Section 9

Proppants

Table of Contents
Introduction ............................................................................................................................................... 9-3
Topic Areas............................................................................................................................................ 9-3
Learning Objectives ............................................................................................................................... 9-3
Unit A: API Standards............................................................................................................................... 9-3
Roundness and Sphericity...................................................................................................................... 9-4
Specific Gravity ..................................................................................................................................... 9-4
Bulk Density .......................................................................................................................................... 9-4
Sieve Analysis........................................................................................................................................ 9-4
Acid Solubility ....................................................................................................................................... 9-4
Silt and Fine Particles ............................................................................................................................ 9-5
Crush Resistance.................................................................................................................................... 9-5
Clustering............................................................................................................................................... 9-5
Unit A Quiz............................................................................................................................................ 9-6
Unit B: Proppant Types ............................................................................................................................. 9-7
Sand........................................................................................................................................................ 9-7
Resin-Coated Sand................................................................................................................................. 9-7
Sintered Bauxite..................................................................................................................................... 9-8
Ceramics ................................................................................................................................................ 9-9
Unit B Quiz .......................................................................................................................................... 9-10
Unit C: Flow Capacity............................................................................................................................. 9-11
Unit C Quiz: Flow Capacity................................................................................................................. 9-12
Unit D: Proppant Bed Damage ................................................................................................................ 9-13
Unit D Quiz.......................................................................................................................................... 9-15

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Use for Section notes

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 Proppants

Introduction
Propping agents are the essential part of any
fracturing treatment. Propping agents prop Learning Objectives
open the created fracture to conduct reservoir
fluids to the wellbore. The selection of a
propping agent requires information on the Upon completion of this section, you will be able
conductivity at stress of any material used. to:
Sand is a natural material that is used as a List API specifications for proppants
propping agent in many hydraulic fracturing
treatments. Distinguish between different types of
proppants.
List the physical properties of the different
Topic Areas proppants.

The section units are: Compare flow capacities of different

proppants under loaded conditions.
API Standards
Avoid problems associated with proppant
Proppant Types damage.
Flow Capacity
Proppant Bed Damage

Unit A: API Standards

API (American Petroleum Institute) is the major Some characteristics of proppants used in
national trade association representing the entire hydraulic fracturing that need to be
petroleum industry: exploration and production, monitored are:
transportation, refining, and marketing. With
Roundness
headquarters in Washington, D.C., and petroleum
councils in 33 states, it is a forum for all parts of the Spericity
oil and natural gas industry to pursue policy
objectives and advance the interests of the industry. Specific Gravity

The impetus for forming API in 1919 was the need Bulk Density
to standardize engineering specifications for drilling Sieve Size
and production equipment. API has developed some
500 equipment and operating standards used around Acid Solubility
the world. The API publications dealing with Silt and Fine Particles
proppants are API RP 56 for frac sand, API RP 58
for gravel pack sand and API RP 60 for high Crush Resistance
strength frac sand. These publications set limits on Clustering
certain characteristics of proppant and the
procedures used for testing them. These properties and their API guidelines
are discussed below.

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 Proppants

Roundness and Sphericity Bulk Density

These two properties are particle factors that Bulk density is the volume occupied by a
influence particle packing and load bearing given mass of proppant - the amount of
capabilities. Roundness is the measure of the material to fill a given volume. The units
relative sharpness of grain corners or a grain for bulk density are lb/ft3 or grams/cc. The
curvature. Sphericity is the measure of how closely API recommended maximum for proppants
a particle approaches the shape of a sphere. The API is 105 lb/ft3.
recommended limit for sand for both roundness and
sphericity is 0.6. For resin-coated sand, the API
limits are 0.7. Figure 2.3 is a Krumbein chart. Sieve Analysis
A sieve analysis shows the size distribution
of the sand within the designated size range;
90% of a sample must be within the
designated size range. Not over 0. 1 %
should be larger than the first sieve and not
over 1.0% should be smaller than the last
sieve. Table 9.2 gives U.S. standard mesh
screen sizes.
U.S. U.S.
Sieve Sieve
Series Series
Opening (in.) Opening (in.)
Mesh Mesh

4 0.187 25 0.0280
6 0.132 30 0.0232
8 0.0937 35 0.0197
Figure 9.1 Chart for visual estimates of
sphericity and roundness (From Krumbein and 10 0.0787 40 0.0165
Sieve 1963) 12 0.0661 60 0.0098
14 0.0555 70 0.0083

Several samples of a particular sand should be 16 0.0469 100 0.0059

observed, then an average roundness factor 18 0.0394 170 0.0035
comparison can be made. In some select cases, 20 0.0331
angularity may be advantageous because the
proppant will tend to bridge in the fracture and be Table 9.1- Standard Sleeve Openings
less likely to flow back into the wellbore. This is
especially true in a formation where the fracture is
slow in closing back completely. Acid Solubility

The solubility of a proppant in 12% HCl -

Specific Gravity
The specific gravity of a proppant is the measure of
the absolute density of individual proppant particles
relative to water. The recommended API maximum
limit is 2.65 for sand.
3% FE acid is an indication of the amount of
contaminants present and of the relative
stability of the proppant in acid. It may also
indicate the tendency of proppants to
dissolve in hot brines. Acid solubility is
measured by percentage by weight. The API
recommended maximum for sand is 2%,
while the limit for resin-coated sand is 7%
maximum.

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 Proppants

Silt and Fine Particles 12/20 mesh- 25%

16/20 mesh- 25%
This measure indicates the amount of clay and silt or 20/40 mesh - 10%
other fine material present. Properly washed and/or
40/70 mesh - 8%
processed proppant will not have excess silt and fine
particles. The API recommended maximum limit These tests are performed at stress levels of
for proppant is 250 FIJI (formation turbidity units). 7,500 psi, 10,000 psi, 12,500 psi, and 1
5,000 psi until the maximum fines limit is
reached.
Crush Resistance

Crush resistance indicates the relative strength of a Clustering

proppant by measuring the amount of material
crushed under a given load. It is expressed in units
of percentage of fines. API recommended maximum
limits for sand are:
for 12/20 - 16% at 3000 psi
for 20/40 - 14% at 4000 psi
API recommended maximum limits for high
strength proppants are:
Clustering is measured by percentage by
weight. It indicates the degree of attachment
of individual proppant grains to one another.
During processing, the grains were not
broken apart. The API recommended
maximum is 1 %.

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 Proppants

Unit A Quiz

Fill in the blanks with one or more words to check your progress in Unit A.
1. List 6 characteristics of proppants used in hydraulic fracturing that need to be monitored.

a.

b.

c.

d.

e.

2. Bulk density is the _________ __________ ___ ________ of proppant

3. ______ True ______ False: The maximum API recommendation for % fines of 12/20 sand
at 3000 psi is 16%.

4. The specific gravity of a proppant in the measure of the ______________ _____________ of

individual proppant particles relative to water.

Now, look up the suggested answers in the Answer Key.

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 Proppants

Unit B: Proppant Types

Sand
Two major sands used as proppants in hydraulic
fracturing is Ottawa Sand and Brady Sand. Ottawa
Sand, from the Jordan Deposit, is a high-quality
sand from the northern United States. Its pure quartz
composition, white color, lack of dust, high
roundness and sphericity, make it an ideal sand. The
grains are made up of mostly monocrystalline, which
results in high individual grain strength.
Brady Sand from the Hickory Deposit, near Brady
Texas, is another high-quality sand used for
fracturing, characterized by its slight angularity and
presence of feldspars. Also known as Brown Sand
because of its color, it is considered to be of lesser
quality than Ottawa Sand. Although sands are
available from other areas, these two provide the
majority of material used in fracturing operations.
The physical properties of commonly used types of
sand are listed in Table 9.1
Premium Sand Standard Sand
(Jordan/Ottawa) (Hickory/Brady)
Properties
12/20 20/40 12/20 20/40
Compatibility includes the effect on fluid
pH, crosslink time, breaker concentration,
and foam stability. Resin coatings are
available on sands, ceramics, and bauxite
proppants.
Pre-cured or tempered products have a hard
coating or shell around the proppant grain
and they are most compatible with our
fracturing fluid systems. This coating will
not bond grains together but it imparts a
higher level of conductivity performance
when compared to uncoated proppants. This
is most significant with resin coated sands
and less significant with resin coated
ceramic or bauxite proppants.
Partially curable and encapsulated materials
provide proppant grains that will bond
together under closure stress in a fracture.
They are also more compatible with our
fluid systems when compared to fully
curable resin coated proppants.
Borden Chemicals, Inc.
Oil Field ProductsPrecured
Product Name Description

Roundness 0.8 0.8 0.7 0.7 AcFrac Black Plus Furan Resin-Coated Sand

Sphericity 0.8 0.8 0.8 0.7

Specific Gravity 2.65 2.65 2.65 2.65 Borden Chemicals, Inc.
Oil Field ProductsPartially Curable
Bulk Density (lb/ft3) 96 102 100 102
Product Name Description
Acid Solubility
(% by Weight)
1.3 1.2 0.9 1.6 AcFrac SB Prime Phenolic Resin-Coated Sand
Crush Resistance
2.4 1.8 11.1 11.0 AcFrac SB Excel Phenolic Resin-Coated Sand
(% Fines)
Ceramax P Phenolic Resin-Coated Bauxite
Clustering
(% by Weight)
0.3 0.1 0.8 0.3
Borden Chemicals, Inc.
Oil Field ProductsFully Curable
Table 9.2 Physical Properties of Sand
Product Name Description

AcFrac CR 4000 Phenolic Resin-Coated Sand

Resin-Coated Sand Santrol Tempered (precured) Proppants
Product Name Description
Resin Coated Proppants (RCP's) have evolved over
time. They are more compatible with our fracturing Tempered LC Multiple Coat, Phenolic Resin-
fluid systems compared to early generation products. Coated Sand

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 Proppants

Santrol Curable Proppants Sintered Bauxite

Product Name Description

Super LC Phenolic Resin-Coated Sand High-strength sintered bauxite and

intermediate-strength sintered bauxite are
Super DC Dual Coat, Phenolic Resin-
Coated Sand
produced by essentially the same
manufacturing process. Bauxite ore is
Super HS Multiple Coat, Phenolic Resin- ground to a fine powder and formed into
Coated Sand
green pellets. After drying and screening,
Super TF Phenolic Resin-Coated Sand the pellets are fired in a kiln. The firing, or
OptiProp Encapsulated Phenolic Resin- sintering process, fuses the edges of the
Coated Sand individual particles of each pellet. The basic
MagnaProp Encapsulated Phenolic Resin-
difference in the high strength and
Coated Economy Ceramic intermediate strength materials lies in the
raw material used.
DynaProp Encapsulated Phenolic Resin
Coated Premium Ceramic High-strength sintered bauxite is formed
HyperProp Encapsulated Phenolic Resin- from almost pure bauxite ore to create
Coated Bauxite corundum, Al 2O3. This imparts the highest
PolarProp Encapsulated Phenolic Resin-
density (approximately 3.7 specific gravity)
Coated Sand (low temperature and strength for this proppant. Intermediate-
formations) strength sintered bauxite is formed from a
Super HT Phenolic Resin-Coated Sand for less pure bauxite ore. The processing of this
Gravel Packs and Frac Packs ore produces both corundum and mullite
(Al6Si 3 O15).
Curable resin coated proppants offer the highest
bond strength and the greatest potential for This mineral composition results in a less
interference with our fluid systems. The tables below dense (approximately 3.25 specific gravity)
list some of the RCP's currently available. and slightly weaker compound than the
more pure sintered bauxite compound.
AcFrac PR 6000 Phenolic Resin-Coated Sand
Below is a list of some of the bauxite
AcFrac PR 4000 Phenolic Resin-Coated Sand proppants currently available.
Norton-Alcoa Proppants
Ceramix I Phenolic Resin-Coated Product Name Description
Premium Sand
INTERPROP Intermediate Strength Bauxite
Ceramix E Phenolic Resin-Coated
SINTERED High Strength Bauxite
Economy Sand
BAUXITE
Carbo Ceramics, Inc.
Tempered DC Dual Coat, Phenolic Resin- Product Name Description
Coated Sand
CarboProp Intermediate Strength Bauxite
Tempered HS Multiple Coat, Phenolic Resin-
Coated Sand Carbo HSP High Strength Bauxite

Tempered TF Phenolic Resin-Coated Sand Sintex Minerals and Services, Inc.

EconoFlex Phenolic Resin-Coated Product Name Description

Economy Ceramic SinterLite Intermediate Strength Bauxite
Table 9.3 - SinterProp Economy High Strength Bauxite
SinterBall Premium High Strength Bauxite
Table 9.4

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 Proppants

strength than the intermediate- and high-

strength sintered bauxite proppants.
Ceramics
Below is a list of some of the ceramic
proppants currently available.
Ceramic are one of the large classes into which all
useful solid materials can be divided, i.e., metals,
organics, and ceramics. Generally, a ceramic is any Carbo Cermics, Inc.
non-organic, non-metallic solid formed by high Product Name Description
temperature processing (above 875F). Example CarboLite Premium Low Density Creamic
ceramics include glass, refractories, whiteware
(dishes, pottery, etc.), structural products (brick), EconoProp Economy Low Density Ceramic
abrasives, and cement. Norton Alcoa Proppants
Ceramic proppants are produced in a different Product Name Description
manner than the sintered bauxite proppants using NAPLITE Premium Low Density Ceramic
fluidizing bed processing. The composition of the
ceramic-type proppants shows mostly mullite VALUPROP Economy Low Density Ceramic
(aluminum compound) with some additional silica Table 9.5
compounds. This produces a compound only slightly
denser than sand with specific gravities of
approximately 2.65 to 2.75. These ceramic
proppants have greater strength than sand but less

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 Proppants

Unit B Quiz

Fill in the blanks with one or more words to check your progress in Unit B.
1. The four main types of proppant used today are:
1)
2)
3)
4)
2. The three types of resin coated proppants are:
1)
2)
3)
3. Intermediate-strength sintered bauxite is formed from a ________ _________ bauxite ore.
4. Generally, a ceramic is any ______-____________, ______-________ solid formed by
_________ ________________ processing
Now, look up the suggested answers in the Answer Key at the end of this section.

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Unit C: Flow Capacity
The purpose of proppants is to help prevent the
fracture from closing once pumping is stopped.
Proppants are added to the fracturing fluid and
are introduced into the fracture along with the
fluid.
A main factor affecting the outcome of a
hydraulic fracturing treatment is obtaining an
adequate propped fracture. The propping agent
should provide and maintain a highly permeable
path for fluid flow toward the wellbore. The
need for a propping agent to help provide that
path has been verified by numerous field
experiments. When proppants are used,
production is usually higher and the production
decline rate is much slower. This suggests that
an unpropped fracture is subjected to a
combination of forces that tend to close the
fracture which reduces its flow capacity.
Flow capacity (or fracture flow capacity) is the
ability of the fracture to convey the reservoir
fluid to the wellbore. It is generally expressed
as the product of fracture permeability and the
fracture width:
Fracture Flow Capacity = (kwf)
where:
k = Permeability (md) of the fracture
wf = Fracture width (ft)
Proppant particles must support the closure
stress. In so doing, some of the particles may
crush, or in a soft formation, embed into the
rock. The degree of crushing or embedment
depends on:
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Proppants
proppant strength and size
hardness of the formation being
propped closure stress being applied to the
proppant bed
If the particle either crushes or embeds, the
fracture flow capacity will decrease. If severe
crushing or embedment occurs, the fracture flow
capacity may decrease so low that not enough
contrast exists between the conductivity of the
proppant bed and the permeability of the
reservoir rock. If this were to happen, results
from the fracturing treatment may not be
satisfactory because of the loss of fracture
conductivity.
One of the first propping agents used in fracture
treatments was screened river sand. However,
such angular, poorly screened sand contained
some particles that were too large to enter the
fracture. Also, bridges formed in the wellbore,
subsurface tools, and within the fracture itself.
If the proppant is too large, or if bridging occurs,
screenout can result and the treatment will have
to be ended prematurely. This results in a
smaller propped fracture than had been designed
and additional expense for cleaning out the
proppant in the wellbore.
Figure 9.1 is a sample fracture flow capacity
curve. This data were generated using steel
plates. All measurements were made with radial
flow cells and nitrogen gas, and were conducted
at ambient temperature.
Stimulation I
 Proppants

Effect of Proppant Type

20/40, 200 F, 1.0 lb/ft
3000
Proppant Type
H Brady
2500 H Ottawa

2000

1500

1000
Conductivity (md*ft)

500

0
0 3000 6000 9000 12000 15000
Stress (psi)
Customer: Job Date: Ticket #: 2
StimWinH v3.1.2
Well Desc: Job Type: Fracture Job 26-May-99 11:45

Figure 9.1 Fracture Flow Capacity Data 1 lb/ft2

Unit C Quiz: Flow Capacity

Fill in the blanks with one or more words to check your progress in Unit C.
1. Fracture Flow Capacity = (kwf), where:
k = ________________ ____ ______ ______________
wf = _____________ __________
2. One of the first propping agents used in fracture treatments was _____________ __________
_________.
3. If the proppant is too large, or if bridging occurs, _______________ will result and the treatment
will have to be ended ________________.
Now, look up the suggested answers in the Answer Key at the end of this section.

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 Proppants

Unit D: Proppant Bed Damage

Several factors will be discussed in this unit that particles when they are completely embedded.
may influence the flow capacity resulting from a The flow capacity may be partially or entirely
bed of proppant under load: lost due to the closure.

The particles may embed in the rock surface

if they are stronger than the rock and the
closure stress is sufficient to cause
embedment.
A large percentage of the grains may crush
if the rock is strong and the stress is greater
than the grains can withstand.
The proppant bed may become plugged
because of the invasion of formation fines.
Unbroken gel and residue may remain in the
proppant pack plugging pore throats.
The crushing or embedment (sinking into the
fracture face) of proppant particles may cause a Figure 9.3 Partial Monolayer
fast decline in productivity because of the
reduction in fracture flow capacity. If there is
significant embedment, the flow capacity may
be partially or entirely lost because of fracture
closure. In many cases, the closure may crush
the formation instead of the proppant. The
formation may then release debris that partially
plugs the proppant bed.
Sand may be crushed by the action of the
formation stresses in hard rocks; however, it
does not usually crush to a very fine powder.
Sand may shatter into smaller grains and,
eventually, produce enough small particles to
give some support. The result may be a propped
fracture of a slightly narrower width and a
Propping Agent Not Crushed Propping Agent Crushed
poorer range of proppant sizes than expected.
Therefore, the proppant bed would have less
flow capacity. Figure 9.4 Multilayer System

Selecting the proper type and size of proppant to

use in a particular formation requires the
gathering of laboratory data.
Of these three, only proppant crushing can easily
be modeled in the laboratory.
Figure 9.3 illustrates what may happen in a
monolayer or partial monolayer system of rigid

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 Proppants

The flow capacity may only be reduced due to

the outer layer of grains embedding, while the
inner layer of grains remains effective. The net
result is to reduce the effective fracture width.
The crushing of the formation due to embedment
may release formation debris that could partially
plug the proppant bed.
Recent studies have shown that probably the
greatest influence on proppant pack conductivity
is our ability to break, clean up, and flow back
the carrier fluid used to place the proppant. Gel
residue, unbroken gel, and high gel-loading filter
Partial Embedment
cake on the fracture face can reduce the flow
Figure 9.5 Multilayer System capacity of the proppant pack by as much as
80%. The influence of gel damage became clear
when studies were conducted based on gel
loading, base fluid type, and crosslinker type.
Figure 9.4 shows the crushing of rigid particles.
Figure 9.6 shows testing done through a specific
Figure 9.5 illustrates the condition that may exist
proppant pack with different carrier fluids.
in a multilayer system as a rigid particle tends to
embed into a soft formation.

BORATE
XLINK
30lb HPG BORATE 20/40 Sand
2400 w/ persulfate/ XLINK
2
*Conductivity (md ft)

Con.=lb/ft 0
% Conductive Impairment

amine 40lb HPG

2200 Closure=2000psi
breaker w/ persulfate/ T=100F
amine 10
2000 breaker

1800 BORATE 20
XLINK
40lb HPG
1600 w/ enzyme
30
breaker TI TAN TE
1400 2128
XLINK ANTI-
40lb HPG MONA TE
40
1200 1971
w/ enzyme XLINK
breaker 40lb HPG 50
1000 1500 w/ enzyme
breaker
TI TAN TE
60
800 1115 XLINK
808 40lb HPG 70
600 w/ enzyme
breaker
80
400 430
200 90
0 *STI M-LAB Data
100
Figure 9.6

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 Proppants

Unit D Quiz

Fill in the blanks with one or more words or circle the correct answer to check your progress in
Unit D.
1. Name four factors may influence the flow capacity resulting from a bed of proppant under load:

2. The crushing or embedment of proppant particles may cause a fast decline in productivity
because of the reduction in ____________ _______ _____________.
3. The crushing of the formation due to embedment may release formation ________ which could
partially _________ the proppant _______.
4. Gel residue, unbroken gel, and high gel-loading filter cake on the fracture face can reduce the
______ __________ of the proppant pack by as much as ______%.
Now, look up the suggested answers in the Answer Key at the end of this section.

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 Proppants

Self Check Test for Section 9

Mark the single best answer to the following questions.
1. Name the two properties that influence particle packing and load bearing capability.

2. Define specific gravity of a proppant.

3. Define bulk density of proppant.

4. ______% of a proppant sample must be within the designated size range.

5. The degree of crushing or embedment of proppant depends on.

6. Name four factors that may influence the flow capacity resulting from a bed of proppant under
load.

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 Proppants

Answer Key

Items from Unit A Quiz Refer to

Page
1. Roundness, Spericity, Specific Gravity, Bulk Density, Sieve Size, Acid Solubility, Silt
and Fine Particles, Crush Resistance, Clustering
9-3
2. Volume / mass
9-4
3. T
9-5
4. Absolute Density
9-4
Items from Unit B Quiz Refer to
Page
1. Sand, Resin Coated Sand, Ceramics, Sintered Bauxite 9-9
2. Curable, Partially cured, pre-cured 9-8
3. less pure 9-8
4. non organic / non metallic / high temperature 9-9
Items from Unit C Quiz Refer to
Page
1. Permeability of the fracture / fracture width 9-11
2. Screened river sand 9-11
3. Screenout / permeability 9-11
Items from Unit D Quiz Refer to
Page
1. The particle may embed in the rock surface
A large percentage of the grain may crush
The proppant bed may become plugged
Unbroken gel and residue may remain in the proppant pack 9-13
2. Fracture flow capacity 9-15
3. Debris / plugs / bed 9-13
4. Flow capacity / 80% 9-14
Self-Check Test Refer to
Page
1. Roundness
Sphericity
9-4
2. The absolute density of individual proppant particle relative to water
9-4
3. The volume occupied by a given mass of proppant
9-4
4. 90%
9-4
5. Proppant size to strength
Hardness of the formation
Propped closure stress being applied to the proppant bed 9-11

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 Proppants

6. The particle may embed in the rock surface

A large percentage of the grain may crush
The proppant bed may become plugged
Unbroken gel and residue may remain in the proppant pack 9-13

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