6.

DEFORMATION AND FLOW OF ICE- BASICS

Figure 6.1. Many features on a glacier surface, especially medial moraines, demonstrate that the ice is flowing downwards.

6.1 Introduction

The description of ice deformation and ice flow (figure 6.1)

involves continuum mechanics. It is a long way from
elementary continuum mechanics to comprehensive
numerical ice-sheet models. Although in many cases a lot
of corner cutting can be done, it is very useful to have a
basic knowledge of how fields of stress and strain (rate) can
be described mathematically.
The purpose of continuum mechanics is to described how a
material deforms if forces act on it. For elastic materials
application of a finite force leads to a new steady state
(unless the force is too large and failure results, figure 6.2).
If the force is switched off, the material taken on its original
shape. In the case of plastic deformation this is not the case.
Time may play an important role in deformation. It may be
that a rapidly varying force causes elastic deformation,
while a slowly varying force leads to plastic deformation.
Therefore a general description of deformation should
account for the memory of a specific material.
Deformation occurs when the balance of forces acting on a
material is disturbed. For a proper treatment of deformation
we need a tool to describe locally all forces that are present.
Two types of forces can be distinguished, namely (i) body
forces, acting on an amount of mass, and (ii) surface forces, Figure 6.2. When forces become too large failure results. For
glaciers this implies the formation of crevasses.

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 6. DEFORMATION AND FLOW OF ICE- BASICS

or stresses, acting on a surface. Forces of type (ii) are

responsible for, or better, formalize the cause of
defomation.
A useful description of the stress-state is obtained by
defining a stress tensor. In three-dimensional space, three
surfaces through some point P are needed to describe all
independent surface forces in P. It is convenient to use
three surfaces that are perpendicular to each other, and
oriented along the axes of a Cartesian coordinate system.
For each surface there are three stress components: the
normal stress, acting perpendicular to the surface, and two
shear stresses, acting along the surface. So the stress tensor
is a second-order tensor ij. The subscript j denotes the
direction normal to the surface, and the subscript i indicates
the direction of the stress.
It can be shown that a material is only in internal
equilibrium (no failure) if the stress tensor is symmetric, i.e.
(Lai et al., 1993):

ij = ji (6.1.1)

Therefore the state of stress is given by six independent

quantities.
In many applications the deformation does not depend on
the hydrostatic pressure. It therefore makes sense to
consider the deviation of the stress state from pure
hydrostatic equilibrium. Pure hydrostatic equilibrium
Writing out eq. (6.1.3):
prevails if
11 12 13
ij = p ij (6.1.2)
21 22 23 =
31 32 33
where ij is the Kronecker delta. To make this more
concrete the stress tensor can be splitted: (2 11 22 33 ) / 3 12 13

21 (2 22 11 33 ) / 3 23 +
31 32 (2 33 11 22 ) / 3
kk ij
ij = ij + (6.1.3)
3

( 11 + 22 + 33 ) / 3 0 0
The tensor ij is termed the stress deviator.
0 ( 11 + 22 + 33 ) / 3 0
Next we consider how deformation can be described.
0 0 ( 11 + 22 + 33 ) / 3
Suppose that two points A and B in three-dimensional
space are found at A and B after deformation. AA is

determined by the translation vector r and BB by r + dr .

So dr represents the deformation. In a first-order Taylor
series we have (in a Cartesian coordinate system xi,
i=1,2,3):

ri
dri = dx j (6.1.4)
x j

The quantities ri /x j form a second-order tensor, which

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 6. DEFORMATION AND FLOW OF ICE- BASICS

can be split up in a symmetric and an anti-symmetric part:

ri 1 ri r j 1 ri r j
= + + (6.1.5)
x j 2 x j x i 2 x j x i

The second part represent a rigid rotation, whicle the first

part describes how the material is actually deformed. It
therefore defines the deformation tensor ij :

1 ri r j
ij = + (6.1.6)
2 x j x i Figure 6.3. Deformation involves shearing and stretching.

The elements with i = j measure stretching, whereas the

other elements measure shearing. Figure 6.3 illustrates this
for the two-dimensional case. The typical problem of
continuum mechanics is to relate the deformation tensor to
the stress tensor. To study the dynamic behaviour of
deforming materials, such a relation must be added to the
conservations equations of mass, momentum and energy. Exercise
What kind of stresses are responsible for the formation of
A rather simple type of behaviour is that of a linear elastic
crevasses that are normally seen in ice falls?
isotropic material. Deformation and stress are then related
by

ij = 2 ij + ii (6.1.7)

The elasticity constants and describe the resistance of

a material to external forces. For example, in a (very) first
approximation the effect of an ice load on an underlying
lithospheric plate can be studied with eq. (6.1.7). The
constant then is a measure for the rigidity of the plate.
[Note: for an incompressible material ii = 0 , in which
case the second term in eq. (6.1.7) vanishes]
Eq. (6.1.7) describes a simple type of elastic deformation.
In the case of plastic deformation, which is more relevant
with regard to the flow of ice, deformation continues even
if the force is constant. A steady state may be achieved in
which particles still move, or in other words, a stationary
velocity field is established. Obviously, now the rate of
deformation, denoted by ij , should be related to the stress
tensor. Before discussing this we first have a brief look at
the creep of ice as it is known from laboratory experiments.

6.2 The creep of glacier ice

Ice crystals are hexagonal structures in which the molecules

are arranged in more or less parallel planes (figure 6.4). The
orientation of a plane is given by the c-axis, which is Figure 6.4. Lattice of ice, showing the hexagonal structure.
perpendicular to this basal plane. For a piece of ice, the c- Oxygen atoms are depicted in red, hydrogen atoms in grey.

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 6. DEFORMATION AND FLOW OF ICE- BASICS

Figure 6.6. In the North-GRIP ice core, crystal size increases markedly with depth. In the upper part of the core the c-axes are
distributed at random, but deeper in the core a preferred orientation can be seen (courtesy of D. Dahl-Jensen).

axes of the different crystals can be projected on a half-

sphere. This procedure yields a a so-called Schmidt-
diagram (figure 6.5).
In isotropic ice the c-axes are distributed randomly. In
general it is assumed that basal glide is the primary process
leading to ice deformation. When a constant force is
applied to polycrystalline ice, the rate of deformation
decreases rapidly with time. This state is referred to as
primary creep. After a while the rate of deformation reaches
a minimum and the deformation starts to increase again
(secondary creep). In text books one can find that
Figure 6.5. The c-axes of all crystals of a piece of ice can be
secondary creep is normally followed by tertiary creep, but
projected on half-sphere. The resulting points in a plan view
the practical implications remain vague. It is best to
then make up a Schmidt-diagram (figure 6.6).
consider glacier ice as being in a state of secondary creep,
in which the ice gradually softens because crystals tend to
grow and take on an orientation that favours deformation in
the direction of applied stress (at least in ice sheets where
the forces setting up the stress field remain approximately
constant for a long time - up to hundred thousands of years,
see figure 6.6). A useful review on the creep of glacier ice
is provided by Budd and Jacka (1985).

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 6. DEFORMATION AND FLOW OF ICE- BASICS

A simple experiment, at least in theory, is to apply a surface

force at a slab of ice which is fixed to the bottom (figure
6.7; v1 u; x 3 = z ). The idea behind this experiment is to
have a situation in which only one stress deviator is
nonzero. After a while an almost steady state velocity field
is produced, which turns out to be linear with depth in the
slab (vertical coordinate z): the strain rate u /z is
constant. If the surface force S is varied it appears that a
nonlinear relation exists between S and the strain rate: Figure 6.7. Deformation in a slab of ice fixed at the bottom.
At the surface a force S is applied.

u
Sn (6.2.1)
z

This relation is known as Glens law (figure 6.5). Normally

the value of n is taken as 3, but experimental data are not
Exercise
very conclusive and any value between 2 and 4 can be
The general expression for eq. (6.3.4) is more complex; the
found in the literature.
expression given here is only valid for a special case. Which
case?

6.3 Generalised flow law

In the general case many components of the stress field are

nonzero. However, it cannot be assumed that a relation of
the type (6.2.1) holds for individual stress components
independent of each other. Instead, a more general flow law
(constitutive relation) should be based on a consideration of
the properties of second-order tensors. The generalised flow
law was first put forward by Nye (1953).
It assumed that the ice is incompressible (only
approximately true) and that the principal axes of the stress
tensor and the strain rate tensor are parallel. The
components of the strain rate and the components of the
deviatoric stress are proportional:

ij = ij (6.3.1)

is not a constant, but may depend on the entire stress

field.
Now a few remarks on tensor invariants are in order. The
eigenvalues of a second-order tensor ij are given by

3 I12 + I 2 I 3 = 0 (6.3.2)

Since the eigenvalues are independent of the orientation of

the coordinate system, the quantities I1, I2 and I3 are
invariant under transformation of the coordinate system.
Therefore they are called the first, second and third tensor
invariant.
The first invariant is the trace of the tensor: Figure 6.8. Dr. John Glen, photographed in Norway in June
1996.

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 6. DEFORMATION AND FLOW OF ICE- BASICS

I1 = ii (6.3.3)

The general expression for the second invariant is rather

complicated, but takes a simpler form when I 1 = 0 (see
exercise):

I 2 = 11
2
+ 22
2
+ 33
2
+ 2( 12
2
+ 23
2
+ 31
2
) (6.3.4)

Then the third invariant is given by

I 3 = det ( ij ) (6.3.5)

A general relation between ij and ij is now supposed to

depend only on I1 and I2. However, the definition of the
deviatoric stresses implies that I1 ( ij ) = 0 . At the same
time incompressibility assures that I1 (ij ) = 0 . Therefore
we have

{
= I 2 ( ij ), I 2 (ij ) } (6.3.6)

It is common practice to define an effective strain rate e

and an effective stress e as

2e2 = xx
2
+ yy
2
+ zz2 + 2(xy
2
+ xz
2
+ yz
2
) (6.3.7)

2 e2 = xx2 + yy2 + zz2 + 2( xy2 + xz2 + yz2 ) (6.3.8)

Exercise
Now many laboratory experiments have suggested that
Verify eq. (6.3.10)

e = A en (6.3.9)

Here A and n are termed the flow parameters.

From eqs. (6.3.1), (6.3.7)-(6.3.9) it follows that

= A en 1 (6.3.10)

and hence

ij = A en1 ' ij (6.3.11)

Eq. (6.3.11) is referred to as Nyes generalisation of Glens

flow law. This equation makes clear that the relation
between a certain stress and strain component depends on
the entire stress state. If the slab of ice in figure 6.7 would
be subject to a compressive stress perpendicular to the
paper, the flow would be faster. Interestingly, the same
would be true for a tensile stress.

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 6. DEFORMATION AND FLOW OF ICE- BASICS

6.4 Conservation laws

at 0 C at -50 C
-1 -1 -1 -1
Modelling of ice sheets should be based on proper specific heat cp 2091 J kg K 1741 J kg K
-3
conservation laws. In this section conservation of latent heat of fusion Lm 333 500 J kg
-1 -1 -1 -1
momentum, mass and energy are discussed. To close the thermal conductivity k 2.10 W m K 2.76 W m K
-3
resulting system of equations, constitutive relations are ice density 917 kg m
needed that are typical for the material to be studied.
Table 6.1. Some physical constants for pure ice. Note the
Conservation of mass is formulated as a continuity significant dependence on temperature.
equation, which reads

= ( v i ) (6.4.1)
t x i

Density is denoted by , the components of the velocity

vector v by vi. Eq. (6.4.1) simply states that density

changes only by convergence of the mass flux v . For an
imcompressible material eq. (6.4.1) reduces to Exercise
Is there a significant difference between the thermal
v i diffusivity for ice at 0C and ice at -50C ?
=0 (6.4.2)
x i

The Euler equations (Newtons law for a continuum)

describe conservation of momentum:

dv i ij
= Fi + (6.4.3)
dt x j

where Fi represents the body force. In the case of ice flow

accelerations are negligible and eq. (6.4.3) reduces to a
balance between body forces (gravity) and stress gradients.
Conservation of energy can readily be formulated as an
equation for the local rate of change of temperature (e.g.
Paterson, 1994; Van der Veen, 1999):

T T T ij ij L
= v i + K + + m m (6.4.4)
t x i x i x i J c p c p

Here K is the thermal diffusivity ( = k /(c p ) , where k is the

thermal conductivity). J is the mechanical equivalent of
heat.The terms at the right-hand side of eq. (6.4.4)
represent: advection, diffusion, frictional heating and
heating due to refreezing ( m is the rate of refreezing).
Some relevant constants are given in table 6.1.

6.5 Simple shearing flow

We now consider the case in which a slab of ice of constant

Figure 6.9. Coordinate system for simple shearing flow. The
thickness H is resting on a sloping bed (figure 6.9.). In a
bed is tilted by an angle with redspect to the geoid.

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 6. DEFORMATION AND FLOW OF ICE- BASICS

Cartesian coordinate system, in which the bed coincides

with the x-axis, the Euler equations can be written as

xx xy xz
+ + + g sin = 0 (6.5.1)
x y z

yx yy yz
+ + =0 (6.5.2)
x y z

zx zy zz
+ + g cos = 0 (6.5.3)
x y z

We assume symmetry in the x- and y-direction (infinite

slab), which implies that all derivatives with respect to x
and y are zero. The momentum (6.5.1) balance then reduces
to:

xz
+ g sin = 0 (6.5.4)
z

This equation is readily integrated to give the profile of the

shear stress (the stress exerted by the wind on the glacier
surface is neglected):

xz (z) = (H z) g sin (6.5.5)

Apparently the shear stress increases linear with depth in

the ice. The shear stress at the base (basal shear stress)
equals:

b = xz (z = 0) = H g sin (6.5.6)

This is a widely used expression in glaciology. 350

A velocity profile u(z) can be derived by combing eq. 300 glacier surface

(6.5.5) with Glens law. For the geometric set up used here 250
this can be written as:
200 3 5 7
z (m)

du
= 2 A xz
n
(6.5.7) 150
dz
100

Combining this with eq. (6.5.6) yields

50

du
= 2A {(H z) g sin } ,
n 0
(6.5.8) 0 25 50 75 100 125 150
dz Ice velocity (m a -1 )

which can be integrated to give Figure 6.10. Velocity profiles calculated with eq. (6.5.10), for
three different angles of the bed. Parameter values: H=300 m,
-7 -1 -3 -2
n=3, A=2x10 Pa a , =900 kg m , g=9.8 m s .

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 6. DEFORMATION AND FLOW OF ICE- BASICS

u(z) u(0) =
2A
n +1
{
( g sin ) n (H z) n +1 H n +1 }
(6.5.9)

Here u(0) is the velocity at the base, i.e. the sliding

velocity. For zero sliding velocity and n = 3, the velocity
profile becomes

u(z) =
A
2
{
( g sin ) 3 (H z) 4 H 4 } (6.5.10)

Figure 6.11. Quasi-planar flow in a glacier. When bed and

An example is shown in figure 6.10.
surface slope vary gradually, the flow resembles that of local
It can be shown that the expression for the shear stress is simple shear.
also approximately valid for the case where the bed is not
parallel to the ice surface, provided the angles are small. In
the foregoing equations sin is then replaced by h (h is
the surface elevation). The ice velocity vectors are no
longer exactly parallel (figure 6.11). Exercise
For the case of simple shearing flow: find a relation between
the vertical mean ice velocity U and the the basal shear stress
b.

6.6 Perfect plasticity

The concept of perfect plasticity has been used in a number

of glaciological studies. It involves a description of ice
deformation that is very tractable in simple analytical
models of ice sheets and ice shelves (Weertman, 1961,
1974; Reeh, 1982).
In terms of simple shearing deformation, perfect plasticity
can be seen as an asymptotic case of Glen's law when the
exponent n goes to infinity. It implies the existence of a
yield stress 0, such that

du
xz > 0 : (6.6.1)
dz

du
xz 0 : =0 (6.6.2)
dz

So for stresses exceeding the yield stress the rate of

deformation would be infinitely large; for stresses smaller
than the yield stress there is no deformation. In effect this
means that, as long as stress is being built up by gravity, the
ice will deform in such a way that the yield stress is
approached but never exceeded. In the case of the infinite
slab of ice considered in the previous section, this means
that the ice velocity is constant and all the shear is
concentrated at the bottom where

h
xz,base = g H =0 (6.6.3)
x

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 6. DEFORMATION AND FLOW OF ICE- BASICS

Values for the yield stress used in the literature are typically
1000
in the 0.5x105 to 2x105 Pa range, where the smaller values
750

h (m)
apply to ice caps with low mass turnover and the high
values to active valley glaciers. For a given value of 0 the 500

product of surface slope and ice thickness is constant. Eq. 250

(6.6.3) can thus be used to estimate ice thickness from the 0

0 50 100 150 200
surface slope. x (km)

As an interesting application we derive the shape of a

Figure 6.12. The profile of an ice cap on a flat bed when there
simple symmetric ice cap resting on a flat bed. In this
is perfect plastic deformation. parameter values: L = 200 km ,
case H = h , so 2 0 /(g) = 10 m .

dh 2 2 0
= (6.6.4)
dx g

It follows that the profile is parabolic: Exercise

Find an expression for the mean thickness of a perfectly
2 0 plastic ice sheet on a flat bed.
h 2 (x) h 2 (x 0 ) = (x x 0 ) (6.6.5)
g

To construct the solution for an ice cap we have to

prescribe its size (L) and the thickness at the boundaries
(we take it to be zero). The result is

2 0 L
h(x) = x for 0 x (6.6.6)
g 2

2 0 L
h(x) = (L x) for xL (6.6.7)
g 2

Figure 6.12 shows the resultant profile. Although it

provides a reasonable first approximation to the shape of an
ice cap, there are some notable deficiences. Firstly, the
solution is not valid at the ice divide. In reality, here the Piedmont glaciers in N. Greenland (photo Jrg Alean)

surface slope is very small and longitudinal stresses are

important. Secondly, a property of the perfectly plastic ice
sheet is that, given the size, the ice thickness does not
depend on the mass balance. Nevertheless, the parabolic
profile gives a reasonable first-order description of the
shape of an ice cap (figure 6.13).

References and further reading

Budd W.F. and T.H. Jacka (1989): A review of ice rheology for
ice-sheet modelling. Cold Regions Science and Technology
16, 107-144.
Blisen, Norway (photo Hans Oerlemans)

Lai, W.M., D. Rubin and E. Krempl (1993): Introduction to

Continuum Mechanics, 3rd ed., Pergamon. Figure 6.13.These photographs suggest that the margin of an
ice cap indeed takes on a parabolic shape.

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 6. DEFORMATION AND FLOW OF ICE- BASICS

Nye J.F. (1953): The flow law of ice from measurement in glacier
tunnels, laboratory experiments and the Jungfraufirn borehole
experiments. Proceedings of the Royal Society of London
A207, 554-572.

Oerlemans J. (1997): Climate Sensitivity of Franz-Josef Glacier,

New Zealand, as revealed by numerical modelling. Arctic and
Alpine Research 29 (2), 233-239.

Paterson W.S.B. (1994): The Physics of Glaciers. Pergamon/

Elsevier, 3rd Edition, 480 pp.

Reeh N. (1982): A plasticity approach to the steady-state shape of

a three-dimensional ice sheet. Journal of Glaciology 28, 431-
455.

Van der Veen C.J. (1999): Fundamentals of Glacier Dynamics.

Balkema, 462 pp.

Weertman J. (1961): Stability of ice-age ice sheets. Journal of

Geophysical Research 66, 3783-3792.

Weertman J. (1974): Stability of the junction of an ice sheet and

an ice shelf. Journal of Glaciology 13, 3-11.

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