: ° In this chapter, we will introduce you to the inciples Off plumbing with S presentation of the & knowledge required before actual design can be undertaken. Study of this chapter will enable you _ ~ Plumbing * 1, Understand what plumbing engineers and technologist design. 2. Know the principles on which design is based. 3. Use the applicable codes and other administra- tive guides. ' 4. Understand the fundamentals of hydraulics (fluid engineering) as applied to plumbing. 5. Apply units, conversions and dimensional i analysis as applied to hydraulics. Have a working knowledge of the piping mate- rials used in plumbing work, including their fittings, joints, supports and installation 7. Apply control and safety devices as required by the design. 8. Understand the choice of plumbing fixtures of 7 the types commonly found in residential and commercial buildings. This includes obtaining, and specifying the required “roughing dimen- sions” for the guidance of the plumbing con- tractor. 9, Understand and apply the methods of pres- enting plumbing information on working drawings. In Chapters 9 and 10, we will discuss actual design procedures for water supply (including fire stand- pipes and sprinklers), sanitary and storm drainage and the application of design principles to actual building plans. 8.1 Introduction The most basic human need is a reliable supp! potable (drinkable) water. As a result, settlePraia wero always located [Glosetto such a source. These sources were rivers, Streams, springs and wells, both naturally oc: (Gurring and those dug by men. When settlements Sprawl size to the point that carrying the water from the source to the dwelling became 3 major burden, the first man-made aqueducts were con- structed. (The word aqueduct means in Latin a eves to lead or conduct water—that is, a water (ondultor duct) These aqueducts, which started as ‘open trenches more than 5000 years ago, developed eater pecseuriced pipes used by the Greeks and culminated in the magnificent Roman works (fhiydraulic.engincering. Some of the Roman aque ducts and underground piping is still in use today Glazed pottery pipe (terra cotta) was in use in ancient Babylon. The Romans introduced the use Pies ates lines, which branched from main aqueducts to public fountains and into the houses of the wealthy. (The fountains were primat ly intended as a source of water for the masses in addition to serving a decorative purpose.) Lead Gashused because itis casily worked and joined, is waterproof and does not corrode. Today, because of our knowledge of the effects of lead poisoning, not only is lead pipe not used, but even lead-wiped joints'on other metal pipes are severely restricted. The Latin word for lead is plumbum from which we have the English words plumber and plumbing. The second basic human need after a reliable water supply, is some means for getting rid of human waste products. Liquid waste (urine) was originally simply allowed to sink into the ground. Solid waste (fecal matter) is not so easily disposed of and, if left exposed, putrefies, causing foul odors and attracting insects. The Bible (Deut. 23:13,14) required the Israelites in the desert to bury such material in the earth outside the inhabitated area. Settlements near rivers and streams originally used those water channels to carry away these wastes. However, as with domestic water, when towns and cities grew to the point that a trip to the river or stream was not practical, a means of sew- age disposal close to the dwelling was developed. ‘The Greeks and other People of the Mediterranean basin developed the first sanitary drainage sve tems. The original system consisted of water chan. nels that ran open down the centes of the tat Human waste was brought in buckets from houses and dumped directly into these open sewers. This system persisted in parts of Europe and the East until modern times and still exists in parts of the fee an open sewer is producing, partion, Jarly when the water supply in the channel hove 1e Greeks and Romans introduced two hw eels nd Ror nd pen channel sith paving blocks and the onss to direct part of the water flow to run di carry the waste manually to the sewer. With the fall of Rome and the onset ofthe ges of Europe, these sanitary refinements fel ieee Gites were built and expanded gail Sanitary facilities whatsoever. Houscholdae dumped chamber pots of human waste into the Street where it putrefied, causing not only fay) odors but most of the diseases that wracked Ey rope, including typhus, typhoid, dysentery ang plague. It was not until the 19th century in the United States that human waste began to be eo lected from private privies by “honey wagons" and that reliable centralized water supply systems were installed. Only in this century has sanitary sewage disposal in major U.S. cities reached the levels achieved at the height of the Roman empire 2000 years ago! The sophisticated interior plumb: ing systems that we take so much for granted area relatively modern convenience. It is the design of these systems, along with storm drainage, that will constitute the essentials of the plumbing section of this book. A short section on water piping for fire fighting will also be included. Modern plumbing engineering and design covers not only these areas, that is, water supply, sanitary and storm drainage and fire fighting, but also a host of other disciplines, which have piping as thei common denominator. These include: + Specialized water systems (chilled, distilled deionized) * Gas systems (oxygen, nitrogen, carbon dioxide cooking gas, nitrogen, nitrous oxide, helium ete.) * Extended fire protection (standpipes, halon etc.) Compressed air Vacuum systems (clinical, oral, laboratory 2% cleaning) Soap and disinfectant dispensing Decorative fountains and swimming pools Irrigation systems treatment and purification systems The plumbing technologist who acquires 2 Srounding in water supply and drainage 53°! lent position to transfer \¢ preceding specialties and aa widen his of h ye e fet professional and employ ons. (Industrial and high-pressure piping ™technical specialty that is not in the area ehily handled by plumbing engineers, desig: nomind technologists. On the other hand, prea. ec tube systems that are actually in the field maicterial banding are frequently designed by Ai umbing engineering personnel) Mcompetent plumbing technologist-designer has a working knowledge of the following: + Hydraulic principles as applied to plumbing systems + Materials used in plumbing systems for convey- ance (piping and fittings), control (valves and flow controls), measurement (meters) and us- age (plumbing fixtures) + Design techniques for all the systems with which he or she will be concerned + Installation procedures and techniques + Field inspection procedures ‘The material in the plumbing section of this book isintended to give you this working knowledge. 8.2 Basic Principles of Plumbing The goal of modern plumbing design for buildings, 5 it will be discussed in the book, is to safely and reliably provide domestic water, cooking gas and water for fire fighting and to remove sanitary wastes, The word safely is emphasized because, although it would not appear so at first glance, plimbing systems can be very dangerous if im- Properly designed. Dangers from cooking/heating 2s are obvious. Less obvious is the explosive po- tential of hot water systems and pressurized cold Water systems, the nauseating effects of improperly vented sanitary drainage systems and the causing potential of inadequate sanitary drainage. System reliability is of primary importance to the beneficial occupancy of a building. Think for a Minute about the disruption of normal building Use that can be caused by loss of water supply or Stoppage of the drainage system. The image sufficient to confirm the importance of plumbing. S¥stem reliability. Moreover, reliability means not ‘nly long periods of trouble-free service but also @ ign that permits easy, rapid, economical and ive repairs to be made. _Asother important aspect of the plumbing de- BB. as also of the HVAC and electrical design, is Rexibility. tis rare that a bullding's usage nero is throt tthe life of the structure. Ss therfore important atthe plumbing sem BASIC PRINCIPLES OF | lend itself to alteration. Furthermore, tion is a continuing process. It is less rapid in plumbing systems than in electrical or HVAC, but it exists. It js, therefore, important that the system design and system materials be such that new developments in fixtures, valving, piping materials and the like can be accommodated with minimum disruption to the building occupants. All modern plumbing design is founded on basic design principles intended to ensure the previously referenced safe, reliable, effective plumbing sys- tems. A detailed list of these principles can be found in the National Standard Plumbing Code and in other administrative codes. These principles are summed up in the following discussion. a. Potable Water All premises intended for extended, continuous hu- man occupancy should be provided with an ade quate supply of potable water. Design of the supply shall be such that the purity of the water is always: maintained and that contamination of the potable water system from backflow or reverse flow of any. sort is prevented, b. Plumbing Fixtures Every dwelling unit should have at least one water closet, one lavatory, one kitchen-type sink and one shower or bathtub. Every plumbing fixture in any structure must be supplied with water at the flow rate and pressure required for proper operation, Where hot water is required, it should be furnished at a temperature of not less than 95°F (35°C) and not more than 140°F (60°C) except for commercial fixtures that specifically require higher tempera- ture water. Each fixture directly connected to the drainage system must be equipped with a water seal trap. The traps may be integral, as with water closets, or separate, as with sinks, lavatories and other fixtures. All plumbing fixtures must be made of smooth, nonabsorbent, corrosion-resistant mate- rial and shall be installed so that maintenance and cleaning are readily accomplished. c. Sanitary Drainage System ‘The sanitary drainage system shall be so designed that clogging and fouling is avoided to the maxi- mum extent possible and so that, when they do sur, they can easily and readily be cleared. Addi- tionally, the system must be designed with proper venting to protect all fixture water seals from si phonage and blowout under ordinary conditions of tse, All fixture vents must be pipe connected toodes: Most areas in the United States, however, terminating in fresh air outside the The vent system must be designed to fresh air intake and minimize the possi- " bility of clogging and the trapping of fouled air inside the building. The sanitary drainage syste ‘4 public sewer, if such exists, within a reasonable distance. If one does not exist, then an accepted method of sewage treatment and disposal that will ‘accept the effluent from the sanitary drainage sys. tem must be designed and constructed. All connec- tions to public sewers or private disposal systems shall be designed so that backflow (reverse flow from the sewer into the building) is prevented. d. Storm Drainage Every structure shall be provided with a storm drainage system that will conduct storm water from roofs and all paved areas into an approved storm sewer system. In no case, except where spe- cifically so instructed by local authorities, should storm water be connected into a sanitary sewage system. The storm water drainage system withi ‘or on a building must be completely separate from the sanitary drainage system, e. General Considerations Building plumbing systems shall be de: " materials that are durable and maintenance-free to the extent possible. Installation shall be such that accessibility for maintenance and, in particu- lar, for clearing of clogged pipes is provided. Shut- off valving should be installed to simplify repai and replacement of parts. All required and recom. mended safety devices including pressure and tem. Perature relief valves and energy cutoff devices ‘must be provided. Finally, the entire system must be tested in accordance with approved and ac. cepted procedures before being put into service. 8.3 Plumbing System Design Constraints Plumbing system design is carefully controlled an: tightly regulated by the local ordinances of the a ‘er town in which the construction is intended. Some of the large cities have their own plumbing odes that are in general stricter than nations} itis this code that we mean When We si the word cove in this book: AS a convene users of this Code who are working on jobs a Tequire use of one of the other major codes, reference index of code sections is provided Appendix G of the National Standard Plumbing Code. The four major codes and their publi 1. National Standard Plumbing Code, published National Association of Plumbing-Heatingsgg’) ing Contractors, P.O. Box 6080, Falls Va. 22040 (1-800-533-7694) — 2. Uniform Plumbing Code, published by Intema, tional Association of Plumbing and Mechany Oificials (APMO), 20001 South Walnut Drive Walnut, Ca. 91789 3. BOCA Basi Code, published by ials and Code Administrators In Inc., 4051 West Flosmoor Road, yy Club Hill, 11. 60477 4, Southern Standard Plumbing Code, published by Southern Building Code Congress Interne tional, Inc., 900 Montclair Road, Birmingham, Al, 35213-1206 In addition to these administrative constraint, there are other “external” constraints placed by insurance companies, environmental regulations, lations governing facilities for the hand capped, and others. These constraints are, in gem eral, not the concern of the plumbing technologist id will, therefore, not be discussed here, What S concern the technologist are physical com straints imposed by the building structure and by the other building systems. These require care coordination so that the plumbing work will not conflict, spacewise, with other construction. It 1 the order of precedence for space alloc sy ructure fist, followed by HVAC duct ccause of bulkiness, then plumbing drainage PiP- ing because of size and required pitch, followed) smaller HVAC and plumbing piping, and finally electrical work 8.4 Minimum Plumbing Facilities All codes state the minimum. plumbing facil that are jfatuted in each building ty a en otmally the responsibility of the project HSb the complete table will not be here. Instead, we re i |, we reproduce in Table ofa table from the (National Standard. von able 811 Minimum Number of Plumbing Fixtures* Water Closets (Unnatel Sus oad) tse Group No.of | orType Pesonsof No.of Drinking of ut Each Sex Fists _Lavoraores_ Pais Sehools 4 rechool 1s i ae peyeare ca Lai aes , . fda 15 = peopk FaamiletoasnesstooO7 come eS i ' es fee and carry 9 for food estab. pel lishments where seating is not pro- vided Duelling units| Single = 1 1 - 1 1 kitchen sink Multiple anunit Shunt - Vhanit 1 kitchen sink/unit 1 laundry tray/100 units Workplaces*==0=7 Employees—most 11s 1 1 1100 - 1 service cccupancies, such 16-40 2 I people sinkifloor asstores and light industrial service “This table shall be used unless superseded by building code requirements. Consult fire codes for limitations of occupancy. For ances, Additional fixtures may be required where environment conditions Jandicap requirements, see loa, state and national or special aetvities may be encountered Drinking fountains are not required in restaurants or raking water isnot required for customers where normal ‘quivalent of a drinking fountain for employes. ‘Infood preparation areas, fixture requirements may be ‘Whenever both sexes are present in approximately egal Benons for each sex to be provided for. This regulation applies o are count, is not provided. ‘Not more than SU% ofthe required numberof water closets may be urinals “in uiings constenerad wil multiple Moors, accessibility to the fixtures shall nt exceed one vertical sto SF eee En int by providing a cenrally cated faity accesible to several stores, The maximum anes from entry to any store to this facility shall not exceed 500 ft In stores with loot arca of 150 [tof less, the requirements to provide facilities Sly ocd ny acc to ever se The asim dates re other food service establishments if drinking water service is available. oceupaney fs short term. A kitchen or bar sink may be considered the dictated by local health codes numbers, multiply the total census by 5086 to determine the number of ly when specific information, which would otherwise affect the for use by employees may be met by providing a fo any store to this facility shall not exceed eer hey he nk ean tenor ee mani ces al eee ed dumber for employees, or the required number for customer ie anise 0 Sonar Png ole, bse by The National Asad ‘ion of Plumbis \g Heating Cooling Contractors, on,8.5 Hydraulics ‘Hydraulics is the study of the physical principles that govern the behavior of liquids at rest and in ‘motion, There are two separate and distinet types eas Have with which plumbing designers and technologists are concerned and for wh ‘vant hydraulic principles will be discussed. The first is Now in a closed pressurized system; a sys- tem that is nowhere open to the atmosphere and operates above atmospheric pressure. This is the type of flow that occurs in domestic water systems, both hot and cold, in any of the water and other liquid supply systems listed in Section 8.1 and in water systems for fire fighting. (Flow of gases, which are fluids and not liquids, is governed by other physical principles and will not be discussed here because it is not of general concern to plumb- ing technologists.) Pressurized system flow is the type of flow that will be considered in this section and those immediately following. The second major type of flow with which plumbing designers are concerned is gravity flow. This is the type of flow that occurs in all drainage systems (both sanitary drainage and storm drain- age) and is caused simply by the slope of the pipe containing the liquid. These systems are open to the atmosphere. The pipes containing the liquids ‘almost always run only partially full (as compared to completely full in pressurized systems). The physical principles describing this open, unpres- surized gravity flow are quite different than those of pressurized systems. The hydraulics of gravity flow systems will be described in Chapter 10 where isstudied, 8.6 Static Pressure Static pressure is caused by the weight of water the system. Refer to Figure any point 10 Feet (H): Pressure Pressure: Pressure 433 psi 4.33 psi 4.33 psi @ ® © Figure 8.1. The pressure exerted by a 10 ft high columt of water isthe same (433 ps regaruless ofthe rs" sectional area ofthe colurnn. This hydrostatic PreSsue of 533 ps is also known asa state (pes) had of wate The total volume V of water in the columns V=LXWXH=1 fex 1 fx 10 f= 108 Since water weighs 62.4 lb/ft, the total weight | this column of water: is Weight = Volume x Density Weight= 10 ft!x 62.4 Ibitt®=624 1b Since this weight is being exerted over an fC A=Lxwet fox 1 ft=1 £2), the bottom of this columns.”, since pressure is normally expressed in pounds per square inch (Psi), we ean convert using asi e24ib 182 b Pressure=pz “Tad in? 433 jn, 33 psi We could also have converted the previous answer ising simple dimensional conversion. (We strongly recommend that you always perform unit conver- sons by writing out the units and cancelling, until the desired units are obtained.) Now, referring to Figure 8.1 (b), we will follow the same steps in order to calculate the pressure at the bottom of this 6-in. square, 10 ft high column of water. Yolume=L x Wx H=(0.5 ft) (0.5 ft) (10 ft)=2.5 ft? Weight = Volume x Density = Ib 25 f0° 62.4 75= 156 Ib Weight_ 156 1b___ 156 Ib Area (6 in.) 6 in.) 36 in? The result is identical to the previous result. To demonstrate that this is not simply a coincidence, letus perform the same calculation for the 1-inch? column in Figure 8.1(¢). Pressure: =4.33 psi eo pl Ga 0 = 7gg Weight _624/144 pounds reeire « Weisht _624/144 pounds ssure “Area (Lin) (1 in) Itshould be perfectly clear at this point that static Pressure at a point below the surface depends only on the height and, therefore, weight of the water column above that point and is completely inde- Pendent of area. That means that 10 ft below the of a large lake and 10 ft below the surface 2 column of water, the pressure is the same 433 psi. Since this is 30, it follows that static ressible in height of a water column, Thats, in feck of water, Ira 10(t column of water ‘a pressure of 4.33 psi, then obviously a 1- ‘of water will produce a pressure of one, is amount, or 0.433 psi. In other words, we that the pressure in a system is 0.433 pst = 4.33 psi A. Figure 8.2(a) % V=LxWxH=(1 fF) R= 1A Weight=1 ft? 62.4 Bpos Ib Area=(12 in.) (12 in.)=144 in? Pressure = Weight _ 62.4 Ib Area 144 in. 2. Figure 8.2(b) V=LxWxH=(05 ft) (05 ft) (I ft)=0.25 ft? Weight = Volume x Density: I 0.25 #6 x024 B=15.6 1b a pressure Weight__15.6 1b __15.6 Tb i ‘Area ~ Gin, ( in) “36 in? 7493 PS 3. Figure 8.2(c) venxwarte( ta) (Ea)a mee : (aa) ia) tag Weight=Volumex Density = 6 Ib 624 gx e24 Weight 62.4/144 Ib _ 624 Ib Pressure="frea (in) (in) 144 in? 0.433 psi We have now adequately demonstrated that: 6 Inches Linen 1 Foot 3 Foot ‘savare square ID af Ht Pressure p= p= 0.433 psi p= 0.433 psi 0.433 psi © o © Figure 82. As shown in Figure 8.1, pressure is ent of the column area and depends only on the: ‘umn height, Since all the columns (ac) are 1 ft the figure demonstrates that 1 ft of hydrostat equal to 0.433 psi.is independent of surface area ‘or total volume of liquid and depends only on depth, the height of liquid (water) “column” above the point in question. (®) Static pressure can be expressed in feet of wa- ter at the conversion of 1 ft of water equals 0.433 psi. Conversely, 1 MPA OasS Use the dimensional type of analysis that we rec- ‘ommend, and try not to depend on conversion factors that can be misused. To convert pounds per square inch of pressure to feet of water, multiply by 2.31 or divide by 0.433. Conversely, to convert feet of water to pounds per square inch of pressure, multiply by 0.433 or divide by 2.31. Since static pressure in a water system is caused by the weight of water, it is also referred to as hydrostatic pressure. Also, since it is expressed in feet of height of a column of water, it is also referred to as static head or hydrostatic head, where head is a synonym for pressure. The term pressure head is also used despite the fact that it is basi- cally repetitive. As we stated in our discussion and demonstrated 31 ft of water. by calculation, static pressure in a tem depends only on the depth at which surement is taken and not on the above. This is graphically illustrated in Figuye get ‘As noted on that figure, static pressure atthe oe face is zero since depth is zero. However, ay an well know, the pressure at the surface is not it is atmospheric pressure, which at seq | amounts to 14.7 psi. We must, therefore, dif ate between absolute pressure, which includes ye mospheric pressure, and gauge pressure, which not, Static pressure in hydraulic systems, unles specifically noted otherwise, is always gauge pres sure, that is, zero at the liquid surface and ingress ing with depth. We stated that atmospheric pressure is 147 ps at sea level. This pressure is caused by the weight of the atmosphere (air) above exactly as hyde static pressure is caused by the weight of water above. For this reason, we stated the pressure at sea level. Below sea level—at the Dead Sea, for instance, which is 1300 ft below sea level—aime. spheric pressure is about 15.1 psi, whereas at the top of Mt. Everest, it is only about 11 psi. Using the conversion factors we developed, we can express atmospheric pressure in terms of feet of water: Tank 2 Terk Atmosphere pressure as ero gnuge pressure Prezomete tube wih pressure radiations Threaded {er comecin of manometer Figure 8.3 The pressure at point A equals the at the same depth. Similarly, the hydrostatic pressures a equal. This demonstrates that, although “depth” of point Pressure at point E because both are « points B, Cand D are fire must be the same as that at pointe sea Dee GS sane evan, te sto that hydro pene ngnge pe pa se ‘sure above atmospheric pressure, which is set arbitraril at re. site : sure equals gauge pressure plus atmospheric preseare than «ones: Absolute pres- tion of the manometer connection a poise Peete Environmental Technology, 1986, © John Wil. ¢y & Sons, reprinte¢ John Wiley & Sons) *eae a «fof wat © 147 PSIXG.453 psi 33.93 ft of water cal terms, this means that, in a closed ec, atmospheric pressure will support a col- Sr of water 33.9 ft high. Mau will occasionally encounter pressure ex- presed in units other than pounds per square inch Pep feet of water. The most important of these fistoically is m bie Since mercury is much denser (heavier per iy volume) than water, pressure expressed in the height of a mercury column will be a smaller tipnber than that of the equivalent column of wa: fer in exactly the density ratio between mercury tn water. Thus, atmospheric pressure, which we Hive noted t0 be 33.9 ft of water, when expressed interms of a column of mercury is exactly 760 mm gfmercury at sea level. The usefulness of a mercury column as a pressure-measuring device will be tome clear in Section 8.7. A list ofthe various units in which atmospheric pressure is expressed and their equivalency is given One atmosphere =0 psi gauge pressure = 14,7 psi absolute pressure = 33.93 ft of wate 760 mm of mercury 1.01 bai = 101.3 kPa (kiloPascal) 8.7 Pressure Measurement As with all physical properties, it is frequently necessary to measure liquid pressure. The simplest liquid pressure measurement device is a piezome- ter tube, which is no more than a clear glass or Plastic tube that is connected into the system at the point at which pressure measurement is re- Guired. If, for instance, we were to connect a pi ometer tube into the tap in the tank and PiPs amangement of Figure 8.3 at point F, the water in thetube would isto the same level as that in both tanks. If the tube were marked with graduations (equally spaced markings) and calibrated in Pounds per square inch, we would be able to read the pressure at point F in the tank directly. Let us tralme now that, instead of a tank, we baa asure the pressure in a pipe carrying water at a Prono fcen soil pos Ch he € of pressures normally found in public water Mains) Apicvometer tube capable of reading tis PRESSURE MEASUREMENT. Pressure would have to be at least 185 ft high! feet of water 0.433 psi Obviously, this is impractical. This demonstrates that a simple water tube can be used to measure only low pressures. For somewhat higher pres- sures, a mercury manometer can be used. A ma- nometer is basically a column of liquid in a glass tube, where the weight of the liquid is used to balance the pressure being measured and the height of the column indicates the pressure—as with the piezometer tube. A physician’s blood pres- sure machine (sphygmomanometer) is a manome- ter as the name indicates. It balances the pumped- up air pressure inside the device against the weight of a column of mercury, which is graduated in millimeters. A blood pressure reading of 120 sim- ply means that the column of mercury rose to a height of 120 mm. If we were interested in knowing, the actual pressure, we could convert, by remem- bering that atmospheric pressure of 14.7 psi corres- ponds to 760 mm of mercury column height Therefor 80 psix = 185 ft of water 1427 psi 120 mm x65 sam 2.32 psi If a water column were used instead of mercury, it would have to be 13.6 times as long (since mercury is 13.6 times as heavy as water). This would obvi- ously be impractical, which is the reason that mer- cury is used Returning to the pressure measurement in a 80- psi water main, even a mercury manometer of the simple open type would have to be 14 ft long to be adequate 760 mm, si x SO MM _ 4136 mm=4.136 m=134 ft 80 psx 47 psi! For this reason, simple open-end manometers are not used except for low pressures. For higher pres: es, differential closed-end manometers are used, since they are much smaller and can measure higher pressures. ‘Most often, however, a Bourdon gauge is used. ‘The design of this gauge is based on an observation made in the mid-1800s by a scientist named Bour- don. He noted that fluid pressure inside a bent tube fects to straighten the tube and that, within limits, the action is linear. That means that the amount Of “uncurling” of the bend is proportional to the pressure in the tube. This principle can, therefore, be used to measure pressure, as shown in Figure