Continuity

George Melies
The very first public filming screening was by the Lumiere Brothers in December 29, 1895,
Grand Cafe, Paris. This film consisted of workers leaving the Lumiere factory (unseen) and the
arrival of a train at LA Ciotat. The most important and interesting thing that grabbed the attention
of the audiences, were the dancing shadows and machines behind, rather than the content.
George Melies - who was a professional magician - was also an audience in the Grand Cafe,
Paris, who attempted to buy the cinematograph machine for 10,000 francs, however, seeing him
as a potential competition the Lumiere Brothers refused. Therefore instead, Melies bought an
animatograph for 1,000 francs, changed and reversed the mechanics - he was also a mechanic
- and created his own camera. A few months into the Grand Cafe screening, Melies started
making and showing his own films as part of his stage show.

A cinematograph - 1895, George Melies, The Lumiere Brothers

In 1896 Melies was shooting a bus coming out of a tunnel were suddenly, his camera jammed.
When Melies got it to start working again, he found that the bus was replaced by a hearse. Due
to this technical error once Melies watched over the video, he found that it looked magical that
the bus turned into a hearse, this is now called a jump cut.

Edwin.S.Porter
Early days of filming were about filming every day events rather than making stories. Auguste
Lumiere said there is no future in filmmaking because there is no point in paying for theatres or
cinemas when you could just see it outside your window.. However, Edwin S. Porter saw
potential in film and discovered that cutting several shots and putting them together could make
a story. Porter directed a film called Life of an American fireman, the first film to create the
sense of tension.

Porter started off as a videoscope projectionist, setting up the first Edisons projector Koster &
Bials Music Hall in NYC, 1896. He operated his own equipment up until the 1900s when he
joined the Edison Manufacturing Company and became the head of production for the Edisons
Skylight Studios, NYC, 1901. Over the next 5 years he served as the Edisons go to director &
cameraman, his projectionist background gave him a unique insight into film. He was inspired
by the work of George Melies - especially Trip to the Moon, 1902s - and decided to make his
own film Life of an American Fireman, 1903s. This film was unique because Porter took
stocked footage from the Edison library and spliced together the stage scenes to create a
fictional narrative. There was a common use of temporal overlaps where actions are duplicated
from one shot to another (shots with overlapping actions), which Porter does twice throughout
this film.

Although the camera in position is kept in this film, Porter cuts between scenes through fades
and dissolves without letting the scene reach the logical end. There was new cinematic
language produced, the importance of shot rather than scene and meaning came from how the
shots were arranged in time - along with actors and props etc.

The Miller and the Sweep

The Miller and the Sweep has a simple narrative and uses a static camera throughout with a
single shot duration. The film uses in camera editing where the director uses start/stop film to
tell the story. We find that the frame is treated like a stage set as theatres were the only
storytelling at the time. Therefore, one of the first ideas for new filming would be theatrical.
There were on and off actors, actors would go off of camera which results in the audience
missing the acting and some storytelling at this point. The audience is provided the first row
audience view with the static camera and single shots used. The film explains one type of story,
rather than using meanwhile there is only one story trying to be told.

The Great Train Robbery, 1903 - E.S.Porter

When watching this film we can see that Edwin.S.Porter has used in camera editing throughout
the filming in order to tell its narrative. In the very first shots he uses a panorama with live action
in order to suggest the live action is taking place and the train is moving (1) of the train set they
have placed, in order to give the film a sense of reality of the train actually moving. This is done
by the panorama being rolled around the train in order to make it look like live action is taking
place and the train is moving. This projection would have been done, through someone spinning
for the movement outside the window. The long shot of the 3 men (1) gives the idea of them
threatening the guy while the train is moving. We have this idea reinforced to us in the second
shot (2) - exterior of the train - with the MS of the train stopping and carrying on again,
reinforcing to us the idea of the train moving in the first shot.
 1 2

In the next shot there is a long duration long shot of a guy in the train (3). The camera is static
and keeps the LS throughout the time it is there. Again, there is a panorama being rolled around
with live action placed outside the set door/window, to suggest the train is still moving. Next,
two men walk into the shot through the door giving the impression of them being thieves and
automatically start shooting the guy. Porter then uses a jump cut from the men placing a bomb
(4) to the explosion (5) in order to give the idea of them exploding the box to find what they
need. This jump cut would have been done by stopping and starting the film via camera, which
is called in camera editing. This was done this way in 1903, as there was no equipment or
programmes to do editing like it is done today. During this the projection carries on and the LS
with the static camera is kept throughout.

3 4 5

Porter then takes the camera and places it exterior, on top of the train (6) to show us what is
taking place there. This is changing the position of the camera in order to follow the action,
which Porter uses in order to control what the audience sees. There is then a jump cut whilst the
thief is fighting with a guy where the body of the guy gets changed into a doll while on the floor
(7) to then suggest the thief has thrown him off of the train (8), giving the suggestion of him
being killed. This is also done by in camera editing (stop/start) therefore giving Porter the control
of what the audience sees, with what he wants them to see.

6 7 8

We are then taken to a LS of the thieves with a group of people of who they are searching (9).
Once they grab what they need, we see the thieves exit the shot running to the right with bags
in their hands (10). However, this is an error made as in the next shot of the thieves running
away, they enter the shot coming from the left side (11). Porter has again decided to use the
camera to follow the action by changing its position in order to fit the action, to show the
audience the narrative - the running off - instead of using a panning/tracking shot. Although
there are limited of tracking/panning shots, at the beginning of part 3, this film lacks in the use of
them.
 9 10 11

Porter introduces us to part 3 of the silent film through the use of a panning shot of the forest
with the thieves coming down to get onto the horses (12). The use of the cut to the LS of the
guy tied up on the floor from the forest, suggests to us the meanwhile effect (13). We have a
little girl who walks into the shot to rescue the man, with the train set and live projection to
reinforce the realistic environment (14).

12 13 14

With the use of meanwhile once again, we are taken to a LS of people doing a barn dance
(15). We have jump cuts within this during the dancing to give further effect of the smoke from
gun (16). When watching the barn dance as the audience, we automatically get the feeling of
something is about to happen, we are then cut to the LS of the forest, reinforcing meanwhile
once again (17). Just before this LS we find a guy disturbs the barn dance, which could be bad
news related to the people in the forest. We are then cut to another LS of the thieves who are
looking through the bags (18). We then find the connection between the people on the horses
rushing somewhere and the thieves in the forest, which is that they are after the thieves (19).
The change of locations and shots throughout the film suggest to us a multiple story plot as
there has been cross cutting used in order to suggest the meanwhile.

15 16 17

18 19

In the final scene, Porter provides the audience with a close up of a guy holding a gun towards
the camera (20), giving the sense of him wanting to shoot the audience. Putting the audience in
a different position, Porter is able to place the camera once again to match the action.
 20

During the barn dance we realise that there has been colour featured on the ladies dresses
(21). As there were no colour films back in 1903, the director would have hired someone -
possibly an artist - in order to add the colours, by individually colouring the celluloid frames by
hand.

21

D.W.Griffiths
Before leaving Edisons, Porter hired a young actor for his film Rescued from an Eagles Nest,
1908. Griffiths - stage name Lawrence Griffith - was inspired by Porter. He wanted to be a
writer, however his poems werent very great, therefore he started writing scenarios for movie
production companies in result of an advice from a friend. He submitted an adapted play to
Porter, who rejected for there being too many scenes, however, decided to hire Griffith to star in
one of his films. He was positioned at Biograph Co. NYC in 1896 to be a director and directed a
single real The Adventures of Dollie in 1908 - shot within two days - and was given a $45/week
contract. Under contract, Griffiths made 450+ films for Biograph from 1908 - 1911, pushing
cinema and films out of the theatre theme to a multi shot medium recognised now. His first
inventions were the cut in which he first used in Greasers Gauntlet in 1908 - 4 months after his
1st film for Biograph. He used shots like MLS to full shots to show the impact of the exchange
between the two actors, which was a brand new concept. He started continuity editing, a cutting
style that maintains a sense of continuous space and time. There were multiple cameras used,
where then the 180 degree rule arrived. This rule was to keep the camera on one side of the
axis of action, to prevent and avoid any geographical continuity problems. His film After Many
Years, 1908 used intercutting or cross cutting, which is cutting between shots in different
scenes in a parallel action. The Lonely Villa in 1909 also used intercutting.

Birth of a Nation - D.W.Griffith - 1915

D.W.Griffith makes significant changes to editing 5 years after E.S.Porter. Throughout the film
Griffith presents to its audience changes he has made. One of the first editing techniques we
see is the cut from a LS of a room during a meeting (1), to a MS of the guy talking to its
audience (2). This cut suggests that Griffith is trying to show further detail about the characters
to its audience. Griffith was one of the first people to introduce this editing technique however,
only used at the beginning as he did not have the awareness of editing, as we do today. We are
then cut to a MS of a lady (3), which provides us detailed information about the audience in the
meeting and how they feel about the situation. Some media companies were complaining about
the use of CUs and MSs as they argued that they are paying for the whole body of the actor,
why are we only being shown the face or half a body through a close up. However the use of
this editing technique allowed Griffith to get rid of the theatrical approach and the three walled
set environment and begin to develop the grammar of filmmaking.

1 2 3

Griffith then places some texts on a black screen (4), where he then cuts back to some footage
of a young girl and her dad (5). This helps the producer demonstrate what they are explaining
within the writing but also to explain the content of the next scene. There is a LS (5) of the father
and daughter, where once she is done with making his hair we cut to a MS of them holding
hands (6). Griffith carries on this technique throughout the film as this provides more information
and detail about facial expressions and body gestures of the characters. The use of this text is
also almost like the narrative (story telling) of the film that has not been included.

4 5 6

Towards the end of the 4 minutes we have watched, we see that Griffith uses a eyeline match
shot (7-8) to show the audience what the character is looking at. This shot also allows the
producer to give further detail about the scene and the letter. Editing here is used to draw
attention to important props/aspects of the mise en scene that impact the overall narrative. One
other similar shot we find in this film, is the point of view shot. We first have a LS of a scene
where there are children being put on a carriage (9) and driven away, where we then cut to a
MS of a guy (10) that looks as if he is watching something. At this point it is not absolutely clear
that he is watching the carriage and children, however, after we have another cut to the children
and the carriage which drives off to the distance, we are convinced that the guy is watching the
children. After this LS of the carriage driving away (9), we are cut back to a MS of the guy
starting to open the gate and walk towards the area (10), giving us the suggestion that the guy
was waiting for the children and carriage to leave, before he could. In this scene Griffiths uses a
POV shot with a LS insert of a prop to support the narrative. Through the discovery of the start
and stop camera, Griffiths has used this in a different way in order to be able to tell the narrative
to the audience with more detail than Porter had provided to his audience in 1903. By this stage
they are cutting celluloid by hand and gluing it to edit.
 7 8 9 10

In the scene with the two guys talking a girl enters the scene. Whilst she is still at the door we
get jump shots of her shoes (11), the use of these jump shots allows the producer provide the
audience with some entertainment and surprise of not knowing how the producer has done that.
We then get the idea of an action match during the MS of the two guys calling the sister over
(12). He waves his arms in order to grab her attention and to gesture that he is calling her over,
where we are then cut to a MS of the sister where she looks up (13) and starts walking towards
them (14). Throughout the film Griffiths cuts to a black screen with writing after certain shots, in
order to demonstrate what is happening (15). This text is used as the narrator of the film, with
descriptions of what is happening, providing the audience further detail. Therefore there is a
shift in the attitude and approach towards filming, as they are aware that the narrative will be
placed in during the editing. This shift is where we get the idea of the establishing of continuity
editing and the basic grammar of filmmaking. Griffiths positions the camera in order to put us in
the world of the film, as if the camera is an unseen character (3rd eye). The use of this allows us
to have a wider understanding of the film and also to make us feel like we are more engaged
with the narrative. Although this is done differently now, back in 1915 this was the most
successful way of doing this.

11 12 13

14 15

Citizen Kane - Orson Welles - 1941 (opening)

Kane here uses Moviola which arrived in 1924. He also uses an optical printer for fades and
overlays.

One of the very first shots we see in Citizen Kane is a close up of a fence with a no trespassing
sign on it. The camera is static whilst the shot fades in for a few seconds and then starts to pan
up (1). A few seconds later Welles uses a cross fade into another part of the fence (2), these
cross fades are repeated a few times until the camera reaches the top of the fence (3). We then
have a series of static shots used of a house and its surroundings (4,5) whilst the camera gets
closer to the house. We find that there is also a use of cross fading between these static shots
also, which moves the audience forward in time through the use of a smooth and slow fade
which is edited afterwards. During post production the fades and transitions along with the
footage itself have been slowed down, which suggest a change in time and pace. The slow
pace shots add the curiosity and the sense of eere, fitting in with the dark night setting.
Therefore editing isn't just about controlling time and space, or constructing the narrative, it's
also about adding the emotions into the audience - the sense of eere and curiosity - and
filmmaking is now about shooting footage for the edit

1 2 3

4 5

After the LS of the house (6), the shot cross fades into a CU of the window (7), where the
interior lights turn off after a few seconds. There is then a cross fade again from this shot to a
LS of a dying man lying down (8). Welles again crossfades this shot into a CU of a house
covered in snow (9). The zoom out to a LS at this point reveals a snow globe in the hands of a
dying man (10).

6 7 8 9

10

We then cut to a ECU of his mouth (11) where he whispers rosebud. However, Welles uses an
echo effect during the editing to give a sinister feeling, also suggesting his last breathe.
Therefore through this way we understand that Welles is aware he can make a story by putting
together different footages in the editing. We then get another cut to a shot of the dying man's
hand with the snow globe (12). The snow globe then drops out of his hand and onto the steps.
The shot stays static till the globe reaches the second step (13) which the shot cuts to a CU
from the floor (14). This automatically again suggests the man's death. This is an action match
as we are placed on the floor from the CU of the dying mans hand. After the snow globe
smashes we get a cut to a shot of a nurse who walks in through the door (15). Here Welles uses
a fisheye lense and suggests a distorted reflection in the broken snow globe. This distorted shot
is kept up until the nurse runs over to the man (16). This gives us the sense of the audience
being inside. We are reinforced the idea of the shot being distorted after the cut to the medium
close up of the nurse and the man. Therefore editing and camera positioning is being used to
create a message and to position the audience to feel like they are in the film/story that is trying
to be told.

11 12 13

14 15 16

The nurse crosses his arms over his chest and pulls a white sheet over him, during this we do
not see their faces (17). The shot then fades out to a black screen but we return to the interior
shot of the window and the dead man (18). We then get another fade out bringing us to the end.
Throughout the film Welles has used editing of the non-diegetic soundtrack to
parallel/compliment screen action, to add tension and to make the film seem more sinister.
Therefore has used editing in order to make the visual and the soundtracks to make it parallel
and fit each other to create an effective story, because they actions and sounds being parallel
makes the audience fit into the film more, also making them feel like they are within the scene -
therefore positioning the audience into the screen action.

(17) (18)

Citizen Kane - Breakfast Montage

The beginning of this section gives the sense of an interviewee who talks about Emily and her
husband Charlie - the two actors in the breakfast montage. The man being interviewed (1) gives
information about Emily who he knew from long ago. With his final comment It was a marriage
like no other we are introduced to the breakfast scene. Welles uses a mid shot of him up to this
point and then fades out the background to the first scene of the montage whilst the guy is still
there overlapping the first breakfast scene (2). Once he ends his speech he also fades out (3).
Welles experimented with optical printers and the film stock to be able to create overlays, fades
etc - his desire to be creative and ambitious with filmmaking means he exploited all possibilities
with the technology he had available to him to move editing forward and be able to shoot for the
edit and create his narrative in the edit.
We then have several scenes of Emily and Charlie having breakfast together. The first scene is
of the two in a rather positive tone and quite happy. This shot is an LS (3) which slowly zooms
into a mid shot of the table (slightly to the left) and the camera is then kept static (4). During this
the husband enters the shot from the right with plates in his hand, kisses his wife and calls her
beautiful suggesting their happiness (3). However they are seated slightly distanced from each
other signifying the distance in their marriage. A few seconds after the static MS of the two we
cut to a single MS of Emily (5) and the same with Charlie (6). These cuts are used several times
at this point, suggesting dialogue - this combination of shots is an SRS, which is a technique
used for filming conversation and conflict.

(1) (2) (3)

(4) (5) (6)

Welles then uses a transition like a horizontal whip pan wipe (7) to move from the scene to
scene of breakfast scenarios throughout the years. This gives us a suggestion of a jump in time.
The jump from one scene to another is like a montage however within a continuity sequence.
Therefore Welles is using editing to control time and keep us in the same space - but in different
time periods to see the decline of their relationship over a long period of time - which is called
elliptical editing.

(7)

After each scene change we can see that the two get more argumentative and show a change
in their marriage. However, the very first breakfast scene we could see they were more happy
with each other - possibly due to being newly married. The use of the horizontal whip pan style
wipe not only suggest change in time but it could also suggest the negative relationship they
now have - the fast pace gives the sense of negativity or change over time. After the first scene
we also find that there are no longer shots of the two together (single two shots) and instead
Welles uses shot reverse reinforcing the idea of the conflict between the two - so a clear
establishment of SRS as an editing technique to illustrate conflict. During the pans we also find
that the conversation from the next scene is overlapped with the pans. The conversation
between them gets shorter, until the end scene in which they do not talk at all. After a single
shot of Emily (8), we cut to a single shot of Charlie (9) which pulls out to a wide angle shot of the
two sitting at the table (10). This once again reinforces the distance between them at the two
ends of the table. This suggests the distance between the two and the change in their marriage
compared to the first scene here they sat closer to each other. This shot then fades out bringing
the sequence to an end - this is different to how editing may have been used before, whilst
before the sequence would come to an end with a simple cut out, here Welles uses fade out.

(8) (9) (10)

Citizen Kane - The Rancho

This part of the film uses transitions to suggest the camera moving through objects with the
sound and flashing light of the thunder and a rain effect. We are introduced with this to a picture
of a girl (1) which we understand is on the side of a building when the camera pans upwards to
neon lights of the name of the building (2). The camera then moves towards the neon sign and
then goes through them (3) and appears to travel through a rooftop skylight (4). The image of
the window blurs firstly as it gets closer to the glass with the effect of the rain making the
transition look smoother and therefore using editing in order to hide the edit. The use of this
challenges the audience's suspension of disbelief as this editing technique had not been done
before, therefore was very new to everyone. He is using effects and transitions to hide the
necessary edits in order to control the time and space within the image and create the sense of
flow into the scene, which is actually impossible in reality. The artistic use of the combination of
effects and transitions, is used to disguise the fact that film is an art of construction - the whole
purpose of continuity editing is developed by this time then, in Hollywood. The camera then
moves down from the ceiling towards Miss Alexander with her head on the table (5). The shot is
at an eyeline level during a short dialogue between her and the two men (6).

1 2 3 4

5 6
The development of digital non destructive, non linear editing allowed video to be able to be
saved onto hard disks rather than using single reels or tapes - 1989 the first non linear non
destructive with Avid.

Trainspotting
Trainspotting shot on 35mm also used a Moviola to edit but show how although editing
principles had been established quite firmly by 1996, they can be broken for creative reasons
and the breaking of rules/conventions for a purpose can provide quite effective creative film
sequences. We reached a stage where the principles and techniques are established and
filmmakers are playing with them for effect. The job interview scene for Spud, uses a standard
shot reverse shot for the conversation, to show 2 sides of the situation the addicts and the
interview panels to get the audience to understand Spuds state. The camera cuts between
MCUs and CUs of Spud, moving back and forth on the line of action, breaking the 30 degree
rule in order to make the sequence feel more jumpy and jittery. This is also to emulate the state
of the character and reflect his intoxication, after taking drugs prior to the interview. The camera
represents the jittery muscle spasm the drug gives, when showing us Spud. There has been a
use of cutting to profile shots of Spud that allow exaggeration of his clenched jaw, as hes
talking a lot and rambling about things which arent to do with the interview due to his state. In
trainspotting we can see that principles are being broken for effect and to reflect the character
and provide the sense of conflict and humour. The use of the back and forth on the line of action
clearly shows that the 30 degree rule is broken as well as to show the shot reverses.

Chroma Keying

Chroma keying is done on a computer with footage that has been filmed against a green or blue
screen, this is due to the fact that the colours green and blue are the only colours that are not
found in the human skintone. Therefore using these colours is a successful way to edit
background without it impacting actors. With green screen and moving image it is important that
the actors all look at specific spots in order for the editing to work. There are generally teams
which work on different parts/aspects before all the footage is finally compiled, therefore it can
be worked on offline by these teams. There is still image photography in order to replace the
edited background for the effect, setting and mise-en-scene the producer wants. This is not very
difficult to do therefore with computers that are available at homes and in offices, it is available
generally and is so widespread that anyone can do this editing now. They are able to shoot in
separate parts in the awareness that digital editing provides them with multiple video and audio
lines (see image below), along with features such as opacity and transparency, duplication
(copying) - whatever is on the top line is the thing at the front - we find that these features and
programmes are now available in schools. Therefore we can edit movies the way we like and
this can be done by anyone. These programmes and features allows a cheaper creation of
something that would have been very expensive. New technology - Adobe - allows us to create
something that may not even be there, this is done by copying and overlapping actors and still
images of props, to multiply those via duplication and build different effects, for example the
adding of the explosions.

(multiple video and audio lines)

These are two examples of how Richard Hammond has used green screen. The action is firstly
recorded with a green or blue screen behind, which is then combined with the clips and images
which have been taken before in order to provide the audience with the effect needed.

These are some examples of how photographs which are taken of props individually are placed
into the footage and combined to build on detail and effect. There is first footage of people
running which have been recorded beforehand which is duplicated in order to give the idea of
there being a lot of people around - no one would notice it is only the same people multiplied as
there isnt close detail of the facial details and there are other details which require the attention.
There is then recorded footage of explosions which have been made for the film combined with
the other footage and images. These are also multiplied (copy and paste) for further effect.

These all then produce the final product.. Editing is being used here to create a space that
wasnt there in reality, by allowing us to artificially construct it through combinations of digital
movie footage and digital photographs.

Motion Capture
Motion capture is linear and can be one offline, which requires a digital editing software.

Motion capture is useful as it grabs the muscular movements of people or creatures which can
be developed later on with the use of motion graphics packages. Editing therefore changes the
way you act rather than what you act. However, this is not simple and easy, to do this you need
to be an expert actor and be able to alter your body as needed - suggesting the use of a
physical theatre expert. This needs to have the skill to act with nothing, in other words to act as
if you have a alien/enemy standing in front and as if you are talking to them - this would also
have to be done on green screen. With motion capture its about the physicality of your
performance being recorded and then enhanced via a motion graphics package - your
movement provides the skeleton on which they then artificially create the character using
photographs and computerised animation. For example, Planet of the apes needed to do the
takes for the motion graphics for the apes on location for accuracy.

Montage

Lev Kuleshov
Lev Kuleshov was the person to first realise that it was the audience who would make the
message and narrative. Due to a lack of film stock and equipment, whilst experimenting with
how many frames were needed for audiences to be able to follow a narrative, they realised from
this that audiences filled in the gaps present to make meaning to account for what was
juxtaposed. He then made an experiment where he showed the audiences a series of images,
there was a total of 6 of which 3 were the same photo of a man with a normal facial expression.
The other 3 images however, were of a bowl of soup, a buggy and a baby. He then realised that
people thought the facial expressions were different in each of the 3 photos, according to the
influence of the other images, even though the images were the same. He discovered that it
wasnt the face that was important, it was what you put beside it, therefore it is editing which
prompts audiences to create meaning, to construct narrative. Meaning is made by what we see
side by side in a formula describes as A+B=C, (rather than A+B=AB) and it was this that led to
montage editing. This involves short shot duration images often seemingly unconnected which
audiences then connect to make meaning. This was then used in order to create meaning, as a
creative response to a lack of equipment.

Battleship Potemkin - 1925

Eisenstein created Battleship Potemkin outside of Hollywood and in Soviet Russia 1925, by
necessity and design as part of a government run film industry to validate the new communist
regime and condemn the old Tsarist/capitalist one. As the size of the country was very big and
there were a lack of resources it was very difficult to manage and control. Due to the time period
there were also a very limited amount of people who were able to read and write, therefore this
brought up the problem of how to promote the new communist ideology. They had to find ways
to be able to promote and validate the new political system. One way they decided to do this
was to use theatres, films and poetry to spread the word to the people and film was a part of
that. They used the train line they had to move across the country with film, theatre, poetry,
politics to promote the new ideology.

One of Eisenstein's main purposes with this film was to send a message about the old harsh
violent abusive Tsarist regime and the new positive power of the people through the new
communist regime. Eisenstein shows this by using females and children as the characters who
are getting shot, in order to give the sense of innocence and the innocent being killed by the old
regime (1). He is looking for panic, chaos and massacre vs innocence to establish the message
of old evil government, sends evil people to kill the innocent. This is why most of the people we
see in CUs and MSs (2) being killed in the film are women and children. All the chaos and
discontinuity (montage does not abide by continuity editing principles) is to send this message
across to the audience (3).

1 2 3

There has not been a use of traditional action matches or eye line matches in time of spatial
relationships, as this was not the editing principles he was using, instead its about juxtaposing
sometimes disconnected images to prompt the audience into making meaning through logic and
connection. So what would have in Hollywood been continuity relationships were here often
interrupted by other shots, for example, the LS of the soldiers walking down the Odessa Steps
holding their guns up and to the left slightly (4), however, we then cut to a shot of a woman who
gets shot on the right hand side (5). Therefore there is no spatial connection, but the audience
would make the connection you want them to and in a way it makes the massacre seem more
chaotic and panicked because the spatial relationships dont connect. The main problem which
causes these spatial relationships is Eisenstein not abiding by the 180 degree rule.

4 5

One other example of this is through the 3 lion statues rising in shock at seeing the people
being shot. Statues cannot move, rise and awake, however Eisenstein has given this
suggestion through the use of frame time and overlay of 3 separate images of lion statues in
different poses. This is a logical montage, meaning it does not work according to human logic
but we make the meaning and connection anyway. Stone lions cannot rise and awake in shock
of the massacre however, the 3 images provide us with this look (6,7,8). The 3 lions were also
not in the same location as the massacre and are unrelated images juxtaposed with the
massacre to prompt us to create Eisensteins desired meaning.

6 7 8

Eisenstein also uses logical montage within Battleship Potemkin where we have a woman with
glasses - possibly a teacher - terrifyingly looking up, in several shots (9,10) cut into the
massacre montage. We then have a final shot of her after she watches the baby in the pram go
down the Odessa Steps, where we see that her glasses are broken and that her eye is
bleeding (11). We do not see her get shot, nor do we see an action match which would overtly
suggest shes been shot, however, we assume and make the understanding she has been shot
through the use of logical montage. We have filled in the gap to account for the series of images
we have seen of her even though they were not connected and were instead intercut within the
massacre montage. This is the point of montage, to prompt us to make assumptions by
connecting things. One other example of this type of montage is the little boy being shot. We
see an LS of the little boy running down the steps with his mum (12), cut to another LS with the
soldiers holding their guns up to fire and they start shooting randomly (13). We then cut to an LS
of a boy falling (14) and then to an LS of lots of people running around in fear (15). We do not
know he is shot until he has fallen and there is blood on his back (16), which is when we make
the assumption that he has been shot - therefore he works on different principles to continuity
so there are no action or eyeline matches to establish the connections that weve made.
 9 10 11 12

13 14 15 16

One example of intellectual montage has been shown through the baby and the pram (17). We
have shots of the wheels of the pram (18) and profile shots of the pram on the stairs (19) which
gives us the assumption of the baby and the pram going down the stairs, possibly to death. We
then have a overhead shot of the baby once the pram has stopped (20), before a cut to a shot
of the cossack raising his sword (21), giving us the assumption of him attempting to kill the
baby. Although we do not get a MS of the two or any combination of them being in the same
shot to suggest to us that they are together, nor do we get an eye line or action match to
establish a connection, instead we automatically make the understanding of the soldier wanting
to kill the baby. This once again links with the idea of Eisenstein trying to convey the message
of the innocent being killed by the evil government and its evil soldiers of the past, through the
use of editing. He once again works on the principles of editing to establish the message that
we make through the particular shots - the shots doesnt necessarily explain the meaning we
make.

17 18 19

20 21

We find that the rhythm does not fit in or work in terms of editing being used to create rhythm
and pace - instead the rhythms within the sequence created by performance and editing
contrast in the same way the shots do. The use of the soldiers walking down slowly and calmly
(22) does not fit in with the chaotic environment of people running around in fear (23). As the
people are running around in such a terrifying way and as the message trying to be conveyed is
to do with how the dreadful massacre by the government and soldiers have killed the innocent,
so in some ways the soldiers walking down at a faster pace would have worked better. Walking
possibly even running down in a faster pace, almost as if they dont want to miss anyone out
and not let anyone get away would have been a much successful way to set the message
across of the soldiers and government being the evil. This would have happened in a continuity
sequence, with a variety of shot types to build the affect and tension with fear.

22 23

Psycho - Continuity & Montage Shower Scene

The film Psycho is continuity itself however, Alfred Hitchcock is using montage editing for effect
within a Hollywood studio, continuity movie. Instead of montage being the sole way of editing,
montage has been picked up by editors and Hollywood as part of the tools for editing and
incorporated in other kinds of film. Hitchcock uses continuity and montage together in the
shower scene in particular, to suggest the stabbing of the young woman without the knife
actually penetrating her skin at any point, so he uses montage to control space and narrative to
make us think we see something we do not actually see (1). He uses editing here in order to
prevent the penetration of the skin and to then make a meaning out of it.

Hitchcock generates shots so that the camera cuts up and segments the actresss body into
short duration shots of the different parts of the female anatomy (2&3). This is done before the
killer comes in, in order to reinforce the idea of the killer cutting her body up. This technique has
also become a common way of filming the killing of females in movies. Hitchcock has done this
in order to be able to avoid the censor but still keep the character naked and therefore
vulnerable. This could have also been shot in colour, however, Hitchcock chose not to, in order
to once again to protect the movie from censorship and maintain the vulnerability of the
character being naked.

2 3

Hitchcock has put us as the audience, in the shower with her and positioned us with the victim
(4), but using montage. This is done through the short duration shots of her and her body inside
the shower, e.g. the shots of the shower head. The cropped frames combined with the short
duration shots, makes it look less realistic and therefore, people allow Hitchcock to push the
boundaries a bit more. Once the murder starts the shots become significantly shorter, also
suggesting the tension and the camera is now positioned low between the killer and the victim
(5). We can see the knife coming down towards the victim in order to suggest the stabbing (5)
and her arms (5) are moving around camera height to suggest her fear and her reactions just
before the knife goes into her. We then see short duration shots of the blood dark against the
bath and herself (5&6) suggesting stab wounds even though we see none.

4 5 6

7 8 9

Hitchcock has used short duration mid shots of the killer and the knife coming down with short
duration low angle mid shots (10) and close ups of the young woman screaming (11&12). The
cutting between the two and the repositioning of us within the short duration shots makes us
think that she is being stabbed or that something is actually happening. Hitchcock has used
logical montage at this point, as he is making us connect the images to make meaning and fill
the gaps.

10 11 12

There are close ups of the young womans hand (13&14) trying to reach out to the knife to move
it out of the way or reach to the wall for the curtain. These short duration close ups allow her to
reach out and connect with the audience, making the audience feel like we are closer to what it
is suggested is going on and almost like she is trying to reach for help from us. There is at this
point a connection to Eisensteins use of the similar technique in Strike where the butcher
comes down with his knife via a low angle shot to kill the bull and the peoples hand reaching
out for help. There is also a graphic match of the drain (15), (a continuity editing technique). The
connection between the pan of the camera to the plug hole and the cut to her eye (16) of her
being dead, ends the scene with a graphic match. We are then taken back to another part of the
story of a newspaper with someone elses money hidden in as a reminder that her character is
not innocent.

13 14 15
16

There has been 70+ set ups for the 45 seconds of this montage within a continuity setting, shot
across 7 days. Hitchcock did not want any sound within the scene however, Hermann who was
a famous film composer, had written the music for the scene and had a particular way of
recording and editing sound, rather than just recording the orchestra. He was one of the first to
provide individual microphones for each instrument of the orchestra, or to record instruments
separately in order to have more control over the orchestral soundtrack within the sound edit.
Hitchcock not being there due to being in hospital, provided Hermann the opportunity of making
the scene with sound and then showing Hitchcock who then liked the sound edit and decided to
keep it for the final film. The editing of the sound has been done in conjunction with the image,
the stabbing sounds were achieved via string instruments such as violins, being plucked and
dragged down the strings. This shows the power of sound editing in conjunction with the image.
The cuts were timed to shift between the characters in a similar way for the sounds to come
through synced to the edit, and the significance of the editing of the non diegetic soundtrack to
enhance ideas of the editing are clear in this soundtrack. Psycho is one of the earliest examples
of the montage being used within a Hollywood context (continuity) and intellectually rather than
just to condense screen time.

Training Montage - Rocky 1

Hollywood often used montage and short duration shots to condense time screen time, so they
could suggest more in a short period. The most famous form of montage in Hollywood is the
training montage. Rocky 1, is a good example of this, where the 9 month time period has been
condensed into a few minutes (2:43) and this is predominantly how Hollywood uses montage.
The use of the short duration shots shows that Hollywood uses montage to show a long period
of story time in a short amount of screen time, and the other Eisensteinian aspects of montage
are not really considered. The shot variation cutting up and fragmenting the body in order to
show the skill, the different backgrounds and times, along with the change in weather also
suggest to us the 9 months passing though its condensed to a few minutes. The soundtrack
has also been designed in repeated phrases so that when you cut from one shot to another, the
phrase can be repeated again to give the sense of the driving of time within the montage. The
rising soundtrack at certain points, is done to suggest the rising shots.

Hip Hop & Team America - Montage Editing

Hip hop montage comes from hip hop/rap music videos and it is used to basically cut things up
in order to manipulate time but to also make things that arent actually particularly interesting,
seem more dynamic and exciting. For example, a rapper standing there talking and waving their
arms isnt particularly interesting, however, if shown in short duration shots from different
angles, edited in sync in to the way he is speaking, it automatically becomes more interesting.

This then was transferred into film, often to cut up things where there is a bit of a risk of showing
them, therefore it is sometimes used for protection rather than for entertainment. For example
films with drug taking, in order to prevent from showing people how to take drugs by not
showing the exact processes, they would use hip hop montage with very short duration shots
and prevent this. This is also distancing the audience from it, as it makes it become less
realistic. It also means they are abiding by the BBFCs rule regarding imitable techniques, which
the producers have to follow.

The training montage has become such a cliche an example of this is Team America, which
uses a soundtrack all about montage over the actual montage. The producers have made a
short montage with puppets reenacting what we see in a training montage, with the song
mocking the process of a training montage, illustrating how common theyve become through
this parody.

Bowling for Columbine - Contemporary Intellectual Montage

There has been a range of short duration shots of different parts of America used in the opening
sequence for Bowling of Columbine. This represents to the audience a normal day in America
suggesting everything is going well. In contrast to the actual Bowling for Columbine. The
voiceover of Moore talking used over the montage gives and builds the sense of sarcasm within
the opening, also possibly giving the idea of how pathetic and easy it is to buy a gun in America.
The use of the intellectual montage could also link in with this to suggest the idea that in
America, it is that normal and ok (therefore pathetic for Moore) to buy a gun. Moore clearly
presents himself as someone who is against buying guns and selling guns so easily. The use of
the the farmer did his chores voiceover with the clip of James Nichols, could also suggest the
idea of sarcasm (as Nichols is a bomber etc).

There is a use of intellectual montage rather than a montage used to simply condense time as
Moore is clearly trying to present and argument and prompt a meaning rather than simply
cutting a 9 month story into a few minutes like Rocky 1 has done. There has been montages,
images and short clips used to represent Moores speech while explaining and introducing the
audience to the documentary.

America thinks freedom is the right to carry a gun and Moore represents this with a graphic
match of a bikini clad girl with a gun cut against a shot of the Statue of Liberty with the
positioning for both in the frame being the same so you draw that conclusion.
This is of course a misrepresentation of the freedom the Statue of Liberty stands for and thats
what Moore wants to highlight.
Beginning is about the farmers and postman etc, divide within america because people are
materialistic rather than fighting for the american dream.

Moore is using editing - hes using intellectual montage closing on an almost graphic match to
illustrate his ideological point which is what the US has come to believe that freedom is wrapped
up in the freedom to carry a gun and that is embedded in this culture of fear of others. Hes
using editing to make an ideological point - to present an argument.

The argument within america is the notion of freedom has now become wrapped up in the
freedom of carrying a gun.