Académique Documents
Professionnel Documents
Culture Documents
REHAB
THE GUIDE
HVAC/PLUMBING
PATH(PartnershipforAdvancingTechnologyinHousing)isanewprivate/publicefforttodevelop,demon
strate,andgainwidespreadmarketacceptancefortheNextGenerationofAmericanhousing.Through
theuseofneworinnovativetechnologiesthegoalofPATHistoimprovethequality,durability,environ
mentalefciency,andaffordabilityoftomorrowshomes.
Initiated at the request of the White House, PATH is managed and supported by the Department of
HousingandUrbanDevelopment(HUD).Inaddition,allFederalAgenciesthatengageinhousingresearch
andtechnologydevelopmentarePATHPartners,includingtheDepartmentsofEnergyandCommerce,as
well as the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) and the Federal Emergency Management Agency
(FEMA).Stateandlocalgovernmentsandotherparticipantsfromthepublicsectorarealsopartnersin
PATH.Productmanufacturers,homebuilders,insurancecompanies,andlendersrepresentprivateindus
tryinthePATHpartnership.
TolearnmoreaboutPATH,pleasecontact:
PATH
SuiteB133
4517thStreetSW
Washington,DC20410
202-708-4250(fax)
e-mail:pathnet@pathnet.org
website:www.pathnet.org
DISCLAIMER
ThestatementsandconclusionscontainedinthisreportarethoseofStevenWinterAssociates,Inc.and
donotnecessarilyreecttheviewsoftheDepartmentofHousingandUrbanDevelopment.StevenWinter
Associates,Inc.hasmadeeveryefforttoverifytheaccuracyandappropriatenessofthereportscontent.
However,noguaranteeoftheaccuracyorcompletenessoftheinformationoracceptabilityforcompliance
withanyindustrystandardormandatoryrequirementofanycode,law,orregulationiseitherofferedor
implied.Theproductslistedinthereportareincludedonlyasexamplesofsomeavailableproducts.No
endorsement,recommendation,orevaluationoftheseproductsortheiruseisgivenorimplied.
H VA C / P L U M B I N G
VOLUME 8 OF THE REHAB GUIDE
TABLE OF CONTENTS
FOREWORD3
1.INTRODUCTION4
2.HVACDESIGN&ENGINEERING6
3.DISTRIBUTIONSYSTEMS11
4.HEATING19
5.COOLING25
6.HEATPUMPS31
7.INDOORAIRQUALITY36
8.CONTROLS42
9.FIREPLACES&CHIMNEYS47
10.DOMESTICHOTWATERHEATING54
11.PLUMBINGDESIGN&ENGINEERING61
12.WATERSUPPLY&DISTRIBUTIONSYSTEMS63
13.DRAIN,WASTE,&VENTSYSTEMS67
14.FUELSUPPLYSYSTEMS73
15.APPLIANCEVENTS&EXHAUSTS75
16.FIREPROTECTIONSYSTEMS78
APPENDIX:PROFESSIONALASSOCIATIONS&RESEARCHCENTERS81
Preparedfor:
U.S.DepartmentofHousing
andUrbanDevelopment
OfceofPolicyDevelopment
andResearch
Preparedby:
StevenWinterAssociates,Inc.
BuildingSystemsConsultants
Norwalk,CT
ContractDUIOOCOOOOO5956
August1999
CREDITS
STEVENWINTERASSOCIATES,INC.STAFFMEMBERS
WHOWEREINSTRUMENTALINTHEDEVELOPMENTAND
PRODUCTIONOFTHISGUIDEBOOKINCLUDE:
StevenWinter
Principal-in-charge
MichaelJ.Crosbie,Ph.D.,RA
ProjectmanagerandEditor-in-chief
DianeGrifthsandDonaldClem
Projectteammembers
ChristophWeigelandMasakiFurukawa
Illustrators
U.S.DEPARTMENTOFHOUSINGANDURBANDEVELOPMENT
OFFICEOFPOLICYDEVELOPMENTANDRESEARCH,AFFORDABLE
HOUSINGRESEARCHANDTECHNOLOGYDIVISION
DavidEngel
Director
NelsonCarbonell
Seniorarchitect
GUIDEBOOKDESIGN
AndrewP.Kner
ArtDirector
MicheleL.Trombley
AssistantArtDirector
ElizabethRosen
Symbols
FOREWORD
PresidentClintonrecognizesthatresearchandtechnologicalinnovationarecrucialifAmericaistomeet
itsaffordablehousingneeds.In1998,thePresidentintroducedamajornewinitiative:ThePartnershipfor
AdvancingTechnologyinHousing(PATH).Thisinitiativebringstogetherleadersfromthehomebuilding,
productmanufacturing,insurance,andnancialindustries,aswellasrepresentativesfromfederalagencies,
tospurhousingdesignandconstructioninnovations.
Thankstothedevelopmentofnewmachineryandmaterialsandthecreationofnewtechnologies
andtechniques,theconstructionindustryhasmadegreatprogress.Butabreakthroughmaterial,alabor-
savingtool,oracost-cuttingtechniqueisonlyvaluableifitiswidelyadopted,whichmeanstheconstruction
industrymustrstbecomeawareofthesenewdevelopments.
TheDepartmentofHousingandUrbanDevelopmentcanhelp.Wehavecommissionedasetof
guidebooksthatwillpresentstate-of-the-arttechniques,materials,andtechnologiesforhousingrehabil
itation.Thisvolume,HVAC/Plumbing,istheeighthofnineguidebooksknowncollectivelyasTheRehab
Guidethatwillappearoverthenextfewyears.
Wearepresentingtheseguidebooksbecause,likeresearchandtechnologicalinnovation,housing
rehabilitationisanessentialcomponentofAmericascommitmenttoprovideaffordablehousing.Iam
pleasedtopresentthisimportantpublicationinthehopethatitwillbecomeavaluableresourcethatleads
toaffordable,highqualityrehabilitation,andthustobetterhousingforallAmericans.
AndrewCuomo,Secretary
U.S.DepartmentofHousingandUrbanDevelopment
1 INTRODUCTION
ThisseriesofguidebookshasbeenproducedbytheU.S.DepartmentofHousingandUrbanDevelopment
tokeepthedesignandconstructionindustryabreastofinnovationsandstate-of-the-artpracticesinhome
rehabilitation.Asistoooftenthecase,innovativetechniques,materials,technologies,andproductsare
slowtomaketheirwayintoacceptedpractice. Itisevidentthatsuchinnovationswillnotadvanceunless
theindustryismadeawareofthemandtheyaretested. TheRehabGuide isintendedtoacceleratethis
processbyinformingbuilders,architects,engineers,andotherhousingrehabilitationprofessionalsabout
suchinnovationsandstate-of-the-artpractices.
TheRehabGuide wasalsopromptedbythelackofacomprehensivepublicationtomakethe
designandconstructionindustryawareofinnovativeandcost-savingdevelopmentsinhousingrehabilitation.
Professionaltrademagazines,conferences,andtradeshowsoffersomedisseminationofthisinformation,
buttheyarerarelyfocusedexclusivelyonhousingrehabilitation,asthisseriesis,noraretheycomprehensive.
A NOTE ON SOURCES
Avarietyofexcellentresourcesexistsforinformationonheating,ventilating,andair-conditioning(HVAC)and
plumbingsystemsandissues.ThisOldHouseHeating,Ventilation,andAirConditioning,publishedby
Little, Brown and Company, is a comprehensive book on HVAC and water heating system alternatives.
PlumbingaHouse,publishedbyTheTauntonPress,isanexcellentsourceforinformationonplumbingsys
tems.MonthlypublicationsofinterestincludetheEnergyDesignUpdate, EnvironmentalBuildingNews,
JournalofLightConstruction,HomeEnergy,OldHouseJournal,ThisOldHouse,and TraditionalBuilder.
Helpful information is also accessible via the Internet. Most equipment manufacturers and
monthlymagazineshaveWebsiteswherespecicproductinformationandpastarticlescanberetrieved.
TheDepartmentofEnergyprovidesawealthofinformationonenergyconservingtechniquesandtech
nologiesatwww.eren.doe.gov/consumerinfo/.
FIGURE1 HVACSYSTEMCOMPONENTS
WhenevaluatingtherehabilitationneedsofahomesHVACsystem,theappropriatenessofthecur-
rent type ofsystemformeetingtheexpectationsoftodayshomeoccupantsneedstobeconsidered.They
expecttobecomfortableinthewinterandsummerwithoutpayingexorbitantenergybills.Whileahomewith
electricbaseboardheatingandpassivecooling(i.e.naturalventilation,shading,etc.,withnoequipment)
wasfairlycommonandacceptable20yearsago,thehighwinterelectricbillsduetotheincreasedcostof
electricityandpoorlevelofcomfortduringthesummerhavediminisheditspopularitysignicantly.Evenif
thebaseboardsystemisingoodoperatingcondition,itmaybeappropriatetoconsideritsreplacement.
Ifitisdeterminedthatthetypeofsystemisappropriate,thesystemperformancemustthenbe
considered.Arethereopportunitiestoimprovetheperformanceoftheexistingsystemorisitawiserdeci
siontosimplyreplacetheoldsystemwithanewerone?Generallyspeaking,iftheheatingsystemequip
mentismorethan15yearsoldortheheatpumporairconditionerismorethan10yearsold,itshould
probablybereplaced.Theenergysavingswiththehigherefciencyequipmentavailabletodaywillpayfor
thenewequipmentwithinafewyears.Thetypicalnewgasfurnacesoldin1975hadanefciencyof63
percent;by1988,thetypicalefciencyhadincreasedto75percent;and,in1997,86percentofthefur
nacesshippedhadefcienciesgreaterthan80percent.Nevertheless,replacementisnotalwaystheanswer
andthereareanumberofalternativesforrehabilitatingtheexistingsystem.
ThisguidelinewillreviewtheattributesofmanyalternativesforrehabilitatingHVACsystems.It
discussestheadvantagesanddisadvantagesofvariousmodicationstoexistingsystemsaswellasequip
menttechnologieswhichmaybeconsideredforsupplementingorreplacingtheexistingsystem.
As a nal note before moving into the discussion of alternatives, it is critically important to
understandhowHVACsystemsinteractwithothersystemsthroughoutthehome.Adecisionconcerning
thekitchenrangeexhaustventcancausethegasfurnacetobackdraft.Undercertaincircumstances,an
attic ventilator can increase cooling loads rather than decrease them by drawing conditioned air up
throughtheceiling.Whentheoldnatural-draftfurnaceisreplacedwithaclosed-combustionsystem,the
homespressureandinltrationratewillbealtered,and,asaresult,itsindoorairquality.Muchofthe
interactionofthesesystemsrevolvesaroundthepressurizationanddepressurizationofspaces.Lackof
considerationfortheeffectsofvariousdevicesonhomepressurecanresultincostlyexcessiveinltration,
damagingcondensationinwalls,ordangerouslevelsofcarbonmonoxideinthehome.Theseissueshave
beenenhancedbytodaysconstructionandinsulationpracticeswhichmakehomestighterandtherefore
easiertopressurizeordepressurize.Itisimportanttounderstandandconsiderthewhole-houseimpli
cationsofeachsystemmodication.Contractorswhoarenarrowlyfocusedonaparticulartradeoftendo
nottakealloftheinteractionswithinthehouseintoconsideration.
FURTHER READING
BuildingEnergyEfciency,U.S.Congress,OfceofTechnologyAssessment,U.S.GovernmentPrinting
Ofce,May1992.
ThisOldHouseHeating,Ventilation,andAirConditioning,RichardTretheweywithDonBest,Little,
BrownandCompany,1994.
UnderstandingVentilation,JohnBower,TheHealthyHouseInstitute,1995.
2.2 REPLACEMENTSYSTEMSIZING
Inmanyinstances,thedecisionwillbemadetoreplacetheexistingheatingandcoolingsystemratherthan
rehabilitateit.Theoldsystemmaybewellbeyonditsexpectedlife.Manynewersystemsaremoreefcient
andcanquicklypayforthemselvesinreducedenergybills.Theavailabilityoffuelsmayhavechanged
(e.g.,naturalgasmaynowbeavailable)sincethesystemwasoriginallydesignedandinstalled.
7
Iftheoldheatingand/orcoolingsysteminthehousebeingrehabilitatedisbeyondretrotting
and needs to be replaced, there are two primary reasons why it should not simply be replaced with
anothersystemofthesamesize.Theoldphilosophyofbiggerisbetternolongerapplies.Systemswere
traditionallyoversized,causingthemtocycleonandofffrequently.Cyclingthatresultsfromoversizingis
inefcientandhardontheequipment.Also,rehabworkmayalsoincludetheadditionofmoreorbetter
insulation,andbetterperformingwindowsanddoors.Thiswillreducetheheatingandcoolingloadsand
allowforasmallercapacitysystemtobeinstalled.
Adesignloadanalysisshouldbeconductedtodeterminethecurrentheatingandcoolingcapacity
needs.Therearevariousmethodsandlevelsofsophisticationforperformingtheseanalyses.
Mostequipmentvendorsareequippedwithworksheetsorcomputersoftwaretoestimatethe
appropriatesizeofthesystemforthehome.Theywilltypicallyperformasizingcalculationaspartofthe
salesprocess.Whilesuchaservicefromthedealerisavailableatnocost,itshouldberememberedthat
thedealerissellingequipment,notefciency.Methodsareoftenover-simpliedwithfactorsofsafetybuilt
in,resultinginover-sizedequipment.Analternativeistosizethesystemyourself.Thereisamultitudeof
booksavailablethatprovideinstructions,datatables,andexamplesforperformingsystemsizingcalcula
tions. It is recommended that calculations be performed more than once with different methods and
sourcestoprovidecondenceintheresults.Whilesizingthesystemmaycostamodestamountoftime,
lackofexperiencebythenoviceestimatormayresultinmistakes.Basicestimatingtechniquesmayalso
notproperlyaccountforuniqueaspectsofthehome.Anotheralternativeistohireaconsultanttosizethe
system.Professionalenergyspecialistsandauditorscanevaluatethehomeandproviderecommendations
onthesizeandtypeofequipment.Theadvantagehereisthebenetofanexperiencedprofessionalwho
isfocusedonenergyefciency,butconsultingfeesmaybehefty.
FURTHER READING
Cooling and Heating Load Calculation Manual, American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air-
ConditioningEngineers,Inc.,1791TullieCircle,N.E.,Atlanta,GA30329,404-636-8400.
Consumers Directory of Certied Efciency Ratings for Residential Heating and Water Heating
Equipment,GasApplianceManufacturersAssociation.
DirectoryofCertiedUnitaryProducts,AirConditioningandRefrigerationInstitute,4301NorthFairfax
Drive,Suite425,Arlington,VA22203;703-524-8800.
ResidentialLoadCalculationManualJ,AirConditioningContractorsofAmerica,1712NewHampshire
Ave.,NW,Washington,DC20009;202-483-9370.
SimpliedDesignofHVACSystems,WilliamBobenhausen,NewYork:JohnWiley&Sons,Inc.1994.
2.3 ENERGYSOURCES
ESSENTIAL KNOWLEDGE
Themostcommonenergysourcesforresidentialusearenaturalgasforspaceandwaterheatingandelec
tricityforcooling.Otherheatingenergysourcesincludeelectricity,oil,propane,andthesun.Inafew
instances,woodorcoalmayevenbetheprimaryheatingfuel.Naturalgasisapotentialenergysourcefor
coolingaswell.
Themostappropriatefuelchoiceforaparticularhomedependsonitsavailability,price,andthe
climate.Someofthesefactorsmayhavechangedsincethehomewasbuiltandthefuelchoicethatwas
madethenmaynotbethemostappropriatechoicenow.Naturalgas,apopularchoicenow,wasnotread-
8
ilyavailablepriortoWorldWarIIandembargoeswereplacedonnewgasservicesforaperiodinthe
1970s.Consultthelocalutilitiestodeterminetheavailabilityandrateschedulesfortheenergyalterna
tives.Inmostinstances,theprimaryenergysourcesofelectricity,naturalgas,andoilshouldbeconsid
ered.Oldcoal-redsystemsshouldbeconvertedtoamore-efcientandcleanerfuelalternativesuchas
oilorgas.Variousenergysourcesarediscussedbelow.
2.NATURALGASASANENERGYSOURCE.
Inmostheating-seasondominatedclimates,naturalgasisthefuelofchoiceforspaceandwaterheating
needs.Theresidentialspaceheatingmarketsharesfornaturalgasare59%,72%,and48%,intheWest,
Midwest,andNortheast,respectively.Mostofthecountrysgasprocessingplantsarelocatedinsixstates:
Texas,Louisiana,Oklahoma,Wyoming,KansasandNewMexico.Canadaisanothersignicantsource.The
useofnaturalgasasaheatingfuelsurgedwiththepost-WorldWarIIconstructionofthousandsofmiles
ofpipelinefortransportation(Fig.2).Transportationcostsstillmakeupalargeportionoftheconsumers
priceforgas.Majorinvestmentsinthepipelinesystemduringthe1980sandearly1990simprovedthe
supplytoareasintheNortheast,WestCoastandFlorida.Withthederegulationofthegasindustry,gas
pricesfellapproximately50%from1985to1991.Marketcompetitionhasledtoinnovationandadvances
intechnologyfortheexploration,extraction,andtransportationofnaturalgas.
FIGURE2 MAJORNATURALGASPIPELINES 9
ADVANTAGES:Generallytheleastexpensivefuelasidefromsolarenergy.Nostoragetankisrequired.
DISADVANTAGES: Initialinstallationcostmaybehighifgasisnotalreadysuppliedtothehome.Notavailable
inallareas.
3.OILASANENERGYSOURCE.
Oiliscommonlyusedforheatingincoldclimateswherenaturalgasisnotreadilyavailable.Itistypically
moreexpensivethangasunlesslocatednearaportorreneryorattheendofthenaturalgaspipeline.
TheNortheastU.S.islocatedattheendofthegaspipelineandgasisnotavailablethroughouttheregion.
Heatingloadsaresignicantandelectricityisexpensive.Thus,oilhasa36%marketshareaccordingto
the1993census.
ADVANTAGES:Generallylesscostlythanelectricity.
DISADVANTAGES: Potentialforsupplyshortagesanddramaticpriceuctuations.Storagetankrequired
withassociatedenvironmentalconcernsandregulations(undergroundtanks,soilcontamination,etc.).
4.PROPANEASANENERGYSOURCE.
Propane,orliquidpetroleumgas(LPG),istypicallyanalternativewhenelectricityisunattractive(usually
becauseofprice)andnaturalgasisnotavailable.Propanecomesfromnaturalgasprocessingandcrude
oilreningandapproximately85%ofthecountryssupplyisproduceddomestically.Itistransportedin
aliquidstatebypipeline,railcar,ortanktrucktoretailmarkets.
ADVANTAGES:Canbeusedformostgas-redequipmentwithonlyminormodications.
DISADVANTAGES:Requiresanon-sitestoragetank.
5.SOLARASANENERGYSOURCE.
Theuseofsolarenergytoprovideaportionofthehomesspaceorwaterheatingisagoodoptioninmany
geographicareas.Passivesystemsusebuildingorientationandconstructionmaterialstoenhancenatural
processestocollect,store,anddistributeheat.Activesystemsemploypumpsand/orfans.Hybridsystems
usesmallpumpsorfanstoenhancetheperformanceofapassivesystem.Photovoltaic(PV)systemscon
vertsolarenergydirectlytoDCpowerwhichisinvertedtoACpowerforhomeuse.Unfortunately,themar
ketadvancementofthistechnologyissufferingfromthecostlyandlimitedproductionoftheultra-pure
siliconwaferswhicharethemaincomponentofthePVsystem(Fig.3).
ADVANTAGES:Minimaloperatingcost.Environmentallybenign.
DISADVANTAGES:Initialcostfordesignandinstallation.Optimumlocationissuesandaesthetics.
FIGURE3 PHOTOVOLTAICPANELWITHSILICONWAFERS
FURTHER READING
PassiveSolarDesignStrategies:GuidelinesforHomeBuilders,PassiveSolarIndustriesCouncil,1331
10 HStreetNW,Suite1000,Washington,D.C.20005;202-628-7400.
SimpliedDesignofHVACSystems,WilliamBobenhausen,NewYork:JohnWiley&Sons,Inc.1994.
3 DISTRIBUTION
SYSTEMS
ESSENTIAL KNOWLEDGE
BytheendofWorldWarI,themajorityofurbanhomesandmanyruralhomeswerecentrallyheatedby
ahot-air,hot-water,orsteamdistributionsystem.Todaytherearefourbasicmethodsormediafordis
tributingheatinthehome:steam,air,water,andelectricresistance.Allhaveuniquecharacteristicswhich
mayormaynotbedesirableforthehousebeingrehabilitated.
Steamisoneoftheoldesttypesofcentralheatdistributionsystems.Aboilerproducessteam
pipedthroughthehousetoradiators,whichprovideconcentratedheatingsurfacesineachroom.Such
systemsareeitherone-pipeortwo-pipe.One-pipesystemsrequirealargerpipebecausesteamrisesto
theradiatorswhilecondensatereturnsinthesamepipefromtheradiatorstotheboiler.Ifthesinglepipe
istoosmall,steamwillforcecondensatebackupthepipe,causingnoiseassteamslugsthroughpockets
ofwater.Two-pipesystemsusesmallerpipebuttwiceasmuchofitbecauseseparatesteamsupplyand
condensatereturnlinesareinstalled.Gravityoracondensatepumpmaybeusedtoreturnthecondensate
totheboiler,dependingontheheightofthecondensatepipingrelativetotheboiler.Two-pipesystems
installedafterWorldWarIincludesteamtrapstopreventsteamfromgettingintothereturnpiping.
Airisbyfarthemostcommondistributionmediumforheatingandcoolingsystems.Forced-air
heatingsystemswereusedin63%ofthehomesintheU.S.,accordingto1993censusdata.Originalgrav
ityairdistributionsystemsreliedonnaturalconvection.Heatedwarmairwouldriseanddistributeitself
throughthehomeascoldairfelltobereheated.Thesesystemsoftenresultedinuneventemperaturesin
thehome.Aselectricitybecameavailabletohomes,forced-airsystemsreplacedmostofthegravitysystems.
Thesesystemsemployforcedconvection,usinganelectricfan,topushthehotairthroughductworkand
supplyregistersthroughoutthehomeandpullcoldairthroughthereturn(Fig.1).Convertingagravitysys
temtoaforced-airsysteminvolvesmorethanaddingafantothesystem.Anewductworksystemshould
beinstalledwithproperductsizesandregisterlocationstoassuretheappropriatedistributionofwarmair
throughoutthehome.
FIGURE1 TYPICALFORCED-AIRDISTRIBUTIONSYSTEM 11
Water,orhydronic,systemsareefcientbecausethehigherheatcapacityofwaterrequiresless
pumping energy than fan energy in an air system. They are also inherently safer than steam systems
becauseitisnearlyimpossibletorunahot-waterboilertodangerouspressures.Oldhotwatersystems
reliedongravityow.Hotwaterexpandsasitisheated,risestotheradiators,andforcesthecondensed
waterthroughthereturnpipingtotheboiler.Anexpansiontankwithanoverowpipedischargesany
extrawaterinthesystem.Todayssystemsemployapumpandforcedow(Fig.2).Hotwatermovesata
greaterspeedwithbetterheattransferefciencythroughsmallerpipes.Inatypicalhydronicsystem,hot
waterpassesthroughannedpipeinabaseboardradiatorlocatedatthebaseoftheoutsidewall.Airis
warmedandrisesbyconvectiontocirculateintotheroom.(Theyarecalledradiators,butmoreheatis
deliveredviaconvectionthanradiation.)Trueradiantsystemswithpipesembeddedintheoorarealso
availableataninstallationcostpremium.
FIGURE2 TYPICALHYDRONICDISTRIBUTIONSYSTEM
Electricresistancedistributionsystemstypicallyusebaseboards(Fig.3),butmayincludewall
unitsorradiantsystemsusingembeddedcableorpanels.Thesesystemsaresometimesreferredtoas
zonalordirectbecausetheprimarysourceofheatingorcoolingiswithinthespace.Thereisnodistrib
utionsystemfromacentrallylocatedsystem.Incommonelectricbaseboardsystems,theairisheatedand
reliesonconvectiontodistributeheattotheroom,similartohydronicbaseboardsystems.Electricitycan
alsobeusedinradiantpanelsystemswhichcanbesurfacemountedtoexistingwallsandceilings.Electric
resistancesystemsaretypicallyinexpensivetoinstall,butgenerallymoreexpensivetooperatebecauseof
thehighcostofelectricity.However,effectiveuseofcontrolsandzoningcanreduceoperatingcosts.
Independentofthetypeofdistribution,theexistingsysteminanolderhomeislikelytoneed
majorrepairorreplacement.Corrosionandleaksinductworkandpipingcancontributetoinefciency,
poorcomfort,andpoorindoorairquality.Asbestosinsulationmayalsobepresentontheoldductwork
orpipes.Ifso,itshouldbeeitherremovedorencasedbyaprofessionalcontractor.Iftheasbestosinsu
lation is in good condition, encasing it may be more cost effective than removal. Recommendations
regardingtheremovalanddisposalofasbestosareavailablefromtheEnvironmentalProtectionAgency
(EPA)AsbestosInformationHotline:800-438-2474.
12
FIGURE3 ELECTRICBASEBOARD
2.REHABTHEEXISTINGHYDRONICDISTRIBUTIONSYSTEM.
Forhotwatersystems,restoringtheexistingdistributionsystemwilllikelyinvolvereplacingrustedpipesec
tionsandinsulatingpipesrunningthroughunconditionedspaces.Thebesttypeofpipeinsulationconsists
of3sectionsofextruded-foamthatisslitsoitcanbeappliedoverthepipe.Valvesthatarenolongeroper
ableshouldbereplaced,asshouldoldbaseboardradiatorswithbentnsorguards.Replacingradiators
isprobablymoreanissueoflifestyleandaesthetics.Finnedcopperradiatorsworkfasterandhaveahigher
heatoutputthanold-stylecast-ironradiators,butthecast-ironradiatorsholdmorewaterandgiveoffheat
foralongertime.Thereare3-waythermostaticbypassvalves,suchasthosedistributedbyEnerjee,which
canberetrottedtoexistinghydronicbaseboardunits.Whentheroomtemperaturesensedatthevalveis
satisfactory,circulatinghotwaterisbypassedaroundthenned-tubetominimizetheheatdistributedtothe
room.Thistypeofvalveisintendedforusewithcontinuouslycirculatingsystems,butcouldbeusefulfor
redistributingtheloadsonahydronicsystemwithoutchangingthebaseboardunits.
Forsteamsystems(Fig.4),restoringtheexistingdistributionsystemwilllikelyinvolverepairing
orreplacingradiatorvalves,whichserveasanon/offcontrol,andshouldeitherbefullyopenorclosed.
Wornvalveseatscanresultingurglingassteamleaksin,butcondensatecantowback.Thestempack-
13
ingformostradiatorinletvalvesdeteriorateswithtime;thevalvescanberepackedwithspecialgraphite-
impregnatedcord.Brokenvalvehandlesshouldbereplacedwithnewhandlesofinsulatingplastic.Vents
controltherateatwhichsteamenterstheradiator(andthustheradiatorsoutput)byregulatingtheamount
ofairinandoutoftheradiator.Iftheradiatorneverheatsup(neverhisses)orsteamcomesoutofthevent
(continuouslyhisses),theventneedstobereplaced.Replacementofventswiththeproperspeedcanalso
helpwithunbalancedheatdistributioninthehome.Ventscomeinfourspeeds(veryslow,slow,fast,and
veryfast)orvariable.Forroomsthattendtooverheat,useaslowerventandviceversa.Vacuumventsallow
airtoescape,butnotreenterastheradiatorcools.Avacuumiscreatedwithintheradiatorasthesteam
condensesandhotsteamisdrawnintotheradiatorratherthancoldair.Thiscanresultinamoresteady
outputofheat.Specialpacklessairtightcontrolvalvesneedtobeinstalledinconjunctionwiththevac
uumvents.Radiatorsshouldbeslopedslightlytowardsthesteamvalve.Iftheyarenot,condensatewill
likelypoolatthefarendoftheradiatorandsteambubblingthroughwillgurgle.Ashimshouldbeplaced
undertheradiatorfeetfarthestfromthevalvetoslopetheradiatorslightlytowardsthevalve.
ADVANTAGES:Lowcostandleastdisruptive.
DISADVANTAGES:Hydronicsystemsareonlysuitableforheating.
FIGURE4 STEAMRADIATOR
3.REHABTHEEXISTINGELECTRICRESISTANCESYSTEM.
Whileelectricresistancesystemsarerelativelysimplewithfewparts,theremaystillbetheneedforreha
bilitation.Inadditiontocleaning,damagednsornguardsshouldberepairedorreplacedbecausethey
affecttheperformanceofabaseboard.
ADVANTAGES:Improvedperformance.
DISADVANTAGES:Replacementoftheentireunitmaybesimplerthanrepairingorreplacingcomponents.
4.INSTALLANEWCONVENTIONALFORCED-AIRDISTRIBUTIONSYSTEM.
Conventionalforced-airdistributionsystemsarebyfarthemostcommontypeofheatingsystem.However,
theyarenotoriousforbeingthecauseofinefciencyanddiscomfort.Poorlydesignedandinstalledductwork
canhavehighlevelsofairleakageandpoortemperaturecontrol.Systemsareoftendesignedwithpoorly
insulatedductworkrunningthroughunconditionedspace.Adesignwhichkeepsductworkwithinthecon
ditionedspaceavoidsmanyoftheseproblems.Ductlossesarereducedbecauseconditionedairisleaking
intotheconditionedspaceandconductionlossesarelowerbecausetemperaturedifferencesbetweenthe
supplyandsurroundingairareless.Thelocationofsupplyoutletsdependsuponwhethertheemphasisis
onheatingorcooling.Forheating-dominatedsystems,standardpracticehasbeentoinstallsupplyregisters
alongtheoutsidewallsunderwindowstocountercolddraftscomingfromwindows.However,inatightly
constructedhomewithinsulatingwindows,interiorwallregisterscanbeusedtosaveonductmaterial.For
14
cooling-dominatedsystems,ceilingsupplydiffusersaremostappropriate.Ductsareusuallymadeofsquare
and/orroundsheetmetal,butinsulatedductboardandexductarealsowidelyused.Fiberglassductboard
isquieterthansheetmetalductsbecausesuchductsattenuatetheblowernoisethatcanpropagatethrough
theductsystem.Caremustbetakentoavoidproblemswithcondensation,whichcontributestomoldgrowth,
ifthesystemisusedforairconditioning.OwensCorninghasintroducedEnDuraCoataductboardsystem
withanantimicrobialacrylicinteriorcoatingtoresistthegrowthoffungiandbacteria.
ADVANTAGES: Distribution system widely used and accepted. Can readily include air conditioning,
humidication,orairpurication.Fastresponding.
DISADVANTAGES:Signicantspacerequirementsofductworkcanmakeinstallationinanexistingstruc
ture difcult and costly if the previous distribution system was not air. Duct system leakage can cause
inefciency.Forced-airsystemscanbenoisy.
5.INSTALLAMINI-DUCTHVACSYSTEM.
Thereareatleasttwosystemsonthemarket,UnicoandSpacePak,thatfeaturesmall-diameter,exible
ductworkthatcanpassthroughstudsandjoistsandsnakethroughnarrowopeningsandaroundcorners
(Fig.5).Thetypicalsystemdeliverslessairathighervelocitiesthanconventionalforced-airsystems;to
achievethesameheatingorcoolingcapability,theairisdeliveredathighertemperatureswhenheating
andlowertemperatureswhencooling.Airisdischargedthroughplasticcollarswith2diameterholesin
theceiling,oor,orwall.Sinceairissuppliedatmoreextremetemperaturesandhighervelocities,these
outletsmustbestrategicallyplacedtoavoidblowingdirectlyonoccupants.Specialsoundattenuatingtub
ingisusedattheendofeachsupplyruntominimizethenoisecausedbyhighairvelocities.
ADVANTAGES: Ducts can be installed in tight areas. Lower supply air temperatures may provide better
humiditycontrolinthesummer.
DISADVANTAGES:Systemisunfamiliartobuildingprofessionals.Lowerinstallationcostmightbeoffsetby
higherequipmentcost.
FIGURE5 MINI-DUCTDISTRIBUTIONSYSTEM 15
6.INSTALLANEWHYDRONICDISTRIBUTIONSYSTEM.
Therearealternativetypesofhydronicsystemstoconsider.Systemsinvolvingtraditionalbaseboardscan
besingle-pipeortwo-pipe,andradiantsystemsarealsoanoption.Allhydronicsystemsrequireanexpan
siontanktocompensatefortheincreaseinwatervolumewhenitisheated(i.e.,thevolumeof50oFwater
increasesalmost4%whenitisheatedto200oF).Single-pipehydronicsystemsaremostcommonlyused
inresidences.Theyemployasinglepipewithhotwaterowinginaseriesloopfromradiatortoradiator.
Thedrawbacktothisarrangementisthatthetemperatureofthewaterdecreasesasitmovesthrougheach
radiator.Thus,largerradiatorsareneededforthoselocationsdownstreamintheloop.Acommonsolu
tiontothisismultipleloopsorzones.Eachzonehasitsowntemperaturecontrolwithcirculationpro
videdbyasmallpumporzonevalveineachloop(Fig.6).Two-pipehydronicsystemsuseapipeforsup-
plyinghotwatertotheradiatorsandasecondpipeforreturningthewaterfromtheradiatorstotheboiler.
Therearealsodirect-andreverse-returnarrangements(Fig.7).Thedirect-returnsystemcanbedifcult
tobalancebecausethepressuredropthroughthenearest-radiatorpipingcanbesignicantlylessthanfor
thefarthestradiator.Reverse-returnsystemstakecareofthebalancingproblem,butrequiretheexpense
ofadditionalpiping.Oriceplatesatradiatorinletsorbalancingvalvesatradiatoroutletscanalsobeused
tobalancethepressuredropsinadirect-returnsystem.
FIGURE6 MILTI-ZONESINGLE-PIPEHYDRONICDISTRIBUTIONSYSTEM
FIGURE7 TWO-PIPEHYDRONICDISTRIBUTIONSYSTEMS
16
Radiantsystemsrunhotwaterthroughplasticpipeortubingtypicallyembeddedinoorslabs
orunderframedoors(Fig.8).Systemsinvolvingpanelsthatlooklikebaseboardmoldingorpanelsthat
canmountinthewallorceilingarealsoavailable.Thesesystemswarmthesurroundingobjectsrather
thantheairandcangenerallyprovidebettercomfortthanbaseboardsystems.Theintroductionofcross-
linked polyethylene (PEX) tubing to the U.S. market in the 1980s revolutionized the installation of
hydronicoorheatingwithfastinstallationandlongerservicelife.
Therearealsoradiantcoolingsystemswhichinvolverunningcoolwaterthroughthesamepipe
ortubingorpanelsasusedforheating.Thesesystemsmustbedesignedcarefullytoinsurethatthetem
peratureoftheradiantsurface(oor,ceiling,orwallpanel)remainsabovethedewpointoftheroomair.
Otherwise,harmfulandpotentiallydangerous,inthecaseofaslipperyoor,condensationcanoccur.For
thisreason,radiantcoolingsystemstypicallysupplementanothertypeofcoolingsystem.
ADVANTAGES:Smallpipingortubingismoreadaptabletoanexistingbuildingstructurethanductwork.
Hydronicsystemsareclean,quiet,havefewerheatlosses,andcanbeeasilyzoned.
DISADVANTAGES:Hydronicsystemsareonlyusedforheating.Radiantcoolingsystemsarenotcommonly
usedandarethereforemoredifculttodesignandusuallymorecostlythanotheralternatives.
FIGURE8 HYDRONICRADIANTFLOORHEATINGSYSTEM
7. INSTALLAZONALSYSTEM.
Azonalsystemutilizesindividualin-spaceheatersineachoftheroomstobeheated.Essentially,thereisno
distributionsystemwithitsinherentlossesandinefciencies.Signicantsavingscanbeachievedthrough
theuseofsetbackcontrolsandzoning;providingheatwhenandwhereitisneeded.Theseheaterscanbe
electricorgasandmayemploynaturalconvection,fan-forcedconvection,and/orradiationtotransmitthe
heattothespace.Someunitsalsoincludeathermalstoragemediumtoimprovecomfort.
Gasspaceheatersareavailablefromseveralmanufacturersinarangeofcapacities.Theunits
employsealed-combustionsothereisnopotentialofmixingcombustiongaseswiththeinternalairvia
spillageorbackdrafting.Direct-ventunitsoperatewithefcienciesof60to75%.Theymountonanexter
nalwallandventthecombustiongasesthroughthewall(Fig.9).Power-ventedunitswithefciencies
above80%canducttheexhaustgasessotheyhavemorelocationexibility.
Electric heaters are less expensive than gas-red heaters but electricity is typically the more
expensivefuel.Electricbaseboardheatersarethemostcommonzonalheaterinresidentialapplications.
Otherelectricunitsincludewall,kickspace,oorandceilingheaters.Baseboardunitstypicallyrelyon
naturalconvectionwhiletheothertypesincludeafantoaugmenttheconvectionprocess.Someunitsare
17
availablewithtwostagestobettermatchtheoutputtotheload.Othersincludeanelectricimmersionele
mentandaliquidsolutionhermeticallysealedincoppertubing.Thethermalcapacitanceoftheliquid
servestomodulatetheoutputoftheunit.
Radiantsystemsthatuseceiling,wall,oroorpanelswithelectricwiringembeddedarealsoa
typeofzonalsystem.Theseunitscanbefasterrespondingthanhydronicradiantsystems.
ADVANTAGES:Zonalsystemsareinexpensivetoinstall,offerexibility,andprovidezone-controlcapability.
DISADVANTAGES:Thetypesofzonalsystemsdiscussedonlyprovideheating.
FIGURE9 DIRECT-VENTGASSPACEHEATER
FURTHER READING
ModernHydronicHeatingforResidentialandLightCommercialBuildings, JohnSiegenthaler,Delmar
Publishers,1995.
RenovatingOldHouses,GeorgeNash,Newton,CT:TheTauntonPress,1992.
SimpliedDesignofHVACSystems,WilliamBobenhausen,NewYork:JohnWiley&Sons,Inc.,1994.
TheOld-HouseJournalGuidetoRestoration. PatriciaPoore,editor;NewYork:PenguinBooks,1992.
PRODUCT INFORMATION
BurnhamRadiantHeatingCo.,P.O.Box3079,Lancaster,PA17604;717-397-4701;www.burnham.com.
Enerjee,24S.LafayetteAve.,Morrisville,PA19067;215-295-0557;www.enerjee.com.
EmpireComfortSystems,918FreeburgAvenue,Belleville,IL62222;800-851-3153;www.empirecomfort.com.
Owens Corning World Headquarters, One Owens Corning Parkway, Toledo, OH 43659; 419-248-7817;
www.owenscorning.com.
RadiantTechnology,11AFarberDrive,Bellport,NY11713;800-784-0234;www.radiant-tech.com.
SpacePak,Mestek,Inc.,Westeld,MA;413-564-5530;www.spacepak.com.
SSHC,Inc.,146ElmStreet,OldSaybrook,CT06475;800-544-5182;www.sshcinc.com.
18 Unico,Inc.,4160MeramecStreet,St.Louis,MO63116;800-527-0896;www.unicosystem.com.
4 H E AT I N G
ESSENTIAL KNOWLEDGE
Therearetwobasictypesofcentralheatingplants:furnaces(usedwithairdistributionsystems)andboil
ers(usedwitheitherhydronicorsteamsystems).Anotherlesscommonalternativeistouseadomestic
hotwaterheatertosupplyhotwatertoahydroniccoilinanairhandlingunitorforaradiantsystem.These
systemsareoftenreferredtoascombinationsystemsandaregaininginpopularity.
Warm-airfurnaces(Fig.1)arethemostcommonresidentialheatingsystemintheU.S.According
to1993censusdata,furnacesareusedin37%ofelectrically-heatedhomesand69%ofgas-heatedhomes.
Ifagas-oroil-redfurnaceispresentlyinstalledinthehousetoberehabilitated,itisprobablymuchless
efcientthantodaysfurnaces.Theefciencyofmostgas-oroil-redfurnacesinstalled20yearsagois
between50%and65%.Standardsthatwentintoeffectin1994requirethatfurnacessoldtodaybeatleast
78%efcient.Thisstandardessentiallyeliminatedtheuseofstandingpilotsongasfurnaces,andelec
tronicignitiondevicesandventdampersbecamestandard.Gas-redmodelswithefcienciesover90%
andoil-redmodelswithefcienciesashighas87%areavailabletoday.
Furnacesareavailableinupow,downow,andhorizontalcongurations.Upowsystemsare
themostcommon,withblowersdrawingairintothebottomandsupplyingheatedairoutthetoptothe
ductsystem.Downowsystemsdrawairinatthetopandsupplyheatedairoutthebottomforoorduct
systems.Horizontalsystemsdrawairinonesideandsupplyheatedairouttheotherside.Theyareused
inattics,crawlspaces,belowoors,orsuspendedfromceilings.
FIGURE1 GAS-FIREDFURNACE
19
Accordingto1993censusdata,boilersareusedforheatingin15%ofhomesacrosstheU.S.and
approximately45%ofthoseintheNortheast(Fig.2).Governmentstandardsrequirethattodaysresidential
combustionboilershaveefcienciesofatleast80%.TheQuantumLeapboilerbyDunkirkRadiatorhasa
95%efciency.Whileboilerefcienciesaretypicallylowerthanfurnaceefciencies,totalsystemefciency,
includingdistributionsystemlosses,canbehigherbecauseductlossesaretypicallyhigherthanpipelosses.
Electricfurnacesandboilersoperatewitha100%fuelconversionefciency.However,distribu
tionsystemlossesoftenmakethemlessefcientasasystemthanelectricbaseboardorotherzonalsys
tems.Ifanelectricfurnaceispresentlyinstalledinthehome,theintegrityoftheductworksystemshould
beexaminedandimprovedasaminimum(seeSection3).Iftheelectricfurnaceorboilerissituatedin
acoldclimate,seriousconsiderationshouldbegiventoconvertingittoagas-redsystemtoreduceoper
atingcosts.
Thissectionwillfocusonfuel-burning,orcombustion,systems.Incombustionsystems,com
bustionoccurswithinachamberandaircirculatesovertheoutsidesurfacesofaheatexchanger.Thecir
culationairdoesnotcomeincontactwiththefuelortheproductsofcombustion,whichareventedtothe
outside.Traditionalcombustionsystemsarenaturaldraft(oratmosphericvent)withadrafthoodtocarry
thecombustiongasesthroughtheventtotheoutdoors.Thedrafthoodhasareliefairopeningtoassure
thattheexitofthecombustionheatexchangerisatatmosphericpressure.Fan-assistedorpowered-com
bustion systems use a small blower to force (forced-draft, power burner) or induce (induced-draft,
mechanicaldraft,powervent)theueproductsthroughthesystem.Fan-assistedsystemsdonotrequirea
drafthood,resultinginreducedoff-cyclelossesandimprovedefciency.
Backdraftingofcombustionappliancesoccurswhenthesurroundingareaisdepressurizedand
the appliance relies on natural draft to carry the combustion gases through the vent to the outdoors.
Backdrafting can be dangerous when deadly combustion gases are drawn into the living space.
Depressurizationcanoccurwhenotherdevicessuchasexhaustfans,waterheaters,clothesdryers,and
replacesaredrawingairfromthespaceandexhaustingittotheoutside.Thebestsolutiontothisprob
lemistheinstallationofadirect-ventcombustionsystemthatusesoutsideairforcombustionanddoes
nothaveadrafthood.Thisisreferredtoasasealedcombustionsystembecausethecombustionairis
isolatedfromtheindoorair.
Thefollowingaretechniquesforimprovingthesafety,efciencyand/orreducingtheoperating
costsoftheexistingcombustionfurnaceorboilersystem.Forsafetyreasons,allmodicationsshouldbe
performedbyaqualiedmechanic.
FIGURE2 GAS-FIREDBOILER
20
2.INSTALLAVENTDAMPER.
Aventdamperisaapperinstalledintheueofadrafthood-equippednaturaldraftfurnaceorboiler.
(Fan-assistednaturaldraftsystemsdonothavedrafthoods.)Whentheburnersareignited,thedamper
isopentoallowcombustiongasestoexhaustuptheuetooutdoors.Thedampercloseswhentheburn
ersareshutofftoreduceexltrationofheatedairfromthehouseandtopreventresidualheatfromthe
heatexchangerfromescapinguptheue.TheNAECAstandardspassedin1987madeventdampersa
standardfeatureoftodaysnatural-draftfurnaces.
ADVANTAGES: Improvedefciencyifthefurnaceislocatedintheconditionedspaceandisusingindoor
airforcombustion.
DISADVANTAGES: Oflessvalueifthecombustionairisdrawnfromoutsideorunconditionedspace.
3.REPLACETHESTANDINGPILOTWITHANELECTRONICSPARKIGNITOR.
Oldfurnacesandboilersemployastandingpilotthatconsumesasmallamountofgascontinuously.The
NAECAstandardspassedin1987essentiallyeliminatedthisenergy-wastingpractice.Electronicignitions
useanelectricsparkorahotsurfaceasanignitionsourceforthegasmixturewhenheatingisneeded.
ADVANTAGES: Improvedefciency.
DISADVANTAGES: Costofnewignitionsystem.
4.FOROIL-FIREDFURNACES,DOWNSIZETHEBURNERNOZZLE.
Theringrateofanoil-redfurnaceiscontrolledbythepumppressureandtheoricesizeoftheburner
injectionnozzle.Thenozzlesareratedingallonsperhour.Ifthehomesheatingloadshavebeenreducedor
thesystemwasover-sizedinitially,thenozzlesizemaybereducedtodecreasethecapacityofthefurnace.
ADVANTAGES: Improvedcomfortthroughlesssystemcycling.
DISADVANTAGES: Smallernozzlesbecomecloggedmoreeasilybysediment.Fuellineltersmayneedto
bechangedmorefrequently.
5.INSTALLANADVANCED,HIGH-EFFICIENCYGASFURNACE.
High-efciencygasfurnacescanofferasignicantimprovementinefciency.Efciencyratingsbetween
84%and89%arenotcommonbecauseacidiccorrosivecondensateformsattheseefcienciesandthe
modestimprovementinefciencyisnotworththeaddedmaterialcostneededtowithstandtheconden
sate.Thus,highefciencymeansjumpingfromefcienciesinthelow80stothelow90s.Therearesev
eralalternativesavailableforthosewhowanttoinstallanadvancedandefcientfurnacesystem,includ
ingpulseandcondensingcombustiontechnologies.
Nearlyeverymajorfurnacemanufacturerincludesacondensingfurnaceintheirproductline.
Condensingfurnacesaredesignedtocondensethewatervaporfromtheexhaustgasesandcapturethe
heatofcondensation.Thisisdonebyloweringthetemperatureofthecombustiongaseswithasecond
heatexchangerinthefurnace(Fig.3).Condensingfurnacesareexpensivebecausetheyrequirecorrosion-
resistantmaterials,buttheycanhaveefcienciesashighas97%.
PulsecombustionisatechnologypatentedbyLennoxthatinvolvesself-perpetuatingpulsesat
a rate of approximately 60 times per second. Air and fuel are mixed in the combustion chamber and
ignitedbyasparkfromasparkpluginamannersimilartoanautomobileinternalcombustionengine.
Theincreaseinpressureuponignitionclosesthegas/airinletvalve.Thecombustionproductsareforced
21
throughanexhaustpipeandthegas/airinletvalvereopenswiththereductioninpressure.Thenextcom
bustionpulseisignitedbytheheatremainingfromthepreviouspulse.Pulsecombustionfurnaceshave
efcienciesof91%to97%.
Afewmanufacturersprovidefurnaceswithtwo-speedorevenvariablespeedmotors.Thesesys
temscanimprovecomfortandrunquieterwhenusedwithzoningsystems,withanair-conditioningsys
temthatrequiresahigherairow,orwhenitisdesirabletorunthefancontinuouslyforventilationair
supply.TheCarrierWeathermaker8000andTraneXV-80aretwosuchproducts.
ADVANTAGES: Loweroperatingcosts.Higherefciencysystemshavelowertemperatureexhaustgasesso
PVCpipingcanbeusedforventing,asignicantadvantageifachimneyisnotcurrentlyinplace.Themulti-
speedsystemsprovidebettercomfortbecauseoutputfollowsloadmoreclosely.Thelow-speedsettingcan
providedehumidicationcapabilitywithanACunit.
DISADVANTAGES: Higherinitialcostandtheexistinguemayneedtobedownsized.Allfan-assistedfur
nacesconsumemoreelectricitythanoldfurnacesthatdidnotuseafaninthecombustionairstream.
Localcodemayrequireaneutralizercartridgeforcondensatedisposal.Ifcondensatecannotbedrained
bygravity,acondensatepumpisnecessary.
FIGURE3 CONDENSINGFURNACE
6.INSTALLACOMBINATIONSYSTEM.
Combinationsystemsuseonecombustiondevicetoprovidespaceandwaterheating.Thesesystemselim
inatethegasfurnaceanditsuebyrunningahotwatercoilfromthedomestichotwaterheatertotheair-
handlingunitorahydronicradiantsystem(Fig.4).TheGasResearchInstituteestimatesthatnearlyamil-
lionofthesesystemshavebeeninstalledintheU.S.
Typically,potablewaterisusedintheair-handlerheatingcoil.Forhydronicradiantsystems,a
separateheatexchangerinthewaterheaterisusedtocirculatenon-potablewaterthroughtheradiantsys
tempiping.Thisisacoderequirementinmostareas.
Waterheatersspecicallydesignedforthesesystemsareavailable.Theyhaveanextrasetoftaps
forsupplyandreturnofthespaceheatingwaterandhigherrecoveryratesanddirect-ventingasoptions.
ADVANTAGES: Eliminatesthefurnaceanditsventingrequirements.
DISADVANTAGES: Dealerconfusionoversizinganddesigningofsystems.
22
FIGURE4 COMBINATIONHEATINGSYSTEM
7.INSTALLANADVANCEDHIGH-EFFICIENCYBOILER.
Condensingboilersarelesscommonthanfurnacesbecausetheytypicallyarenotcompatiblewiththehigh
return-watertemperatures,suchasthe160 Fofahydronicbaseboardsystem.Theyareappropriatefor
thelowertemperaturesofradiantsystems.However,DunkirkRadiatorproducestheQuantumLeapboiler
withanefciencyof95%.Thisunit,whichusesanaluminumheatexchanger,isacondensingboilereven
athighreturn-watertemperatures.Condensationathighreturn-watertemperaturesisaccomplishedby
heatingandsaturatingtheincomingcombustionairtoraiseitsdewpoint.Thisisdonewiththeconden
sateinanevaporativetower(Fig.5).
ADVANTAGES: Loweroperatingcosts.Higherefciencysystemshavelowertemperatureexhaustgasesso
PVCpipingcanbeusedforventing.Improvedsafetydevicesandcontrolsoveranoldboilersystem.
DISADVANTAGES: Higherinitialcost.
FIGURE5 QUANTUMLEAPCONDENSINGBOILER 23
FURTHER READING
AConsumersGuidetoHomeImprovement,Renovation&Repair,TheEnterpriseFoundation,Robert
M.Santucci,BrookeC.Stoddard,andPeterWerwath,JohnWiley&Sons,Inc.,1995.
Consumers Directory of Certied Efciency Ratings for Residential Heating and Water Heating
Equipment, Gas Appliance Manufacturers Association, available from ETL Testing Laboratories, Inc.;
607-753-6711.
1996ASHRAESystemsandEquipmentHandbook,ASHRAE,1791TullieCircle,NE,Atlanta,GA30329;
404-636-8400.
PRODUCT INFORMATION
ApolloHydroHeat&Cooling,ADivisionofStateIndustries,500BypassRoad,AshlandCity,TN37015;615-
792-4371;www.stateind.com.
BurnhamCorporation,P.O.Box3079,Lancaster,PA17604;717-397-4701;www.burnham.com.
CarrierNorthAmericanOperations,P.O.Box4808,CarrierParkway,Syracuse,NY13221;315-432-6000;
www.carrier.com.
DunkirkRadiatorCorporation,85MiddleRoad,Dunkirk,NY14048;716-366-5500;www.dunkirk.com.
LennoxIndustries,2100LakeParkBoulevard,Richardson,TX75080;214-497-5000;www.davelennox.com.
TraneCompany,3600PammelCreekRoad,LaCrosse,WI54601;608-787-3111;www.trane.com.
YorkInternationalCorporation,631SouthRichlandAvenue,York,PA17403;717-771-7890;www.york.com.
24
5 COOLING
ESSENTIAL KNOWLEDGE
Manyoldhomesreliedonpassivecoolingtheopeningofwindowsanddoors,andtheprovisionof
shadingdevicesduringthesummermonths.Homesweredesignedwithwindowsonoppositewallsto
encouragecrossventilationandlargeshadetreesreducedsolarheatgains.Thisapproachisstillviablein
manyareastodayandimprovedthermalperformance(insulatingvalue)windowsareavailablethatallowfor
largerwindowareastoletinmoreairinthesummerwithouttheheatlosspenaltyinthewinter.However,
increasedoutdoornoiselevels,pollution,andsecurityissuesmakerelyingonopenwindowsalessattractive
optioninsomeareastoday.
Anair-conditioningsystemofsomekindmayalreadybeinstalledinthehome.Itmaybeawin
dowairconditionerorthrough-the-wallunitforcoolingoneortworooms,oracentralsplit-systemair
conditionerorheatpump.Inanyevent,theperformanceofthesesystemsintermsofprovidingadequate
comfortwithoutexcessiveenergyuseshouldbeinvestigated.Theageoftheequipmentalonewillprovide
some indication. If the existing system is more than ten years old, replacement should be considered
becauseitismuchlessefcientthantodayssystemsandnearingtheendofitsusefullife.
TherefrigerantcommonlyusedintodaysresidentialairconditionersisR-22.Duetothesuspi
cionthatR-22depletestheozonelayer,manufacturerswillbeprohibitedfromproducingunitswithR-22
in2010.TheleadingreplacementsforR-22areR-134AandR-410Aandnewproductsarenowavailable
withthesenon-ozone-depletingrefrigerants.CarriersbrandnamefortheR-410ArefrigerantisPuron.
Theperformancemeasureforelectricairconditionerswithcapacitieslessthan65,000Btuhisthe
SeasonalEnergyEfciencyRatio(SEER).Thisisaratingofcoolingperformancebaseduponrepresentative
residentialloads.ItisreportedinunitsofBtuofcoolingperwatthourofelectricenergyconsumptioninclud
ingtheunitscompressor,fans,andcontrols.ThehighertheSEERthemoreefcientthesystem.However,the
highestSEERunitmaynotprovidethemostcomfort.Inhumidclimates,someofthehighestSEERunitsexhibit
poordehumidicationcapabilitybecausetheyoperateathigherevaporatortemperaturestoattainthehigher
efciency.ASEERofatleast10isrequiredbyNAECAforconventionalcentralsplit-systemair-cooledsystems.
Coolingsystemoptionsvarywidely,dependinguponthelevelofcontrolandcomfortdesiredby
thehomeowner.Fanscanincreasecirculationandreducecoolingloads,buttheircoolingcapabilityis
directlylimitedbytheoutdoorconditionssotheymaybeunsatisfactoryinhotclimates.Radiantbarriers
canpossiblyreducecoolingloadsinveryhotclimates.Evaporativecoolerscanbearelativelyinexpensive
and effective method of cooling in dry climates such as the Southwest. Electric air conditioning is the
answerforthosewhowanttomaintainacomfortableindoortemperatureandhumidityevenunderthe
mostsevereoutdoorconditions.Over75%ofnewhomesintheU.S.areequippedwithsomeformofcen
tralairconditioning;morespecically,50%ofthehomesintheNortheast,75%intheMidwest,95%in
theSouth,andapproximately60%intheWest.Electricairconditioningltersandremovesmoisturefrom
theairaswellasreducingitstemperature.Itcanbeagoodinvestmentbecause,inmostpartsofthecoun
try,thepaybackissignicantwhenthehouseissold.
2.INSTALLAPOWERATTICORROOFTOPVENTILATOR.
Theseunitsareusedtoassistthenaturalowofairthroughtheatticspace(Fig.2).Withoutgoodventila
tion,attictemperaturescanexceed130 Fonwarm,sunnydays.Increasingtheatticventilationresultsina
cooleratticspace,reducingthecoolingloadonthespacebelow.ToestimatetherequiredCFM-ratingofan
atticventilator,multiplytheatticoorareabyafactorof0.75andincreasethevalueby15%iftheroofis
darkandwillabsorbheat.Theexhaustedairisreplacedbyoutsideairenteringthrougheavevents.
ADVANTAGES:Inexpensiveandeasytoinstall.
DISADVANTAGES:Doesnotdirectlycoolthelivingspace.Ifatticventareaisinsufcient,thefancandraw
airthroughtheceilingoftheconditionedspaceandpotentiallydepressurizethespace.
FIGURE2 POWEREDATTICVENTILATOR
3.INSTALLAWHOLE-HOUSEVENTILATORORFAN.
Whole-houseventilatorsaretypicallyinstalledintheatticooroverahallwayorstairway.Theypullhot
airfromthelivingspaceandexhaustitintotheatticwhereitexitsthroughtheatticvents.Freshcoolerair
isdrawninthroughopenwindows.Specicareasofthehomecanbeventilatedbyselectivelyopeningand
closingdoorsandwindows.TheHV1000unitbyTamarackTechnologies(Fig.3)usesefcientfanmotors
tominimizeenergyuseandnoiseandhasanautomaticdoorassemblythatprovidesanairtightsealwith
aninsulatingvalueofR-22.Itusestwoside-by-sidefansratherthanonelargefansothattheunitcaneas
ilytbetween16"or24"oncenterjoistswithnojoistcutting.
ADVANTAGES:Caneliminatetheneedformechanicalairconditioninginmoderateclimates.
DISADVANTAGES:Noisy.Limitedcoolingcapabilityinwarmorhumidclimates.Candepressurizethehome
ifwindowsarenotopen.Increasedheatlossduringthewinterifthesystemisnotsealedandinsulated.
26
FIGURE3 HV1000WHOLE-HOUSEVENTILATOR
FIGURE4 TWO-STAGEEVAPORATIVECOOLER
4.INSTALLARADIANTBARRIER.
Inhotclimates,whereatticscanbecomeveryhotandairconditioningductsareoftenintheattic,aradi
antbarriermaybebenecial.Itcanreducethecoolingloadonthehomeandreducetheincreaseinsup-
plyairtemperatureasconditionedairtravelsthroughthesupplyductsintheatticbeforereachingthe
roomstobeconditioned.Radiantbarriersaremadeofmaterialsthataregoodatreectingheat.They
reecttheradiantheatemanatingfromahotroof,andcomeinavarietyofforms,includingfoil,paint
coatings,andchips.
ADVANTAGES:Fairlysimpletoinstall.Canreducethesizeoftheairconditionerneeded.
27
DISADVANTAGES:Canberelativelyexpensive.Dustcanseriouslydegradetheperformancebydullingthe
reectivesurface.
5.INSTALLANEVAPORATIVECOOLER.
IndryclimatessuchastheSouthwest,anevaporativecoolerorswampcoolermayprovidesufcient
cooling. This system cools an airstream by evaporating water into it; the airstreams relative humidity
increaseswhilethedry-bulbtemperaturedecreases.A95F,15%RHairstreamcanbeconditionedto75F,
50%RH.Thesimplestdirectsystemsarecentrallylocatedanduseapumptosupplywatertoasaturated
padoverwhichthesupplyairisblown.Indirectsystemsuseaheatexchangerbetweentheairstreamthat
iscooledbyevaporatingwaterandthesupplyairstream.Themoisturelevelofthesupplyairstreamisnot
affectedasitiscooled.CoolTechIndustriesmanufacturesatwo-stageunitthatemploysanindirectrst
stagecoupledtoadirectsecondstage(Fig.4).Moistureisaddedtothesupplyairstream,butnotasmuch
aswithadirectevaporativecooler.
ADVANTAGES:Lowerinstallationandoperatingcoststhanelectricairconditioning.Noozone-depletingrefrig
erantinvolved.Providehighlevelsofventilationbecausetheytypicallyconditionandsupply100%outsideair.
DISADVANTAGES:Bacterialcontaminationcanresultifnotproperlymaintained.Onlyappropriatefordry,
hotclimates.
6.INSTALLANELECTRICAIRCONDITIONER
(seeSection6onHeatPumpsaswell).
Electricairconditionersthatemploythevaporcompressionrefrigerationcycleareavailableinavarietyof
sizesandcongurations,rangingfromsmallwindowunitstolargecentralsystems.Themostcommonform
ofcentralairconditioningisasplit-systemwithawarmairfurnace(Fig.5).Thesameductworkisusedfor
distributingconditionedairduringtheheatingandcoolingseasons.Supplyairiscooledanddehumidied
asitpassesoveranA-shapedevaporatorcoil.Theliquidrefrigerantevaporatesinsidethecoilasitabsorbs
heatfromtheair.Therefrigerantgasthentravelsthroughrefrigerantpipingtotheoutdoorunitwhereitis
pressurizedinanelectrically-drivencompressor,raisingitstemperatureandpressure,andreturnedtoa
liquidstateinthecondenserasitreleases,ordumps,theheattotheoutdoorsasafandrawsoutdoorair
inoverthecondensercoil.Theuseoftwo-speedindoorfanscanbeadvantageousinthistypeofsystem
becausethecoolingloadcanoftenrequirehigherairowsthantheheatingload.Thelowerspeedcanbe
usedfortheheatingseasonandforimproveddehumidicationperformanceduringthecoolingseason.
FIGURE5 SPLIT-SYSTEMAIRCONDITIONER
28
Anotherelectricairconditioningsystemcongurationisthepackagedterminalairconditioner
(PTAC)(Fig.6).Theseunitsaresimilartowindowairconditionersinthattheyareasinglepackage,but
theyalsoprovideheatandaredesignedtobeinstalledthroughanoutsidewall.Acommonapplicationis
motelrooms.Theircoolingcapacitiesaretypicallylargerthanwindowunitsandsmallerthancentralsys
tems.Mostoftheunitsareequippedwithelectricheatingandcanbeinstalledwithouttheneedforan
HVACcontractorbecausethereisnoductworkorrefrigerantpipinginvolvedintheinstallation.Noisecan
beaproblemandthewallpenetrationscanbeasourceofuncomfortableairleakageinthewinter.
ADVANTAGES:Removeslatentheat(moisture)inadditiontosensibleheatinmorehumidclimates.
DISADVANTAGES:Compressorandcondenserfancanbenoisy.
FIGURE6 PACKAGEDTERMINALAIRCONDITIONER
FIGURE7 GAS-FIREDCHILLERSYSTEM
7.INSTALLAGAS-FIREDCHILLER.
Forthesituationwherecentralairconditioningisdesiredandelectricityisveryexpensiveorthecostof
additional electrical service is excessive, there are gas-red alternatives. For some 30 years, Robur
Corporationhasmanufacturedsmalltonnageabsorptionproducts.Thethree-andve-tonServelsystems
areair-cooledabsorptionchillersthatutilizeammonia.Thesystemisself-containedinanoutdoorunit
andchilledwaterpipingisruntoanindoorairhandlerunit(Fig.7).
29
ADVANTAGES:Loweroperatingcostsinareaswithhighelectricitypricesandlowgasprices.Avoidsthe
additionalelectricalservicerequiredforacentralelectricair-conditioningsystem.Doesnotuseanozone-
depletingrefrigerant.
DISADVANTAGES:Highinitialcost.Limitedmarketinfrastructureandservicesupport.Morecomplexsys
temswithgreatermaintenancerequirements.
FURTHER READING
1996HVACSystemsandEquipmentHandbook,Atlanta,GA,AmericanSocietyofHeating,Refrigerating
andAir-ConditioningEngineers,Inc.
SimpliedDesignofHVACSystems,WilliamBobenhausen,NewYork:JohnWiley&Sons,Inc.,1994.
This Old House Heating, Ventilation, and Air Conditioning, Richard Trethewey, Little, Brown and
Company,1994.
PRODUCT INFORMATION
CarrierNorthAmericanOperations,P.O.Box4808,CarrierParkway,Syracuse,NY13221;315-432-6000;
www.carrier.com.
CoolTechIndustries,Inc.,8230PostRoad,FairOaks,CA95628;916-536-0902;www.smartcool.com.
RoburCorporation,2300LynchRoad,Evansville,IN47711;812-424-1800;www.robur.com.
Tamarack Technologies, Inc., P.O. Box 490, West Wareham, MA 02576; 800-222-5932;
www.tamtech.com.
TraneCompany,3600PammelCreekRoad,LaCrosse,WI54601;608-787-3111,www.trane.com.
YorkInternationalCorporation,631SouthRichlandAvenue,York,PA17403;717-771-7890;
www.york.com.
30
6 H E AT P U M P S
ESSENTIAL KNOWLEDGE
Heatpumpsrepresentasinglesystemthatcanprovidebothheatingandcooling.Asinglesourceofenergy
electricityistypicallyused,andventsandchimneysforcombustionproductscanbeeliminated.
Heatpumpswereintroducedtotheresidentialmarketinthe1950sandearlysystemshadproblemswith
reliabilityandcomfort.Todaysheatpumpsystemsaremuchmorereliableandefcient.
Theinstallationofanewheatpumpsystemaspartofahomesrehabilitationshouldbeconsid
eredifanexistingheatpumpisnearingtheendofitsexpectedlife(15to20years)ortheexistingheat
ingsystemneedsreplacementandtheadditionofairconditioningisdesirable.Heatpumpsarealogical
HVACsystemchoiceinclimateswithsignicantcoolingloadsandmodest heatingloads.Ifheatingloads
aresmall,alessexpensiveelectricresistanceheatingandelectricairconditioningsystemmaybemore
logical.Ifheatingloadsarelarge,agasfurnace/airconditionercombinationmaybetheoptimumchoice.
Whencooling,heatpumpsusethevaporcompressionrefrigerationcyclejustlikeelectricair
conditioners (see Section 5). To provide heating, heat pumps are equipped with reversing and check
valvestorunthecyclebackwards,removingheatfromtheoutdoorsanddumpingitindoors(Fig.1).
Unfortunately, as outdoor temperatures drop and heating loads increase, the capacity of a heat pump
declines(Fig.2).Inmostclimates,aheatpumpneedstobeequippedwithasupplementalheatsystem,
whichistypicallyelectricresistanceheat.
FIGURE1 HEATPUMPCYCLE-HEATINGMODE
Thereisavarietyofheatpumptypes,eachwithdifferentstandardsforratingefciency,butthe
most common rating terms are SEER (Seasonal Energy Efciency Ratio) for cooling performance and
HSPF (Heating Seasonal Performance Factor) for heating performance. The SEER is the same rating
methodusedforairconditioningsystems(seeSection5).TheHSPFistheratiooftotalheatingoutputin
Btuofaheatpumpduringitsnormalannualusageperiodtothetotalelectricpowerinputinwatthours
during the same period. It is reported in units of Btu of heating per watthour of electric energy con-
31
FIGURE2 HEATPUMPCAPACITYANDAMBIENTTEMPERATURERELATIONSHIP
sumption,includingtheunitscompressor,fans,andcontrols.ThehighertheHSPFthemoreefcientthe
system.AnHSPFofatleast6.8isrequiredbyNAECAforconventionalcentralsplit-systemair-cooledheat
pumpsystemswithcapacitiesofvetonsorless.However,itshouldbenotedthatair-sourceheatpump
heatingefciencyvariesdramaticallywithoutdoortemperature.Ifconsideringaheatpumpforacoldcli
mate(i.e.,colderthanIndianapolis,whichisrepresentativeofthetypicalusedfortherating),acom
parisonofperformanceatmoresevereconditionsmaybemorebenecialthanrelyingontheHSPFcom
parison.Inotherwords,twoheatpumpsmayhavethesameHSPFrating,butperformquitedifferentlyat
coldconditions.Ground-sourceheatpumpsusetheCoefcientofPerformance(COP)asanefciencyrat
ingratherthanHSPF.However,GSHPsdonothavethevaryingconditionsthatair-sourceunitshavesomul
tiplyingtheCOPby3.4providesavaluethatiscomparabletotheHSPF.Makesuretheground-looppump
ingenergyisincludedintheefciencycalculation.
Inareaswherethecoolingloadislargerelativetotheheatingload,aheatpumpmayprovidea
morecomfortableyear-roundsolutionthanagasfurnace/airconditionercombination.Whenafurnaceis
usedincombinationwithanairconditionerinacoolingloaddominatedclimate,asignicantlyoversized
furnacemayberequiredtoobtainblowerperformancethatiscompatiblewiththesizeofthecoolingcoil.
Unlessthefurnacehasavariableortwo-speedblower,thiswillproduceshort-cyclingduringtheheating
season,whichcompromisescomfort.
Iftheinstallationofanoutdoorcompressor/condenserunitisaproblembecauseofnoise,aesthetics,or
vandalism,theInsiderheatpumpmanufacturedbyConsolidatedTechnologyCorporation(Fig.3)maybe
aviablesolution.Thisunit,originallydesignedformanufacturedhomes,containsallofthecomponents
inasinglepackagethatisapproximatelythesizeofafurnace.Afanisusedtodrawoutdoorairinover
theoutsidecoilandexhaustsit.Anotherfandrawsreturnairfromthespaceovertheinsidecoiland
returnstheconditionedairtothespace.
ADVANTAGES:Easierinstallationwithnooutdoorunitandrefrigerantlines.
DISADVANTAGES:Noiseofcompressorwithinthelivingspace.
3.INSTALLAPACKAGEDTERMINALHEATPUMP(PTHP).
ThesesystemsareverysimilartoPTACs(seeSection5)excepttheyuseanelectricheatpumptoprovide
heatingratherthanrelyingsolelyonelectricresistanceforheating.
ADVANTAGES:Noductworkorrefrigerantlinestobeinstalledonsite.Zonecontrolcapability.
DISADVANTAGES: Unitscanbenoisyandthewallpenetrationscanbeasourceofunwantedinltration.
4.INSTALLONEORMOREDUCTLESSSPLITSYSTEMSORMINI-SPLITS.
Thesesystemsaresimilartoconventionalsplitsystemsinthattheyhaveanoutdoorcondenserunitand
anindoorevaporator/airhandlerunitconnectedbyrefrigerantpiping.However,theindoorunitislocated
directlyinoradjacenttotheconditionedspace.Thereisnoductworkrequiredfordistributingtheair.
Severalindoorunitscanbeusedinconjunctionwithasingleoutdoorunit(Fig.4).
ADVANTAGES:Easiertoinstallthanductedsystemsifnoductingisalreadyinplace.Zonecontrolcapa
bility.Canbelinkedwithmotiondetectorstominimizeoperatingtime.
DISADVANTAGES:Operateonrecirculatedaironlyandhavenomeansforprovidingfreshair.Although
verypopularinJapanandEurope,theyarenotwidelyusedormanufacturedintheU.S.
33
FIGURE4 DUCTLESSSPLITSYSTEM
5.INSTALLAGROUND-SOURCEHEATPUMP(GSHP).
Asthenameimplies,GSHPsusethegroundasthesourceforheatduringthewinterratherthanoutdoor
air(Fig.5).TheycanbeanattractiveoptiontoASHPsincolderclimateswherethegroundtemperatureis
warmerandlessvariablethantheairtemperature.Inthemorecommonclosed-loopdesign,aground
loop of polybutylene or high-density polyethylene pipe is buried and water or antifreeze solution is
pumpedthroughittoabsorbheat.Thepipecanbeburiedverticallyorhorizontally,straightorcoiledlike
aslinky.Installationwilldependonsoilconditions,drillingversustrenchingcosts,andspaceavailabil
ity.Open-loopsystemspumpgroundwaterfromawellthroughaheatexchangerandthendischargeit.
Theyavoidthecostofaburiedgroundloop,buthavetoaddresswaterqualityandcodeissues.Some
GSHPsincludedesuperheaters(seeSection10)forwaterheatingasanintegralpartofthesystem.
ADVANTAGES:UsuallymoreefcientonaseasonalbasisthanASHPbecausethegroundtemperatureis
higherthantheairtemperature.GSHPsdonotneedtodefrostlikeASHPs.
DISADVANTAGES: Installationcostofthegroundloop.
34
FURTHER READING
1996HVACSystemsandEquipmentHandbook,Atlanta,GA,AmericanSocietyofHeating,Refrigerating
andAir-ConditioningEngineers,Inc.
ARI Directory of Certied Applied Air-Conditioning Products, Arlington, VA, Air-Conditioning &
RefrigerationInstitute.
Closed-Loop/Ground-Source Heat Pump Systems: Installation Guide, Stillwater, OK, International
Ground-SourceHeatPumpAssociation,1988.
PRODUCT INFORMATION
CarrierNorthAmericanOperations,P.O.Box4808,CarrierParkway,Syracuse,NY13221;315-432-6000;
www.carrier.com.
ConsolidatedTechnologyCorporation,P.O.Box1537,OliveHill,KY41164;606-786-5366.
EMICorporation,5780SuccessDrive,Rome,NY13440;315-336-3716;www.enviromaster.com
TraneCompany,3600PammelCreekRoad,LaCrosse,WI54601;608-787-3111,www.trane.com.
WaterFurnace International, Inc., 9000 Conservation Way, Fort Wayne, IN 46809; 800-222-5667;
www.waterfurnace.com.
York International Corporation, 631 South Richland Avenue, York, PA 17403; 717-771-7890;
www.york.com.
35
7 INDOORAIR
QUALITY
ESSENTIAL KNOWLEDGE
Ashomesconstructedsincethe1980shavebecometighterinordertoreduceinltrationtoimprove
comfortandsaveenergy,concernsaboutindoorairqualityhavegrown.Thelistofindoorpollutantsis
long,butthemostcommoninclude:formaldehydefumesfrombuildingmaterials,furniture,curtains,and
carpet;organicgasesfromaerosols,paints,solvents,andairfresheners;carbonmonoxideandnitrogen
dioxidefromunventedappliancessuchasgasranges;dustmites,moldspores,andmildew.
Tight homes without a mechanical ventilation system can depressurize when devices such as
exhaust fans or clothes dryers operate and remove air from conditioned space. Depressurization can
causeback-draftingofcombustionappliancesandpotentiallyincreasedradonlevels(Fig.1).
The simplest way to improve indoor air quality is through a controlled ventilation system.
Mechanicalventilationsystemsarenowrequiredinnewhomesbysomebuildingcodes,particularlyin
theNorthwestandCanada.Therecommendedamountofventilationairisasubjectofdebatebyexperts
in the eld. The American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air-Conditioning Engineers (ASHRAE)
Standard62recommends15cfmofoutsideairperpersonor0.35airchangesperhour(ACH)forresi
dences.Thisstandardhasbeencontroversialandisunderrevision.Aproposedrevisionuses5cfmper
100squarefeetofhousearea.TheHomeVentilatingInstitute(HVI),aventilationequipmenttradeorga
nization,recommends0.5ACH.
Ventilationsystemsassurethatadequatefreshairisbroughtintothehometoreplacetheindoor
airthatisremoved.Thereareseveraldifferentmechanicalventilationapproaches.Inadditiontomechan
icalventilationforindoorairquality,humidiersanddehumidiersmaybeinstalledtocontrolhumidity
andaircleanerscanbeusedforthosesensitivetoaircontaminantssuchasdustandpollen.
FIGURE1 DEPRESSURIZATIONINDUCEDBACK-DRAFTING
36
TECHNIQUES, MATERIALS, TOOLS
1.INSTALLAMECHANICALVENTILATIONSYSTEM.
There are three basic types of mechanical ventilation systems: exhaust, supply, and balanced (Fig.2).
Exhaustandsupplysystemstypicallyuseasinglefanthateitherpullsairfromthehomeorpushesairinto
thehomeinconjunctionwithintentionalairinletsorpressurereliefoutlets.Thesesystemseitherdepres
surizeorpressurizethehome.Depressurizationcancauseproblemswithcombustionapplianceback-
drafting and potentially increased radon inltration. Pressurization can promote detrimental moisture
inltrationintobuildingmaterials.Toavoidtheseproblems,balancedmechanicalventilationsystemstyp
icallyuseatleasttwofans,supplyandexhaust,tomaintainaneutralpressureinthehome.Themost
energy-efcienttypeofbalancedmechanicalventilationsystemisaheatrecoveryventilatororair-to-air
heatexchanger(Fig.3).Thesesystemsincludeaheatexchangertoexchangeheatbetweentheexhaustand
supplyairstreams.Freshsupplyairispreheatedinthewinterandprecooledinthesummer.Amongthe
manufacturersofthesetypesofsystemsisNutechEnergySystems,whichhasintroducedtheLifebreath
CleanAirFurnace(Fig.4),designedtodrawinoutsideairataratethatisapproximately10%ofthetotal
supplyairow.Inregionswithsignicantmoisturedifferencesbetweensupplyandexhaustairstreams,
enthalpywheelsmaybeusedastheheatexchanger.Thewheelsincludeadesiccantmaterialonaheat
wheeltoabsorbandreleasemoistureandheat.
ADVANTAGES:Betterhealthandsafetybecausethesupplyofanadequateamountoffreshairtothehome
isassured.
DISADVANTAGES:Initialinstallationandfanoperatingcostcanbehigh.Filtermaintenanceisrequired.
Additionalheatingandcoolingloadsareplacedontheexistingheatingandcoolingsystem.Additional
loadisminimalwithheatorenthalpyrecoveryventilators.
EXHAUST SUPPLY
BALANCED
FIGURE2 MECHANICALVENTILATIONTYPES 37
FIGURE3 BALANCEDSYSTEMWITHAHEATRECOVERYVENTILATOR
FIGURE4 LIFEBREATHCLEANAIRFURNACE
2.INSTALLAHUMIDIFIER.
Lowindoorhumiditycanbeproblematicincoldclimatesduringtheheatingseason.Cold,winterairholds
lessmoisturethanwarmsummerair(80 Fairat50%RHcontainstwiceasmuchwateras42 Fairat
100%RH).Lowindoorrelativehumiditycanleadtodryskin,nosebleeds,andrespiratoryproblems.An
indoorrelativehumidityof35to50%isrecommended.Therearethreebasichumidiertypesforresi
dentialapplications:pan,wetted-element,andsteam.Ultrasonicandimpeller-typehumidiers,whichemit
amistintotheair,arediscouragedbecausetheyrequiretheuseofdemineralizedordistilledwatertoavoid
circulatingharmfulmineralsintotheair.Whole-househumidiersareusedinconjunctionwithawarm-
airfurnace.Pan-typehumidiersuseapanofwaterinthefurnaceplenum.Aswarmairowsoverthepan,
waterevaporatesintotheair.Aheatingelementcanbeusedtoincreasethewatertemperatureandtherate
of evaporation and/or wicking plates can be used to increase the pans effective surface area (Fig. 5).
Wetted-elementhumidiersuseaplasticpadthatrotatesthroughareservoirofwater(Fig.6).Asairpasses
throughthepad,waterevaporatesintotheairstream.Steamhumidiersuseheatingelementstoboilthe
38
waterinapan.Theyprovidehigherhumidicationoutputthanotherhumidiertypes.Honeywellproduces
a steam humidier for residential applications that independently controls the furnace fan to provide
humidiedairtothespaceevenwhenthefurnaceisnotrunningtosupplyheat.Anissuewithalltypesof
humidiersisdisposalofmineraldepositsthataccumulateinthewaterreservoir.Automaticushingsystems
areavailable,butrequireadrainandusemorewater.Humidierswithoutaushingsystemshouldbe
cleanedroutinely,everyoneortwomonths,toremovethedeposits.Humidistatsaretypicallyusedtocon
trolhumidiers.ResearchProductshasintroducedanAprilairewhole-househumidierthatmonitorsthe
outdoorhumidityandautomaticallyprovidestheoptimumhumiditytothehome.
ADVANTAGES:Higher,morecomfortableheatingseasonhumidityallowslowerthermostatsettingswithout
sacricingcomfort(forexample,airat69Fand35%RHprovidesthesamelevelofcomfortas72Fand
19%RH).
DISADVANTAGES: Ifimproperlycontrolled,excessiveindoorhumiditycancausedamagingcondensation
problems.Maintenancerequiredtoremovemineraldepositsonnon-ushingsystems.
FIGURE7 ULTRA-AIREPURIFYINGDEHUMIDIFIER
39
3.INSTALLADEHUMIDIFIER.
Highlevelsofindoorhumiditycannotonlycausecomfortproblems,butalsohealthconcernswiththe
potentialforincreasedgrowthofmoldandbacteria.Inseveresituations,buildingmaterialsandfurnish
ingscanbedamagedbymildew.
Highlevelsofhumiditycanoccurinatighthomewheninternallygeneratedmoisturebypeople,
cooking,orshoweringisnotexhausted.Condensationontheinsideofcoldwindowsandwithinwallinsu
lationinthewintercanbedamaging.BathfanssuchastheSmartSensebyNutoneautomaticallyactivate
whenhighhumiditylevelsaredetected.
Highhumiditylevelscanalsooccurinthesummeriftheventilationsystemintroduceshumid
outsideairtotheconditionedspace.Dehumidiersappropriateforresidentialapplicationsemployrefrig
erationtocooltheairbelowitsdewpointtoremovemoisture.Thisprocessalsomightcooltheairlower
thandesired.Thecool,dryaircanbereheatedbypassingitovertheunitscondensercoil.Therearesev
eral manufacturers of these types of systems, such as Therma-Stor Products Ultra-Aire Air Purifying
Dehumidier,whichcombinesadehumidierwithanoutdoorairinletforventilationairandanoptional
95%efcientpleatedmedialter(Fig.7).
ADVANTAGES:Humidityisproperlycontrolledindependentoftemperature.Atlowerindoorhumidities,
thermostatsettingscanberaisedtoachievethesamelevelofcomfort.
DISADVANTAGES:Canbecostlytoinstallandoperate.
4.INSTALLANAIRFILTERORCLEANER.
Peoplewhoareparticularlysensitivetoaircontaminantssuchasdustandpollen,maybenetfromahigh-
efciencyairlteroraircleaner.Airpollutantsareeitheraparticulateoragasandtherearespecictypes
ofltersforeachcategory.Particulatepollutantsincludemoldspores,pollen,housedust,animaldander,
clothingandfurnishingbers,anddirt.Mostltersaredesignedforparticulateremoval.Gasesinclude
combustion gases, by-products of human and animal metabolism, and volatile organic compounds.
Adsorptiontypelterssuchascharcoalareusedforgaspollutants.Tobaccoandwoodsmokeareboth
particulatesandgasesandrequireacombinationofltertypes.Thestandardlterinafurnaceorair-
conditioningsystemistypicallyonlygoodforfairlylargeparticulates.Atestfordeterminingtheefciency
ofalteristheatmospheric-spot-dusttest,whichmeasuresparticlesbetween0.3and6micronsinsize.
Astandard1-thickfurnaceltermayonlybe3to5%efcientaccordingtoanatmospheric-spot-dusttest.
Thestandardfurnace/airconditionerlterisamedialterbecauseitismadeofmaterialthatisdesigned
totrapparticulates.Thehigherthemedialterefciency,thegreatertheinitialcostandoperatingcost
duetohigherpressuredropandthusfanenergyrequirements.
Anothertypeofairlter,anelectrostaticprecipitator,givesparticulatesastatic-electriccharge
to capture them. The charged particulates are then collected by oppositely charged metal plates.
Electrostaticprecipitatorsareoftenratedat90%efciency(atmospheric-spot-dusttest),butthemetal
platesmustbecleanedoftentomaintainefciency.Thesetypesofairltersalsoproducesmallamounts
ofozonethatcanthenbecapturedinasubsequentadsorptionlter.Theydonothavethepressuredrop
problemofmedialters.Electrostaticairltersaremedialtersthatuseaspecialbrousplasticmater
ialthatbecomeschargedasairpassesthrough(Fig.8).Oppositelychargedparticlesintheairstreamthen
clingtotheltermedia.Theyareabout10to15%efcient(atmospheric-spot-dust-test),buthavealower
pressuredroppenaltythana30to60%efcientmedium-efciencymedialter.
Completeaircleaningsystemswillincludeaparticulatelterandanadsorptionlter.Thereare
alsosystemsthataddresstheneedforventilationair.Therma-StorProductsmanufacturestheFilter-Vent
Systemthatbringsinoutsideair,combinesitwithindoorair,anddrawsthemixedairthrougha90to
95%medialterandanactivatedcarbonlter.
ADVANTAGES:Theonlymethodofprovidingpollutant-freeindoorairinanareawithhighlevelsofout-
doorpollutantsand/orforthoseoccupantswhoareespeciallysensitive.
DISADVANTAGES:High maintenance.Uncleanedmedialtersproduceanexcessivelyhighpressuredrop.
Anuncleanedelectrostaticprecipitatororlterwillbeineffective.Highinitialandoperatingcosts.Air
cleanersalonedonotbringinoutsideairsotheyarenotasubstituteforaventilationsystem.
40
FIGURE8 ELECTROSTATICAIRFILTER
FURTHER READING
ASHRAEStandard62-1989,VentilationforAcceptableIndoorAirQuality,Atlanta,GA,AmericanSociety
ofHeating,RefrigeratingandAir-ConditioningEngineers,1989.
CertiedHomeVentilatingProductsDirectory,HomeVentilatingInstitute,DivisionofAMCA,30West
UniversityDrive,ArlingtonHeights,IL60004;847-394-0150.
UnderstandingVentilation,JohnBower,TheHealthyHouseInstitute,1995.
PRODUCT INFORMATION
American Aldes Ventilation Corporation, 4537 Northgate Court, Sarasota, FL 34234; 800-255-7749;
www.oikos.com/aldes.
Honeywell,Inc.,1985DouglasDr.North,GoldenValley,MN55422;800-328-5111;www.honeywell.com.
Nutech Energy Systems, Inc., 270 Regency Ridge, Suite 210, Dayton, Ohio 45459; 937-439-6676;
www.lifebreath.com.
ResearchProductsCorporation,1015EastWashingtonAvenue,P.O.Box1467,Madison,WI53701;800-
545-2219;www.resprod.com.
Therma-StorProducts,P.O.Box8050,Madison,WI53708;800-533-7533;www.thermastor.com.
Trion,Inc.,P.O.Box760,Sanford,NC27331;919-775-2201;www.trioninc.com.
41
8 CONTROLS
ESSENTIAL KNOWLEDGE
A critically important aspect of an HVAC systems ability to efciently maintain comfort is its controls.
Today,nearlyallheatingand/orcoolingsystemsarecontrolledbyathermostat.Evenfactory-builtwood
replacesareavailablewiththermostatcontrol.ThesophisticationofthermostatsandotherHVACsystem
controlshasevolveddramaticallyoverthelastdecadewiththeadvancementofelectroniccontrols.As
controlsforresidentialsystemsarerelativelyinexpensive,andtheirtechnologyhasadvancedsignicantly
inthepastfewyears,itiscosteffectivetoreplaceoldercontrolsthatmaynotbeoperatingproperly.
Athermostatsensestheroomairtemperatureandcontrolstheheatingsystemviaanelectrical
switchaccordingtoanoccupant-selectedsetpointtemperature.Linevoltagethermostatsaretypicallyused
forzonalelectricresistanceheatingsystemsandlowvoltagethermostatsareusedforcentralsystems.
Thermostatsshouldbelocatedabout5abovetheoorwheretheywillsenseanairtemperaturerepre
sentativeoftheroomorareabeingcontrolled.Locationnearaheatsourcesuchasthesupplyregisteror
heatsinksuchasawindowwillresultinpoorcomfortcontrol.
Old-styleelectromechanicalthermostatsfoundinmanyrehabprojectsemployeitheramercury
orsnap-actionswitch,abimetalliccoil,andananticipator(Fig.1).Thebimetalliccoilexpandsandcon-
tractsasitheatsandcools,activatinganddeactivatingtheswitchthatcontrolsfurnaceorboileropera
tion.Theanticipatorisatinyheaterthatheatsthebimetalliccoiltocompensateforitsslowresponseto
changingairtemperature.Adjustmentofthethermostatdialestablishestheangleorthetensionofthe
bimetalliccoiltothecontacts.Thereareversionsofthesethermostatsthatincludeanelectricclockto
switchthethermostatbetweentwotemperaturesettingstoachieveanenergy-savingsetbackcondition.An
eight-hourovernightsetbackduringtheheatingseasonsaves1%to2%perdegreeofsetback.Aneight-
hourmiddaysetupduringthecoolingseasonsaves1%to3%perdegreeofsetup.
FIGURE1 ELECTRICALTHERMOSTAT
42
TECHNIQUES, MATERIALS, TOOLS
1.REPLACETHEBIMETALTHERMOSTATWITHANELECTRONICPROGRAMMABLE
THERMOSTAT.
Whileelectromechanicalthermostats(Fig.2)arelowerincostthanelectronicprogrammablethermostats,
theirperformanceintermsofdeadbandanddroopispooreraswell.Deadbandisanindicatorofthe
swinginroomtemperaturebetweenheating/coolingsystemcycles.Droopisanindicatorofhowwellthe
anticipatorisfunctioning.Thermostatsalsodegradeovertimeascalibrationslipsandmechanicalparts
stick.Anoldelectromechanicalthermostatcanbecleanedandrecalibrated,butabettersolutionistosim
plyreplaceitwithanewelectronicthermostat.Electronicthermostatsemployathermistorratherthana
bimetallic coil for sensing the room air temperature. It is more sensitive and fast responding.
Microprocessorprogrammingallowsforseveraldifferenttemperaturesettingsthroughoutthedayandfor
differentdaysoftheweek.Someunitsprovidefordifferentsettingsforweekdaysandweekendsorweek-
days,Saturdays,andSundays.TheLightstatthermostathastheabilitytoadjustthethermostatsettingusing
thelightlevelintheroomasanindicatorofwhetherpeopleareintheroom.Honeywellhasathermostat
thatsenseslightinglevelsandoccupancy.Thermostatsarealsonowavailableaswirelessremotecontrol
devices.Theymaybeplacedonthecoffeetableinthecenteroftheroomnexttothetelevisionremote.
HomeAutomationmanufacturesalineofthermostatsthatcancommunicatewithhomeautomationsys
tems,personalcomputers,andutilitydemand-sidemanagementprograms.Inaregionwithreal-timepric
ing,theRC-91modelhastheabilitytodisplaythereal-timeenergypriceandtheusercanthensetthether
mostataccordingly.
ADVANTAGES:Energysavingsthroughmorecapabilitytosetbacktemperatureduringunoccupiedornight
timehours.Moreaccurateandresponsiveforbettercomfortcontrol.
DISADVANTAGES: Somewhat higher cost. Just like VCRs, there may be some homeowners that have
difcultyfollowingthesequentialstepstoprogramthemproperly.Sometypesofheatdistributionsystems
suchasradiantandhydronicbaseboardsystemsarenotasresponsiveasforcedairandthetimerequired
torecoverfromathermostatsetbackmaybeunacceptable.
FIGURE2 ELECTRONICPROGRAMMABLETHERMOSTAT
2.INSTALLAHUMIDISTAT.
Typically, heating and cooling systems are designed to maintain comfort in terms of temperature only.
Humidityisallowedtouctuate.Inwarmhumidclimates,itmaybedesirabletocontroltheaircondi
tioning system to maintain comfort humidity as well as temperature conditions. In colder climates, a
humidiermaybeinstalledtomaintainhigherandmorecomfortableindoorhumiditylevels.Ineithersit-
43
uation,theinstallationofahumidistat(ordehumidistat,dependingonthesituation)isappropriate.The
locationofthehumidistatcanvary.Itcanbeintheroomnextto,orintegralwith,thethermostatorinthe
returnairduct.Thehumidistatworksinasimilarmannertothethermostat.Itsenseshumidityandturns
theairconditionerorhumidieronoroffbaseduponahumiditysetpoint.Fortwo-speedaircondition
ers,thedehumidistatmaytriggerthesystemtogotolowspeedforenhanceddehumidicationcapability.
ADVANTAGES:Bettercontrolofhumidityforimprovedcomfortandairquality.
DISADVANTAGES:Calibrationneedstobecheckedperiodically.Whencontrollinganairconditioningsys
teminhumidclimates,cancauseover-cooling.
3.INSTALLACONTROLSYSTEMTHATSENSESOUTDOORCONDITIONSAND
ADJUSTSACCORDINGLY.
Moresophisticatedcontrolsystemsincorporateoutdoortemperaturesensorsaswellasindoorsensorsfor
bettercontrolandoperatingefciency.Forheatpumpsystemsequippedwithauxiliaryelectricresistance
heat,anoutsidetemperaturesensorisusedtolockouttheresistanceheatwhentheoutdoortemperatureis
aboveaspecicsetting.Thispreventstheresistanceheatfromunnecessarilycomingontoquicklyrecover
fromanighttimesetback.Outdoortemperaturesensorsarealsousedtoadjustthewatertemperaturein
hydronicsystemstothelowesttemperaturenecessarytomeetthehomesheatingload.Forthecontrolof
humidiersincoldclimates,HoneywellComfortCenterswinterhumiditycontrolsensesoutdoortempera
tureandresetstheindoorhumiditysettingaccordinglytopreventcondensationonwindows.TheHoneywell
systemcanbecustomizedfortheinsulatingvalueofthehomeswindows.Aprilairealsohasahumidistatthat
controlsaccordingtooutdoortemperaturebutdoesnothavethewindowcustomizationcapability.
ADVANTAGES:Reducedoperatingcostsfortheheatpumpauxiliaryheatlockoutcontrol.
DISADVANTAGES:Higherinitialcost.
4.INSTALLVENTILATIONSYSTEMCONTROLS.
Thereisavarietyofmethodsforcontrollingmechanicalventilationsystems.Onthesimple,lowcostend
ofthespectrumarethemanualcontrols.Theseincludeasimpleon/offswitch.Additionalfeaturesmight
beatimerthatshutsthefanoffautomaticallyafteracertainperiodoftimeoraspeedcontrolthatallows
theusertoselecttheventilationairow.Themanualcontrolsrelyupontheuserrecognizingwhenventi
lationisneededandtakingtheappropriatecontrolaction.Theaveragehumannoseismoresensitiveto
airpollutantsthanmostsophisticatedelectronicsensors.Anothersetofcontroloptionsthataremore
sophisticatedandmoreexpensiveareautomatic.Theseincludetimeclocksprogrammedbytheuser.Trol-
A-TempsTimedMake-UpAirControl(TMAC)orTimedVentilationControl(TVC)aresimpletimersthat
controlamotorizeddamperthatallowsoutsideairintothecentralHVACsystem(Fig.3).Theunitwill
turnontheHVACblowerifitisnotalreadyrunning.Automaticcontrolsalsoincludeavarietyofdemand-
44
controlledventilation(DCV)strategies.TheDCVmethodsrelyuponasensorinthespaceorreturnduct
todetectwhenadditionalventilationairisneeded.Thesensingparametercanbemotion,humidity,car-
bondioxide,oramixtureofgaseouspollutantssuchastobaccosmoke,cookingodors,andVOCs.For
themostpart,themanualcontrolstendtobemostappropriateforlocalexhaustfansandthemoresophis
ticatedautomaticcontrolsareappropriateforwhole-houseventilationsystems.
ADVANTAGES:Manualcontrolsarerelativelyinexpensiveandreliable.Automaticcontrolsdonotrelyupon
theuser.
DISADVANTAGES: Manual controls rely upon the user for proper control. Automatic controls are more
expensiveandcanfalloutofcalibrationresultingineitherinsufcientorexcessiveventilationairquantities.
5.INSTALLAFORCED-AIRZONINGSYSTEM.
Forced-airzoningsystemsutilizethermostatsinconjunctionwithmotorizeddampersinindividualsupply
ductstodifferentcontrolzones(Fig.4).Byvaryingtheairowinresponsetothezonethermostat,asin
gleairconditioningand/orheatingsystemcanbeusedtomeetthevaryingneedsofmultiplezones.These
systemsaremosteasilyinstalledinanewinstallation,butcanberetrottedintoanexistingsystem.Care
mustbetakentoeitherbypassextraairoroversizetheductworktoassurethatcentralsystemairow
doesnotdropbelowthedesignminimumwhenonlyoneortwozonesarecallingforairandallother
zones are closed. There are several manufacturers of this type of system including Research Products
Corporation,Carrier,Honeywell/Trol-A-TempandDurazone.
ADVANTAGES:Achievestheenergysavingandimprovedcomfortbenetsofzoningwithacentralforced-
airsystem.
DISADVANTAGES:Highinitialcost.Systemsneedtobecarefullydesignedtoassurethatminimumairow
requirementsaremetunderalloperatingconditions.
FIGURE4 FORCED-AIRZONINGSYSTEM
FURTHER READING
Comfort,AirQuality,andEfciencybyDesign,ManualRS,AirConditioningContractorsAssociation,1997.
UnderstandingVentilation,JohnBower,TheHealthyHouseInstitute,1995.
45
PRODUCT INFORMATION
BroanMfg.Co.,Inc.,P.O.Box140,Hartford,WI53027;800-548-0790;www.broan.com.
CarrierNorthAmericanOperations,P.O.Box4808,CarrierParkway,Syracuse,NY13221;315-432-6000;
www.carrier.com.
HomeAutomation,Inc.,2709RidgelakeDrive,Metairie,LA70002;800-229-7256.
Honeywell,Inc.,1985DouglasDr.North,GoldenValley,MN55422;800-328-5111;www.honeywell.com.
Lightstat,Inc.,22W.WestHillRoad,Winsted,CT06098;800-292-2444;www.lightstat.com.
Robertshaw,Uni-LineNorthAmerica,DivisionofSiebeClimateControl,P.O.Box2000,Corona,CA91719;
909-734-2600;www.robertshaw.com.
Tamarack Technologies, Inc., 11 Pattersons Brook Rd., West Wareham, MA 02576; 800-222-5932;
www.tamtech.com.
Trol-A-Temp, Division of Trolex Corp., 57 Bushes Lane, Elmwood Park, NJ 07407; 800-828-8367;
www.trolatemp.com.
46
9 FIREPLACES&
CHIMNEYS
ESSENTIAL KNOWLEDGE
In recent years replaces have captured a renewed interest as a supplemental heating source for the
home.Inarehabilitationproject,rehabilitatinganexistingreplaceorinstallinganewreplacemaybe
underconsideration.Therehabilitationofanexistingreplacecannotonlyaddtotheappearanceofthe
room,butalsoprovideforsafeandefcientspaceheating.Theinstallationofanew,efcientreplaceto
supplementanexistingsystem,whichmaybeinefcientand/orundersized,maybeanattractivealterna
tivetoreplacingtheexistingsystem.
Traditional wood-burning replace designs are not efcient, can produce emissions that are
harmful to the environment, and, if poorly designed or maintained, can be dangerous. In fact, some
WesternmunicipalitiesintheU.S.havepassedordinancesprohibitingtheinstallationofaconventional
replaceforenvironmentalreasons.EPA-approved,factory-builtwoodandgasreplaces,woodstoves,or
gas-redlogsareacceptablealternativeswhichshouldbeconsideredduringarehabilitationproject.
If constructing or signicantly reconstructing a replace or installing a stove, building codes
should be carefully reviewed for minimum requirements for materials, heights, and clearances. Local
coderequirementsapplyeveniftheexistingchimneyisused.Ifanoldunusedreplaceisfoundencased
inplasterduringthecourseofarehabilitationproject,itcanbereconstructedbyacompetentmasonwho
knowsandfollowsrecommendeddesignpractices.Manyearlyreplacesandchimneyssmokedtoomuch
duetoawsintheirdesign.Thispoorperformancemaybethereasonthatthereplacehadbeenaban
doned.Ifanold,closed-offchimneyistoberehabilitated,makesurethatitstillrunsthroughtheroofto
anappropriateheightandthatopeningsforotherstovepipeshavenotbeencutintoit.Oldchimneyswere
oftenusedtoservemultiplestoveswithasingleue.
FIGURE1 CONVENTIONALWOOD-BURNINGFIREPLACE 47
Conventionalreplaces(Fig.1)provideheatprimarilybyradiation.Thus,theamountofbrick
masonry,surfaceareaexposedtothere,itsdistancefromthereandthesizeoftheredeterminethe
amountofheatprovided.Rumford-stylereplacesfeatureangledsidewalls,ashallowdepth,andahigh
opening.Thesereplacestendtobemoreefcientthanconventionaldesignsbecausetheyradiatemore
heatanddrawlessroomairupthechimney.Air-circulatingreplaces(Fig.2)captureheatfromtheback
ofthereboxbycirculatingroomairthroughbrickbafesorsteelplates.Thiswarmedaircanthenbe
circulatedbyafantospacestoprovideheatbyconvection.
Theprimaryfunctionofachimneyueistoexhaustcombustionwastes-carbondioxide,nitro
gen,sulfurdioxide,watervapor,andcarbonmonoxide.Asecondfunctionistocreateadraftthatpulls
theairoverthere.Forawood-burningre,thedraftmustbestrong.Toaccomplishthis,thereplace
hasaslopedbackandasteppedthroatcontrolledbyadamper.Eachcombustionheatsource(e.g.,fur
nace and replace) needs its own ue, but a single chimney can contain several ues from multiple
replacesand/orafurnace.(Fig.3)Twocombustionappliancessuchasawaterheaterandafurnacecan
shareaue.Inthisinstance,problemscanariseifoneofthoseappliancesisreplacedwithadirect-vent
unit because the ue is too large for the remaining appliance. Condensation of combustion gases can
occurinthechimney,resultingincorrosion.Thiscanalsooccurwiththeinstallationofahigherefciency
chimney-ventedcombustionappliance,particularlyinacoldclimate.
Beyondreplacingthebrickandmortarofanolddisintegratingchimney,clearingseveralinches
ofdebrisfromabovethedamper,andclearingotherblockagesinthechimneyue,severaladditionalsteps
maybenecessarytoassurethatanoldreplaceandchimneyareinsafeworkingcondition.Alternativesor
enhancementstothereplacesuchasstovesandinsertscanalsoimprovetheefciencyofthesystem.
pressioncharacteristicsundervaryingweatherconditions.Insomeinstances,theconditionofthechim
neymayhavedeterioratedtoapointbeyondrepairbyrepointingandrelining.Whenthemortarcrumbles
easilyand/orbricksareloose,removalandreplacementshouldbeconsidered.Itmaybepossibletoreuse
theoriginalbricks.Creosoteisacarcinogensoarespiratorshouldbewornwhenrehabilitatinganold
chimneyandtheworkareashouldbeenclosedinplasticsheetingtoprotecttherestofthehouse.
ADVANTAGES:Improvedsafetyandintegrityofthechimney.
DISADVANTAGES:Canbeexpensivebecauseitisatimeconsumingprocessthatrequirestheexpertiseof
amason.
2.INSTALLACHIMNEYCAP.
Rainmixingwithsootandreplacegasesproducesadestructiveacid.Thus,allchimneysshouldhavea
raincaptopreventthisdeterioration(Fig.4).Raincapscanalsominimizedowndrafts.
ADVANTAGES:Fairlyinexpensive.Extendsthelifeofthechimney.
DISADVANTAGES:Difculttoinstallonhighchimneys.
FIGURE4 CHIMNEYCAP
3.RELINETHECHIMNEY.
Liners,whicharenowrequiredbycode,preventtheheatfromachimneyrefromcausingahousere.
Olderchimneysmaybeunlined(pre-1910),linedwithmortarthathasdeteriorated,orhaveoldtilelin
ersthatarecracked.Theyalsooftenservedmorethanonereplaceandhadmorethanoneueinthem
withawallofbrickasadivider.Thisbrickdividerislikelytobeinverypoorconditionandtumbling
bricksfromthisdividercanblocktheue.
Thesolutiontoalloftheseproblemsistorelinethechimney.Therearedifferentmethodsfor
reliningachimney.
Installametalpipeavailablein3ft.sectionsfromlocalheatingsuppliers.Stainlesssteelshouldbeused
iftheuewillbeusedforfurnacegases,whichareverycorrosive.Sealaroundthepipeatthebottomand
top of the chimney with lightweight mortar. Flexible pipe is also available for non-straight chimneys.
Cautionisadvisedifthechimneyhasaweakdraft.Reducingthecross-sectionareaoftheuewithametal
pipewillonlyworsenthesituation.
Installatilelining.Thisisrequiredbycodeinsomeareasifthechimneyistobeusedwithwoodres.
Althoughmoreexpensive,atilelinerismoreresistanttocorrosionandthehightemperaturesofachimney
reduetocreosotebuildup.
49
Useapatentedprocess,whichisonlyavailablethroughfranchiseddealers,tolinethechimneywitha
cementiousmix.Avinylorrubberhosecanbeinsertedandinated(Fig.5).Lightweightconcreteisthen
pouredaroundthehose,whichisdeatedandremovedaftertheconcretesets.
ADVANTAGES:Improvedsafetyandintegrityofthechimney.
DISADVANTAGES:Canreducethesizeoftheueandthusthedrafttoaninsufcientlevel.
FIGURE5 CHIMNEYRELINING
4.INSTALLANEXTERIORAIRSUPPLYFORCOMBUSTIONANDDRAFTAIR.
Conventionalreplacesdrawroomairthathasbeenheatedbythehomesprimaryheatingsystemand
exhaustitoutthechimney.Thisairisreplacedbyinltrationofcoldoutsideairthroughcracksandopen
ingsinthebuildingenvelope.Intightlyconstructedhomesorhomesthatarealreadyexhaustingairwith
fans and dryers, the replace may be starved for air and dumping smoke into the room because of
insufcientdraft.Asolutiontotheseproblemsistoprovideameansforusingoutsideairforcombustion.
Therearethreebasiccomponentstoanexteriorsupplyairsystemforareplace:intake,pas
sageway,andinlet(Fig.1).Theintakeistypicallylocatedonanoutsidewallorthebackofthereplace,
butcanbeinacrawlspace,attic,orotherunheatedspace.Manycodeswillnotallowlocationofaninlet
withinagaragebecauseofthepotentialpresenceoffuelfumes.Apassagewayorductconnectstheintake
totheinlet.Itisusuallyinsulatedtoreduceheatloss.Theinletintroducestheoutsideairtotherebox.
Adamperisnecessarytocontrolthevolumeanddirectionofairow.
Glassdoorsaretypicallyinstalledtopreventindoorairfromenteringthereboxandgoingup
thechimney.Unfortunately,thetemperedglassthatissooftenusedisnotagoodtransmitterofinfrared
50 radiationsotheradiantheatfromthereitselfissignicantlyreduced.
ADVANTAGES:Minimizestheexltrationofheatedconditioned-spaceair.
DISADVANTAGES:Maybedifculttoinstallinanexistingreplace.
5.INSTALLANENVIRONMENTALLYFRIENDLYGRATE.
ThespeciallydesignedEcoFireSuper-Grate,marketedbyAndironTechnologies,canbeinstalledtoreduce
the harmful emissions of a conventional replace. This stainless steel grate replaces the wrought-iron
gratethatholdswoodlogs.Itisattachedtoafanwhichblowsairthroughholesinthetubesofthegrate.
Thisairresultsinanextremelyhotrewhichhasloweremissionlevels.Theheat-reectingshieldwhich
isattachedimprovesheatingefciencybyincreasingtheradiantheatoutput.
ADVANTAGES:Easilyretrottoexistingreplaces.
DISADVANTAGES:Relativelyexpensiveandstillsubjecttowood-burningbans.
6.INSTALLAGASLOGSETORFIREPLACE.
A gas log set is primarily a decorative appliance. It includes a grate holding ceramic logs, simulated
embers, a gas burner, and a variable ame controller. These sets can be installed in most existing
replaces.Therearetwoprincipaltypes:ventedandunvented.Ventedtypesrequireachimneyuefor
exhaustingthegases.Theyareonly20%to30%efcientandmostcodesrequirethattheuebewelded
open,whichresultsinaneasyexltrationpathforheatedroomair.Unventedtypesoperateliketheburner
onagasstoveandthecombustionproductsareemittedintotheroom.Theyaremoreefcientbecause
noheatislostuptheueandmostareequippedwithoxygendepletionsensors,buttheyarebannedin
somestates,includingMassachusettsandCalifornia.
Gasreplacesincorporateagaslogsetintoacompletereboxunitwithaglassdoor(Fig.6).
Somehavebuilt-indampers,smokeshelves,andheatcirculatingfeaturesthatgivethemthecapabilityto
providebothradiantandconvectiveheat.Unitscanhavepush-buttonignition,remotecontrol,variable
heatcontrols,andthermostats.Gasreplacesaremoreefcientthangaslogswithefcienciesof60%to
80%.Manydrawcombustionairinfromtheoutsideandaredirectvented,eliminatingtheneedfora
chimney(Fig.7).Someoftheseunitsarewallfurnacerated.
Therearealsoelectricreplaceswhichprovidetheambienceofareand,ifdesired,asmall
amountofresistanceheat.Theseunitshavenoventingrequirements.
ADVANTAGES: Noashesoryingsparksthatoccurwithwood-burningreplaces.Notaffectedbywood
burningbansimposedinsomeareaswhenairqualitystandardsarenotmet.Direct-ventedgasorelectric
modelseliminatetheneedforachimney.
DISADVANTAGES: Costforequipmentandrunningthegaslinecanbehigh.Cannotuseexistingmasonry
chimneywithagasreplace.
FIGURE6 GASFIREPLACE 51
FIGURE7 DIRECT-VENTGASFIREPLACE
7.INSTALLAWOODSTOVE,FIREPLACEINSERT,ORADVANCEDFIREPLACE.
Therearewood-burningequipmentalternativesthatofferanimprovementoveraconventionalwood-burn
ingreplacethatmayonlybe10%efcient.Theseincludewoodstoves,replaceinserts,andadvanced
replacecores.Theperformanceofwood-burningsystemsvariesdramaticallywiththetypeofequipment,
thetypeofwoodbeingburned,thewoodsmoisturecontent,andthewayitismaintainedandoperated.
Woodstoveswithoutaircontrols,suchasFranklinstoves,haveefcienciesof20%to30%.Stoves
withcontrolledairinletsintoprimaryandsecondarycombustionareascanhaveefcienciesashighas55%.
Advanceddesignscanhaveefcienciesashighas75%.Themoreefcientsystemsrequiremuchlessexcess
airforcombustionandproducelowerlevelsofincompletecombustionproductswhichproducecreosote.
Wood-burningreplaceinsertsaredesignedtotintoexistingreplacestoimprovetheirheat
ingperformance.Somestovessitonanexistingreplacehearthandventupthechimney.
InresponsetosomeWestern-stateordinancesbanningtheinstallationofatraditionalreplace,
manufacturersrespondedwithreplacesthatmeettheEnvironmentalProtectionAgencys(EPA)standards
forwoodstoves.Theseunitsareasefcientastheadvancedwoodstoves.Theyareair-tightwithgasketed
doorsandapyro-ceramicglasswindowthatallowstheinfraredheatfromtheameintotheroom.The
advancedreplacehasaninsulatedcasingtoreduceheatlossthroughtheoutsidewallofthehouse.Asquir
rel-cagefanisusedtodrawroomairinandaroundthecasingtopickupadditionalconvectiveheatandsup-
plyittotheroom.Heatoutputiscontrolledbytheamountofoutsideairintakeforcombustion.Someeven
allowforshortductrunstodistributeheatvianaturalconvectiontoisolatedrooms.RSFEnergyproducesa
replacesystemthatcansupplyawhole-houseductsystemwithanin-lineblowerandthermostats(Fig.8).
TheRumford-stylereplacedesignedbyJimBuckleyisoneoftheonlymasonryreplacesthat
meetsmostairqualitystandards.Areplacekitisavailablefortheconstructionofamasonryreplace
baseduponthetraditionalRumforddesign.Thekitincludesaone-piececurvedclaythroat,aclayuetile
liner,asmokechamber,astainless-steeldamper,andoptionalglassdoors.
ADVANTAGES: Higherefciencythanaconventionalwood-burningreplace.
DISADVANTAGES: Can be subject to wood-burning bans when local air quality standards are not met.
Requiresmaintenancetopreventthedangerousbuildupofcreosote.
FURTHER READING
BacktotheFutureFireplace, ThisOldHouse,January/February1997,pp.74-79.
52
FIGURE8 DUCTEDFIREPLACE
BrickInstituteofAmerica(BIA)TechnicalNotesonBrickConstruction.Availableon-lineatwww.bia.org.:
TechnicalNote19ResidentialFireplaceDesign,January1993.
TechnicalNote19AResidentialFireplaces,DetailsandConstruction,May1980.
TechnicalNote19BResidentialChimneysDesignandConstruction,January1988.
RenovatingOldHouses,GeorgeNash,TheTauntonPress,1992.
SunsetFireplaces&WoodStoves,LanePublishingCo.,1989.
TheFireplaceBook,TheAberdeenGroup,1992.
TheOld-HouseJournalCompendium,ClemLabineandCarolynFlaherty,TheOverlookPress,1980.
TheStanleyCompleteStep-by-StepBookofHomeRepairandImprovement,JamesA.Hufnagel,New
York:Simon&Schuster,1993.
PRODUCT INFORMATION
AndironTechnolgies,Inc.,2995WoodsideRoad,Suite400,Woodside,CA;888-4-EcoFire;www.EcoFire.com.
BuckleyRumford,710FosterStreet,PortTownsend,WA;800-447-7788;www.rumford.com
Heat-N-GloFireplaceProducts,6665WestHwy13,Minneapolis,MN;888-743-2887;www.heatnglo.com
Heatilator,Inc.,1915WestSaundersStreet,Mt.Pleasant,IA;319-385-9211;www.heatilator.com
IndustrialChimneyCompany/RSFEnergy,801St.Nicholas,St.Jerome,Quebec,Canada;450-565-6336;
www.icc-rsf.com
MajesticProductsCompany,1000E.MarketStreet,Huntington,IN;800-525-1898;www.majesticprod
ucts.com
TemcoFireplaceProducts,301S.PerimeterParkDrive,Suite227,Nashville,TN;615-831-9393.
53
10 DOMESTICHOT
WA T E R H E A T I N G
ESSENTIAL KNOWLEDGE
Dependingonwhetherthehomeisairconditionedornot,waterheatingisthesecondorthirdlargest
energyexpenseinthehome.Traditionally,waterheatingaccountsforapproximately14%oftheutilitybill.
Asspaceheatingandcoolingloadsdecreaseandsystemefcienciesincrease,waterheatingrepresentsa
greaterportionofthehomesenergybill.
Thepredominantdesignforwaterheatersisthestoragetype(Fig.1).Theseunitsholdheated
waterinathermostaticallycontrolledstoragetank.Tanksinresidentialapplicationsusuallyhavestorage
capacitiesrangingfrom30to80gallons.Thetankmayhaveacombustionburnerinthebottomwitha
uerunningupthroughthecenterofthetank,electricresistanceheatingelementsimmersedinthewater,
oraheatexchangercirculatinguidheatedbyanothersourcesuchasaboiler.
Whendecidingwhetherornotthedomesticwaterheatingsystemneedsrehabilitation,thefol
lowingquestionsshouldbeanswered:
Doesthepresentsystemhaveseveralyearsleftonitsexpectedlife?
Isthetimeittakestodeliverhotwatertofaucetsacceptable?
Istheresufcienthotwater?
In a rehabilitation situation, the answer to any of these questions could be no. Poor maintenance can
shortenthelifeofwaterheaters.Bathroomsaddedovertheyearsmayberemotefromthetanklocationor
theadditionofclothesanddishwashersmayhaveincreasedhotwaterdemandsbeyondtheoriginaldesign.
FIGURE1 STORAGE-TYPEWATERHEATERS
Thelifeofstorage-typewaterheatersistypically10to15yearsduetothecorrosionofthetank.
Maintenance,suchasreplacingtheanodeandcleaningsedimentfromthebottomofthetank,canextend
itslife,butthisisrarelydone.Thus,ifthestoragetankismorethan10yearsold,itshouldprobablybe
replaced.Themonthandyearthatthetankwasbuiltisusuallyencodedinitsserialnumber.
Demand,orinstantaneous-typewaterheaterscanbelocatedclosertothexturetominimizethe
waitingtimeforhotwater.Theseunitseliminatethetankanditsassociatedlossesalltogether.
Ifpurchasinganewwaterheater,selectingasystemofthepropersizeandrecoveryrateisimportantto
ensurethatallhotwaterdemandsaremet.Awaterheaterofinsufcientcapacitywillresultincoldshow
ers,butawaterheaterthatistoolargewastesenergy.ThewaterheatersizeisdeterminedbytheFirstHour
Rating(FHR),whichistheamountofhotwater(ingallons)thatcanbeproducedinonehour.TheFHR
isnotonlyafunctionoftanksize,butalsorecoveryrate,whichisameasureofhowquicklytheincom
ingcoldwatercanbeheated.Gaswaterheatershavehigherrecoveryratesthanelectricunits.Thus,for
thesameFHR,thegaswaterheaterrequiresasmallertankthananelectricwaterheater.
InadditiontotheFHR,storage-typewaterheatersaregivenanEnergyFactor(EF)rating.This
isaseasonalefciencyratingthattakesintoaccountthewaterheatersrecoveryefciency,standbylosses,
andenergyinput.Recoveryefciencyistheratiooftheamountofheatthatisabsorbedbythewaterto
theamountofheatinput.
FIGURE2 ANTI-CONVECTIONLOOP 55
2.INSTALLANINDIRECTSTORAGEWATERHEATER.
Inanolderhomewithahydronicheatingsystemsuppliedbyaboiler,atanklesscoilmaybethemethod
forheatingdomestichotwater.Thisisacoillocatedwithintheboiler.Thereisnostorageofhotwater.
Thisapproachissuitableinthewinterwhentheboilerisoperatingforspaceheating,butisinefcientin
thesummerbecausetheboilermuststartandstopfrequentlyjusttoprovidedomestichotwater.Analter-
nativeistoinstallanindirectstoragewaterheater(Fig.3).Heatinguidfromtheboileriscirculated
throughacoilinsidethestoragetank.Theboilerisstillusedthroughouttheyearfordomestichotwater,
butitcomesonlessfrequentlyinthesummerbecauseitrespondstoadropinstoragetanktemperature
andnoteverydemandforhotwater.
ADVANTAGES:Improvessystemefciency.
DISADVANTAGES:Requiresadditionaloorspaceforthestoragetank.
FIGURE3 INDIRECTSTORAGEWATERHEATER
3.INSTALLANEWELECTRICRESISTANCESTORAGEWATERHEATER.
Althoughthisisusuallythemostexpensivemethodforheatingwater,itisthesecondmostcommontype
ofwaterheateraftergasstorageunits.Ifhotwaterrequirementsarerelativelylow,thismaybethemost
practicalchoice.Newelectricstoragewaterheatershavehigherlevelsofinsulationthantheoldversions.
Someareall-plastic,whichdonotneedanodesandcomewithlifetime,never-leakwarranties.Electric
storagewaterheaterscanbelocatedalmostanywherebecausetherearenocombustionairandventing
issues.Timeclockscanbeusedtopreventtheresistanceelementsfromoperatingduringpeakelectric
chargeperiodswheretime-of-useratesareineffect.
ADVANTAGES:Lowerinitialcostthangasstoragewaterheaters.Installationlocationexibility.
DISADVANTAGES:Highoperatingcosts.
4.INSTALLANEWGASSTORAGEWATERHEATER.
New gas storage water heaters have better tank insulation, improved bafe designs, lower pilot burner
inputs, and new combustion chamber congurations than older versions. Bafes regulate the ow of
combustionairupthroughtheueandnewdesignsincreasethetransferofheatfromtheuegasestothe
water,increasingsystemefciency.Theyalsoreduceconvectiveairmovementandheatlossuptheue
duringstandbyperiods.
Aswithgasfurnaces,thereareseveralventingoptions.Standardunitsareatmosphericvented
56
withtheverticaluethatisoftentiedintothesamechimneyueasthegasfurnace.Power-ventedunits
useafantoassisttheventingofthecombustiongases.Theseprovidemorelocationexibilitybecause
longerverticalorhorizontalventpipescanbeused.Theyalsocannotbackdraftwhiletheburnerisoper
ating.However,theystilluseindoorairforcombustionandnowrequireelectricitytooperate.Direct-
ventedunitsarealsoavailablethatdrawoutsideairinforcombustionandventdirectlyoutthewall.
A gas water heater that avoids the problems of venting entirely is the Seahorse by Gas-Fired
ProductsIncorporated.Thisunitisagas-redheatexchangerwithapumpthatisplacedinaninsulated
boxontheoutsidewallofthehomeandplumbedintoastoragetankinsidethehomewhichmaybethe
oldelectricwaterheater(Fig.4).GoingastepfurtheristheWeather-ProbyAmericanWaterHeater.This
isagaswaterheaterthatcanbeinstalledoutside,includingthe50-gallontank.Itsdistributioniscurrently
limitedtoSouthernstateswherefreezeprotectionisnotanissue.
ADVANTAGES: Lowoperatingcost.
DISADVANTAGES: Higherinitialcostthanelectricresistancestorage-typewaterheaters.Ventingrequire
mentsrestrictlocationexibility.Power-ventedunitsrequireelectricitytooperateandhavehadoccasional
problemswithnuisanceshutdownswhentheirpressuresafetyswitcheshavemistakenwindyconditions
forblockedvents.
FIGURE4 SEAHORSEOUTSIDEGAS-FIREDWATERHEATEXCHANGER
5. INSTALLADEMANDWATERHEATER.
Insituationswherespacefora20to50gallonstoragetankislimitedorthewaitforhotwatertoatap
remotefromthestoragetankisexcessive,theinstallationofademandwaterheatermaybeappropriate.
Alsocalledtankless,instantaneous,andpoint-of-use,demandwaterheatersheatthewaterasitiscalled
for.Thereisnostoragetank.Somepoint-of-useunitsmaynotbetrulyinstantaneousortanklessbecause
theyemployasmall2-to4-gallonstoragetank(Fig.5).
Electricdemandwaterheatersheatthewaterasitpassesoveraresistanceelement.Thepower
requirementslimittheseunitstowaterowratesforasinglesinkorlow-owshower.Oneofthelargest
electricdemandwaterheatersistheSeiscoRA-28.Ratedat28kW,itiscapableofsupplying2.5gallonsper
minuteata78 Ftemperaturerise.Electricdemandwaterheaterstypicallymodulatetheiroutputbyusing
multipleheatingelements.Lessexpensive,xedoutputunitsdonotallowformuchvariationinwaterow.
Gasdemandwaterheatersemployamodulatingburnertosupplyhotwaterataspecicpre-set
temperature.Theiroutputissufcienttosatisfythehotwaterdemandsofanentirehome.Theymustbe
mountedonanexternalwallforventingpurposes.
ADVANTAGES: Locationexibilityduetotheirsmallsize.Reducedstandbylosses.Longerlifebecausethe
57
tankcorrosionissueiseliminated.Whenlocatednearthepointofuse,theyarewaterconservingbecause
thereislesscoldwatertogodownthedrainpriortothearrivalofhotwater.
DISADVANTAGES: Whiletheycandeliverhotwaterforanindeniteperiodoftime,theowrate(gallons
per minute) may not be sufcient. Most units cannot serve multiple tap requirements simultaneously.
Initialcostsarehigherthanstorage-typeunits.Requirelargergaslinesorpowerrequirementsthanstorage-
typeunits.Servicesupportmaybelessthanforthemore-commonstorage-typeunits.
FIGURE5 POINT-OF-USEWATERHEATER
6.SUPPLEMENTTHEWATERHEATERWITHAPREHEATINGORHEATRECOVERY
SYSTEM.
Theheatingrequirementsofthewaterheatercansometimesbesupplementedbyrecoveringwasteheat
fromotherprocessesorcapturingsolarenergy.Oneofthesimplestapproachesisatemperingtank.This
isaseconduninsulatedtanklocatedinawarmorsunnyareaandconnectedinserieswiththeprimary
waterheatertank.Coldwaterrstentersthetemperingtankwhereitwarmsuptothesurroundingair
temperature.Solarwaterheating,bothpassiveandactivesystems,canbeusedtopreheatwateranddur
ingsometimesoftheyearcanmeetallofthewaterheatingneeds.
Hotwaterdesuperheaters,suchastheHotTapunitbyAddisonProducts,arehotrefrigerant-to-
waterheatexchangersontherefrigerantlineofanairconditionerorheatpump.Suchaunitisinstalledafter
thecompressor,butbeforethecondenser,toremovethesuperheatfromtherefrigerantvaporandtransfer
ittothedomestichotwater(Fig.6).Theamountofwaterheatingprovidedbythesesystemsisafunctionof
theairconditioningusagesincetheyonlyprovideheatwhentheairconditionerorheatpumpisoperating.
Another method of heat recovery is the GFX (gravity lm exchange). This is a heat exchanger
betweenthewaterwastepipeandtheDHWtankcoldwaterinlet(Fig.7).Itconsistsofasectionof3"or4"
copperdrainpipewithacoilof1/2"or3/4"tubingwrappedaroundit.Attimesofhighhotwaterusesuch
asshowering,thewatergoingdownthedrainisstillhot.Thisdevicerecoverssomeofthatheatandpreheats
thecoldwaterowingintothetank.Therearenocontrolsormovingparts.
ADVANTAGES: Relativelyinexpensiveandrequirelittleornomaintenance.Captureheatenergythatwould
otherwisebewasted.DesuperheaterscanimprovetheHVACsystemcoolingefciencyslightly.
DISADVANTAGES:Desuperheatersonlyprovideabenetwhentheheatpumporairconditionerisoper
atingandtheycandecreasetheheatingcapacityofaheatpumpsystem.GFXdevicesonlyrecoverheat
whenwaterisdrainingoutatthesametimethatmake-upwaterisowingintothetank(e.g.,wateris
owingdirectlyfromthespigotorshowerheaddownthedrain).Buildingcodesorbuildingofcialsin
someareasdonotallowGFXdevices.
58
FIGURE6 HOTWATERDESUPERHEATER
FIGURE7 GFXHEATRECOVERYSYSTEM
7.INSTALLAHEATPUMPWATERHEATER(HPWH).
Ifelectricityistheonlywaterheatingfuelalternativeandthedomestichotwaterrequirementsarerela
tivelyhigh(e.g.,fourormoreoccupants)aheatpumpwaterheatercanbeconsideredtoreduceoperat
ingcosts.Itcantypicallyprovidehotwateratone-halftoone-thirdtheenergyuseofanelectricresistance
waterheater.Ratherthanheatingthewaterdirectlybyelectricresistance,theseheatpumpsuseelectric
itytodriveavaporcompressioncyclethatmovesheatfromthesurroundingairtothetankwater.HPWHs
canbeintegralsystemswiththecompressor/evaporatorunitsittingontopofthestoragetankorassep
arateunitsrequiringapumpandowloop(Fig.8).Integralunitsavoidtheneedforapumpandcontrol
loopbuttheseparateunitdesigncanberetrottedtothehomesexistingtank.
59
FIGURE8 HEATPUMPWATERHEATER
HPWHsaremostappropriateinwarmclimatesbecausetheyaretypicallylocatedinbasementsand
garages,wherefreezedamageisnotaconcern.Theefciencyoftheheatpumpalsodropsatlowairtem
peratures.HPWHscoolanddehumidifytheairsurroundingtheevaporatorsectionlikeanairconditioner.
Thiscanbebenecialinaconditionedspaceinthesummer,butdetrimentalinthewinter.Theevaporator
sectioncannotbeinaconnedspacewherethesurroundingairisnotmixedwithwarmerair.
HPWHsdonothavethequickrecoveryofstandardwaterheaters.Alargertankcouldbeused
tomeetpeakdemands,butthemorecommonsolutionistoinstallanelectricresistanceheatingelement
inthetanktohandlethepeakdemandperiods.ThisdefeatssomeoftheefciencybenetsoftheHPWH.
Incoolerclimatesorwhereaventilationsystemisemployed,anexhaustairheatpumpwater
heater (EAHPWH) may be appropriate. This system, manufactured by DEC/Therma-Stor, captures heat
fromtheairbeforeitisexhausted.
ADVANTAGES: Loweroperatingcostthananelectricresistancesystem.
DISADVANTAGES:Higherinitialcost.TherearecurrentlyonlyafewU.S.manufacturersandthereislittle
marketinfrastructureinplace.Findingqualied,experiencedinstallationandservicetechniciansmaybe
difcult.Theirinstallationrequiresexpertiseinwaterheaterserviceaswellasrefrigeranthandlingregu
lations.HPWHsneedtobelocatedwherethecompressornoisewillnotbeaproblem.Theyrequirereg
ularmaintenancesimilartothatforanairconditioner.
FURTHER READING
ResidentialHeatPumpWaterHeaters,FederalTechnologyAlert,www.pnl.gov/fta/3_res.htm.
Water Heaters and Energy Conservation Choices, Choices!, Home Energy Magazine Online,
May/June1996,www.homeenergy.org/eehem/96/9605waterheat.html.
PRODUCT INFORMATION
AddisonProductsCompany,P.O.Box607776,Orlando,FL;407-292-4400.
AmericanWaterHeater,500PrincetonRoad,P.O.Box4056,JohnsonCity,TN;800-999-9515.
DEC/Therma-Stor,P.O.Box8050,Madison,WI53708;800-533-7533.
Gas-FiredProductsIncorporated,Charlotte,NC;www.thermastor.com.
WaterFilmEnergy,Inc.,P.O.Box48,Oakdale,NY11769;516-758-6271;www.oikos.com/gfx.
60
11 PLUMBINGDESIGN
&ENGINEERING
ESSENTIAL KNOWLEDGE
Properlysizedandperformingplumbingsystemsarevitalforthecomfort,convenience,health,andsafety
ofhomeoccupants.Rehabilitationreasonscanrangefromobviousfailuresofasystemsuchasleaks,
corrosion,andstoppage;tonot-so-obviousfailuressuchasleaksofdangerousgasfromsewersorcom
bustionappliances.Plumbingsystemscanincludewatersupplyanddistribution;drain,waste,andvent
systems;fuelsupplyandstorage;applianceventingandexhausting;reprotectionsystems;andgraywater
systems.Plumbingxturesthemselvesarecoveredinanothervolume,asaresepticsystems.
Thereareafewmajorfactorsthatdrivethedecisiontorehabplumbingsystems:howwellthe
systemmeetstheneedsofoccupants,howthesystemperformsandcomplieswithcoderequirements,
howpossiblerehabilitationmightsaveresources,andthecostandfeasibilitytorehab.Thescopeofrehab
workcanvaryfromsimplerepair,toremovalandreplacementofsystems,toaddingnewones.Firepro
tectionsystemsandfuelsystemsareexamplesofaddedsystems.
Materials,designs,andcodeshavechangedandevolvedovertheyears.Code-complyingorigi
nalinstallationsmaynowbebelowstandardordangerous.Forexample,anoldplumbingxturesuchas
abathtubcouldbelledwithcontaminatedwaterthatcoulddrainbackintopotablewatersupplybecause
thellspoutisbelowanoverowdrain.Oldertoiletsusedmuchmorewater,andoldershowerheads
used more water and energy than those that now comply with the Energy Policy Act and the National
PlumbingStandardsof1992.Whilextureconcernsarenotaddressedhere,theydrivedecisionsto
changesystemsandcomponents.Existingventsmightnotworkwithanew,moreefcientappliancethat
producescoolerandhighmoistureventproducts.Materialspreviouslyapprovedmaybehazardousto
occupanthealthorpronetofailure,suchasleadinwatersystems,whichisawellpublicizedhazard.
Certainconnectorsandpipeinpolybutylenewatersystemsareknowntofail.Asbestosinsulationinmany
oldplumbinginstallationsisahazard.Recommendationsregardingtheremovalanddisposalofasbestos
areavailablefromtheEnvironmentalProtectionAgency(EPA)AsbestosInformationHotline:800-438-2474.
Designs and installations previously deemed state-of-the-art may not work well, and in some
instancescouldbedangerous.Olddrain,waste,andventsystemsareexamples.Withoutproperventing,
sewergasescancreateunhealthyconditions.Newmaterialsanddesignscanalleviateaws.Therearepos
itivesystemdevelopmentsaswell.Researchand,subsequently,codeshavepermittedwaterpipesupply
sizestobedownsizedforbranches.Thehousespresentsystem,ifingoodcondition,maybeabletoaccom
modatemorextures.Therearemanynewmaterialsandupgradestooldmaterialsandmethods.Thereis
aplethoraofconnectors,valves,reducers,andadaptorstoallowchangefromonematerialtoanother.
As design, research, and new materials have evolved, so have codes. One national code, the
InternationalResidentialCodeforone-andtwo-familydwellings,wasrstpromulgatedindraftformand
issuedin1998.ItisbeingupdatedforanApril2000release.Thiscodecoversmostresidentialplumbing
systems.TheInternationalAssociationofPlumbingandMechanicalOfcials(IAPMO),neverthelessstill
publishesitsDwellingRequirementsoftheUniformPlumbingCode.
Thisguidewillreviewattributesofmanysystemsandmaterials,alongwithadvantagesanddis
advantages. These attributes are not necessarily comprehensive and readers are advised to undertake
researchofindividualsystems,products,installationrecommendations,warranties,andcodeacceptance
fortheirownlocale.Thisguidecannotforeseethescopeofaprojectorpredictcosts,butsystemscom
ponentsareevaluatedasmoreorlesscostlythanothers.
61
FURTHER READING
PlumbingaHouse,PeterHemp,Newtown,CT:TheTauntonPress,1994.
RenovatingOldHouses,GeorgeNash,Newtown,CT:TheTauntonPress,1996.
TheOldHouseJournalGuidetoRestoration,PatriciaPoore,NewYork:E.P.DuttonBooks,1992.
InternationalResidentialCode (Draft),InternationalCodeCouncil,FallsChurch,VA22041,1998.
TheConsumersGuidetoHomeImprovement,Renovation&Repairs,TheEnterpriseFoundation,New
York:JohnWileyandSons,1995.
1996ASHRAEHandbook-HVACSystemsandEquipment,ASHRAE,Atlanta,GA,1996.
62
12 WA T E R S U P P LY &
DISTRIBUTION
SYSTEMS
ESSENTIAL KNOWLEDGE
Therearemanycausesforrehabilitationmaladiesthataffectwatersupplyanddistributionsystems.Leaks,
poorwaterquality,poorsupplyofhotorcoldwater,insufcientpressure,noise,vibration,andpresence
ofhazardousmaterialscanallbedrivingforces.
Waterdistributionintodayshomesoriginatesfromaone-pipedeliverysystemwithpipesand
ttingsoflead.AncientRomanshadleadwaterpipes,andinfactthetermplumbingisderivedfromthe
Latinplumbum,meaninglead.AncientEgyptianartifactsshowuseofcopperwaterpiping.Avarietyof
pipesandttingscouldbepresentinanyrehabproject,includingbrass,copper,iron,andsteel.Water
pipingmaterialsandttingshavechangedinpopularityandcodeacceptance.Manytypesareapproved
for use, and can be used in combination if electrogalvanic and grounding continuity are properly
addressed.Galvanizedironandgalvanizedsteelpiping(withsomeyellowandredbrassandcopper)was
quitepopularpriortoWorldWarII,butwerereplacedbycoppertubingpost-warandbyplasticsfrom
the1970s.Iron/steelpipessufferedcorrosionandscalebuild-upincertainwatertypes,especiallyinhot
water lines. Copper tubing was approved by ASTM B88 in 1932 and is the same material used today.
Copperhashadsomeproblemswithaggressive,corrosivewater.
Thereisavarietyofplasticmaterialsapprovedforuse.Someplasticexiblewaterpipingmateri
alshavehadproblemswithsplittingandttingfailure.Onematerialusedinthe1970sand80s,polybuty
lenettings,failedinmanyhomeswithdisastrousresults.Anewhybridpipingmaterial,KITECbyIPEX,is
a composite pipe made of aluminum laminated between interior and exterior plastic layers. It claims
nationalcodeapproval,easyworkability,sounddampening,andiscorrosion-proofwithgoodowrates.
Water conservation has become mandated in recent years. Toilets, faucets, and showerheads
mustnowoftenmeetlowerwaterusestandards.Consumersaremorecognizantofexcesswateruseand
energycostforheatingwaterwhichiswasted.Energyrecoverydevicesareavailableandgrowinginpop
ularity.Insulation,bettersystemdesign,andsolarheatingoptionscanalsobeexplored.
Waterqualityandotherhealthconcernsarenationalandlocalissues.Filteringwatersystemsare
becomingmorepopular,installedbelowthekitchensink/counter.Galvanizedironpipinghascorrosion
problemsthatareoftenexacerbatedbyadversewaterconditionsandheat.Leadwaterservicesforhouses
werequitecommon,andleadinwatercontinuestobeaproblem.Leadsolderforcopperjoininghasbeen
banned. Jacksonville, Florida has aggressive, corrosive water and has banned the use of copper in
domestic water systems. Asbestos was a popular insulation material for piping and must be carefully
removedorencapsulated.
1.IMPROVEWATERDISTRIBUTION.
Waterdistributionsystemsandhousesizeshavechangedovertheyearsfromsmallhomeswithlimited
systemstolargeoneswithelaboratesystems.Longdelaysforhotwateratremotexturescreatedashift
from single-pipe systems and introduced recirculating hot water systems. These loop systems can be
expensiveanduselargeamountsofenergyinwaterheatingandpumpingifnotproperlydesigned.The
drainingofcoldwaterawaitinghotwaterinthesingle-pipesystemisresourcedepletingandtimecon
suming.NIBCOhasaJustRightmodiedloopproductthatusesnaturalconvectiontocirculatehot
water.Acheckvalveandpassiverecirculatinglineformingtheforgottensystemcanbeeasilyinstalled
forasimilarpassiverecirculationsystem.Theelectrictracerwiresystemhasasinglepipehotwaterself-
regulatingsupplysystemthatsolvesmanyloopproblems.MetLundDMandSystemissuitableforreha
bilitationandadaptationtoexistingplumbing.Aremotesinkhasapumpandcontrolsysteminstalledon
thextureanglestops.Apush-buttoncallsforhotwaterandthepumprecirculatesthewater,whichsaves
energyandwater(Fig.1).
FIGURE1 METLUNDDMANDRECIRCULATIONSYSTEM
64
Manifolddistributionsystemsarenowrecognizedbymajorcodes.Theintroductionofexible
plastic tubing like PEX-cross-linked polyethylene allows easy distribution of small-diameter, joint-free
branchestoindividualxtures.Alargersupplylineisconnectedtothemanifold.Thesystemsclaimfaster
hotwaterdelivery,balancedow,easilyaccessiblecontrolvalves,andnowaterhammer.Thisisanappro
priatesolutionthatcanbeinstalledaroundanexistingfailedsystem,withphasedreplacementofxtures
andbranches.Aclassicdistributionconcerniswaterleaksandresultantdamage.Aqua-Stopoffersawater
leakdetectionsystem(Fig.2).Sensorsareplacedontheoornearpotentialleaksources,suchastoilets,
tubs,dishwashers,waterheaters.Thesensorswillshutthemainsupplyvalveifaleakoccursandsound
analarm.Systemsensorscanbehard-wiredorremote.
ADVANTAGES:Improvesresponsivenessofwaterdistributionthroughoutthehome.
DISADVANTAGES:Somesystemscanbecostly.Consultlocalcodesastowhethersuchsystemsarepermitted.
2.INSTALLNEWCOPPERPIPING.
Copperisaverypopularmaterialusedsincethe1930s.Jointsolderspreviouslycontainedsomeper
centageoflead.Federallawchangedtoprohibitleadsolderinpotablewatersystems.Jointsaremadeby
soldering,brazing,andtwo-componentadhesives.Solderingcanbedonebyelectricresistancetoolsand
bytorches.Teescannowbemechanicallypulledfromcontinuoustubingwithnewtools.Anewcopper
ttinghasrecentlybeenintroducedfromEurope:patentedin1934,theintegralsolderingttinghas
beenastandardinEngland(Fig.3).IMIYorkshirenowimportsAmerican-sizedintegralsolderingttings,
whichensuretheproperamountofsolderisprovided.Thesolderisinthemiddleofthetting,which
providesabetterjointandsaveslabor.Coppertubingisinsertedintoeachendofatting,appliedheat
meltsthesolderring,andthetwotubesarefusedtogether.
ADVANTAGES:Nearlyeverycodeapproves;longtrackrecord;relativelyeasyinstallation;limited50-year
warranty;corrosionresistantwithsomewatertypes;lesssupportneededthanplasticpipe;reresistant;
comesincoilsandtubes.
65
DISADVANTAGES:Highercost;someaggressivewaterattackscopper;amenormallypresentinjoining;
systemnoise;conductsheatandneedsinsulation;condensationconcerns;tubingcankink.
3.INSTALLCHLORINATEDPOLYVINYLCHLORIDE(CPVC)PIPING.
Used since the 1950s, CPVC is approved by most codes for both hot and cold water distribution. BF
Goodrich,inventorofCPVC,reformulateditin1992tobemoreworkableincoldweatheranearlier
drawback.CPVCispopularinnewconstructionapplicationsaboveandbelowslabs.
ADVANTAGES: Lower cost; easy installation and joining; no corrosion concerns; no water hammer;
reducedconductancelosses,whichsavesenergyandreducescondensation;comesincoilsandtubes.
DISADVANTAGES: More support needed than copper or steel; 24-hour joint cure time recommended;
needs expansion capacity for piping by all codes; relatively recent product (rst used in 1959).
Installationduringextremelyhottemperaturescanresultinlaterjointfailure.
4.INSTALLCROSS-LINKEDPOLYETHYLENE(PEX)PIPING.
Cross-linkedpolyethylene(PEX)exiblethinwalltubinghaditsbeginningsinEuropeinthe1970sand
hasbeeninusetheU.S.sincethe1980sforradiantheatingsystemsandhotandcoldwaterdistribution
systems.Mostcodesapproveitsuse,andsomeallow3/8branches.LongPEXcoilsareusedinthenew
manifoldwaterdistributionsystems,andeliminateexpensivejoints.
ADVANTAGES:Lowcost;relativelyeasyinstallation.Highlyexible;greaterwaterow;jointsandrepairs
canbemadewet;tubinghasmemory,returnstooldshape;kinkscanberemovedbyheat;eliminates
waterhammer;improvedfreeze-resistancewithbetterinsulationthanmetallicpiping;easyrepair.Seems
lessvulnerabletonailpunctures.
DISADVANTAGES:Notallcodesapprove;shouldnotbeexposedtosunlight;needsroomforexpansion;
moresupportrequiredthancopperorsteel.
FURTHER READING
1996ASHRAEHandbook-HVACSystemsandEquipment,ASHRAE,Atlanta,GA,1996.
PlumbingaHouse,PeterHemp,Newtown,CT:TheTauntonPress,1994.
RenovatingOldHouses,GeorgeNash,Newtown,CT:TheTauntonPress,1996.
TheOldHouseJournalGuidetoRestoration,PatriciaPoore,NewYork:E.P.DuttonBooks,1992.
JournalofLightConstruction,March1997.
TheForgottenHotWaterRecirculatingSystem,PMEngineer,May1998.
PRODUCT INFORMATION
BFGoodrich,FlowGuardGold(CPVC),Cleveland,OH44141;800-864-4851;www.owguardgold.com.
CopperDevelopmentAssociation,NewYork,NY;800-CDA-DATA;www.copper.org.
YorkshireFittings,USA,Brentwood,TN37027;615-309-8669.
IPEX,Inc.(KITEC),Englewood,CO80112;800-473-9808;www.ipexinc.com.
Metlund,CostaMesa,CA;800-METLUND;www.metlund.com
NIBCOJustRight,Elkhart,IN46516;800-234-0227;www.nibco.com.
SPARCOAnti-ScaldValve,Warwick,RI02886;401-738-4290;www.sparco-inc.com.
USBrass,BrassPEX,Dallas,TX;800-872-7277;www.usbrass@zurn.com.
66
1 3 D R A I N , WA S T E , &
VENTSYSTEMS
ESSENTIAL KNOWLEDGE
Thereareanumberofindicationsoftheneedtorehabilitatethedrain,waste,andventsystems:leaks;
clogged,slow,ornon-workingdrains;orodors.Thenatureoftheseproblemscanbecomplex,sothor
ough investigation is advised. Leaks and slow drainage may reveal corrosion in waste pipes. Previous
rehabsmighthaveintroduceddissimilarmaterialsthatcorrodethroughelectrogalvanicaction,e.g.,brass
andironttingsjoined.Drainsneedtobeslopedtoremovewastewaterandsolids.Buildingorpipeset
tlementcanchangepipeslopeandthesystemmaynotworkproperlyormayfailentirely.Odorscanbea
warningofseriousproblems.Atoxic,explosiveblendofgasescouldbepresent,causedbysomethingas
simpleasadrytraporasseriousasanon-existentventsystem.Ventsprotectagainstbackpressureand
siphoningandprovidesystemaircirculation. Cross connections are also a concern. Waste system
designhasevolvedovertime,andolderapprovedmethodsdidnotrecognizethatsiphoningcouldoccur
betweenpotableandcontaminatedwater.Oldertubinstallationsareanexamplewithsupplybeinglocated
belowoverowdrains(Fig.1).Localcodesshouldbecheckedbeforeproceedingwithrehabilitation.
Drainagesystemsarebasicallygravitydesignedwithventingintroducedtoassurethesystemper-
formsproperly.Systemcapacitiesarenowbetterunderstood,andcodesallowsmallerpipes.Theolder,
existing system to be rehabed may potentially allow for greater expansion. The National Plumbing
Standardswasadoptedin1992tomandatewater-savingtoilets,showerheads,andfaucets.Newmateri
als,methods,anddevicesarenowusedalongwitholdstandards.Castironpipinginabellandspigot
congurationwasacommonmaterial,andhasbeenreplacedsincethe1970sbyplastics.Nowhubless
castironisregainingsomeupscalemarketshareduetoitssound-dampeningproperties.
Depending on the reason for rehabilitation, systems can be repaired, modied, or replaced.
Properanalysisoftheexistingsystemanditsconditioniscrucial.Variousnon-destructivediagnostictools
FIGURE1 POTABLEWATERCONTAMINATION 67
andservicesareavailableifopeningupwallsorceilingsoraccessunderslabsforinspectionisnotan
option.SmallpipeTVinspectionandelectronicleakdetectionsystemsareexamples.
Drainage system materials used in residential construction include cast iron, galvanized and
non-galvanizedsteel,galvanizedwroughtiron,lead,copper,brass,vitriedclaypipe,andplasticsacry
lonitrilebutadienestyrene(ABS-DWV)andpolyvinylchloride(PVC-DWV).Rehabprojectsonhousesbuilt
after1970mightinvolveplasticDWVpipeandttings.Adapterttingsallowuseofavarietyofmaterials
ifdesired.Castironisabettersoundinsulatorbutmorecostly,soblendedsystemsarepopular.Castiron
isusedinsound-sensitiveareasandplasticinnon-sensitiveareas.Existingmaterialscanbecombined
withneworothermaterials,providedelectrogalvanicorcodeconcernsareaddressed.
Therearemanynewcode-approveddrainagesystemsanddesignsthatcanbeconsidered.Ifthe
systemistobemodiedorreplaced,anewdesigncouldbeinorder.Newdesignsmightbeadaptedto
solveproblemswiththeexistingsystem.Drainagesystemsarecalculatedtohandleacertainload,and
xturesareassignedvaluesknownasxtureunits.Theseunitsareaddedtodeterminepipesizes.Code
tablesstatemaximumunitcapacityandlengthsfordrainsandvents,andminimumpipesizes.Localcodes
shouldbeconsulted.
Ventstrategieshaveevolvedfromconventionaltocommonvent,wetventing,wastestackventing,
andcircuitventing.Variousstrategiesevolvedtominimizepiperunsandroofpenetrations.Acommon
ventconnectstwoxtures.Thewetventpipedoublesasawastepipeandisincreasedinsize.Wetvents
maybehorizontal(Fig.2),vertical(Fig.3),orcombined(Fig.4).Wastestackventingrequiresallxture
drainstoconnectseparatelytoit(Fig.5).Sizerequirementsapplytothesealternatemethods.Circuitvent
ingcanconnectamaximumofeightxturestoahorizontaldrain(Fig.6).Slopeandsizerequirements
applyhereaswell.Incoldregions,ventspenetratingroofsmayexperiencefrostorsnowclosure;apipe
atleast3indiameterisrequiredforthelastportionofthevent.
FIGURE2 TYPICALHORIZONTALWETVENTING
68
FIGURE3 VERTICALWETVENTING
FIGURE4 COMBINATIONVERTICALANDHORIZONTALWETVENTING
FIGURE5 TYPICALSINGLE-STACKSYSTEMFORATWO-STORYDWELLING
ADVANTAGES:Allcodesaccept.Fireproof,goodsoundinsulator;stronger,requireslesssupport;longlast
ing;canbeburiedinatrench;needsnoprotectionfromnailpunctures;3pipetsinstandard2x4wall
withoutfurring;needsnoexpansionallowance;hublessiseasytodisassemble.
DISADVANTAGES:Highcostandweight;requiresmorelabortoinstall;noteasytocut.
2.INSTALLCOPPERDWVPIPING.
CopperDWVisfoundinmanyoldersystems.Itisalsomorecostlythancastiron.Thetorchneededfor
joiningcoppercreatesapotentialrehazard,butnewjoiningtechniquesareavailable.Forexample,an
electricresistancejointtoolcanbeused;Copperbond,isaUL-approvedtwo-componentadhesivethat
replacessolderingorbrazing.
ADVANTAGES:Acceptedbyallcodes;thinwall,lightweight,easytocutandassemble;3pipe/ttingstin
2x4wall;reproof;lesslaborthancastiron.
DISADVANTAGES:Costsmorethancastiron;transmitsnoisebutnotasmuchasplasticdoes;requiresnail
protectionplates;openametypicallyrequiredforjoints.
tialconstruction.Invariousregionsofthecountry,plumbingprofessionalsseemtohavepreferencesfor
onematerialovertheother-typicallythematerialsdonotshareagivenmarketequally.Reducedcostand
laborarereasonsforpopularity.Mostcodesacceptthesematerials.NewYorkStatecodewillnotallow
plasticinundergroundresidentialuse.
ADVANTAGES:Lowcost;lesslaborintensive;easytocutandassemble;lightweight.
DISADVANTAGES: Fumes present with solvents and primers; material transmits noise; expands slightly;
needsmoresupport;careneededwithundergroundinstallation;protectionneededfornailpunctures;
ABSburnsonitsown,whilePVCburnsonlywithamepresent;ABSdeterioratesinsunlight.
4.INSTALLPUMPSANDEJECTORSTODISCHARGEWASTE.
Sloworstoppedwastedrainsmayindicatethatthedrainageconnectionsdonotmeetgravityrequirements
inrehabsituations.Addingapumpmightsolvemarginalornon-performinglines.Also,newplumbing
xtures might be located so that gravity will not expel waste (ie: basement xtures). Sewage ejectors,
70
pumps,orgrinderpumpsmayberequiredtoliftdischarge.Speciccoderequirementsexistonpipesiz
ing, venting, electrical connections, and audiovisual alarms. These devices should only be used when
absolutelynecessarybecauseofcost,accessrequirements,pumpfailure,andpowerfailures.Theunits
mustbewellsealedanddesignedforremovalandreplacement.Checkwithlocalauthorityonplacement;
exteriorlocationsaretypicallymostdesirable.
ADVANTAGES:Allowsplumbingxturesbelowgravityconnectionpoints.
DISADVANTAGES:Costly;powerfailuresstopsystem;needsamonitoringsystemandalarm;easyaccess
requiredforunitreplacement.
5.INSTALLGRAYWATERANDHEATRECOVERYDEVICES.
Rehabilitation requires consideration for resource savings alternatives. Low-ow xtures and shower
headstosavewaterandenergyarenowmandatedbytheEnergyPolicyAct.Graywatercollectionsystems
areasustainablechoiceforanyrehabprojectbecausetheyrecyclewaterfrombathtubs,showers,lavo
ratories,andclotheswashingmachines.TheUniformPlumbingCodeallowsgraywatertobecollected
andusedforirrigation.Asaconservationmethodorinareaswithrestrictedwateruse,graywatersystems
maybeappropriate.However,cross-contaminationisaconcernwithgraywater.Checkyourlocalcode
fordesignrequirementsandapproval.Heatrecoverydevicesforwastehotwaterarenew,energy-saving
options.OnewastewaterheatrecoverydeviceistheGFX.Shower,laundry,bath,dishwasher,andsink
wastehotwaterowsthroughacopperDWVsectionwrappedwithacopperwaterpipefeedingthewater
heater(Fig.7).Thedeviceisinstalledverticallyinthemaindrainandworksbestinbasementapplica
tions,butnon-basementapplicationsareavailable.Mostcodesapproveitsuse.
ADVANTAGES:Savesresources;graywaterallowslandscapegardensinaridlocations;GFXsavesenergy.
DISADVANTAGES:Costly;cross-contaminationconcerns;needsstoragecontainers;GFXneedsbasement
locationforbestresults;maybedifculttoobtain.
FIGURE7 GFXWASTEWATERHEATRECOVERYSYSTEM
6.INSTALLANAIRADMITTANCEVALVE.
Anairadmittancevalueisarelativelynewdeviceapprovedbysomecodesthatcanaidplumbingrehab.
Someplumbingxturesaredifculttoventduetolocationkitchenislandsinksaretheclassicexample.
Anairadmittancevalveplacedabovethetrapeliminatesallotherventpiping(insomecircumstances;
generally,atleastoneventinthesystemisrequiredtoterminateabovetheroofline).StudorInc.invented
thetechnologyandsuchventsarepopularinEurope.Airadmittancevalvesallowairtoenterbutprevent
gasesfromescaping(Fig.8).Valvesmustbeaccessibleandinstalledabovethextureserved(Fig.9).
ADVANTAGES:Allowsventingindifcultlocations;savesventingpipeandmaterials.
DISADVANTAGES:Lesscostly,spring-activateddeviceswereusedinmanufacturedhomesandspringcor
rosioncausedahighfailurerate.DiaphragmdesignsofStudorandothersdonothavethecorrosionprob
lem.Notallcodesallowairadmittancevalves.
71
FIGURE8 MAXI-VENT
FIGURE9 AIRADMITTANCEVALVEBEHINDSINK
FURTHER READING
DirectoryofWaterConservingPlumbingProducts,Walnut,CA:IAPMO,updatedmonthly;909-595-8449.
1997DwellingRequirementsoftheUniformPlumbingCode,Walnut,CA:IAPMO;909-595-8449.
InternationalResidentialCode (Draft),InternationalCodeCouncil,FallsChurch,VA,1998.
TheOldHouseJournalGuidetoRestoration,PatriciaPoore,NewYork:E.P.DuttonBooks,1992.
PlumbingaHouse,PeterHemp,Newtown,CT:TheTauntonPress,1994.
TheConsumersGuidetoHomeImprovement,Renovation&Repairs,TheEnterpriseFoundation,New
York:JohnWileyandSons,1995.
PRODUCT INFORMATION
CastIronSoilPipeInstitute,Chattanooga,TN37421;423-892-0137;www.cispi.org.
CharlottePipe&Foundry(castiron),Charlotte,NC28235;800-438-6091;www.charlottepipe.com.
Studor,Inc.AirAdmittanceValves,Dunedin,FL34698;800-447-4721,www.studor.com.
WaterFilmEnergy,Inc.,P.O.Box48,Oakdale,NY11769;516-758-6271;www.oikos.com/gfx.
72
14 F U E L S U P P LY
SYSTEMS
ESSENTIAL KNOWLEDGE
Therearethreepredominantresidentialfuelsystemsnaturalgas,propane,andfueloil.Rehabilitation
mightbenecessaryintheeventofleaks,odors,corrosion,systemdamage,orappliancechange.Gas
manufacturedfromcoalorderivednaturallyfromundergroundsourceshasbeenusedinhousessince
the mid-1880s. Lighting and cooking were rst uses of gas with space and water heating added later.
Propane(liquiedpetroleumgas)becamearesidentialfuelsourceinthe1920sandhasapproximately
5millionresidentialcustomerscurrently.Oilbecameasourceinthesameperiodbutthe22,000houses
builtinLevittown,NewYorkstartingin1947gaveoilabigboost.Therewere16millionresidentialcus
tomerspre-oilembargo(1973),12millionthereafter.
Aswithanyplumbingsystem,theexistingconditionandcodecomplianceshouldbedetermined.
Naturalgassystemdesignsdependuponutilitysupplypressure,heatingvalueofthegas,applianceneeds,
anddistancesfromsupplytoappliances.Negotiatingahigherservicepressurefromtheutilityallowsfora
smallerinternaldistributionsystem.Thegasloadcenterconceptisarelativelynewfuelsysteminnovation.
Theconceptissimilartoelectricaldistributionwithacentralpanelandbranchcircuits.Gaslinescometo
amanifoldatapanelandvalvedbranchrunsconnecttogasappliances.Flexiblegastubingwithfewerjoints
allows the concept to work easily. In some homes in Japan portable cooking appliances and ventless
portablespaceheatersarepluggedintoquick-connectgasoutlets.Thetrendislikelytogrowhereaswell.
MBSturgismakesquick-connectgasoutletsforbarbequesandotherappliances.Anothertrendconcerns
seismicsafety;LosAngelesnowrequiresseismicactivity-triggeredshutoffvalvesforgassystemsinnew
homes.Flexiblegastubing,nowavailable,maybeasafealternativebecauseitislesslikelytoshearorrup
turebetweenjoints.
Propaneandoilsystemsusuallyhaveafueldeliverysourcethatprovidesserviceaswell.System
designsareperlocalandnationalcodes.Thesetwofuelsrequireastoragetankinadditiontothedeliv
erysource.Thepropanetankisownedbytheserviceproviderandmustbeoutsidetheresidence.Tanks
canbebelowgrade,buttypicallyareabove.Tenfeetfromthehouseexteriorisatypicaldistancefortank
location,buttheycanbecloser.Undergroundconnectionsaretypical,withpolybutylenefrequentlyused
asanewundergroundmaterialforpiping.
Oilstoragetankscanbeindoorsoroutdoors.Existingundergroundtanksshouldbesurveyedfor
corrosionamajorproblem,withpotentialenvironmentalimpactsduetoleaks.Indoortanksrequire
ventingandablockedventlinecausesllingproblems.Oilsystemsmayhaveasinglesupplypipeoraloop.
Carbonmonoxide(CO)fromfuelcombustionisasafetyconcernandcertainmanufacturersand
associations recommend installing sensors near potential CO sources. Some rst-generation carbon
monoxidedetectorsweretoosensitiveandalarmedatnon-dangerouslevels.Newdetectorsareavailable
nowwithappropriatealarmthresholds.
73
1.INSTALLSTEELPIPEANDFITTINGS.
Thisisthetraditionalmaterialforresidentialfuelsystems,alongwithcastironpipe.Themajorityofsys
temsusethreadedjointsbutweldedjointsarealsocommoninolderhomes(whichmaymakesystems
rehabmorecomplicated).Itisthemostpopularnaturalgaspipingmaterialinnewconstruction.Therigid
natureofsteelpipemightmakerehabprojectsdifcult.Flexibletubing,ifallowedbyyourlocalcode,usu
allyiseasierforinstallationinrehabwork.
ADVANTAGES:Allcodesapprove;lowmaterialcost;requiresfewersupports;nailproof.
DISADVANTAGES:Labor-intensive;sophisticatedtoolsrequired;rigid;difculttomodify;heavy;cancor
rode; pipe should not be used for support when exposed (clothes racks, etc.) because of pipe dam-
age/breakage.
2.INSTALLCOPPERPIPEANDFITTINGS.
Thisisthetraditionalmaterialusedtodayinresidentialpropaneandfueloilinstallations.Itisallowedby
someutilitiesandcodesfornaturalgasfuelsupplyandispaintedyellowtodistinguishitfromwater
piping.Sulphurfoundinsomegascorrodescopperandinternaltinningisrequiredinthetubing.See
Section12forconnectiontechniques.
ADVANTAGES:Approvedbymostcodes;exible;faster;easiertoinstall;allowslongruns;fewerttings;
lightweight;corrosion-resistant;easytomodify;easyformanifoldsystems;easyappliancehookup.
DISADVANTAGES:Notallowedbysomeutilitiesfornaturalgas;canbeeasilyconfusedwithwaterpiping;
somegasiscorrosivetocopper;needsnailplatestopreventpuncture;needsmorepipesupportsthan
steel.
3.INSTALLCORRUGATEDSTAINLESS-STEELTUBING(CSST).
DevelopedinitiallyinJapan,CSSTwasrstmanufacturedintheU.S.in1988.Itisnowapprovedbymost
majorcodes.CSSTisusedinresidentialandcommercialworkwithnaturalgasandpropane.Itisgain
ingmarketacceptance,withveU.S.manufacturersnowproducingCSST.Featuresmechanicalcouplings
thatvarypermanufacturer.Plumbersrequiretrainingbeforeinstallations.Widelyusedinmanifolddis
tributionsystems.
ADVANTAGES:Widecodeapproval;exible;lightweight;fasterandeasiertoinstall;longrunswithfewer
ttings;easytomodify;one-personinstallation;corrosionproof;easyforusewithmanifoldsystems;eas
ierappliancehookup.
DISADVANTAGES:Newmaterial;stillnotapprovedbysomecodes;highermaterialcost;requiresspecial
izedtoolsforassembly;needsnailplatestostoppunctures;needsmoresupportthansteel.
FURTHER READING
1996ASHRAEHandbook-HVACSystemsandEquipment,ASHRAE,Atlanta,GA,1996.
DomesticOilBurners,CharlesA.Burkhardt,NewYork:McGraw-Hill,1961.
National Fuel Gas Code (NFPA 54), International Approval Services, Cleveland, OH 44131, 1996,
www.gasweb.org/gasweb.
PRODUCT INFORMATION
Coppertube,CopperDevelopmentAssociation,NewYork,NY;800-CDA-DATA;www.copper.org.
GasTite,TiteFlexCorporation(CSST),P.O.Box90054,Springeld,MA01139;800-662-0208;www.tite.ex.
P.G.P.,ParkerHanninCorp.,ParaexDivision,Ravenna,OH44266;800-4-PARFLEX,www.parker.com/fcg.
TracPipe,OmegaFlex,Exton,PA19341,800-671-8622,www.omegaex.com.
WARDFLEXWardManufacturing,Blossburg,PA16912;800-248-1027;www.wardmfg.com.
74
15 A P P L I A N C E V E N T S
&EXHAUSTS
ESSENTIAL KNOWLEDGE
Combustionappliancesrequireventingandcertainappliancesrequireexhausting.Rehabworkonventsand
exhaustsmaybeneededbecauseoffailureofequipment,venting,orstructure.Ventingfailuresmaybedeadly
orcausehealthproblems,andaredifculttoascertain.Carbonmonoxidedeathsareofteninthenewsand
detectorsarebecomingmorecommon.Ventingfailureindicatorsmightincludecorrosion,smoke(withoil
equipment),soot,backdrafting,applianceoperationfailure,excessmoisture,orvisualdamage.
Combustionappliancescanbefueledbynaturalgas,propane(liquiedpetroleumgas),oroil.
Traditionally,appliancesweredesignedwithadrafthoodordivertertoventcombustiongases.Ventswere
sizedbasedontablesindicatingmaximumcapacitiesforcertainventarea,height,lateral(horizontalrun),
andmaterial.Traditionalventingmaterialsaremasonry(linedandunlined),cementasbestospipe,and
single-andmulti-walledmetalpipe.
The 1987 U.S. National Appliance Energy Conservation Act (NAECA) increased minimum
efciencyrequirementsforresidentialgasandoil-redappliances,becauseventswillnotperformprop
erlyiftheyaretoolargeortoosmall.Theannualfuelutilizationefciency(AFUE)becameatleast78%
forgasappliancesand80%foroil.NewappliancesmeetingtheseandhigherAFUEratingsproducefewer
andcoolercombustionproducts.Condensationandcorrosioncanbeaproblembecausemoisturecan
deterioratechimneysthroughfreeze/thawactionandcorrodemetalvents.Newhigh-efciency,self-con
densingappliancesproducesuchcool,moistexhaustthattheyuseventingmaterialssimilartodrainsys
temmaterialsandneedtobeslopedtodrainthemoisture.
In response to higher efciency appliances, the National Fuel Gas Code (NFPA 54) in 1992
changedventingdesignrequirementswithconcernforminimumandmaximumuecapacities.Certain
fan-assistedcombustionsystemapplianceswereincludedtoovercomeventingproblems.Oilappliance
ventingdesignstandardshaveneverbeenpublishedbutareexpectedinNFPAStandard31.
Somenon-combustionappliancesrequireexhausts.Codesrequireclothesdryerexhausts,and
gasrangesshouldbeexhausted(butarenotrequiredtobe).Dryerfailureindicatorsmaybeexcessmois
ture,clothesnotdrying,highenergybills,smoke,orodors.Lintandgreasebuildupcancreaterehaz
ards,whileblockedsystemsorcombustionby-productscancreatehealthhazards.
Thephysicalconditionoftheexistingventingandexhaustsystemshouldbechecked,especially
toinsurethepassagewayisproperlylined,clear,andfreeofobstructions.Ifthevent/chimneywasprevi
ouslyusedforsolidorliquidfuel,itshouldbecleaned.Thefailureindicatorsmentionedaboveneedto
bereviewedandsystemoperationveried.Agesofcombustionappliancesshouldbematchedtothevent
system to determine if a new efcient appliance has been installed without an appropriate ue
modication.Asmentionedabove,improperventinganduedamagemayresult.Existingoilappliances
mighthavehadtheirolderburnersreplacedwiththemoreefcientretention-headoilburner.Thiscould
requireauemodicationbecausenewlevelsofwaterandacidconcentrationcouldbepresent.Typically
corrosion-resistantmaterialsand/orheatlossreductionareintroducedtoensureproperdraftandreduce
condensation.Somecodesrequiretheexistingchimneyorventbebroughtintocodeconformanceifa
newapplianceisconnected.
Aproperlydesignedventcontrolsdraftandremovesuegases.Selectionofareplacementvent
orcheckingcomplianceshouldconsiderfactorssuchasappliancedraft,conguration,size,heat,and
75
condition; construction of surroundings; building height; material selection; and code requirements.
Chartsincodesshowselection,clearancefromcombustiblematerial,andventterminationrequirements.
Gasappliancesareclassiedinfourcategoriesthatallowdifferentlistedventproducts.CategoryIhasnon-
positiveventstaticpressurewithventgastemperaturethatavoidsexcessivecondensationproductioninthe
vent.ATypeBventislistedandlabeledforthiscategory.Othercategoriesrequirespecialvents.Additional
requirementsexistformultipleappliancevents.Direct-ventedapplianceshavethrough-wall designs. To
ensureintakeairandcombustiongasoutletsareinproperlocations,oneguideisshown(Fig.1).
FIGURE1 THROUGH-WALLVENTLOCATIONS
2.INSTALLANEWEXHAUSTFORARANGE.
Rangeexhauststypicallyarenotcoderequired,relyingonwindowsforexhaustornon-ventingltersfor
cleaningair.Rangeexhaustsarerecommendedforindoorairqualityandsafetyissues,particularlyforgas
ranges,asemissionsofcarbonmonoxide,nitrousoxide,andothersarepresent.Fouledburnerscanpro
ducedangerouslevelsofbenzene,indicatedbyayellowame.Moistureisaproductofgascombustionas
well,withagallonofmoisturereleasedper100,000Btu/hrinput(1/8gallonperhourperaverageburner).
Kitchenexhaustscanberecirculatingorcirculating.Recirculatingexhausthoodsdonotexhaustandmove
approximately40cfmofairthroughalterthenbacktothekitchen.Filtersareeithercharcoaloractivated
carboncoatedber,andrequiremaintenance.Circulatingexhaustsvaryfrom150cfmaveragetwo-speed
hoodstodowndraftexhaustsof500cfmormore.Manufacturersprovidesimilarductopeningssoequip
mentcanbereplaced(typically31/4"x10"or7"round).Ductlengthiscriticalandmanufacturersrecom
mendationshouldbefollowed.Smoothmetalductmaterialispreferredoverexiblemetal.Anequivalent
lengthadjustmentmustbemadeforex.
ADVANTAGES:Betterindoorairquality;mitigatesrehazard.
DISTADVANTAGES:Recirculatinghoodsdonotaddresscombustionproductsandarenotrecommended.
FURTHER READING
1996ASHRAEHandbook-HVACSystemsandEquipment,ASHRAE,Atlanta,GA,1996.
DomesticOilBurners,CharlesA.Burkhardt,NewYork:McGraw-Hill,1961.
ESourceTechnologyAtlasSeries:ResidentialAppliances,ESource,Inc.,Boulder,CO,80302,303-440-
8500,1996,www.esource.com.
NationalFuelGasCode(NFPA54),InternationalApprovalServices,ClevelandOH44131,1996.
77
16 F I R E P R O T E C T I O N
SYSTEMS
ESSENTIAL KNOWLEDGE
AccordingtotheNationalFireProtectionAssociation(NFPA),therewere406,500residentialresand
3,360deathsintheU.S.in1997.Domesticresarelowprobabilitybuthighconsequenceevents.Experts
indicatethatmostresoccurinkitchens,family/livingrooms,andbedrooms,withhighestlossoflifein
bedroomsandfamily/livingrooms.Firesreportedlyburnhotterandfasterthan25yearsagobecauseof
newermaterialsinhomefurnishings.
ThisOldHouse magazinerecommendsaddingsprinklerheadsduringrehabtowatersystemsa
someprotectionisbetterthannonephilosophy.However,reprotectionengineerssayanaddedsystem
maynotperformadequatelybecausetherearenohydrauliccalculationstoverifythatthesystemwillwork.
Novalvesoralarmsareavailabletotellwhenthesprinklersmightaccidentlyfail.Aloopisneededwithsprin
klerheadssothatstandingwaterinthepipeswillnotbeaconcernpotablewaterthatdoesnotcirculate
canbecomecontaminated.TheDirectorofOperationLifeSafetyoftheInternationalAssociationofFireChiefs
suggestsaddingresprinklerstovariousareasrehabed,essentiallyaddingasystemonaninstallmentplan
basis.Otherprofessionalstakeanallornothingapproachtosprinklersystems.Addinganautomaticre
sprinklersystemcanaddtolifesafetyandpropertyprotection.Automaticresprinklersystemsarerequired
insomerehabconstructionincertainjurisdictions.Thelocalcodeshouldbeconsulted.
NFPASection13Dgovernsresidentialsprinklersystemsforone-andtwo-familyconstruction.
ResidentialsystemsarerelativelynewwithNFPA13D,adoptedin1980.Complexautomaticreprotection
systemsarecommonlyinstalledincommercial,institutional,andhigh-riseconstruction.Residentialsys
temsaredesignedtobelesscomplex.Lifesafetyisthetoppriorityinresidentialapplications,compared
tosavingpropertyincommercialsystems.Still,requirementsaredeemedtooextremeandcostlybymany.
Opponentsfeelmoreeffectivesolutionscouldbeenacted.NFPA13Drequiressprinklersinmostrooms
withowstoallowoccupants10minutesescapetime.Themultipurposesystemcombiningplumbingand
resprinklersarenewlyapprovedbyNFPAandcouldbeconsidered.Insurancecompaniesmayprovide
a5%to20%yearlyinsurancerebatetohomeownerswithsprinklersystems.Canadianinsurersmaypro-
videa35%to40%rebate.
Automaticresprinklersystemsaredesignedtoprovideminimumwaterowfromheadsfora
speciedescapetime.NFPA13Drequiresatleastoneautomaticwatersupply.Forhomesnotonapublic
watersystem,acapturedwatersupplylargeenoughfora10-minuteowfromtwoheadsisrequired.
Pools,tanks(elevatedorwithelectricpumps),ortankspressurizedwithnitrogenpropellantmaybeused.
Residentialsprinklersareseparatewetsystems,comparedtowetordrystandpipesystemsfound
incommercialconstruction.Systemsupplycongurationsandconnectionsvaryintypeandcomplexityand
areusuallydeterminedbylocalcode.NFPA13Drequiressprinklersinmostrooms,exceptbaths,closets,
attics,andgarages.Headsinnon-habitablespacesprovideasystemwithbettercoverage,butthisismore
difcultandcostly,particularlyinrehabwork.Wetsystemsalsoneedprotectionforfreezingtemperatures.
Aresprinklerprofessional,familiarwiththelocalcoderequirements,shoulddesignthesystem.
Piping materials include welded and seamless steel, wrought steel, copper, and chlorinated
polyvinyl chloride (CPVC) and polybutylene (PB). All are common materials used in residential con
struction. Copper can be used in any area, but CPVC must be used in concealed areas or adjacent to
smoothceilings.CPVCresprinklerpipeisadifferentproductthanwatersupplypipewithdifferentcode
approvals,andthetwocannotbecombinedinmostcases.Bothcanbeusedwiththesamettingsbut
78
havevaryingwallthicknesses.Forexample,BFGoodrichBlazeMasterCPVChaspipewallthicknessofSDR
13.5IPSvs.FlowGuardGoldwithSDR11CTS.
PEXcross-linkedpolyethylene,multipurposetubingsystemforsprinklershasbeensubmittedfor
UL approval, (approval appears likely), which would lower the 175 psi pressure requirement to 130.
Smallerpiperuns,1/2"vs.3/4"or1"wouldbefeaturedwithmultipleserviceconnectionstoeachsprin
klerhead.Thematerialwouldbeaverycost-effectiveandeasyproducttoinstallinrehabs.Checkwith
yourlocalcodeofcial.
Sprinklerheadsvaryindesignandtype.Theycanbeceilingorsidewallmounted,concealedor
exposed, and in metallic or prepainted nishes. Quick-response residential sprinkler heads contain a
fusiblelink,pelletorfrangibleglassbulb.Allmustbenationallylistedandapproved.Therearemany
headsavailablewithwidelyrangingperformanceratings(kfactor).Coveragefrom144sfto400sfper
headispossibledependingonavailableowratesandsystempressure.ThereisaConsumerProducts
SafetyCommissionnationalactionledalongwithvarioussuitsagainstCentralsOmegasprinklerheads.
Theheadswhentestedfailedtoworkatthedesignatedpressure,butmostworkedathigherpressures.If
therehabprojectincludestheseheadstheInternationalAssociationofFireChiefsrecommendsyouhave
Omegaheadsremovedandreplaced.
Othersystemelementsincludeariserandcomponentsthatcontrolandmonitorfortheowof
water to the system. The riser components may vary depending on design and code requirements.
Typically,theyconsistofacheckvalvethatletswaterowinonlyonedirection,apressuregauge,apres
surereliefcircuitanddrain,aowswitch,andatestvalve.Theriserisconnectedtothesupply.Ifthe
watersupplyisnotpublic,atank,pond,orsourceotherthanawellwillbeneeded.Self-containedsys
temsareavailablewithelectricpumpsorpneumaticpressuresystems.
Ifrunningdistributionpipingwithinnishedwallsisnotpossible,DecoShieldmakesaULlisted
cover and support system. The product was designed for surface mounting retrot systems in existing
buildingsandwouldbeappropriateformostrehabs(Fig.1).
FIGURE1 DECOSHIELDSYSTEM
79
2.INSTALLAMULTIPURPOSERESIDENTIALSPRINKLERSYSTEM.
NFPAissuedaTechnicalInterimAmendmentonOctober28,1998approvingmultipurposeorcombined
systemsforSection13D.Thismeanstheresprinkleranddomesticwaterdistributionsystemcanbecom
bined. Most plumbing codes prohibit such systems, but Highland Springs, California and Dupont,
Washingtonaretwoofmanylocalesthatallowthem.
ADVANTAGES:Lowercostthanstand-alonesystems;cannotbedeactivatedaccidentally;reducedmaterials
andlabor;easiertoinstall.
DISADVANTAGES:Doesnotincludeanalarm;someplumbingcodesdonotallow;contaminatedwateris
possiblewithoutloopsinthesystem;futureadditionstothehouseswatersystem(i.e.,watersoftenersand
backowprevention)couldhurtcalculatedeffectiveness.
3.INSTALLACOPPERPIPEDSYSTEM.
Copperhasbeeninuseforsprinklerssincethe1930sandremainsthemostpopularpipingmaterialfor
stand-aloneandmultipurposesystems.Approvalofalternativematerialsthatcostlessandareeasierto
installmightchangetheuseofcopperpiping.TheintegralsolderingttingdescribedinSection12can
speedconstruction.
ADVANTAGES: Code-approved in any installation; commonly used in other plumbing systems; relatively
easyinstallation;fabricatedbysolderingorbrazingusingconventionalequipmentorelectricresistance
tools;compactwithinthinwalls;teescanbepulledmechanically.
DISADVANTAGES:Costly;morerigidthanplastic;brazingorsolderingarepotentiallydangerous;pipemay
besubjecttocondensation;susceptibletotheft.
4.INSTALLACPVC-PIPEDSYSTEM.
CPVCwaterpipinghasbeenusedinsingle-familyhousingsince1959.Areformulationinthe1990ssolved
coldweatherworkabilityproblems.CPVCforresprinklersisadifferentproductandwasintroducedin
1986. Code requires CPVC to be installed behind a thermal barrier in most cases, except with quick
responsesprinklersinspecialcases.
ADVANTAGES:Lowcost;somewhatexible;moreeasilyinstalledwithcutandglue/weldttings;better
insulationpropertiesthancopper.
DISADVANTAGES:Uselimitedtospecicareas;moresupportrequired;transitionsneededtoothernon-
PVCsections;charsduringre.
FURTHER READING
AutomaticSprinklerSystemsHandbook,Quincy,MA:NationalFireProtectionAssociation,1997.
TheEconomicsofFastResponseResidentialSprinklerSystems,FireJournal,May1985.
NationalFireProtectionAssociation,Section13D,InstallationandSprinklerSystemsinOne-andTwo-
FamilyDwellingsandManufacturedHomes,Quincy,MA,1996.
SprinklerCodesAChanging, JournalofLightConstruction,Dec.1989.
Sprinkle,SprinkleLittleStar,ThisOldHouse,Jan.1998.
PRODUCT INFORMATION
BFGoodrichBlazeMaster,Cleveland,OH44141;800-331-1144;www.bfgoodrich.com.
CreativeSystems,Inc.,DecoShield,Jamesville,WI53545;608-757-0717.
ReliableAutomaticSprinklerCo.,Mt.Vernon,NY10552;800-431-1588;www.reliablesprinkler.com.
80
APPENDIX
PROFESSIONAL ASSOCIATIONS AND RESEARCH CENTERS
AIRCONDITIONINGCONTRACTORSOF AMERICANSOCIETYOFSANITARY
AMERICA(ACCA) ENGINEERING(ASSE)
1712NewHampshireAvenue,NW 28901ClemensRoad,Suite100
Washington,DC20009 Westlake,OH44145
202-483-9370 440-835-3040
www.acca.org www.asse-plumbing.org
AIRCONDITIONINGANDREFRIGERATION AMERICANSOCIETYFORTESTINGAND
INSTITUTE(ARI) MATERIALS(ASTM)
4301NorthFairfaxDrive,Suite425 100BarrHarborDrive
Arlington,VA22203 WestConshohocken,PA19428
www.ari.org 610-832-9500
www.astm.org
AMERICANCOUNCILFORANENERGY-
EFFICIENTECONOMY(ACEEE) BUILDERSHARDWAREMANUFACTURERS
1001ConnecticutAve.NW,#535 ASSOCIATION
Washington,DC20036 355LexingtonAvenue,17thFloor
202-429-8873 NewYork,NY10017
www.aceee.org 212-661-4261
www.buildershardware.com
AMERICANGASASSOCIATION
400N.CapitolStreet,N.W. BUILDINGOFFICIALS&CODE
Washington,DC20001 ADMINISTRATORS(BOCA)International,Inc.
202-824-7000 4051WestFlossmoorRoad
www.aga.org CountryClubHills,IL60478-5795
708-799-2300
AMERICANNATIONALSTANDARDSINSTITUTE www.bocai.org
11West42ndStreet,13thFloor
NewYork,NY10036 CANADAMORTGAGEANDHOUSING
212-642-4900 CORPORATION
www.ansi.org HousingInformationCenter
700MontrealRoad
AMERICANSOCIETYOFHEATING, Ottawa,ON,CanadaKIAOP7
REFRIGERATING,ANDAIR-CONDITIONING 613-748-2367
ENGINEERS(ASHRAE) www.cmhc-schl.gc.ca
1791TullieCircle,NE
Atlanta,GA30329 CANADIANSTANDARDSASSOCIATION
404-636-8400 178RexdaleBoulevard
www.ashrae.org Etobicoke(Toronto),ONM9W1R3
416-747-4000
AMERICANSOCIETYOFPLUMBING www.csa.ca
ENGINEERS(ASPE)
3617ThousandOaksBlvd.,#210
Westlake,CA91362-3649
805-495-7120 81
www.aspe.org
CONSORTIUMFORENERGYEFFICIENCY
GREENSEAL
303CongressStreet,Suite600
140016thStreet,NWSuite300
Boston,MA02210
Washington,DC20036-2215
617-330-9755
202-588-8400
www.greenseal.org/
CONSTRUCTIONSPECIFICATIONSINSTITUTE
99CanalCenterPlaza,Suite300
HEARTHPRODUCTSASSOCIATION
Alexandria,VA22314
2848ArdenWay,Suite200
703-931-4533
Sacramento,CA95825
www.csinet.org
916-974-1188
EDISONELECTRICINSTITUTE
HOMEENERGYRATINGSYSTEMSCOUNCIL
701PennsylvaniaAve.NW
1331HSt.,NW,Suite1000
Washington,DC20004
Washington,DC20005
202-508-5000
202-638-3700(phone)
www.eei.org
202-393-5043(fax)
www.hers-council.org
ELECTRICPOWERRESEARCHINSTITUTE
3412HillviewAve.
HOMEVENTILATINGINSTITUTE
PaloAlto,CA94303
DivisionofAMCA
800-313-3774
30WestUniversityDrive
www.epri.com
ArlingtonHeights,IL60004
847-394-0150
EVAPORATIVECOOLINGINSTITUTE
P.O.Box3ECI
INTERNATIONALASSOCIATIONOFPLUMBING
LasCruces,NM88003
ANDMECHANICALOFFICIALS(IAPMO)
505-646-3948
20001E.WalnutDriveSouth
Walnut,CA91789-2825
FLORIDASOLARENERGYCENTER(FSEC)
909-595-8449
1679ClearlakeRoad
www.iapmonet.ort
Cocoa,FL32922
407-638-1000
INTERNATIONALCODECOUNCIL
www.fsec.ucf.edu
5203LeesburgPike,Suite708
FallsChurch,VA22041
GASRESEARCHINSTITUTE
703-931-4533
8600BrynMawrAve.
www.intlcode.org
Chicago,IL60631
312-399-8100
INTERNATIONALGROUNDSOURCEHEAT
www.gri.org
PUMPASSOCIATION
490CordellSouth
GEOTHERMALHEATPUMPCONSORTIUM,INC.
OklahomaStateUniversity
701PennsylvaniaAve.,N.W.
Stillwater,OK74078
Washington,D.C.20004-2696
800-626-4747
202-508-5500
82
www.ghpc.org
INTERNATIONALREMODELING
NATIONALASSOCIATIONOFPLUMBING,
CONTRACTORSASSOCIATION
HEATINGANDCOOLINGCONTRACTORS
1RegencyDrive
180S.WashingtonSt.
Bloomeld,CT06002
P.O.Box6808
800-937-4722
FallsChurch,VA22040
703-237-8100
INTERNATIONALSTANDARDSORGANIZATION
www.naphcc.org
1,ruedeVarembe
Casepostale56
NATIONALASSOCIATIONOFTHE
CH-1211Geneve20,Switzerland
REMODELINGINDUSTRY
41-22-749-01-11
4900SeminaryRoad,Suite320
http://iso.ch./welcome.html
Arlington,VA22311
703-575-1100
LAWRENCEBERKELEYNATIONAL
www.nari.org
LABORATORY
BuildingTechnologiesProgram
NATIONALFIREPROTECTIONASSOCIATION
EnergyandEnvironmentDivision
1BatterymarchPark
LawrenceBerkeleyLaboratory,Berkeley,CA
Quincy,MA02269-9101
94721
800-344-3555
510-486-6844
eandelbl.gov/BTP/BTP.html
NATIONALPROPANEGASASSOCIATION
1600EisenhowerLane,Suite100
MECHANICALCONTRACTORSASSOCIATIONOF
Lisle,IL60532
AMERICA(MCAA)
708-515-0600
1385PiccardDrive
www.propanegas.com
Rockville,MD20850-4329
301-869-5800
NATIONALRENEWABLEENERGYLABORATORY
www.mcaa.org
1617ColeBoulevard
Golden,CO80401
NAHBREMODLERSCOUNCIL
303-275-3000
120115thStreet,NW
www.nrel.gov
Washington,DC20005
202-822-0212
NATIONALTECHNICALINFORMATIONSERVICE
www.nahb.com/remodelc.html
USDepartmentofCommerce
www.fedworld.gov/ntis/ntishome.html
NATIONALASSOCIATIONOFARCHITECTURAL
METALMANUFACTURERS
OAKRIDGENATIONALLABORATORY
8S.MichiganAve.,Suite1000
BuildingEnvelopeSystemsandMaterials
Chicago,IL60603-3305
P.O.Box2008
312-456-5590
OakRidge,TN37831-6070
423-574-4345
www.cad.ornl.gov/kch/demo.html
83
PLASTICSPIPEINSTITUTE
U.S.DEPARTMENTOFENERGY
1801KSt.,Suite600
BuildingSystemsandMaterialsDivision
Washington,DC20006-1301
EE-421
202-974-5318
1000IndependenceAvenue,SW
www.plasticpipe.org
Washington,DC20585
2025869214
PLUMBINGMANUFACTURERSINSTITUTE
www.doe.gov
(PMI)
800RooseveltRoad
U.S.DEPARTMENTOFENERGYS
BuildingC,Suite20
ENERGYEFFICIENCYANDRENEWABLE
GlenEllyn,IL60137
ENERGYNETWORK
630-858-9172
www.eren.doe.gov
www.pmihome.org
U.S.DEPARTMENTOFENERGYSENERGY
RADIANTPANELASSOCIATION
EFFICIENCYANDRENEWABLEENERGY
P.O.Box327
CLEARINGHOUSE
Hyrum,UT84319
P.O.Box3048
801-245-0128
Merrield,VA22116
800-363-3732
SHEETMETALANDAIRCONDITIONING
www.eren.doe.gov/erec/
CONTRACTORSNATIONALASSOCIATION
(SMACNA)
U.S.DEPARTMENTOFHOUSING
4201LafayetteCenterDrive
ANDURBANDEVELOPMENT
Chantilly,VA22021
HUDUser
703-803-2980
P.O.Box6091
Rockville,MD20849
SOUTHFACEENERGYINSTITUTE
www.huduser.org
241PineStreet
800-245-2691
Atlanta,GA30308
404-872-3549
U.S.GOVERNMENTFEDERALINFORMATION
http://southface.org
NETWORK
www.fedworld.gov/
SUSTAINABLEBUILDINGSINDUSTRYCOUNCIL
1331HStreet,NW,Suite1000
Washington,DC20005
202-628-7400
www.sbicouncil.org
UNDERWRITERSLABORATORIES,INC.
333PngstenRoad
Northbrook,IL60062-2096
847-272-8800
www.ul.com
84
THEREHABGUIDE
VOLUMEONE: FOUNDATIONS
VOLUMETWO: EXTERIORWALLS
VOLUMETHREE: ROOFS
VOLUMEFOUR: WINDOWSANDDOORS
VOLUMEFIVE: PARTITIONS,CEILINGS,FLOORSANDSTAIRS
VOLUMESIX: KITCHENS&BATHS
VOLUMESEVEN: ELECTRICAL/ELECTRONICS
VOLUMEEIGHT: HVAC/PLUMBING
VOLUMENINE: SITEWORK
U.S.DepartmentofHousingandUrbanDevelopment
Washington,DC20410-6000
OfcialBusiness August1999
PenaltyforPrivateUse,$300 HUD-DU100C000005956