“Structural Analysis”

ENG2036M

Dr. Alessandro Palmeri

<a.palmeri@bradford.ac.uk>

Lecture # 2

[2]

Outlines

| Further on statically determined

beams
z Principle of superposition
z Relations between transverse load (q),
SF (V) and BM (M)

| Examples
z Beams with internal hinges
z Frames with sloping members
 [3]

Principle of Superposition

| This fundamental principle states:

z The total displacements {ux(xP), uy(xP),
ϕ(xP)} or internal forces {N(xP), V(xP),
M(xP)} at a particular point P of
abscissa xP in a planar structure
subjected to a set of external loads
acting simultaneously can be
determined by adding together (i.e.
superimposing) the displacements or
internal forces produced by each of
the external loads acting individually

[4]

Principle of Superposition

| Two requirements must be imposed for

this principle to apply:
z The material must behave in a linear
elastic manner, i.e. the Hooke’s law is
valid, and therefore displacements are
proportional to external loads
z The geometry of the structure must
no undergo significant change when
loads are applied, i.e. small
displacement theory applies
 [5]

Principle of Superposition

| More concisely:

z The response of a linear structure is

the same if all loads are applied
simultaneously, or if the effects of the
individual loads are combined

[6]

Principle of Superposition

| The principle of superposition may simplify the

evaluation of support reaction and the
construction of the internal force diagrams
q=F L
M = FL F
=
L 2 L 2

q=F L
F C = FL
+ +
L L L 2
 [7]

Principle of Superposition

| The principle of superposition may simplify the

evaluation of support reaction and the
construction of the internal force diagrams
FL
2
FL FL
+ + =

5
FL
2

[8]

Relations between transverse

load, SF and BM
| Let us consider the beam segment depicted
below, which is subjected to a distributed
transverse load q=q(x), positive if upward,
whose ordinates vary with the abscissa x,
measured from the origin, O, at the left of the
segment
q = q( x)

x
x+dx
 [9]

Relations between transverse

load, SF and BM dx 2

| The beam element shown to the

right can be thought as obtained
by operating two ideal sections at q dx
abscissas x and x+dx
| Since the length dx of this element q
is infinitesimally small, the slight
variation of the distributed load can M M + dM
be neglected. Therefore:
z We can assume that the
distributed load q is constant over
the length dx
z The resultant of the distributed V V + dV
load, of magnitude q dx, is located
at the midpoint of the element dx
[10]

Relations between transverse

load, SF and BM dx 2

| In order to be in equilibrium, the

conditions of statical equilibrium
must be satisfied for the q dx
infinitesimal beam element
| The condition of transversal
equilibrium gives: q
dV M + dM
V + q dx = V + dV ⇒ =q M
dx
| This equation states that the slope
of the SF diagram, V=V(x), at a
generic abscissa x, equals the
ordinate of the distributed load at V V + dV
that abscissa, q(x)
dx
 [11]

Relations between transverse

load, SF and BM dx 2

| Taking moments about the

centroid of the right-hand face of
the beam segment, the condition of q dx
rotational equilibrium furnishes:
dx 2
M + d M = M + V dx + q
2 q
dM M + dM
⇒ =V M
dx
| This equation states that the the
slope of the BM diagram, M=M(x),
at a generic abscissa x, is given by
the SF at that abscissa, V(x) V V + dV
dx
[12]

Relations between transverse

load, SF and BM dx 2

| Differentiating both sides of the

second equation with respect to
the abscissa x, and then q dx
substituting the first equation into
the result, one obtains:
d2M q
2
=q
dx M M + dM
| According to our sign conventions,
it follows that the BM diagram,
M=M(x), at a generic abscissa x, is
concave upward/downward if the
distributed load at that abscissa, V V + dV
q(x), acts downward/upward
dx
 [13]

Relations between transverse

load, SF and BM
| Moreover, if the first two differential equations
are integrated between two consecutive loading
discontinuities, such as external concentrated
forces or couples, or support reactions as well,
one obtains:

∆V = ∫ q ( x) dx ∆M = ∫ V ( x ) d x
∆x ∆x

Area under the

Change Change Area under the
= distributed =−
in the SF in the BM SF diagram
load diagram

[14]

Relations between transverse

load, SF and BM
| Similar relations hold in the cases of a
concentrated transversal load F (positive if
downward) or of a concentrated couple C
(positive if anticlockwise):

F
∆V = F ∆M = −C C

M M M M + ∆M

V V + ∆V V V
dx dx
 [15]

Free-body
diagram(*) SF diagram BM diagram

Concentrated
F zero slope piecewise linear

transv. force
M L VL MR
VL x
x F x VR M L MR
VR V
L
VR
Concentrated

M L VL C MR zero slope
couple

VL VR x MR
x ML C
VR constant slope
q parabola
M R constant slope (concave
transv. load

M L VL upward)
Uniform

VL q
x0
x0 VR M L MR
VR V
L
VR
qR increasing cubic parabola
qL slope
transv. load
Trapezoidal

M L VL qL VR M R (concave upward)
VL x0 x0
VR
qR M L
> MR
qL V
L
VR
(*) Internal forces V and M are drawn according to the positive sign convention

[16]

Structures with internal

hinges
| From a kinematical point of view, an
internal hinge can be used in order to
model a structural joint which
eliminates any relative displacement
between the two points which it
connects (both horizontally and
vertically), while it allows a relative
rotation

| From a statical point of view, an

internal hinge transmits both
horizontal and vertical components of
NF and SF, while it does not transmit
BM, i.e. the BM diagram must be zero
at the position of an internal hinge
 [17]

Structures with internal

hinges
| On the contrary, an internal fixed joint
does not allows a relative rotation
between the two points which it
connects, and hence it is able to
transmit BM (statical-kinematical
duality)

[18]

Structures with internal

hinges
| Fundamentally, there are two alternative
approaches to deal with structures with an
internal hinge:
z Kinematical approach: the structure is
handled as composite of two rigid bodies;
each one posses three degrees of freedom
each and is subjected to the internal reaction
forces arising from the internal hinge
z Statical approach: the structure is thought as
made of a single rigid body, having in total
three degrees of freedom, but in which a
constructive condition imposes that the BM
is not transmitted across the internal hinge
 [19]

Structures with internal

hinges

[20]
“KINEMATICAL APPROACH”
 [21]

“STATICAL APPROACH”

[22]

Structures with internal

hinges
| More generally, the statical approach is much
more convenient, since it brings to a set of
equations in fewer unknowns, which are simply
the external reactions

| In this case the degree of statical

indeterminacy, d, is given by
d = f −e−c
where f is the number of unknown reactions, e
is the number of available conditions of statical
equilibrium (e=3) and c is the number of
conditions of construction, i.e. the number of
the internal hinges
 [23]

Structures with internal

hinges

Kinematically unstable
d= f−e−c= (2+1)−3−1= 3−4= −1

Statically determinate
d= f−e−c= (2+1+1)−3−1= 4−4= 0

Hyperstatic to the 2nd order

d= f−e−c= (3+1+2)−3−1= 6−4= 2

[24]

Frames with sloping

members
| Distributed loads acting on sloping
members can be defined in different ways,
depending on the situations, as
demonstrated in the case of the roof in the
three-pin arch depicted below
q′W L cos(α )
w L cos(α )
qS L q′′W L cos(α )

qS
w q′W q′′W
α α α

L L L L
 [25]

Frames with sloping

members
| The self weigh of
the roof (dead
w L cos(α ) load):
z acts downward
(i.e., in the
w
α direction of the
field of gravity)
z is distributed
along the length
L of the inclined
beam

[26]

Frames with sloping

members
| The snow load
qS L (live load):
z acts downward
z is distributed
qS
along the
horizontal
projection of the
inclined beam

L
 [27]

Frames with sloping

members
| The wind load
q′W L cos(α )
q′′W L cos(α ) (dynamic load):
z acts orthogonally
to the inclined
beam
q′W q′′W z is distributed
α α
along its length
z produces higher
suction (negative
L L pressure) on the
windward side