsulatedand
actasreradiatingsurfaces.Theinnersurfaceisat1100Kandhasanemissivityof0.6.Theoutersurfaceismaintainedat500
Kanditsemissivityis0.4.
1.Determinetheheatexchangebetweenthesurfaces
2.Iftheannularbasesurfacesareopentothesurroundingsat300K,determinetheradiantheatexchange.
(Hint:Iftheoutercylinderissurface2,firstdetermineF 21andF 22 ).
27.Twoparallelplates,0.5m1meach,arespaced0.5mapart.Theplatesareattemperaturesof900Cand600Candtheir
emissivitiesare0.2and0.5,respectively.Theplatesarelocatedinalargeroom,thewallsofwhichareat25C.Thesurfacesof
theplatesfacingeachotheronlyexchangeheatbyradiation.Determinetheratesofheatlostbyeachplateandheatgainofthe
wallsbyradiation.Useradiationnetworkforsolution.
Assumeshapefactorbetweenparallelplates:F 12 =F 21=0.285.
28.Afurnaceisoftheshapeofafrustrumofacone.Diametersoftopandbottomsurfacesare5mand3m,respectively,andthe
heightis3m.Bottomsurfaceismaintainedat1000Candthetopsurfaceisat600C.Emissivitiesoftopandbottomsurfaces
are0.8and0.9,respectively.Inclinedsidesurfaceisrefractorysurface.Findtheradiationheattransferfromthebottomtothe
topsurfaceandalsothetemperatureoftheinclinedsurface.
29.Twoverylargeparallelplateswithemissivities0.2and0.6exchangeheat.Findthepercentagereductioninheattransferwhen
twopolishedaluminiumradiationshields(=0.3)areplacedbetweenthem.Also,findtheequilibriumtemperaturesofthe
twoshields.
30.Twolargeparallelplanesfacingeachotherandhavingemissivities0.3and0.5aremaintainedat700Cand500C,
respectively.Determinetherateatwhichheatisexchangedbetweenthetwosurfacesbyradiation.Ifaradiationshieldof
emissivity0.05onbothsidesisplacedparallelbetweenthetwosurfaces,determinethepercentagereductionintheradiant
heatexchangerate.Whatistheequilibriumtemperatureoftheshield?
31.AsphericaltankwithdiameterD1=30cmfilledwithacryogenicfluidatT1=90Kisplacedinsideasphericalcontainerof
diameterD2 =50cmandismaintainedatT2 =300K.Emissivitiesofinnerandoutertanksare1=0.10and2 =0.2,
respectively.AsphericalradiationshieldofdiameterD3 =40cmandhavinganemissivity3 =0.05onbothsurfacesisplaced
betweenthespheres.Calculatetherateofheatlossfromthesystembyradiation.Then,findtherateofevaporationofcryogenic
5
liquidforhfg=2.110 J/kg.Whatistheequilibriumtemperatureoftheshield?
32.Adoublewalledflaskmaybeconsideredasequivalenttotwoinfiniteparallelplates.Theemissivitiesofwallsare0.3and0.8,
respectively.Thespacebetweenthewallsoftheflaskisevacuated.Toreduceheatflow,ashieldofpolishedaluminiumwith
emissivityequalto0.04(onbothsides)isinsertedbetweenthetwowalls.Findthepercentagereductioninheattransfer.Also,
findtheequilibriumtemperatureoftheshield.[M.U.]
33.ThenetradiationfromthesurfaceoftwoparallelplatesmaintainedattemperaturesT1andT2 istobereducedtoonefifth.
Calculatethenumberofscreenstobeplacedbetweentwosurfacestoachievethisreductioninheatexchange,assumingthe
emissivityofscreensonbothsidesas0.05andthatofsurfacesas0.2.
34.A10mmODpipecarriesacryogenicfluidat100K.Thispipeisencasedbyanotherpipeof15mmOD,andthespacebetween
thepipesisevacuated.Theouterpipeisat300K.Emissivitiesofinnerandoutersurfacesare0.1and0.2,respectively.(a)
Determinetheradiantheatflowrateoverapipelengthof3m.(b)Ifaradiationshieldofdiameter12mmandemissivity0.05
onbothsidesisplacedbetweenthepipes,determinethepercentagereductioninheatflow.(c)Whatistheequilibrium
temperatureoftheshield?
35.HotairisflowinginaductwhosewallsaremaintainedatatemperatureTw=500K.Athermocoupleplacedinthestream
showsareadingof800K.Iftheemissivityofthethermocouplejunctionisc =0.8andtheconvectiveheattransfercoefficient
2
betweentheflowingairandthethermocoupleish=80W/(m C),findoutthetruetemperatureoftheflowingstream.How
muchistheradiationerror?
36.HotairisflowinginaductwhosewallsaremaintainedatatemperatureTw=400K.Athermocoupleplacedinthestream
showsareadingof600K.Iftheemissivityofthethermocouplejunctionisc =0.6andtheconvectiveheattransfercoefficient
2
betweentheflowingairandthethermocoupleish=100W/(m C),findoutthetruetemperatureoftheflowingstream.(b)
Now,ifaradiationshield(s=0.2)isplacedbetweenthethermocoupleandthewalls,whatwillbenewvalueofTc readbythe
thermocouple?And,howmuchisthetemperatureerror?TakeAc /As=0.1.
37.Asphericalchamberof1.5mdiameterisfilledwithagasmixtureat1atm.andisat1200K.Thegasmixturecontains18%CO2
byvolume,andtherestofthemixtureisnonradiatinggases.Determinetheemissivityofthegasbody.
(b)Ifthevolumeisfilledtoapressureof3atm.,butwiththefractionofCO2 stillbeing18%,whatwillbethevalueof
emissivityofgasbody?
38.Acubicalfurnaceof2mside,containsagasmixtureat1500Katatotalpressureof2atm.Thegasmixturecontains15%of
CO2 and10%ofH2 Obyvolume.Ifthefurnacewallsareatatemperatureof600K,findouttheheattransferredbyradiation
fromthegasestothewalls.Assumethatsurfacesareblack.
Radiation
Example13.2.Radiationstrikesanobjectwithtransmissivityof0.03andreflectivityof0.5.Theabsorbedfluxisindirectly
2
measuredtobe94W/m .Computetheincidentflux.
Solution.
Data:
T*=0.03transmissivity
P*=0.5reflectivity
Qa=94W/m2absorbedflux
LetG=incidentflux
Now,wehave:a*+t*+p*=1where,a*=Qa/G
Therefore,
A*=**=1t*_0p
i.e.G=****
i.e.G=200W/m2Incidentflux
Example13.11.Findoutthenetheattransferredbetweentwoalignedparallelrectangles,asshowninFig.Example13.11.Surface1
ismaintainedat600K,andsurface2ismaintainedat1000K.Assumeboththesurfacestobeblacksurfaces.
Solution.
****
FigureExample13.11Alignedparallelrectangles
Data:
X=0.5mhorizontalxdimensionofsurfaces1and2

Y=1.0mhorizontalydimensionofsurfaces1and2
L=1.0verticaldistanebetweensurfaces1and2
T1=600Ktemperatureofsurface1
T2=1000Ktemperatureofsurface2
**=5.67x*108W/m2KStefanBoltzmannconstant
A1=XYi.e.A1=0.5m2areaofsurface1
A2=XYi.e.A2=0.5m2areaofsurface2
Thisisthecaseofheattransferbetweentwoblacksurfaces.So,weuseEq.13.40,viz.
Qnet=A1F12**(T14T24)=A2F21*(T14T24)W.(13.40)
So,theproblemreducestocalculatingtheviewfactorF12orF21.WecanfindoutF12usingFig.13.19.However,wecandetermine
F12analytiallymoreaccuratelywithMathcadusingtheviewfactorrelationgiveninTable13.5foralignedparallelrectangles.
WerewritetheviewfactorrelationgiveninTable13.5asfollows,foreaseofcalculationwithMathcad:
XX=**YY=**
A(XX,YY)=**B(XX,YY)=*****
C(XX,YY)=XX(1+YY2)**atan****
D(XX,YY)=YY(1+XX2)**atan****
E(XX)=XXatan(XX)F(YY)=YYatan(YY)
F12(XX,YY)=A(XX,YY)(B(XX,YY)+C(XX,YY)E(XX)F(YY))
Here,thelongexpressionforF12iswritteninpartssothatchancesoferrorareminimisedandeachpartisexpressedasafunctionof
XX(=X/L)andYY(=Y/L).Then,F12isexpressedasafunctionofXXandYY.Now,F12iseasilyobtainedforanyvaluesofX/Land
Y/L,bysimplywritingF12(XX,YY)=.
Then,weget:XX=0.5
and,YY=1
And,F12(0.5,1)=0.117
Verify:ThisresultmaybeverifiedfromFig.13.19whereF12isplottedagainstX/LforvariousvaluesofY/L.Now,forourproblem,
X/L=0.5/1=0.5,andY/L=1/1=1.Then,fromFig.13.19,weread:F12=0.117,approx.
i.e.F12=0.117
Therefore,netheattransferbetweensurfaces1and2:
Qnet=A1F12**(T14T24)WfromEq.13.40
i.e.Qnet=2.887x*103W
Note:Negativeindicatesthatnetheattransferistothesurface1,sincesurface2isatahighertemperaturethansurface1.
Example13.13.FindouttheviewfactorF 14betweentheareasA1andA4showninFig.Example13.13.
Solution.
****
FigureExample13.13Surfacearrangement
WeobservethattocalculateF14betweenareasA1andA4asorientedintheFig.Example13.13wedonotreadilyhaveananalytical
relationoragraph.Letusdenotethecombinedareas(A1+A2)byA5and(A3+A4)byA6.Then,weseethatA5andA6are
perpendicularrectangleswhichhaveacommonedge,andwehavegraphsoranalyticalrelationfortheviewfactorforsuchan
orientation.Then,weresorttoviewfactoralgebra,asfollows:
Rememberthegeneraldefinitionofviewfactor:F12isthefractionofradiantenergyemittedbysurface1whichfallsdirectlyon
surface2.LookingattheFig.Example13.13wecansaythatfractionofenergyleavingA5andfallingonA6isequaltothefraction
fallingonA3plusthefractionfallingonA4.
i.e.F56=F53+F54bydefinitionofviewfactor

i.e.F56=F35****+***sincebyreciprocityrelation,A5F53=A3F35,andA5F54=A4F45.
i.e.F56=****(F31+F32)+**(F41+F42)usingtheruleforsubdivisionofreceivingsurface
i.e.A5F56=A3F31+A3F32+A4F41+A4F42(A)
Further,itcanbeprovedthatA1F14=A2F23
Also,byreciprociytheorem,wecanwrite:
A1F14=A4F41
A3F31=A1F13
A4F42=A2F24
and,A2F23=A3F32
UsingtheserelationsinEq.A:
A5F56=A1F13+A1F14+A1F14+A2F24
i.e.2A1F14=A5F56A1F13A2F24
i.e.F14=**(A5F56A1F13A2F24)(B)
FromEq.B,F14caneasilybecalculatedsince,allthethreeviewfactorsappearingontheRHSareperpendicularrectangleswitha
commonedge,whichmaybeobtainedreadilyfromthegraphsoranalyticalrelations.
0
Example13.17.Findouttheviewfactor(F 12 )betweenthefloorandthe45 roofaboveit,asshowninFig.Example13.17.WidthL l
is1.5m,andthelowerendofroofisataheightof2mfromfloor.
Solution.
****
FigureExample13.17Crossedstringsmethodtodetermineviewfactorbetweentwoinfinitelylongsurfaces
Data:
L1=1.5widthofcorridor,(surface1)
L3=2mheightoflowerendofcorridorfromfloor
Then,fromtheFig.Example13.17,
L4=3.5m
L5=****i.e.L5=2.5m
and,L6=****i.e.L6=3.808m
Sincethefloorandthecorridorarelong,thisgeometrycanbemodeledastwodimensional,andwecanapplythecrossedstrigs
method:
Now,wehave:
F12=****(13.46)
i.e.F12=****
i.e.F12=0.269viewfactorfromfloor(surface1)toroof(surface2)
Example13.18.Asphericalsteelball,50mmindiameter,atatemperatureof600deg.C,istakenoutofafurnaceandrestsonthe
floorofafoundryroom.Assumingthatthesurroundingsareatatemperatureof30deg.C,andtheemissivityofthesurfaceoftheball
tobe0.8,calculatethenetradiantheatlossfromtheball.
Solution.Thesteelballisenclosedbytheroomso,itisatwosurfaceenlosureproblem.Further,areaoftheballisverysmall,
comparedtotheareaoftheroom.Therefore,thisisacaseofasmallobjectsurroundedbyalargearea,andwehave:
**=0
and,F12=1
Q12=A1**e*1(T14T24)forsmallobjectinalargecavity.(13.58)
Data:
r1=0.025mradiusoftheball
e*1=0.8emissivityofthesurfaceoftheball
T1=600+273Ktemperatureoftheball
T2=30+273Ktemperatureofsurroundings
**=5.67x*108W/(m2K)StefanBoltzmannconstant
Now,A1=4p*r12
i.e.A1=7.854x*103m2surfaceareaoftheball
Then,applyingEq.13.58,weget:
Q12=A1*e*1(T14T24)
i.e.Q12=203.925Wnetradiantheatlossfromtheball.
Example13.26.FindtheshapefactorofahemisphericalbowlofdiameterD,w.r.titself.Also,calculatetheradiationheattransfer
fromthecavityifinsidetemperatureis773Kanditsemissivityis0.6.Diameterofcavityis700mm.
Solution.
*****
FigureExample13.26Grey,hemisphericalcavity
Data:
D=0.7mdiameterofhemisphericalbowl
T1=773Ktemperatureofsurface
e*1=0.6emissivityofsurface
r*=5.67x*108W/(m2K)StefanBoltzmannconstant
A1=**i.e.A1=0.77m2areaofhemispheresurface
Now,F11foracavityisalreadyshowntobe:
F11=1**whereA2=areaofclosingsurface,A1=areaofthecavitysurface
i.e.F11=1****
i.e.F11=0.5viewfactorofhemisphericalcavityw.r.t.itself
And,energyescapingfromagreycavityisgivenbyEq.13.62,viz:
Q12=A1e*1r*T14****
i.e.Q12=3.596x*103Wenergyescapingfromthehemispherecavity.
Example13.31.Afurnaceisoftheshapeofafrustrumofacone,asshowninFig.Example13.31.Diametersoftopandbottom
surfacesare6mand4mrespectively,andtheheightis4m.Bottomsurfaceismaintainedat1000Candthetopsurfaceisat600C.
Emissivitiesoftopandbottomsurfacesare0.8and0.9respectively.Inclinedsidesurfaceisrefractorysurface.Findtheradiationheat
transferfromthebottomtothetopsurfaceandalsothetemperatureoftheinclinedsurface.
Solution.Thisisathreezoneenclosure,twosurfacesbeinggreyandthethirdsurfacebeingarefractorysurface.
RadiationnetworkforthissystemisshowninFig.(b)
****
FigureExample13.31Twogreysurfacesconnectedbyarefractorysurface
Data:
r1=2.0mradiusofsurface1
r2=3.0mradiusofsurface2
L=4.0mheight(length)betweensurfaces1and2
T1=1000+273Ktemperatureofsurface1
T2=600+273Ktemperatureofsurface2
e*1=0.9emissivityofsurface1
e*2=0.8emissivityofsurface2
Areas:
A1=p*r12
i.e.A1=12.566m2areaofsurface1
A2=p*r22
i.e.A2=28.274m2areaofsurface2
Viewfactors:
Notethatthegeometryisoftwoparalleldisksarrangedoneabovetheotherconcentrically.ViewfactorscanbereadfromFig.13.20,
ortheanalyticalrelationgiveninTable13.5maybeused.Weshallusetheanalyticalrelation:
Wehave:
ri=r1=2m
rj=r2=3m
Ri=**Rj=**S(Ri,Rj)=1+****
Fij(Ri,Rj)=*****
viewfactorforcoaxialparalleldisks
i.e.Fij(Ri,Rj)=0.325
Thismeansthat:F12=0.325viewfactorfromsurface1tosurface2
TofindF13
Now,F11+F12+F13=1bysummationrule
But,F11=0sincesurface1isflatandcannotseeitself.
Therefore,F12+F13=1
And,F13=1F12
i.e.F13=0.675.viewfactorofsurface1w.r.t.surface3
TofindF21
Again,A1F12=A2F21byreciprocity
i.e.F21=****
i.e.F21=0.144viewfactorofsurface2w.r.t.surface1
TofindF23
Now,F21+F22+F23=1bysummationrule
But,F22=0sincesurface2isflatandcannotseeitself.
Therefore,F21+F23=1
And,F23=1F21
i.e.F23=0.856viewfactorofsurface2w.r.t.surface3
Emissivepowers:
Eb1=r*T14i.e.Eb1=1.489x*105W/m2Emissivepowerofsurface1
Eb2=r*T24i.e.Eb2=3.293x*104W/m2Emissivepowerofsurface2
Resistances:
R1=****i.e.R1=8.842x*103m2surfaceresistanceofsurface1
R2=***i.e.R2=8.842x*103m2surfaceresistanceofsurface2
R12=***i.e.R12=0.245m2spaceresistancebetweensurfaces1and2
R13=***i.e.R13=0.118m2spaceresistancebetweensurface1and3
R23=****i.e.R23=0.041m2spaceresistancebetweensurfaces2and3
Forthecaseoftwogreysurfacesconnectedbyareradiatingsurface:
Wehave:Q=****Wheatexchangebetweenthesurfaces
Theradiationnetworkisasshownabove.Fortheseriesparallelnetworkofresistances,weobservethatR12and(R13+R23)arein
parallel.Therefore,effectiveresistanceReffisgivenby:
i.e.Reff=*****
i.e.Reff=0.096m2effectiveresistance
Therefore,
q=****Wheatexchangebetweenthesurfaces
i.e.Q=1.016x*106Wheatexchangebetweenthesurfaces
Todeterminethetemperatureofreradiatingsurface:
Applytheconditionthatforreradiatingsurface,heatreceivedbythesurface=heatlostbythesurface
i.e.***=***
So,wehavetodetermineJ1andJ2:
Now,Q=Q1=Q2sinceforreradiatingsurface,Q3=0
Wehave:Q1=****and,Q1=Q
i.e.J1=Eb1Q1R1
i.e.J1=1.399x*105W/m2
And,
Q2=****and,Q2=Q1
i.e.J2=Eb2Q2R2
i.e.J2=4.191x*104W/m2
Now,****=***forreradiatingsurface
Therefore,J3(R13+R23)=J1R23+J2R13
i.e.J3=******
i.e.J3=6.736x*104W/m2
But,J3=Eb3=r*T34
Therefore,T3=****
i.e.T3=1.044x*103K=771Cequilibriumtemperatureofreradiatingsurface.
Alternatively:
WecandetermineradiositiesJ1,J2andJ3byapplyingKirchoffslawdccircuitstonodesJ1,J2andJ3.Afterknowingthethree
radiosities,heatflowbetweensurfaces1and2,andthetemperatureofthereradiatingsurfaceareeasilydetermined,asshownbelow:
TofindJ1andJ2andJ3.ApplyKirchoffslawofdccircuitstonodesJ1,J2andJ3i.e.sumofall(heat)currents
flowingintoanodeiszero:
AtJ1*****=0(a)
AtJ2****=0(b)
AtJ3****=0(c)
TogetvaluesofJ1,J2andJ3solveEqs.a,bandcsimultaneously:
WeshalluseSolveblockofMathcadofsloveEqs.a,bandc:
First,choosetrial(or,guess)valuesforJ1,J2andJ3.Then,immediatelyafterGiven,writetheconstraints,i.e.Eqs.a,bandc.Now,
typeFind(J1,J2,J3)=,andtheresultappearsimmediately:
J1=100J2=100J3=100trialvalues
Given
***+***+***=0
**+**+**=0
**+**=0
Find(J1,J2,J3)=*****
i.e.J1=1.3992x*105W/m2
J2=4.1915x*104W/m2
and,J3=6.7358x*104W/m2
Notethatthesevaluesmatchwiththevaluesobtainedearlier.
Therefore,
Q1=****
i.e.Q1=1.016x*106Wthesamevalueasobtainedearlier
And,Q2=****
i.e.Q2=1.016x*106W.NotethatQ2=Q1,asitshouldbe.
Temperatureofreradiatingsurfaceisobtainedfromtherelation:
J3=Eb3=r*T34
i.e.T3=****
i.e.T3=1.044x*103Ktemperatureofreradiatingsurfacesameasobtainedearlier.
Example13.39.Afurnaceofsize:1.5mx0.9mx0.9mcontainsagasmixtureat1500Katatotalpressureof2atm.Thegas
mixturecontains15%ofCO2 and10%ofH2 Obyvolume.
Ifthefurnacewallsareatatemperatureof600K,findouttheheattransferredbyradiationfromthegasestothewalls.Assumethat
surfacesareblack.
Solution.Heattransferfromthegasmixturetotheblackwallsoftheenlosureisgivenby:
Qnet=Asr*(e*gTg4a*gTs4)(13.92)
ThisisthecaseofgasmixtureofCO2andH2O.Firsttaskistofindoutthetotalgasemissivity,afterapplyingthenecessary
correctionsfor(i)thetotalpressurebeingdifferentfrom1atm,and(ii)thepresenceofbothCO2andH2Otogetherinthemixture.
Data:
Tg=1500Ktemperatureofgasmixture
Ts=600Ktemperatureofsurface(Walls)
V=1.5.0.9*0.9
i.e.V=1.215m3volumeoffurnace
and,A=2.(0.9*0.9+2*1.5*0*9
i.e.A=7.02m2surfaceareaoffurnace
Meanpathlengthofbeam:
L=3.6**
i.e.L=0.623mmeanpathlength
Partialpressures:
pc=0.15.2
i.e.pc=0.3atmpartialpressureofCO2
pw=0.10*2
i.e.pw=0.2atmpartialpressureofH2O
Therefore,
ForCO2:pcL=0.187m.atm
i.e.pcL=0.613ft.atm.
ForH2O:pwL=0.125m.atm.
i.e.pwL=0.41ft.atm.
Valuesofemissivityat1atm.,readfromFig.13.43(forCO2)and13.41(forH2O):
At1500Kandcorrespondingvaluesof(partialpressurexmeanpathlength):
ForCO2:e*c=0.11fromFig.13.43
ForH2Oe*w=0.1fromFig.13.41
Correctionfactorsforthetotalpressureof2atm.:
ForCO2:Cc=1.1fromFig.13.44
ForH2O:Cw=1.58fromFig.13.42at(pw+p)/2=1.1atm.andpwL=0.41ft.atm.
CorrectionfactorforthesimultaneouspresenceofCO2andH2O.:
UseFig.13.45**=0.4atm.
and,L(pc+pw)=1.023ft.atm
WereadfromFig.13.45:
d*e*=0.036
Therefore,emissivityofgasmixture:
e*g=0.11.1.1+0.1*1.580.036
i.e.e*g=0.243emissivityofgasmixture
Thisisthevalueofe*gtobeusedinEq.13.92.Nexttaskistodeterinethevalueofgasabsorptivitya*g.Forthis,wehavetousethe
temperatureofthewalls,andfindouta*canda*wfromEqs.13.93and13.94.CorrectionfactorsCwandCcareobtainedfromFigs.
13.42and13.44respectively.Emissivitiese*wande*careobtainedfromFigs.13.41and13.43respectively,but,replacingTgbyTsin
thexaxis,andreplacing(pw*L)or(pc*L)by{pw*L.(Ts/Tg)}or{pcL.(Ts/Tg)}respectively.
Todeterminea*g:
ForCO2:
pcL**=0.613**=0.245ft.atm.
ForH2O:
pwL**=0.41**=0.164ft.atm.
Valuesofemissivityat1atm.,readfromFig.13.43(forCO2)and13.41(forH2O):
At600Kandcorrespondingvaluesof(partialpressurexmeanpathlengthxTs/Tg),calculatedabove):
ForCO2:e*c=0.9fromFig.13.43,withxaxisas600KandpcL(Ts/Tg)as0.245
ForH2O:e*w=0.12fromFig.13.41withxaxisas600KandpwL(Ts/Tg)as0.164
Correctionfactorsforthetotalpressureof2atm.:
ForCO2:Cc=1.2fromFig.13.44
ForH2OCw=1.6fromFig.13.42at(pw+p)/2=1.1atm.andpwL(Ts/Tg)=0.164ft.atm.
CorrectionfactorforthesimultaneouspresenceofCO2andH2O.:
UseFig.13.45:***=0.4atm.
and,L(pc+pw)**=1.023**=0.409ft.atm
WereadfromFig.13.45:
d*e*=0.005
Therefore
a*g=0.09*1.2**0.65+0.12*1.6**0.450.005fromEqs.13.93,13.94and13.95
i.e.a*g=0.481absorptivityofgas
Then,usingEq.13.92:
Qnet=Asr*(e*gTg4a*gTs4)(13.92)
where
As=7.02m2surfaceareaoffurnace
e*g=0.243emissivityofgasmixture
a*g=0.481absorptivityofgas
Weget:
Qnet=Asr*(egTg4a*gTs4)
i.e.Qnet=4.648x*105Wnetheatexhangebetweengasmixtureandwalls,whenwallsareblack.
Inaddition,ifthesurfacesaregrey,withemissivityof,say,0.85:
i.e.e*s=0.85
Now,netheatexhangerateisgivenby:
Qnet=e*s_effAsr*(e*gTg4a*gTs4)(13.93)
where,e*s_eff=****(13.92)
i.e.e*s_eff=0.925effectiveemissivityofsurface
Therefore,
Qnet=e*s_effAsr*(e*gTg4a*gTs4)
i.e.Qnet=4.3x*105Wnetheatexhangebetweengasmixtureandwalls,whenwallsaregrey.
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Chapter 13 Radiation

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10/1/2016 Chapter13.

Fundamentals of Heat and Mass Transfer

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13.2 Properties and Definitions

NotethatEmissivepowerEb ofablackbodyreferstounitsurfaceareawhereasIntensityIb ofablacksurfacereferstounitprojected

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13.3 Laws of Black Body Radiation

13.3.1 Plancks Law for Spectral Distribution

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(a)Forshorterwavelengths,(C2 /.T)becomesverylarge,andexp(C2 /.T)>>1.Then,Plancksformula(Eq.13.7)reducesto:

(b)Forlongerwavelengths,thefactor(C2 /.T)becomesverysmall,andexp(C2 /.T)canbeexpandedinaseriesasfollows:

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13.3.2 Weins Displacement Law

13.3.3 StefanBoltzmann Law

13.3.4 Radiation from a Wave Band

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13.3.5 Relation Between Radiation Intensity and Emissive Power

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Therefore,Eb dA1=Ib dA1

or,Eb =Ib (13.21)

13.3.6 Emissivity, Real Surface and Grey Surface

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i.e.(T)=1.F 01(T)+2 .F 12 (T)+3 .F 2(T)(13.26)

13.3.7 Kirchhos Law

Now,wehavetherelation:Eb =.l b ,whereEb =Emissivepower,andl b =Intensityofradiation.

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T1:=5800KT2 :=300K1:=0.4m2 :=2.5m

Asafirststep,considerdifferentialareasdA1anddA2 ontwoblacksurfacesA1andA2 exchangingheatbyradiationonly.SeeFig.

dA1anddA2 areatadistancerapartandthenormalstotheseareasmakeangles 1and 2 withthelineconnectingthem,asshown.

EnergyleavingdA1andfallingondA2 =dQ12 =IntensityofblackbodydA1projectedareaofdA1onaplaneperpendiculartoline

Then,bydefinition,theviewfactorF dA1dA2 istheratioofdQ12 todQ1:

A1F 12 =A2 F 21(13.36)

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13.5 Properties of View Factor and View Factor Algebra

8.Instead,ifthereceivingsurfaceA2 issubdividedintopartsA3 andA4asshowninFig.13.15(b),wehave:

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13.6 Methods of Determining View Factors

13.6.1 By Direct Integration

Now,onareaA2 ,consideradifferentialareadA2 ofradiusxandwidthdxasshown.Angles1and2 ,madebythelinerconnecting

Example13.8.FindouttheviewfactorsF 12 andF 21betweentwosquaresurfaces1and2,orientedtowardseachotherasshownin

13.6.2 By Analytical Formulas and Graphs

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So,theproblemreducestocalculatingtheviewfactorF 12 orF 21.WecaneasilyfindoutF 12 usingFig.13.20.However,wecan

13.6.3 By Use of View Factor Algebra

So,theproblemreducestocalculatingtheviewfactorF 12 orF 21.WeseethattocalculateF 12 forareasA1andA2 asorientedintheFig.

i.e.F 12 =F 16F 14(bydefinitionofviewfactor)

Now,observethatviewfactorsF 65,F 63 ,F 45andF 43 refertoperpendicularrectangleswithacommonedge,andcanbereadily

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Then,fromEq.A: Enjoy Safari? Subscribe Today

Note:F 21canbecalculated,ifrequired,byreciprocityrelation,i.e.A1.F 12 =A2 .F 21

ViewfactorF 13 :Surfaces1and3canbeconsideredastwoconcentricparalleldisks.Therefore,F 13 canbefoundoutfromFig.13.20

Example13.12.Findouttheviewfactor(F 11)ofacavitywithrespecttoitself.Hence,findouttheviewfactorF 11forthefollowing:

13.6.4 By Graphical Techniques

dA1anddA2 aretwodifferentialareasatadistancerasshown.1and2 aretheanglesmadebythenormalstodA1anddA2 withthe

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IftheviewfactorisdesiredfromadifferentialareadA1toafiniteareaA2 (insteadoftoadifferentialareadA2 ),thesameprocedureis

Example13.13.FindouttheviewfactorsF 12 andF 21fortwoinfinitelylong,parallelplaneswhosecentrelinesareonthesame

13.7 Radiation Heat Exchange between Grey Surfaces

13.7.1 Radiation Exchange between Small, Grey Surfaces

Theproduct,(1.2 )isknownasequivalentemissivity(eq )forasystemoftwosmallgreybodies.