OPTIMIZATION OF DAYLIGHTING STRATEGIES

WITH RESPECT TO THERMAL PERFORMANCE OF

BUILDINGS

PROJECT SEMINAR -1

ABHIJIT RASTOGI
BEM 479
SECOND SEMESTER ‘10

DEPARTMENT OF BUILDING ENGINEERING AND MANAGEMENT

SCHOOL OF PLANNING AND ARCHITECTURE

NEW DELHI – 110002

OPTIMIZATION OF DAYLIGHTING STRATEGIES
WITH RESPECT TO THERMAL PERFORMANCE OF
BUILDINGS

PROJECT SEMINAR -1

Submitted in the partial fulfillment of the requirement of the Degree of

Master in Building Engineering and Management of the School of Planning
and Architecture (deemed to be a university), New Delhi

ABHIJIT RASTOGI
BEM 479
SECOND SEMESTER ‘10

DEPARTMENT OF BUILDING ENGINEERING AND MANAGEMENT

SCHOOL OF PLANNING AND ARCHITECTURE

NEW DELHI – 110002

 CERTIFICATE

Certified that the Seminar entitled “OPTIMIZATION OF DAYLIGHTING

STRATEGIES WITH RESPECT TO THERMAL PERFORMANCE OF
BUILDINGS ”, submitted by Mr. Abhijit Rastogi, in partial fulfillment for the award of
the Degree of Master in Building Engineering and Management of the School of
Planning and Architecture (Deemed to be University), New Delhi, is a record of the
student’s own work carried out by him under our supervision and guidance and to the best
of my knowledge, has not been submitted to any other University or Institution for the
award of any other degree or diploma.

(Prof.Dr.Virendra K.Paul)

Thesis Guide, Professor

Head of the Department

Dept. of Building Engineering and Management,

School of Planning and Architecture New Delhi.

i
 CERTIFICATE

I Abhijit Rastogi here by certify that no part of this report is reproduced or copied from
another literature source, (published or unpublished). All works used for the purpose of this
study are duly referred and acknowledged in the relevant portions of this report and sources
indicated.

Signature

Dated: Name of the Student: Abhijit Rastogi

Class of Year : 2009 - 20010

ii
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I wish to express my sincere gratitude to Prof. (Dr.) Virender Paul, for their valuable
guidance, support and initiation of the work.

I am also grateful to Dr. V. Thiruvengadam, Dr. Anil Sawhney and Mr. Manish Jain
for their advice, comments and constructive criticism during the course of this work.

Special thanks are also due to Spectral Consultants which helped me too learn
simulation software’s.

Finally, I thank my family and friends for their constant support, inquisitiveness,
encouragement, and encouragement, and crucial technical support towards the
concluding stages of this seminar.

New Delhi, May 2010 Abhijit Rastogi

iii
DEDICATED TO MY FAMILY

iv
 CONTENTS

Certificate. …………………………………………………….……………………………………… i – ii
Acknowledgement. …………………………………………………….………………………… iii
List of Tables and figures. …………………………………………………….……………….. ix - xiii
Abstract. …………………………………………………….…………………………………………. xiv
Summary. …………………………………………………….……………………………………….. xv - xvi

CHAPTER - 1- INTRODUCTION. ……………………………………………………….……… 1 - 2

1.1 Introduction. ……………………………………………………….…………………….. 1 – 1
1.2 Need of the study. ……………………………………………………….……………… 1 – 1
1.3 Aim. ……………………………………………………….……………………………... 1 – 1
1.4 Objectives. ……………………………………………………….……………………… 1 – 1
1.5 Scope & Limitations. ……………………………………………………….…………. 2 – 2
1.6 Methodology. ……………………………………………………….……………………. 2 – 3

CHAPTER – 2- LITERATURE REVIEWS. …………………………………………………… 4 - 8

2.1 Codes & Standards. ……………………………………………………………………. 4 – 6
2.2 Published Books. ………………………………………………………………………... 6 – 6
2.3 Unpublished books, thesis & seminars. ………………………………………….. 6 – 8

CHAPTER - 3- DAYLIGHTING STRATEGIES. ……………………………………………. 9 - 38

3.1 Introduction. ……………………………………………………………………………. 9 – 9
3.2 Level of lighting requirement & comfort standard. (Activity based
classification.) ……………………………………………………………………………. 9 – 10
3.3 Sources of Day lighting. ……………………………………………………………… 11 - 11
3.3.1 Solar illumination. ………………………………………………………………. 11
3.3.2 Sky radiation. …………………………………………………………………….. 11
3.4 Day lighting devices & strategies. ……………………………………………….. 11 – 30
3.4.1 Side lighting strategies. ………………………………………………………. 11 – 16
3.4.1.1 Low window. …………………………………………………………………. 12 – 13
3.4.1.2 High window. ………………………………………………………………… 13
3.4.1.3 Middle window. ……………………………………………………………… 14
3.4.1.4 Shaped apertures & sloped glazing. …………………………………. 14 – 15
3.4.1.5 Light shelves. …………………………………………………………………. 15 – 16

v
 3.4.2 Top lighting strategies. ……………………………………………………….. 16 – 27
3.4.2.1 Skylights. ………………………………………………………………………. 17 – 21
3.4.2.2 Clerestories. …………………………………………………………………. 21
3.4.2.3 Sun scoops & light scoops. …………………………………………….. 21 – 23
3.4.2.4 Sun catcher baffles. ……………………………………………………….. 24
3.4.2.5 Light tubes. …………………………………………………………………… 24 – 27
3.4.3 Top light shared central spaces. ………………………………………….. 27 – 29
3.4.3.1 Courts. …………………………………………………………………………. 27
3.4.3.2 Atriums & Litriums. ………………………………………………………. 28
3.4.3.3 Light courts. …………………………………………………………………. 29
3.4.3.4 Light wells. …………………………………………………………………… 29
3.5 Factors affecting Day lighting & their thermal load implications. …... 29 – 38
3.5.1 Solar angle. ………………………………………………………………………. 29 – 30
3.5.2 Climate, Location & Orientation. ……………………………………….. 30 – 31
3.5.3 Site planning / building massing. ……………………………………….. 31
3.5.4 Shading devices. ……………………………………………………………….. 32 – 36
3.5.5 Room sizes. ………………………………………………………………………. 36 – 37
3.5.6 Building shapes & layout. ………………………………………………….. 37 – 38

CHAPTER – 4 - ANALYSIS OF DAY LIGHTING. ……………………………………….. 39 - 56

4.1 Introduction. …………………………………………………………………………….. 39 – 40
4.2 Day lighting prediction technique. ……………………………………………….. 40 – 45
4.3 The pepper pot diagram. ……………………………………………………………. 45 – 47
4.4 The lumen method. ……………………………………………………………………. 48 – 49
4.5 CBRI Lux grid method. ……………………………………………………………... 50 – 53
4.6 ISI table method. ……………………………………………………………………… 53 – 56

CHAPTER – 5- ROLE OF GLAZING TECHNIQUES IN DAYLIGHTING

UTILIZATION. ………………………………………………………………………………………… 57 - 67
5.1 Introduction. …………………………………………………………………………….. 57 – 60
5.2 Selection of Glazing. ………………………………………………………………….. 60 – 64
5.3 Importance – a) Thermal. ………………………………………………………………….. 64 – 65
b) Day lighting. ……………………………………………………………. 65 – 67

vi
CHAPTER – 6- CASE STUDY ………………………………………………………………….. 68 - 91
6.1 Introduction. …………………………………………………………………………….. 68
6.2 Project Description. ………………………………………………………………….. 68 – 69
6.3 Building Model (Details). …………………………………………………………... 69 – 89
6.3.1 Solar Position. ……………………………………………………………………. 70 – 71
6.3.2 Location Data. ……………………………………………………………………. 71 – 72
6.3.3 Hourly Climatic Data. ………………………………………………………… 72 – 73
6.3.4 Day lighting Analysis. ………………………………………………………… 73 – 80
6.3.4.1 Day light Factor. ………………………………………………………………….74
6.3.4.2 Sky Component (SC) ……………………………………………………….. 75
6.3.4.3 External Reflected Component. (ERC) ……………………………… 75 – 76
6.3.4.4 Internal Reflected Component (IRC) ………………………………… 76 – 77
6.3.4.5 Day light Levels. …………………………………………………………….. 77 – 78
6.3.4.6 Day light Autonomy. ……………………………………………………….. 79 – 80
6.3.5 Thermal Analysis. ………………………………………………………………. 80 – 89
6.3.5.1 The Admittance Method. …………………………………………………. 80 – 81
6.3.5.2 Parameters of Thermal Analysis. ……………………………………… 81
6.3.5.3 Hourly Temperatures. …………………………………………………….. 82 – 85
6.3.5.4 Hourly Heat Gains / Losses. ……………………………………………... 85 – 86
6.3.5.5 Monthly Loads / Discomfort. …………………………………………… 87 – 88
6.3.5.6 Cumulative Incident Solar Radiation (Insolation) ……………… 88 – 89
6.3.6 Summary. …………………………………………………………………………… 89
6.4 90 – 91
Analysis results. ………………………………………………………………………………

CHAPTER – 7 – SIMULATE/ MODEL A BUILDING WITH THE HELP OF REVIT &

ECOTECT FOR THE OPTIMAL LIGHTING REQUIREMENT ALONG WITH OPTIMAL
THERMAL PERFORMANCE. ………………………………………………………………….. 92 - 103
7.1 General. ……………………………………………………………………………….. 92
7.2 Methodology. ……………………………………………………………………….. 92
7.3 Effect of design parameters. ……………………………………………………. 93 – 100
7.3.1 Variation with reference to ceiling height. …………………………….. 93 – 96
7.3.1.1 OPTION 1 – Increase in ceiling height. ……………………… 93 – 94
7.3.1.2 OPTION 2 – Decrease in ceiling height. ……………………. 94 – 96

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 7.3.2 Variation with reference to size of the openings. ……………………. 96 – 98
7.3.2.1 OPTION 1 – Use of 900 x 1200 mm Windows. …………. 96 – 97
7.3.2.2 OPTION 2 – USE OF 1500 X 1200 mm Windows. ……. 97 – 98
7.3.3 Variation with reference to materials. …………………………………… 98 – 99
7.4 Summary of analysis results. …………………………………………………… 99 – 103
7.5 Significance of results. ……………………………………………………………. 103

CHAPTER – 8 – CONCLUSION ……………………………………………………………… 104 - 105

8.1 Introduction. ………………………………………………………………………………. 104
8.2 Recommendations. ………………………………………………………………………. 104 – 105
8.3 Future Scope of the study. …………………………………………………………… 105

REFERENCES. …………………………………………………………………………………. 106

viii
 LIST OF TABLES

TABLE NO. DESCRIPTION PAGE NO.

Table: 3.2 Lux Levels required for various Tasks 10

Table 3.2 Level of illumination 10

Table 3.3 Light Output Performance of Light Tube 26

Table 4.1 Maintenance Factors 44

Table 4.2 Average Reflectance and Comparison Factor 45

Table 4.7 Angle of obstruction and Correction Factor 55

Table 5.1 Visual Transmittance values of different Glazing 61

Types.
Table 6.1 Floor-wise area and height break-up 69

Table 6.2 Summary of Day lighting Analysis Results 79

Table 6.3 Construction Details and their Thermal Properties 81

Table 6.4 Comparative Hourly Temperature Profiles on Jan 1 85

and June 30th.
Table 6.5 Summary of Monthly Heating / Cooling Loads. 88

Table 6.6 Summary of Incident Cumulative Insolation. 89

Table 7.1 Summary of Day lighting Analysis Results for 93

Option -1
Table 7.2 Cumulative Insolation Result for Option -1 94

Table 7.3 a Summary of Day lighting Analysis Results for 95

Option -2
Table 7.3 b Cumulative Insolation Result for Option -2 96

Table 7.4 Details of Modified construction materials 98

ix
 LIST OF FIGURES

FIGURE NO. DESCRIPTION PAGE NO.

Figure 1.1 Methodology and Chapter Formation. 3

Figure 3.1 Side Lighting Strategies 11

Figure 3.2 Side lighting is easiest when buildings are narrow 12

Figure 3.3 Location of Low windows 12

Figure 3.4 High windows provide the best distribution of the 13

direct, diffuse light of overcast skies
Figure 3.5 High windows maximize the potential for glare from 13
sky and sun and must be baffled.
Figure 3.6 The middle window location is not optimal for 14
distributing ground-reflected sunlight or overcast sky
light.
Figure 3.7 Shaped Apertures and shaped Glazings. 15
(a. b, c)
Figure 3.8 Lighting Shelves 15, 16
(a, b)
Figure 3.9 Geometry of Top Lighting 17
(a, b)
Figure 3.10 Location of Skylights 18 - 21
(a, b, c, d, e, f)
Figure 3.11 Sun Scoops 22

Figure 3.12 Light Scoops 22

Figure 3.13 Various Combinations of Sun Scoops & Light 23

Shelves.
Figure 3.14 Orientation of light Scoops 23

Figure 3.15 Sun Catcher Baffles 24

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FIGURE NO. DESCRIPTION PAGE NO.

Figure 3.16 Sun Tube Light 25

Figure 3.17 Courts, Light Wells and Light Courts 27

Figure 3.18 Litrium and Atriums 28

Figure 3.19 Apertures 28

Figure 3.20 Admittance of light through Litrium 29

Figure 3.21 Azimuth and Altitude for northern Latitudes 30

Figure 3.22 Site Planning and Building Massing 32

Figure 3.23 Shading Devices. 32

Figure 3.24 Lighting Control 33

Figure 3.25 Horizontal & Vertical Shading Devices 33

Figure 3.26 Overhangs 34

Figure 3.27 Type of Louvres 35

Figure 3.28 Types of external Shading Devices 36

Figure 3.29 Illuminance at end of room opposite window 37

Figure 3.30 Building Shapes 38

Figure 3.31 Building Layouts 38

Figure 4.1 Sky Component, ERC and IRC 39

Figure 4.2 Comparison between different daylight quantification 40

techniques.
Figure 4.3, 4.4, Shadow Angle Protectors 41, 42
4.5, 4.6
Figure 4.7 Daylight Prediction Technique 43

Figure 4.8 Diagram for horizontal planes and CIE overcast sky 46

xi
 FIGURE NO. DESCRIPTION PAGE NO.

Figure 4.9 Pepper Pot Diagram Method 47

Figure 4.10, 4.11 Lumen Method 48

Figure 4.12, CBRI’S Lux Grid Method 49 - 52

4.13, 4.14, 4.15
Figure 4.16 Split Flux Method 54

Figure 4.17 Nomogram for the average IRC of the DF 56

Figure 5.1 Ultraviolet Transmittance through Glazing 59

Figure 5.2 Obstruction Factor 61

Figure 5.3 Effective Aperture 64

Figure 6.1 3 – d Building Model 69

Figure 6.2 Stereographic Diagram for New Delhi 70

Figure 6.3 Annual Incident Solar Radiation 71

Figure 6.4 Hourly Climatic Data 72

Figure 6.5, 6.6, Daylight Analysis (D.F, S.C, ERC, IRC and Daylight 74 – 79
6.7, 6.8, 6.9, 6.10 Autonomy)
Figure 6.11, Hourly Temperature Profile 82 – 83
6.12
Figure 6.13, Hourly Heat/Gain Loss Graph 86
6.14
Figure 6.15 Total Monthly Heating / Cooling Loads 87

Figure 6.16 Average Daily Radiation 88

Figure 7.1 Comparison of Glazing Materials 99

Figure 7.2 Comparison of Day Factor (D.F) 100

Figure 7.3 Comparison of Day Lux Levels 100

Figure 7.4 Comparison of Average Yearly Heating Load 101

Figure 7.5 Comparison of Average Yearly Heating Load 101

(per Sq.m.)

xii
FIGURE NO. DESCRIPTION PAGE NO.

Figure 7.6 Comparison of Average Yearly Cooling Load 102

Figure 7.7 Comparison of Average Yearly Cooling Load 102

(per Sq.m.)
Figure 7.8 Comparison of Cumulative Insolation 103

xiii
 ABSTRACT

The building sector being one the largest consumer of energy, has gained prominence over
the past few decades. In this context most of the energy is utilized for heating, cooling,
lighting & ventilating the buildings. Using natural light as a primary source of illumination –
is a time-honored approach to energy conservation and visual quality. Day lighting
decreases not only energy consumption, but also lighting and cooling loads during the peak
demand hours.

This seminar proposes an illustration of an integrated approach to study of the luminous and
thermal environment in design process for an office building. Firstly, to study the different
day light strategies which can make it more effective, bring it deeper into the building and
create a more balanced and comfortable. Then, the different methods to quantify the daylight,
in terms of daylight factor, lux levels etc. have been studied. After that the different
parameters responsible for thermal load have been studied along with the thermal
performance of different building materials, glazing types (on the basis of their thermal
transmittance values). Then, energy analysis has been carried out for a office building in
Delhi to account for the lighting load parameter for different building envelope design
considering both the energy & benefits.

Finally the results obtained from the analysis has been compared with each other and the
best option is taken which tells about the appropriate sizes and location of openings, ceiling
height and the materials integrating both thermal performance and day lighting. The result
contributes a lot in energy conservation in the construction industry.

xiv
 SUMMARY

Chapter 1: Introduces with the importance of Day lighting, their benefits in the Building, the
aim, objective and scope of the study have been discussed and the methodology followed to
meet the objectives.

Chapter 2: It gives an over view of all literature that were studied to accomplish the
optimum day light level (depends upon the task) along with the thermal load.

Chapter 3: Emphasizes about day lighting strategies adopted to increase the use of day light
in an efficient manner, role of shading devices and the different factors which affect the day
lighting.

Chapter 4: This chapter gives an overview of the different day lighting analysis methods and
difference between all these methods.

Chapter 5: Gives an overview about the role of glazing techniques, types of glazings
available, classification of glass, thermal values of different type of glass, then the different
methods to calculate thermal values.

Chapter 6: A model office building has been taken for day lighting and thermal analysis. Ecotect is
used to analyse model on the basis of these two parameters. Summary chart has been prepared
showing the results obtained from analysis i.e. average day light factors, average illumination levels,
hourly heat load, annual heating and cooling load etc.

xv
Chapter 7: The selected building has been again analysed for the changed building envelop
and their results have been compared with each other, the best result is adopted which gives
an idea about the appropriate sizes and location of the openings, appropriate ceiling height
and the best building envelope materials.

Chapter 8: Conclusion and Recommendation.

xvi
CHAPTER - 1- INTRODUCTION.

1.1 Introduction –
The day lighting plays a major role in the building. The lighting is one of the basic human
biological needs and closely related to comfortable vision and also to psychological factors
such as view or connection with the environment.

Day lighting provides the opportunity for both energy savings and improved visual comfort.
In India, on a clear sky day plentiful of daylight is available outdoors which can be based for
satisfactory illumination inside the building during day light hours.

But the excessive use of day light creates glare and further increase the thermal load. So, the
day lighting strategies should be optimized in such a way that it fulfills the lighting
requirements without much affecting the thermal performance of building.

1.2 Need of the study –

By integrating the day light inside the buildings, the use of artificial lights for work, during
hours of good light can be completely eliminated; this will helps in reducing energy
consumption due to artificial lights if used in optimal manner, otherwise it will increase
thermal load.

1.3 Aim –
This works aims to studying, day light source, factors affecting day lighting & thermal
performance, aspects of comfort due to day lighting, quantification of day lighting, behaviour
of materials (relates to both thermal performance & reflectivity index). To identify the
measures to reduce energy consumption of building by integrating day lighting strategies.

1.4 Objectives. –
- To identify the day lighting design parameters.
- To identify the factors which increase the use of day light without
affecting the thermal performance.
- Also, to suggest alternative measure in the case study selected.

1
1.5 Scope -
- Design a building, for the optimal day light requirement with respect
to thermal performance by using different software’s.
1.6 Methodology –
- Define aim, objectives, scope & limitations.
- Literature review of books, journals related to day lighting.
- Study of various factors affecting day lighting & thermal
performance.
- Study day lighting strategies, quantification of day lighting. Sources
of day lighting, thermal performance of different materials.
- Case study – Analysis of lighting performance with respect to
thermal performance.
- Provide an appropriate measure for the optimal day light & thermal
performance of the building by using different software’s.

2
 Define aim, objectives, scope and limitations

Chapter 1
Published Books Building Energy
Codes

PART I
LITERATURE STUDY

Journals Websites
Chapter 2

Factors affecting Day Lighting and

Thermal Performance

PART II
Day Lighting Strategies

Chapter 3

Size & Location of Openings Consolidation of Day lighting

strategies and design criteria

Chapter 4

Selection & Role of Glazing

Materials
Chapter 5

Case study analysis to identify the PART III

appropriate design measures for
Optimal Day lighting & Thermal
Performance
Chapter 6

Development of Integrated Building With the

PART IV

help of Simulation Software’s

Chapter 7

Conclusion and Future Scope of Work

Chapter 8

Figure 1.1 Methodology and Chapter Formation

3
CHAPTER – 2- LITERATURE REVIEWS.
2.1 Introduction.
The following published books, journals, energy codes are referred for the study. As a
need of the hour in creating awareness of energy conservation in mechanical systems,
many seminars, papers have been presented on building envelope and its performance.
Hence it is essential to know various programmes, studies, research topics carried out in
the field to keep update of new tools and technologies in reducing the energy
consumption in buildings.
2.2 Codes & Standards –

- Indian Standards – SP – 41:-

Inferences: The Lighting section gives adequate provisions of the
day lighting and artificial lighting depending upon the type of the
building and visual tasks to be executed by the occupants. The
method of computation of day lighting and artificial lighting has
been given.
Relevance to current work: This gives an idea about the analysis of
daylight, the appropriate sizes of the openings. Tables on
recommended daylight factors and the methods of day lighting
design.

- Energy Conservation Building Code (2007) - By Ministry of

Power (GOI), Bureau of Energy Efficiency:-
Inferences: This gives an idea about planning and designing
considerations for Building envelopes with respect to thermal
comfort, heat load, lighting load etc.
Relevance to current work: This gives an idea about planning and
designing considerations for Building envelopes with respect to
thermal comfort, heat load, lighting load etc.

4
- ASHRAE Energy Standards:-
Inferences: It explains thermal performance requirements for
buildings and gives thermal considerations for energy conservation
in determining the orientation of the building on its site; the
geometric shape; the building aspects (ratio of length to width); the
internal thermal mass of the building; the exterior surface color;
shading and reflection from adjacent structures, surroundings
surfaces & vegetation; wind direction and speed.
Also it explains Calculation procedures for Thermal transmittance,
Thermal Conductance, Overall thermal transmittance value (Uo).
Relevance to current work: Provides a better understanding about
the project participants, tracking of project from concept to
completion and procedures for the same.

- Hand Book on Functional requirements of Buildings – By BIS:-

Inferences: This handbook provides’ detailed information on
climatology, heat insulation, ventilation and lighting in non-
industrial buildings which would be helpful in the planning and
functional design of buildings as applicable to Indian conditions
based on Indian Standards and other relevant literature on the
subject.
Relevance to current work: Gives knowledge about Energy
conservation aspects for buildings’ also provides useful guidance for
building design with respect to thermal comfort, lighting, ventilation,
etc.

- IS – 2440 – 1975, Guide for day lighting of building, BIS:-

Inferences: This standard covers the general principles and methods
of daylight of dwellings, hospitals and offices. It also recommends
the minimum illumination values to be achieved by day lighting
principles. Also it gives general principles of window design to

5
 afford good day lighting and proper siting of buildings to add to the
day lighting illumination inside.
Relevance to current work: Gives knowledge about the principles
of day light for office building, minimum illumination values obtain
by these principles and the principles of window design for optimal
day lighting.
2.3 Published Books –
- Mannual of tropical housing & building – Koenigsberger, Orient
Longman: -
Inferences: Principles of Day lighting, Analysis techniques for Day
lighting design. The appendices give information on material
properties, and construction types, solar charts for different latitudes
etc.
- Climate Responsive Architecture – Arvind Krishan, Nick Baker,
Simos Yannas, S V Szokolay :-
Inferences: Information on Day lighting and shading in the chapter
on openings and Day lighting, design data on climatic parameters,
climatic context, climatic data, solar shading masks, and analysis of
reflection on different building surfaces etc.
- Lighting Design Basics – Mark Karlen, James R. Benya:-
Inferences: Development of a lighting design concept and the
selection and placement of luminaries to achieve the desired result.
Provide a basic approach or methodology for developing successful
lighting design concepts and solutions.

2.4 Unpublished books, thesis & seminars –

- Day light performance of multistoried office buildings in New
Delhi – Seminar Report – May’1989 - S.LAL:-
- Inferences: This seminar work gives a brief introduction about the
day lighting, its use in multistoried building, its parameters, and
methods to quantify day lighting, and its implication over case study.

6
- Assessment and Evaluation of Building Envelope – Seminar
Report – May’2001 - SUPREET MATHAROO:-
Inferences: This seminar work aims to evolve an analytical tool
integrating all the parameters associated with the building envelope
and established its performance criteria as per standards and
references. The various design parameters have been analyzed.
Various methods to analyze the performance of selected building
envelope have been explained. Design considerations have been
discussed and a detailed checklist has been evolved to give complete
procedure for evaluating the design of building envelope.
Relevance to current work: This work tells about the parameters
for deigning building envelope and the effect of these parameters
over thermal loads & day lighting of a building.

- Application of simulation tools for building passive energy

performance evaluation – Thesis – May’ 2004 - ABHISHEK
MIMANI:-
- Inferences: This thesis gives a brief introduction about the
simulation tools used for building passive energy performance
evaluation, its application while designing building envelope, the
function of Ecotect by taking a case study, the different parameters
taken by the Ecotect while doing the analysis.
- Relevance to current work: This work tells about the function of
Ecotect, the different tools and techniques used by this software
while doing the analysis, then the sensitivity analyses by this
software, the different changes in day light factor, lux levels, thermal
load etc. while changing in window sizes, building orientation,
materials etc.

7
- Use of glass in buildings – Seminar Report – May’1998 – ARIJIT
DAS:-
Inferences: This thesis gives an appraisal of the glazing system
components and their performance requirements. This thesis
proposes design approach for the glazing system implementation and
also identifies the problems in the glazing system implementation
from design stage to execution stage and gives aspects for the use of
glazing to the maximum user satisfaction.
Relevance to current work: This work tells about the function of
and effect of glass on the Building Envelope and glass forms a very
important part of the envelope and is to be given due consideration
while designing buildings.

8
CHAPTER 3- DAYLIGHTING STRATEGIES.

3.1 Introduction –
An energy conscious building aims to optimize the use of passive solar energy, natural
ventilation and natural light to create a comfortable and energy efficient working
environment. The use of daylight for interior illumination can reduce energy use within
buildings and has a positive effect on visual comfort.
If considered at the design stage, the use of daylight allows for a significant reduction in
electricity used for lighting and can reduce overall energy consumption. Day lighting
depends on the availability of daylight, location, size and orientation of windows. Several
strategies can be used to achieve visual comfort when using daylight including: Roof lights,
Atria, Glazing, Transparent Insulation, Light pipes and Light-ducts, Shading. The integration
of roof lights is an effective day lighting strategy. The sky is generally brighter at its zenith
than near the horizon: this is the reason why horizontal roof lights admit more daylight per
square meter of glazed area than vertical windows (three times more than a vertical window).

3.2 Level of lighting requirement & comfort standard. (Activity based

classification) –
Different visual tasks need differing amount of lights for the same efficiency. The correct
amount of light for any task is determined by the following:

a) The characteristics of the task – size of significant detail, contrast of detail with
background and how close it to the eyes;
b) The sight of the worker – for example, old people need more light;
c) The speed and accuracy necessary in the performance of work. If no errors are
permissible, much more light is needed, and
d) The ease and comfort of working – long and sustained tasks must be done easily
whereas workers can make a special effort for tasks of very short duration. IS : 3646
(Part –II) – 1966 and IS 2440 – 1975 gives the lighting levels required for various
activities. The recommended value of illumination for offices are : -

9
 S.No. Visual task Illumination Lux

1 Entrance halls & reception areas. 150

2 Conference Room, General office. 300
3 Drawing 350
4 Corridors and Lift Cars. 70
5 Stairs. 100
6 Lift Loadings. 125

(Table: 3.1)

Activity Based Classification: - Each of the activities involved in office building need
different amount of the lighting for illumination of interiors. The corridor needs least as the
working area (drawing) needs the maximum illumination level. As the task becomes more
critical it needs more lighting as shown below –

Illumination Type of Space

Category

1. Corridor and lift core.

2. Stairs.
Increasing Decreasing
3. Lift landing and reception area.
critical level of
visual task 4. General office. illumination

5. Conference room.

6. Drawing Office.

(Table: 3.2)

From the above, one can see as the tasks go on becoming critical the lighting level required
also increases according to activity.

10
 3.3 Sources of Day lighting –
The primary source of the light for day lighting is the sun. The light received by the earth
from the sun consists of two parts, namely:-

3.3.1 Solar illumination &

3.3.2 Sky radiation.

For the purpose of day lighting design, direct solar illumination shall not be considered and
only sky radiation shall be taken as contributing to illumination of the building during the
day. Sky radiation is the sunlight diffused in the atmosphere which serves as the primary
source of day lighting.

The relative amount of sky radiation depends upon the position of the sun defined by its
altitude which in turn varies with the latitude of the locality, the day of the year and the time
of the day.

3.4 Day lighting devices & strategies –

The objectives require the control of the immediate, instantaneous effects of direct sunlight to
eliminate glare and radiant overheating, redistribute the visible light and infrared heat to
illuminate the spaces optimally, and achieve comfortable air temperatures throughout the
year. Comfort and delight also require optimizing interior and exterior views.

3.4.1 Side lighting strategies: - The decision to use side lighting (in the form of
windows and translucent walls) has historically been encouraged by the need for
exterior views as well as light. Ventilation and protection from the elements are
easily achieved with all apertures.

(Fig: 3.1) Side lighting provides both light and view

11
 Side lighting is easiest when buildings are narrow. As buildings get wider, those areas away
from the perimeter receive insufficient sunlight. This can be alleviated to a degree by
increasing the ceiling height or using light-redirecting devices, but the ratio of sunlight
opening to floor area remains limited by the geometry of side lighting.

(Fig: 3.2) Side lighting is easiest when buildings are narrow

Location of the Light Source: Windows –

For the purpose of analyzing the effects of different side lighting aperture locations, the
potential window wall is divided into three areas : low, high and middle. Orientation,
reflectance, scale, and ceiling configuration were assumed to be equivalent in all instances.

3.4.1.1 Low windows. - Low windows provide the most uniform illumination by
distributing reflected sunlight deep into rooms. However, they have several
drawbacks as well:

Low windows may have a view.

Low windows provide the most uniform

illumination by distributing reflected
sunlight deep into rooms.

(Fig: 3.3)
12
Low windows effectively place the principal reflected light source near or below eye level and
thus, maximize the potential glare for nearby work performed at desk-top level. The area of the
room affected by potential glare and local over-heating form direct sunlight is minimized with a
local window. When using low windows, the contrast with the unlit upper wall and the adjacent
ceiling may seem gloomy. To counteract this, minimize the unlit surface area by sloping the
ceiling down to the window head and locating the low windows adjacent to perpendicular walls.

3.4.1.2 High windows. – High windows give the deepest penetration of sidelight
from direct, diffuse sources (i.e., overcast skies or translucent glazing) to a
horizontal work plane and less light near the window.

The advantage of high windows includes providing light with privacy and
improved security. The extra wall space can be used for display,
chalkboards, bookshelves, storage, and so on. High windows permit the
highest efficiency of comfortable reflected sunlight because the brightest
reflecting surfaces are above eye level.

(Fig: 3.4)
(Fig: 3.5)
High windows provide the best
High windows maximize the
distribution of the direct, diffuse
potential for glare from sky and
light of overcast skies.
sun and must be baffled.

The primary disadvantage of high windows is that they provide less favorable light
distribution to the ceiling from ground-reflected light. High windows maximize the potential
for glare from sky and sun, exposing more of the space to the brightest part of the sky. Light
from that part of the sky must be baffled and redirected to the ceiling to minimize contrast. In
addition, the view out of a high window is likely to be less than satisfactory.

13
 3.4.1.3 Middle Windows - The middle third of a wall is not as good as the lower
third for the deep distribution of ground-reflected sunlight, or as good as
the upper third for the deep distribution of diffused light from the overcast
sky. However, if it provides sufficient light for the purpose of the room, it
is frequently the preferred choice because it generally provides the best
view. This means less comfort glare.

The middle window location is

not optimal for distributing
ground-reflected sunlight or
overcast sky light.

(Fig: 3.6)
Glare from the sunlit sills of middle windows with maximum reflectivity can be minimized
by sloping the sills to be below eye level from the most important work positions, yet
allowing them to be “seen” by the ceiling. If the sill is reflective as the ground it will be equal
in brightness and more reliable as a light source.
Another disadvantage of middle windows is that the brightness of the view in typical office
buildings maximizes the potential for reflections on VDT screens when they cannot be
oriented so as not to reflect the windows.
Used in this way, they become “view” windows. Middle windows are easily accessible for
interior cleaning and operation.

3.4.1.4 Shaped Apertures and Sloped Glazing – For a given side lighting
conditions, it may desirable to slope the glazing by moving the sill location
into the building (to maximize the sky view). Pulling the glazing sill in
(“overbite” aperture) will tend to shade the window and provide a better
angle of incidence for accepting ground reflected light .Sloping the sill out
(“ greenhouse-type” aperture) increases the sky aperture , resulting in a
window that is difficult to shade and maximizes incoming daylight . This is
only recommended on north sides of the building and in very overcast

14
 climates. Shaping the aperture is always recommended to maximize
lighting benefits and minimize problems:

(Fig: 3.7a) (Fig: 3.7b)

“Overbite” aperture is similar in
“Greenhouse-type” window aperture
performance to overhangs and
favors light from the sky. Best for
favors ground-reflected light.
shady sides and overcast skies.

Sloping the sill away from the

building minimizes glare from the
sunlit sill and increases the collection
of ground-reflected light.

(Fig: 3.7c)

3.4.1.5 Lighting Shelves – Light shelves, like double overhangs, provide shading
with uncluttered views; they also provide excellent distribution of sunlight
with minimum glare. Light shelves reduce the illumination near the
window and redistribute the light to increase illumination deeper in the
space. Compared to other sun-controlled devices, light shelves should be
economical on a long term basis. Their first cost may not be as low as some
other devices (such as blinds), but they are likely to be more durable and
simpler to maintain.

Double overhangs require a

smaller dimension to achieve the
required cut-off angle.

15 (Fig: 3.8a)
 The light shelf provides shading
with redirection of sunlight.

(Fig: 3.8b)

Design Patterns For Light shelves

Light shelves differ from twin overhangs by optimizing the use of reflected light. To design
light shelves effectively, consideration must be given to their height, depth, shading
requirements, the location of the glazing, the finishes and reflectance used, and the slope of
the shelf, as well as to the actual method of construction.

3.4.2 Top lighting strategies - For low-rise buildings, top lighting can be the most
efficient form of day lighting. This is due to the fact that the distribution of
illumination can be made very uniform while the glazing area can remain
minimal.
Top lighting is of minimal use in tall multilevel buildings because it can
illuminate only one or two floors.
The most obvious advantage of top lighting over side lighting is the freedom to
place natural light sources wherever illumination is desired, either uniformly
distributed or in whatever pattern is dictated by the programmed activities of the
space. This flexibility makes it simple to achieve uniform illumination. Despite
these advantages, other challenges remain for top lighting design, both
quantitative and qualitative.
The quantitative challenge is that common to all sun lighting–to optimize the
relationship between lighting and HVAC under the wide daily and seasonal
variations in sunlight availability. The best top lighting solution is likely to be
different for each particular building configuration and each set of programmed
activities and related lighting and thermal comfort requirements, latitude,
climate, and microclimate.
The qualitative challenge is to create beautiful, pleasant, appropriate visual
environments that satisfy the occupant’s needs for orientation in time and space.

16
 Geometry of Top lighting: In top lighting, the walls are often the most important illuminated
surfaces. By intercepting direct sunlight, walls can redistribute the light to the desired surfaces
and areas. Because of the crisp and changing patterns of sunlight on these illuminated walls,
they can be a satisfying substitute for a window view. Walls can be seen throughout large
spaces, satisfying biological information needs for orientation. By contrast, a patch of sunlight
on the floor coming from a shared central skylight may be visible only in a local area.

(Fig: 3.9a)
Diffused light distribution from top lighting apertures increases in
uniformity with increased ceiling height.

(Fig: 3.9b)

Ceiling height is also important with top lighting. Unlike side lighting apertures, top lighting
apertures can be distributed as needed. Fewer apertures are necessary, and the light
distribution will be more uniform with increased ceiling height, especially when the sunlight
is diffused by reflecting surfaces or diffusers . Sloping the ceiling up to meet the aperture will
minimize contrast between the aperture and the space receiving the illumination. These
geometrical considerations can be met with a variety of shapes and devices.

17
 3.4.2.1 Skylights - Horizontal skylights favor overhead light, and their
performance is independent of orientation. Their performance under sunny
conditions is dependent on solar altitude.

(Fig: 3.10a)
Horizontal skylights “see” the most sky and
are therefore the best method for collecting
(Fig: 3.10b)
and distributing diffuse, overcast sky light.
The performance of skylights under sunny
conditions is dependent on solar altitude.

Advantages The advantages of horizontal skylights include the following:

• They can be placed almost anywhere on any roof with minimal impact on structure or
framing. Like window blinds, they can be added at any stage of the design process,
even after the building is completed and occupied. Little design effort is required
beyond size selection of cataloged or standard details.
• For a given glazing area, skylights are likely to have a very low first cost because
they need little architectural provision beyond omitting an area of roof and installing
a mass-produced product.
• They can provide the most efficient lighting for dark, overcast conditions when the
sky vault is uniformly bright. Under these conditions, a skylight oriented directly
overhead "sees" the most sky and receives and distributes the light most directly to
the space below.
• Clear skylights give maximum views of the sky. Translucent glazing will help
distribute light on clear days but must be in a well to baffle the glare of the overly
bright, sunlit diffusers.
• Skylights may be the best option in equatorial locations where their horizontal
orientation will maximize collection of the incident sunlight from a high solar
altitude. Under such conditions, a very small area of glazing in a deep well can
illuminate a large area effectively. The skylight should be no larger than necessary to

18
 provide the desired illumination under sunny conditions (i.e., the aperture should be +
/ -1 percent of the floor area).

Disadvantages The disadvantages of horizontal skylights include the following:

• They perform poorly in temperate and frigid climates (high latitudes). This is not a
problem at the equator where there is little seasonal difference and one can design for
the overhead condition. Horizontal glazing admits maximum sunlight and heat in
summer when the sun is high and minimum sunlight and heat in winter when the sun
is low.
• They have the potential to create glare problems. If clear glazing is used, beams of
direct sunlight from overhead are welcomed in circulation areas but unacceptable in
most work areas. The high angles of sunlight received by horizontal skylights are
difficult to redirect by naturally occurring architectural elements, such as beams and
walls.

Skylights should avoid sending direct

sunlight onto work surfaces or their
occupants.

(Fig: 3.10c)

• Unit skylights, either clear or translucent, placed to illuminate the work plane directly
with maximum efficiency (i.e., centered in a space) tend to leave the wall and ceiling
surfaces unlit and gloomy.
• Horizontal glazing is more vulnerable to leakage problems than vertical windows;
building codes may require expensive wired or laminated safety glass.

Using Skylights to Best Advantage: - The following guidelines will help optimize skylight
performance:

19
 • In temperate climates, tilt and orient skylights as much as possible to reduce the
seasonal disadvantages.
• Coffer the ceiling up to the skylight to improve light distribution and reduce aperture
contrast. A small skylight can have remarkable impact if integrated with a large
coffer. Lift the entire ceiling around the skylight, or whatever area is possible. It is
better to use fewer skylights with good distribution than a large number with poor
distribution.
• Locate skylights to bring sunlight against walls or other light-redirecting surfaces.
These will then illuminate the work surfaces indirectly, minimizing contrast with the
skylights, and helping to create bright, cheerful spaces. Sunlight and sky light falling
on a wall will benefit a much larger space than will the same-size opening in the
middle of a room. Reflecting pools, sculptures, or even polished non-task floor areas
can be effective in redistributing the light from clear skylights.

(Fig: 3.10d)

Sloping a skylight toward the equator

improves the winter/summer performance
ratio.
(Fig: 3.10e) Sloping it away from the equator achieves the
steadiest light, in winter and summer, under
Reflecting pools, sculptures, or polished
sunny and overcast conditions.
floors can be used to redirect sunlight to the
ceiling.

• Design baffling to control glare and redirect light to large areas of room surfaces.
Baffling can be located outside the skylight, at the glazing plane, or in the zone of
transition between the aperture and the end-use surface.

20
 • Control the amount of light entering the space with dynamic shading that redirects
unwanted light back to the exterior, rather than converting it to heat within the space.
• For best performance, use adjustable louver/reflectors that redirect the light precisely
where desired.

Horizontal shades (fixed or

Locate skylight to
seasonal) effectively create
illuminate walls.
clerestories from skylights.

C.

(Fig: 3.10f)

Interior control at the glazing plane: (a) fixed or operable louvers; (b) large
fixed or operable louvers or beams; (c) deep well openings alone.

3.4.2.2 Clerestories – Clerestories favor low-angle light, either facing the equator
at high latitudes (winter in temperate climates), or at dawn and dusk on east
and west exposures. Orientation is the critical determinant of their thermal
performance.

21
 Clerestory monitors for top lighting have advantages over skylights for
energy conservation and ease in controlling glare. Since they are more
difficult to add on than are skylights, and have a greater effect on
architectural forms, they must be integrated with the overall design at an
earlier stage.

3.4.2.3 Sun scoops & Light scoops – Sun scoops are clerestory monitors oriented
towards the sun.

Sun scoops receive direct

sunlight and skylight as
well as roof-reflected light.

(Fig: 3.11)
In temperate climates and high latitudes, clerestory monitors oriented toward the equator will
automatically achieve the usual temperate climate objective of more light in winter than
summer to reduce heating and cooling loads. A sun scoop can get twice as much light in
winter as in summer; a horizontal skylight might get only one-fifth as much .Such orientation
also makes glare control simple.

Because of their ability to provide glare-free lighting much more easily than windows, sun
scoops are ideal in very high latitudes where the sun is very low in the winter and maximum
light and heat from the sun is always desired.

(Fig: 3.12)
Sun scoops are better than windows for Side lighting-type exterior louvers,
controlling the potential the glare of low- overhangs and fins can provide baffling
angle sunlight. for sun scoops as well.
22
 (Fig: 3.13)
South sunlight is baffled with light
Various combinations of overhang, shelf panels that will fold up as
wide sill (light shelf), and beam can be dynamic insulated panels.
balanced to provide necessary cut-off
angle for sun scoops

Sun scoops can control the quantity of sunlight with the same shading devices used in side
lighting-overhangs, louvers, and baffle the light by using deep monitor shapes in combination
with beams, coffered ceilings, high placement of the clerestory within the monitor, and deep,
interior light shelf-like sills.

Light scoops:- Light scoops are clerestory monitors oriented away from the sun (north in the
northern hemisphere) .Of questionable value in frigid climates, lights coops utilize sky light
and roof-reflected sunlight and require little if any shading to eliminate all direct sunlight .
Both sun scoops and light scoops are useful and can be easily shaded in equatorial latitudes.

Light scoops are clerestory monitors

oriented away from the sun, receiving
sky light and roof-reflected light. They
provide the lowest and steadiest light
levels with minimum annual heat gain.

(Fig: 3.14)

23
 The advantages of light scoops are as follows:
• They give the steadiest level of illumination with a minimum of glare. If adjacent
roofs are dark-coloured, light scoops will receive more light on overcast days than on
clear days. Light-coloured adjacent roofs (or sun catchers) can alter that balance.
• They contribute virtually no solar heat gain.
• They require minimum shading and baffling to control light.

The disadvantages of light scoops are as follows:

• They admit the lowest amount of light per unit of glazing.
• The light admitted is diffuse sky light, which is non-directional and does not penetrate
as deeply into a building as sunlight. The colour of sky light is "cooler" than that of
sunlight, and although steady, may be uninteresting.
• Little or no solar heat gain is achieved in heating season. Heat lost through light
scoops can be significant. Highly insulative glazing should be considered.
3.4.2.4 Sun catcher baffles – Sun catcher Baffles a shading/redirecting device of
exceptional usefulness in top lighting is the sun catcher baffle. This is an
exterior device that converts direct sunlight to indirect sunlight. Positioned
to redirect sunlight into a window, sun catchers can significantly increase
the illumination in north-facing windows. On east-and west-facing
windows, sun catchers both shade and redirect sunlight, significantly
reducing daily illumination fluctuations. Although they also reduce
illumination on overcast days, on sunny day’s sun catchers always increase
the illumination on the shady side.

(Fig: 3.15)
Sun catcher baffles provide both shading and
redirection on east and west exposures.
Sun catcher baffle in north orientation.

24
 A sun catcher is combination with a light scoop which can reduce the inequality between
sunny (south) and shady (north) exposures and also increase the average illumination of the
space.

3.4.2.5 Light Tubes – Light tubes or light pipes are used for transporting or
distributing natural or artificial light. In their application to day lighting,
they are also often called sun pipes, solar pipes, solar light pipes, or
daylight pipes.
Generally, a light pipe or light tube may refer to:
• A tube or pipe for transport of light to another location, minimizing the loss of light.
• A transparent tube or pipe for distribution of light over its length, either for
equidistribution along the entire or for controlled light leakage.
Light tube with reflective material:- A tube lined with highly reflective material leads the
light rays through a building, starting from an entrance-point located on its roof or one of its
outer walls. A light tube is not intended for imaging, thus image distortions pose no problem
and are in many ways encouraged due to the reduction of "directional" light.

Light transmission efficiency is greatest if the tube is short and straight. In longer, angled, or
flexible tubes, part of the light intensity is lost. To minimize losses, a high reflectivity of the
tube lining is crucial.

Light tube with optical fibre:- Optical fibers are well known as fiber scopes for imaging
applications and as light guides for a wide range of non-imaging applications. In the latter
context, they can also be used for day lighting.
(Fig: 3.16)
In view of the usually small diameter of the fibers,
an efficient day lighting set-up requires a parabolic
collector to track the sun and concentrate its light.

Light tube with transparent hollow light guides:-

A prism light guide was developed in 1981 and
has been used in solar lighting for both transport
and distribution of light.

25
 Light tube with fluorescence based system:- Two fluorescent polymer layers in a flat panel
capture short wave sunlight, particularly ultraviolet light, generating red and green light,
respectively, which is guided into the interior of a building.
There, the red and green light is mixed with artificial blue light to yield white light, without
infrared or ultraviolet.
By capturing ultraviolet the system can be especially effective on bright but overcast days;
this since ultraviolet is diminished less by cloud cover than are the visible components of
sunlight.

LIGHT OUTPUT PERFORMANCE

(Table: 3.3)
Properties and applications:-
• Solar light pipes, compared to conventional skylights and other windows, offer better
heat insulation properties and more flexibility for use in inner rooms, but less visual
contact with the external environment.
• In the context of seasonal affective disorder, it may be worth consideration that an
additional installation of light tubes increases the amount of natural daily light
exposure. It could thus possibly contribute to residents or employees well-being while
avoiding over-illumination effects.

26
 • Compared to artificial lights, light tubes have the advantage of providing natural light
and of saving energy. The transmitted light varies over the day; should this not be
desired, light tubes can be combined with artificial light in a hybrid set-up.
• On a more practical note, light tubes do not require electric installations or insulation,
and are thus especially useful for indoor wet areas such as bathrooms and pools.
• Due to the relatively small size and high light output of sun pipes, they have an ideal
application to security oriented situations, such as prisons, police cells and other
locations where restricted access is required. Being of a narrow diameter, and not
largely affected by internal security grills, this provides daylight to areas without
providing electrical connections, escape access or objects to be passed into a secure
area.

3.4.3 Top lit shared central spaces- Courtyards and atria are central spaces created
primarily for human pleasure, though they do have some sun lighting
implications; they will be discussed briefly. Light courts, litria, and light wells
have evolved from the courtyard and atrium forms. They express the utility of
sun lighting; the light-reflecting and controlling qualities of their central spaces
are maximized in order to provide sun lighting for the surrounding spaces.

3.4.3.1 Courts – Courtyards are useful to sun lighting because their open spaces
preserve the solar access of the adjoining buildings; they allow sunlight to
reach the facades so that side lighting strategies can be used. Depending on
the distance across the courtyard, the buildings may use each other's
facades as sources of building-reflected light. If the ground materials are
light-colored, courtyards are good foreground sources of ground reflected
light.

(Fig: 3.17)

Courts Light Wells Light Courts

27
 Litrium Atrium
(Fig: 3.18)
3.4.3.2 Atriums & Litriums – The qualitative lighting objective in atria is to create
sparkle-the visual interest of a sunlit outdoor scene. To help accomplish
this, some direct sunlight should be allowed to hit the architectural surfaces
to create sharp shadow lines. Clear glazing will allow a glimpse of sky to
be seen. In cold climates, more sunlight in winter than summer is desirable,
both for cost savings and the positive emotional response it evokes.
The most stringent quantitative objectives are to optimize growing
conditions for trees and plants and to maintain thermal comfort for minimal
energy cost. The minimum light levels should be determined by what is
necessary to sustain trees and plants. Direct sunlight on trees will eliminate
the greatest need for supplementary artificial illumination.

North/south vertical glazing offers a A slanted aperture can be best when

high degree of seasonal control. equal light is desired in the cooling
(Fig: 3.19) and heating seasons

Litrium - A litrium is a form of atrium that provides the benefits of sun

lighting to its adjacent spaces. While an atrium provides the delight of a
glimpse of sunlight to people in the atrium, a litrium admits sufficient
sunlight to illuminate the spaces adjacent to the litrium.
Litria are useful when lighting in adjacent spaces is qualitatively and
economically important (in offices, classrooms, etc.), and the space of the

28
litrium itself is a desired architectural feature. The litrium floor may be used either as a work
space or a public space.

Light admitted into litria should be directed into

work spaces rather than to the floor.

(Fig: 3.20)

In order to minimize shadows and open the space to sunlight, litria should
have a geometrical form that is equal in width at top and bottom or wider at
the top than at the bottom. They should never be narrower at the top. The
orientation of the litrium space and aperture is critical to maximize control
of light; the guidelines for massing and orienting light courts are
appropriate to litria as well.

3.4.3.3 Light courts – Light courts should be designed to allow the maximum
amount of direct and reflected sunlight to reach adjacent facades. In
addition, light courts should shade low-angle sunlight that is difficult to
control at the facade and redirect that light into the buildings.

3.4.3.4 Light Wells – Light well is generally a utilitarian, uninhabited shaft or slot
within a building, whose primary purpose is to provide natural light and
ventilation to adjacent spaces. As such, light wells have fewer architectural
considerations than the other types of top lit shared spaces.
Light wells can provide sidelight to adjacent spaces and top light to bottom
spaces. When used only for top lighting, the interiors can be mirrored for
maximum reflectance. Because of the small size of light wells, the sun
lighting aperture is almost always a full skylight. Tracking mirrors can be

29
 used to maximize collection and control of sunlight in narrow apertures and
spaces; however, this is rarely cost-effective at this scale. Because of their
tall, narrow proportions, glare is unlikely to be a problem.

3.5 Factors affecting Day lighting & their thermal load implications: –
There are external & internal factors such as solar angle, climate, location, orientation,
site massing, shading devices etc. which affects the day lighting & their thermal load.

3.5.1. Solar angle: - The position of the sun varies according to latitude, season, and
time of the day. As shown by the orbit sketch below, solar altitude angle is measured
between the horizon and the position of the sun above the horizon. Solar bearing angle
is measured from the north – south axis to the vertical plane through the sun.

(Fig: 3.21)
3.5.2. Latitude, Orientation, and Climate: - Each scale has its specific dominating
influences, but all reflect the primary influences of latitude, orientation, and climate.
The latitude of a site and the orientation therefore, determine the sun angles relative to
a building in the various seasons. Sun angles, in turn, shape the geometric
relationships between a building and its environment. Climate influences the degree
and manner in which sunlight is used within a building.

Illumination from the sky is constantly due to the earth’s revolution about the sun and
conditions of the sky (i.e. clouds, dust, and pollution). The three basic sky conditions are

30
 clear (30 % cloud cover), partly cloudy (30 % to 70 % cloud cover) and overcast (100 %
cloud cover, with sun not visible.)

Clear Sky: - Clear skies (less than 30 % cloud cover) can provide focus, and shadow and
texture patterns as parts of the horizon will be brighter than overhead sky.
It produces intense, direct light from sun and diffuse light from sky. Use side lighting
such as high window openings to achieve deep penetration of light.

Partly cloudy sky conditions: - In this the weather conditions are difficult to predict.
The day lighting available from cloudy sky is not uniform & varies. It is constantly
changing in and is intense and produces diffused light.

Overcast sky condition: - Overcast skies are about three times brighter at the zenith than
at the horizon. Therefore, openings which provide top lighting (e.g. skylights, clerestories
etc.) should be used to achieve an affective distribution of day light at sites where
overcast skies are frequent. It produces diffused light.

3.5.3. Site Planning / Building Massing: - The goal at the site planning scale is to get
daylight onto buildings where and when wanted, by carefully shaping and locating the
building forms.
Orient and shape buildings to sunlight as well as to the street. This generally implies
that they be elongated along an east/west axis. Buildings requiring illumination early
in the day or late in ten afternoons (such as indoor tennis courts) may benefit from
elongation on the north/south axis. This orientation is usually desirable only for top-lit
buildings, where glare control is not a problem.
Place parks and plazas on the sunny side of buildings. In most climates, open areas get
more use on the sunny side, and the open space allows for a substantial un shaded
foreground for the building. This can increase the quantity of ground-reflected light
received, or at least allow the sun to reach the full façade.
Whereas any adjacent building, wall, or trellis is an obstruction in the vocabulary of
day lighting design (which assumes overcast conditions), these “obstructions” can be

31
 used to advantage when designing around sunlight. If sunlit surfaces are light in
colour, they will generally provide more illumination than the sky.

(a) On a sunny day an adjacent

building can be brighter than the sky;

(b) On an overcast day an adjacent

building is always darker than the sky.

(Fig: 3.22)

The location of the day lighting aperture and the associated building form can be
categorized as sidelight, top light, or atrium. The choice of form will often be dictated by
the building’s programmatic needs. For example, side lighting provides light with views;
top lighting helps to create uniform light levels; and atria create dramatic spaces in
addition to providing illumination deep within building complexes.
3.5.4. Shading devices: - Shade sunlight to prevent glare and excess heat gain. Use
optimum orientation to make fixed shading and redirection more efficient and/or user
easier. On north-and south-facing facades, fixed shading can be effective all of the
time for control of glare and HVAC loads. On east and west exposures, fixed shading
cannot usually control glare at dawn and dusk. If fixed shading devices are not
sufficient, supplement them with movable devices that are used as on infrequently as
possible.

Shading versus low-transmission glass. Distribute light where needed control

(Fig: 3.23)
Redirection -
Distribute light where needed to minimize the need for supplemental lighting. A high average
illumination level is not efficient if it is not well distributed (i.e., if the area near the window
receives most of the light). Redirect sunlight to optimize the brightness balance of the room

32
 by redistributing sunlight over the largest possible area. Illuminate three-dimensional objects
from all directions; illuminate horizontal surfaces uniformly throughout the room. Minimize
contrast with windows.

Control -
Control the total amount of light reaching the space to achieve thermal comfort and minimize
energy cost for HVAC. Over lighting winter when heat is welcomed psychologically and
physiologically and when excess heat can be dumped easily. Provide only as much light as
necessary for planned activities in summer when excess light creates cooling loads.

Needed Control the total amount of

light reaching the space seasonally.

(Fig: 3.24)
Horizontal shading devices can be simpler than vertical shading devices because of the
apparent orbit of the sun. At an altitude, total shading can be achieved on north/south facades
by quite narrow, seasonally adjusted horizontal shading devices, and even fixed devices can
be of reasonable proportions in tropical and temperate latitudes. At the low sun angles of
polar latitudes, the dimensions of fixed horizontal shading devices can only be reasonable
when angled downward.

Vertical shading devices respond to the sun’s

Horizontal shading devices respond to bearing angle –the movement around the horizon.
solar altitude. They shade most at On a south wall, they shade at the beginning and
noon, when the sun is highest. end of a day.
(Fig: 3.25)

33
 For east and west-facing windows, fixed horizontal shading can be effective for most of the
working day, but generally must be supplemented early and late in the day with other
devices.
Vertical shading devices control low-angle sun by blocking the “troublesome” area of the
aperture and the accompanying view. They are simplest and most effective when acting as
supplements to horizontal devices.

Horizontal Shading/Redirecting Devices:-

The Overhang-single Shading Element- The simple overhang needed for
seasonal shading and glare control can be the best design solution for some
conditions. Since the overhang provides shading without redirection of the
sunlight, sufficient foreground area must be available to utilize ground-
reflected light as the primary source of illumination.
Foregrounds might be used as circulation paths, living terraces, or balconies.
On multilevel buildings the overhang of the window below may be large
enough to be the foreground for the floor above.

Because the overhang

provides shading without
redirection of the sunlight,
sufficient foreground must
be available to utilize
ground-reflected light.
(Fig: 3.26)

Louvered Overhangs- Overhangs need not be solid to be effective a shading

devices; they may be louvered or perforated to achieve different effects. The
general characteristic of a nonsolid overhang will be an increase in the sky
view over a solid overhang of the same size, thereby benefitting performance
slightly under overcast skies.

34
Horizontal louvers
parallel to a south-facing
wall can be designed to
block either high-angle
sun (left) or low-angle
sun (right).

(Fig: 3.27)

However, the shading pattern of a louvered overhang may allow more direct sunlight to reach
the window area. Horizontal louvers parallel to a south-facing wall will produce an effect
similar to several small overhangs, with the advantage that louvers can be angled to allow
penetration of sunlight at high angles and block it at low angles, or vice-versa.

Temporary Overhangs (Awnings)- The functions of the overhang can be

achieved using awnings. While less durable and maintenance free than more
substantial building elements, awnings also have their advantages. Their first
cost can be less and they weigh less, thus storing les heat and cooling off
more rapidly after sundown. As translucent or louvered elements they can
admit more light and view than solid overhangs. Retractable awnings can be
lowered to give buildings the benefit of shading when the sun is out and
raised to provide maximum input of skylight under overcast conditions.

Twin Overhangs:- When the required horizontal dimension of adequate

shading is unavailable or becomes impractical for some reason (e.g. very
large overhang dimensions are needed in high latitudes and east-west
orientations), two or more overhang elements can be combined to obtain the
required shading more easily. This also allows for better control of the
quantity and direction of reflected sunlight reaching the glazing plane

35
 without compromising the advantages of a single overhang (minimum
interference with views, air movement, or traffic when kept above door
height).

Vertical Shading Devices: - The specific characteristics of the devices are largely a function
of scale, much the same as for horizontal devices.

Large-scale Fixed Vertical Shading Elements : Fins, Columns, Walls,

Beams:- In general, vertical devices are not good sources of reflected light,
so larger scale is no advantage in this regard.
Larger scale, vertical architectural elements are most useful for sun control in
combination with horizontal elements such as light shelves. Vertical elements
such as fins, walls, columns, or deep beams should be integrated with
horizontal elements to form “boxes”. Angling east and west-facing vertical
fins toward the north or south will increase their usefulness somewhat, with a
corresponding decrease in direct east/west views.

(Fig: 3.28) Types of External

Medium-scale Vertical Louvers -Fixed And Dynamic:- Medium-scale vertical

louvers are similar to other vertical louvers in their inability to distribute light

36
 selectively to the ceiling and the need for constant adjustment to follow the
changing direction of the sun throughout the day to control sunlight. They are
most useful in east and west facades.
Medium-scale vertical louvers are similar to other vertical louvers in their
inability to distribute light selectively to the ceiling and the need for constant
adjustment to follow the changing direction of the sun throughout the day to
control sunlight. They are most useful in east and west facades.

Smaller-scale , Dynamic Vertical Louvers:- Fixed vertical louvers alone

cannot block direct sunlight at all times throughout the day unless they are so
closely spaced. To obtain a more reasonable input of light when vertical
louvers are used alone, adjustable louvers should be used. The effectiveness
of vertical louvers depends on their position relative to the sun’s position on
its path around the horizon (its bearing angle).

3.5.5. Room sizes: - Room dimensions effect the day lighting considerably as the room
depth goes on increasing, the day light penetration goes on reducing. In the rooms with
unilateral openings (i.e. windows on only one side), illumination levels at the end of the
room opposite the windows are reduced as room depth ‘D’ is increased. This is due to the
fact that the transmitted light is spread over a greater area. To achieve effective
distribution of light from unilateral day lighting, room depth should not exceed about 2.5
H where H is window height.

High Illuminance at End of Room

Opposite Window

(Fig: 3.29)

Low
37
 3.5.6. Building Shapes & Layout: -

Shapes – Building shapes have a significant effect on the distribution of day light.
For example, narrow buildings ( less than 30 ft. wide ) can allow complete
penetration of day light, stepped sections with set back floor levels & reflective
roof surfaces can project day light into upper stories; and stepped plans, atria, or
light wells can open buildings to allow deep penetration of day light.

U - Shaped
Hollow Rectangular Stepped

(Fig: 3.30)

Layouts – Offsets building layouts allow significantly more day light penetration
than parallel building layouts. Parallel Rows

Offset 90⁰

Larger gaps between buildings

allow greater penetration of sky
light

(Fig: 3.31)

38
CHAPTER – 4 - ANALYSIS OF DAY LIGHTING.

4.1 Introduction –
Due to variability of outdoor lighting levels, it is difficult to calculate interior lighting in
photometric illumination terms. However, in a given building, at a certain point, the ratio of
the illumination to the simultaneous outdoor illumination can be taken as constant. This
constant ratio expressed as a percentage, is the daylight factor (Df.).

Df. = Ei/Eo x 100 %

Where, Ei = Illumination indoors, at the point taken,

Eo = Illumination outdoors, from an unobstructed sky.

Thus, according to daylight factor methods three components will components will
contribute to the daylight factor.

1. Sky Component. (SC).

2. Externally Reflected Component. (ERC).
3. Internally Reflected Component (IRC).

(Fig: 4.1)

39
 The magnitude of each of these components depends on the following design variables –

a) SC – The area of the sky visible from the point considered and its average altitude angle,
therefore window size and position in relation to the point, quality of glass and its
cleanliness, any obstructions.

b) ERC – The area of the external surfaces visible from the point considered and the
reflectance of these surfaces.

c) IRC - The size of the room, the ratio of the wall etc. the surfaces in relation to the
window area and the reflectance of these surfaces.

(Fig: 4.2)
4.2 Daylight prediction technique –
In this method the SC and ERC are found by using the daylight protectors, while IRC is
calculated with the help of a set of nomograms. There are two series of protectors, the series
2 protectors used for overcast sky conditions and series 1 protectors should be used for clear
sky conditions.

SC: The steps to be taken in calculating the SC are described below:

1) Take a section of room, mark the working plan and on it the point to be considered (O).
2) Connect the limits of aperture to the point.

40
 3) Place the protector with scale A uppermost, baseline on the working plane with the centre
on point O. (Fig: 4.3)

(Fig: 4.4)

41
 (Fig: 4.5)

(Fig: 4.6)

42
 4) Read the altitude angle where lines PO and RO intersects the ‘angle of elevation’ scale
and take the average of two readings.
5) Take the room plan and mark the position of the point considered O.
6) Connect the lines MO and NO with point O.
7) Place the protector with scale B towards the window, base line parallel to the window
with the centre of point O.
8) Four concentric semi – circles are marked on the protector 0°, 30°, 60°, 90° select one
according to the corresponding elevation angle obtained in step 5.

(Fig: 4.7)

9) Where lines MO and NO intersect this semicircle read the values along the short curves
in the scale of inner semi - circle.
10) If two intersection points were on either side of the centre line, add the two value
obtained. If both were on the same side, take the difference between the two values. This
will be the correction factor.
11) Multiply the initial sky component by the correction factor to obtain the sky component.

43
ERC – If there is no obstruction outside the window there will be no ERC. If there are
obstructions, than this will affect the lighting. The magnitude of this is expressed by the ERC,
which can be found as follows.

a) Find the equivalent sky component which would be obtained from the same area of
the sky where it not obstructed, following the steps described above.
b) Multiply this value –
i. If series 1 protectors are used, by 0.5 times than average reflectance of
opposing surfaces or if this is unknown by a factor of 0.1.
ii. If series 2 protectors are used, by the average reflectance of opposing surfaces,
or a value of 0.2 IRC – the nomograms are used for the calculation of IRC.
Steps involved in this area are as follows –
• Find the window area and find the total room surface area and
calculate the ratio of window: surface area. Locate this value on scale
A of the nomogram.
• Find the area of all the walls and calculate walls :
Total surface area - Locate this value in the rest of column of the small
table.
• Locate the wall reflectance value across the top of the tables and read
the average reflectance at the intersection of column and lines.
• Locate the average reflectance value on scale B and by a straight –
edge from this point across to scale A.
• Where this intersects scale C, read the value which gives the average
IRC, if there is no external obstruction.
• If there is an external obstruction, locate its angle from the horizontal,
measured at the centre of window on scale D.
• Lay the straight edge from this point on scale D, through the point on
scale C and read the average IRC value on scale E.
Due to deterioration of internal finishes, a maintenance factors should
be applied to IRC value obtained, either an average factors of 0.75 or
one of the following -

(Table 4.1)

44
 The minimum IRC can be obtained by multiplying the average IRC values thus
obtained by a conversion factor, depending on the average reflectance.

Average Reflectance Comparison Factor

0.3 0.54

0.4 0.67

0.5 0.78

0.6 0.85
(Table 4.2)

The day light factor (DF) will thus be obtained as a sum of SC + ERC + IRC, but it may be
necessary to multiply this by the product of three further correction factors; glazing, framing
and dirt.

4.3 The pepper pot diagram method –

The method described above is a checking tool, to be used with a design hypothesis, for the
prediction of lighting. Thus, a trial and error process is unavoidable. There is, however,
another perhaps less accurate method which can be used directly used as a design tool. Here
the direct component of the daylight factor can be obtained by counting the dots that fall
within the contours of the projection. The great advantage of this kind of diagram is that the
density of the dots accounts for the non-linearity of the illumination, so that projections can
be made without deformations. The drawback, however, is that counting the dots can become
a very tedious task. The method is based on using the pepper pot diagram and involves the
following steps –

a) Construct an interior perspective of the window, as viewed from the point for which
the DF is to be established. The perspective distance (from the view point to the
picture plan) must be 30 mm.
b) Draw the external construction in the same projection.
c) Place the pepper pot diagram under the tracing paper drawing, with the centre of
perspective coinciding with the centre of the pepper pot diagram.

45
 (Fig: 4.8)

d) Count the number of dots falling on the visible sky area and divide this number by 10
to obtain the SC.
e) Count the number of dots falling on the area of obstructions and divide this number
by 100 to obtain ERC.
f) Apply the necessary correction factors for (glazing, framing and dirt) as with the
protector method.
g) Find the IRC by using the nomograms as before. The useful of this method lies in the
fact that the consequences of changing the window size or position can be assessed
immediately, just by counting the dots. But the pepper pot is useful and valid only for
overcast sky conditions. For clear sky condition direct light is received from the sun
and a varying amount of diffused light is received from the whole of the sky
hemisphere, which cannot be predicted by the above technique.

46
 (Fig: 4.9)

For a viewpoint (V.P) 1.5 m from the window an internal elevation to 1:50 scale would give the same view
(30 mm = 1.5 m.)

For a viewpoint 3m from the window an internal elevation to 1:100 scale would give the same view (30
mm = 3m.)

47
 4.4 The Lumen method of lighting –
The lumen method of lighting design has been adopted for prediction of day lighting. In the
first step the total flux of light entering through the window is found, and then this is
multiplied by a utilization factor to get the illumination on the working phase. So, the method
is based on the concept of the total light flux as opposed to the day light factor method,
which uses the ‘split flux’ concept (split into its three components SC + ERC + IRC). If the
illumination on the window is known (Lux, which is actually 1m/m²). This multiplied by the
window area m² will give the total flux (in Lm).

Lumen Method:
Eint. = Eext. X τ X CU

Exterior illuminance

Net transmittance

Coefficients of
utilization

(Fig: 4.10)
Interior Illuminance -

(Fig: 4.11)
The magnitude of Utilization Factor (U.F.) depends upon the relative size of the window, its
portion in relation to the point considered, any louvers or other controls, interior reflectances
and room proportions. Its value can be read from the table. This is rather a cumbersome

48
 method and the results are less accurate than those of the daylight prediction method and
pepper pot diagram method.

4.5 CBRI’s Lux Grid Method –

It is a perspective of window wall comprising grid square elements in which this contribution
to the work plane illumination is marked as data, crosses and stars. A dot, across and a star
represent 0.5 Lux, 1 Lux and 2 Lux respectively. The base line of the grid represents the level
of the work plane and the centre of the baseline is the projection of the given point at which
the illumination is required. The dimension of square element is one tenth the distance of the
given point from the window wall. A window or set of windows can be outlined to the same
scale as the grid with respect to the distance of the reference point from the window wall.

No illumination
values considered
below work plane
level.

Illustration depicting use of Lux grid II for determination of day light on the working plane.

(Fig: 4.12)

49
 LUX GRID I FOR DAYLIGHTING DESIGN OF WINDOWS IN ABSENCE OF EXTERNAL OBSTRUCTIONS

50
(Fig: 4.13)
 LUX GRID II FOR DAYLIGHTING DESIGN OF WINDOWS IN ABSENCE OF EXTERNAL OBSTRUCTIONS

51
(Fig: 4.14)
 No illumination
values considered
below work plane
level.

(Fig: 4.15)

52
 The summation of contribution of each element within the window outside gives the
expected daylight on a horizontal working plane. Reduction of day light due to glass
transmittance, maintenance, louvers and metallic window sashes have been taken into
account. Lux grid I, II are for day lighting design of windows with and without external
obstructions respectively. The design of day lighting is done by adopting the above two
methods if the conflicting requirement light and heat arises, then a compromise is made by
using natural light to the maximum possible extent and if further design for auxiliary lighting
is to be done to minimize the energy cost to the extent possible. This is also slightly lengthy
but quite accurate.

4.6 ISI Table Method –

In this Sky Component can be ascertained from the tables of IS 2440: 1975 if the aspect ratio
window, distance of the point under consideration is known. There are certain corrections
which have to be made for the sky component factor –

• Correction for glazing;

• Correction for the presence of window frames and bars;
• Correction for dirt or bad maintenance;
• Correction for shading devices.

In this method, the Sky Component value is reduced by 30 per cent for the different
correction factors.

THE EXTERNAL REFLECTED COMPONENT (ERC) –

The value of external reflected component is computed from the value of sky component
corresponding to the portion of window obstructed by external obstructions. These values
when multiplied by the correction factors, corresponding to the main elevation of obstruction
from the point in question. The correction factors are given in the Appendix.

53
 THE INTERNAL REFLECTED COMPONENT (IRC) –

It is far more difficult to obtain a good estimate of the reflected component, since it depends
on scene geometry and material properties of all surface finishes in the scene. Because of the
endless possibilities it is hard to parameterize both and translate them into graphical form.
Most simplified methods for the internally reflected component therefore consist of equations
and nomograms. The reflection factors considered in the development of this program have
been taken as 0.7 for ceiling, 0.5 for the wall, 0.2 for the floor and 0.15 for the glass.

The internal reflected component is a variable quantity which varies from point to point in a
room depending upon the interior finish. The IRC value is maximum at the centre of the
room and decreases elsewhere in all directions.

A number of sources prescribe different formulae for the internally reflected component,
with different parameters and allowances. However, most of them can be traced back to only
a few basic ways of abstracting the scene.

The Split-Flux Method regards the scene as consisting of only two surfaces: the floor with
the part of the vertical walls below the center of the window and the ceiling and the part of
the vertical walls above the center of the window. It is then assumed that the light from the
sky is distributed over the lower part and the externally reflected light over the upper part.

D.F. (%) = Ep. / Eh. = Sum of –

- Direct (sky) component: SC.

- Externally reflected
component: ERC.
-Internally reflected component:
IRC.

Illumination Ratio =

Ep. from visible sky portion

Eh. From whole sky

IRC = 0.85 W (CRfw. + 10Rcw)

(Fig: 4.16)
A (1-R)

54
 Where,

W = Window Area.

C = A constant of value 78 when there is no external obstruction but it has

different values as shown in the following table when there are obstructions.

Rfw. = Average reflection factor of the floor and those parts of the wall below
the planes of the mid –height of the window (excluding the window wall).

Rcw. = Average reflection factor of the ceiling and those parts of the wall above
the plane of the mid- height of the window (excluding the window wall).

A = Area of all the surfaces in the room (ceiling walls floor and windows); and

R = The average reflection factor of all surfaces in the room (ceiling, walls, floor
and windows) expressed as a decimal part of the unit.

Table in Appendix – II gives the value of C, for the angle of obstruction varying
from 0° to 90°, this angle is to be computed from the percentage of area of
obstruction i.e. if the area of obstruction is 100 M the angle is 90° and similarly
if there is no obstruction the angle becomes 0°.

Out of all these methods, described above, I will be using Ist Method to check
the actual daylight factor measured by the experimental method.

Angle of obstruction Value of C Angle of obstruction Value of C

5° 68.9 55° 15.8

15° 50.6 65° 12.9

25° 36.2 75° 11.1

35° 26.7 85° 10.1

45° 20.1

Source: IS: 2440 - 1975

(Table: 4.7)

55
Nomogram for
CHAPTER – 5- the average
ROLE internally
OF GLAZING reflected
TECHNIQUES IN component of the
DAYLIGHTING daylight factor
UTILIZATION.

(Fig: 4.17)

56
CHAPTER – 5- ROLE OF GLAZING TECHNIQUES IN DAYLIGHTING UTILIZATION.

5.1 Introduction –
Glass has been used for thousands of years to allow daylight into our buildings, while providing
weather protection. The development of the float glass process in the 1950s allowed the
economical mass production of high quality flat glass and virtually all architectural glass is now
produced by this process. The vast majority of new windows, curtain walls and skylights for
commercial building construction have insulating glazing for energy efficiency and comfort.

Architectural glass comes in three different strength categories. Annealed glass is the most
commonly used architectural glass. Because it is not heat-treated and therefore not subject to
distortion typically produced during glass tempering, it has good surface flatness. On the
downside, annealed glass breaks into sharp, dangerous shards. Heat-strengthened and fully-
tempered glass is heat-treated glass products, heated and quenched in such a way to create
residual surface compression in the glass. The surface compression gives the glass generally
higher resistance to breakage than annealed glass. Heat-strengthened glass has at least twice the
strength and resistance to breakage from wind loads or thermal stresses as annealed glass. The
necessary heat treatment generally results in some distortion compared to annealed glass. Like
annealed glass, heat-strengthened glass can break into large shards. Fully-tempered glass
provides at least four times the strength of annealed glass, which gives it superior resistance to
glass breakage. Similar to heat-strengthened glass, the heat-treatment generally results in some
distortion. If it breaks, fully-tempered glass breaks into many small fragments, which makes it
suitable as safety glazing under certain conditions.
Laminated glass consists of two or more lites of glass adhered together with a plastic interlayer.
Because it can prevent the fall-out of dangerous glass shards following fracture, it is often used
as safety glazing and as overhead glazing in skylights. The plastic interlayer also provides
protection from ultraviolet rays and attenuates vibration, which gives laminated glass good
acoustical characteristics. Because laminated glass has good energy absorption characteristics, it
is also a critical component of protective glazing, such as blast and bullet-resistant glazing
assemblies. See Building Envelope Design Resource Page Blast Safety for more information.

57
Coated glass is covered with reflective or low-emissivity (low-E) coatings. In addition to
providing aesthetic appeal, the coatings improve the thermal performance of the glass by
reflecting visible light and infrared radiation.
Tinted glass contains minerals that color the glass uniformly through its thickness and promote
absorption of visible light and infrared radiation. Insulating glass units (ig units) consists of two
or more lites of glass with a continuous spacer that encloses a sealed air space. The spacer
typically contains a desiccant that dehydrates the sealed air space. The air space reduces heat
gain and loss, as well as sound transmission, which gives the insulating glass unit superior
thermal performance and acoustical characteristics compared to single glazing. Most commercial
windows, curtain walls, and skylights contain insulating glass units. Most perimeter seals consist
of a combination of non-curing (typically butyl) primary seal and cured (frequently silicone)
secondary seal. The service life of an insulating glass unit is typically determined by the quality
of the hermetic sealants installed between the glass and the spacers, and the quality of the
desiccant.

Fundamentals of Glazing -
• Visible Transmittance, or daylight transmittance, is the percentage of visible light
striking the glazing that will pass through. Visible transmittance values account for the
eyes’ relative sensitivity to different wavelengths of light. Glazing with a high visible
transmittance appears relatively clear and provide sufficient daylight and unaltered views;
however, they can create glare problems. Glazing with low visible transmittance is best
used in highly glare-sensitive conditions, but can create “gloomy” interiors under some
weather conditions and diminished views. They are unsuitable for many day lighting
applications since they do not provide enough light for typical visual tasks. Note that
some glazing can have a high visible transmittance but obscure views, e.g. frosted or
patterned glass.

• Visible reflectance, or daylight reflectance, indicates to what degree the glazing appears
like a mirror, from both inside and out. It is the percentage of light striking the glazing
that is reflected back. Most manufacturers provide both outside reflectance (exterior
daytime view) and inside reflectance (interior mirror effect at night). All smooth glass is
somewhat reflective; various treatments such as metallic coating increase the reflectance.

58
 High reflectance brings with it low visible transmittance and all the interior disadvantages
that may be associated with that characteristic.

• Solar Heat Gain Coefficient (SHGC) or Shading Coefficient (SC) is indicators of total
solar heat gain. SHGC, which is replacing SC, is the ratio of total transmitted solar heat
to incident solar energy, typically ranging from 0.9 to 0.1, where lower values indicate
lower solar gain. These indices are dimensionless numbers between 0 and 1 that indicate
the total heat transfer of the sun’s radiation. SC is the ratio of solar gain of a particular
glazing as compared to a benchmark glazing (1/8" or 3 mm clear glass) under identical
conditions. These properties are widely used in cooling load calculations. To convert
between these properties, SC » 1.15 x SHGC.

• U-Value (W/m2·K, Btu/h·ft2·°F) is a measure of heat transfer through the glazing due to
a temperature difference between the indoors and outdoors. U-Value is the rate of the
heat flow, therefore lower numbers are better. R-Value is the resistance to heat flow (R =
1/U), with higher numbers indicating better insulation. Glazing products usually list U-
Value. Center-of-glass U-values are generally lower than whole-window U-values, which
account for the effect of the frame and mullions. This property is important for reducing
heating load in cold climates, for reducing cooling load in extremely hot climates, in any
application where comfort near the windows is desired, and where condensation on glass
must be avoided.

• Ultraviolet Transmittance indicates

the percentage of ultraviolet radiation (a
small portion of the sun’s energy)
striking the glazing that passes through.
Ultraviolet radiation (UV) is
responsible for sunburn of people and
plants, and contributes to fabric fading
and damage to artwork. Many energy-
efficient glazing does also help reduce
UV transmission.
An ideal spectrally selective glazing admits
only the part of the sun’s energy that is
useful for day lighting. (Fig: 5.1)

59
 • Spectral Selectivity refers to the ability of a glazing material to respond differently to
different wavelengths of solar energy – in other words, to admit visible light while
rejecting unwanted invisible infrared heat. Newer products on the market have achieved
this characteristic, permitting much clearer glass than previously available for solar
control glazing. A glazing with a relatively high visible transmittance and a low solar
heat gain coefficient indicates that a glazing is selective. Spectrally selective glazing use
special absorbing tints or coatings, and are typically either neutral in color or have a blue
or blue/green appearance.

• Glazing Color affects the appearance of view (bronze will dull a blue sky, for example)
and the appearance of interior finishes. Examine carpet, fabric and paint samples in
daylight that comes through the intended glazing to be sure colors are not changed
undesirably. Glazing color is also a dominant determinant of the exterior appearance of
the building facade. Color is the property that often dominates glazing selection and can
thus unnecessarily constrain or complicate day lighting design. For example, a strong
color preference for gray or bronze may make a good glazing selection more difficult.
Staying more flexible with respect to color will keep more opportunities open.

5.2 Selection of Glazing:-

Following steps are involved to check the feasibility of Day light –

Step 1: Calculate the predicted window-to-wall ratio (WWR) for a typical bay or
office.
Net glazing area (window area minus mullions and framing, or ~80% of rough opening)
divided by gross exterior wall area (e.g., multiply width of the bay by floor-to-floor height)
equals window-to-wall ratio (WWR).
______________ / ____________________ = __________
Net glazing area gross exterior wall area WWR

If unknown, use 0.35 for a typical, moderately strip-glazed building. If larger windows are
anticipated, use 0.50. For smaller punched windows, use 0.25.

60
 Step 2: Make a preliminary glazing selection and note the visible transmittance (VT).-

(Table: 5.1)
Step 3: Estimate the obstruction factor (OF). –

Visualize a typical task location, 10 feet (3.3 m) in from a window and centered on the
window. What is the view through the predicted window from desk height? Pick a location
that represents an average view for the building. Sketch the window elevation and shade in
anticipated objects seen from this viewpoint. Select the obstruction factor as shown in
diagram -

(Fig: 5.2)

61
 Step 4: Calculate the feasibility factor. –

Window-to-wall ratio multiplied by visible transmittance multiplied by obstruction factor

equals feasibility factor.
______ X ______ X ______ = ________________
WWR VT OF Feasibility Factor
If Feasibility Factor 0.25, then day lighting has the potential for significant energy savings.
If Feasibility Factor < 0.25, then consider removing obstructions, increasing window area,
or increasing VT. If these modifications are not possible, it is unlikely that day lighting will
be a cost-effective energy-saving strategy. However, windows can still be designed to
provide views and to control glare. Use these guidelines for glare reducing ideas.

Determining Required Net Glazing Area:-

• Use this as a starting point for estimating required window size. Alternatively,
use the equation to roughly find the average daylight factor (indoor horizontal
illuminance divided by outdoor horizontal illuminance) for a given window size.
The equation assumes a rectangular room whose depth is no more than 2.5 times
window head height. It also assumes an overcast sky. For regions with
predominantly clear skies, window area can be smaller than calculated here.

• The equation below yields the required net glazing area. To translate this to total
window area, which includes framing and mullions, multiply by 1.25.

• Average Daylight Factor. Use:

1. If low-light spaces are desired.
2. If average spaces are desired.
3. If bright spaces are desired.

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 • Total Area of Interior Surfaces. Add up total surface area of walls, ceiling, and
floor.
Area-Weighted Average Reflectance. Ratio between 0 and 1. Add up total surface
area of walls, ceiling, floor, windows, partitions, and furniture, and calculate
weighted average reflectance (see equation), or use 0.5 as default.

• Visible Transmittance. Use:

 0.70 For small windows.
 0.50 For medium windows.
 0.30 For large windows.

Selection Process:-
• Choose between dual-pane and single-pane glazing. This is the critical first
decision in glazing selection. Although higher in first cost, dual-pane insulating
glazing typically improves comfort in perimeter zones, offers greater flexibility in
product selection, improves acoustic performance, and reduces mechanical loads.
Most new energy-efficient buildings should use insulating glazing. Single-pane
glazing with exterior shading can be effective in mild climates if there is significant
solar radiation.

• Choose a spectrally selective glazing. Select a moderate visible transmittance for

glare control (50-70% is a good starting point, depending on visual tasks, window
size and glare sensitivity; the larger the windows or the more critical the glare
control, the lower the desirable visible transmittance). Examine manufacturer
literature for good glazing candidates. Find the product tables for insulating or
single pane units, depending on your initial selection, and look for products with
your desired visible transmittance and the lowest possible solar heat gain
coefficient.

63
 • Balance the conflict between glare and useful light. A physical model studied
outdoors is a good tool to qualitatively assess glare. If glare is an anticipated
problem, and if an architectural solution to glare is not possible (moving windows
out of the field of view, using deep reveals, shading systems, and other physical
modifiers), then select a glazing visible transmittance that is a compromise between
glare and light. A visible transmittance as low as 25% may still provide adequate
daylight.
(Fig: 5.3)

Clear Glass Tinted Glass Heavily Tinted or Reflective

WWR = 0.30 WWR = 0.50 WWR = 0.70
High VT = 0.88 Medium VT = 0.53 Low VT = 0.38

Effective Aperture (EA) is visible transmittance (VT) x window-to-wall ratio (WWR).

These three windows all have the same EA of 0.26.

• Window size and glazing selection can trade off with each other. Use the
effective aperture approach when making these decisions: Larger window area
requires lower visible transmittance; smaller windows require high visible
transmittance. See the illustration. A good target value for effective aperture is
between 0.20 and 0.30.

• Big windows require better glazing. The bigger the window, the lower the
required solar heat gain coefficient and visible transmittance. The bigger the
window, the greater the need for insulating glazing. Large areas of inefficient
glazing bring major comfort and energy cost penalties, cooling system penalties,
and may not be permitted by building codes.

• Don’t assume that dark glass provides good solar control. Many dark glazings
block more light than heat, and therefore only minimally reduce cooling load.

64
 Dark glass can produce a gloomy interior atmosphere and may affect productivity
and absenteeism. Consult product brochures or manufacturer representatives to be
sure you are aware of the range of product choices today. Dark glass not only
reduces daylight, it also increases occupant discomfort on a sunny day,
particularly in single glazed form. The glass absorbs solar energy and heats up,
turning it into a virtual furnace for anyone sitting near it. Today, solar control is
available in much clearer glazings.

• Don’t count on glazing alone to reduce heat gain and discomfort. If direct
solar beams come into the building, they still create a mechanical cooling load
and discomfort for occupants in their path. Exterior shading combined with a
good glazing selection is the best window strategy. Interior shading options can
also help control solar heat gain.

• Vary glazing selection by facade, if possible. A lower solar heat gain coefficient
on the south, east and especially west windows will reduce the cooling load.

5.3 Importance:-
ARCHITECTURE
A good glazing for day lighting, with a relatively high visible transmittance, will appear
fairly transparent from the outside. A desire for an opaque or mirrored facade is often not
compatible with day lighting.

INTERIOR
Glazing color strongly affects color rendering of interior finishes in day lighted areas.
Color and visible transmittance affect the view and the occupants’ sense of connection with
the outdoors.
High transmittance glass in a neutral or soft color helps make windows effective links to
the world outside.
Low transmittance glazing makes interiors feel gloomy when overcast or sunlight levels are
low. However, it may be useful to control glare in some circumstances.

65
 HVAC
Glazing characteristics are a large factor in heating and cooling loads. A mechanical
engineer should help determine optimal glazing properties for an efficient mechanical
system. High performance glazing generally reduces annual energy use, peak loads,
individual zone fluctuations, wide differences in coincident zone loads, and occupant
complaints.
Examine equipment downsizing opportunities with glazing improvements. Model the entire
fenestration system correctly when calculating cooling load and optimum glazing
properties. In particular, include any exterior shading in the model as this reduces the
importance of a low glazing solar heat gain coefficient. Insulating glass may eliminate the
need for a perimeter heating system.

LIGHTING
Visible transmittance determines how much daylight will be admitted, once the window
size is set. The lighting designer must assess expected daylight levels before final glazing
selection. If day lighting levels are not satisfactory, choose an alternate glazing with a
different visible transmittance or increase glazing area. Glazing color affects color
temperature of the daylight and should be considered when matching electric sources in
day lighted zones.

COST-EFFECTIVENESS
High performance glazings cost more than their standard alternatives but may pay for
themselves in four ways: reduced energy bills, reduced first costs in mechanical equipment,
increased occupant productivity, and avoided future retrofit costs (in added mechanical
equipment or window fixes, due to commonly unanticipated occupant discomfort).
Mechanical load calculations can provide an estimate of the first two savings opportunities.
Case study and anecdotal evidence supports the second two benefits.

66
 OCCUPANT COMFORT
Single pane glass near an occupant can create a hot or cold sensation regardless of interior
air temperature. When it is cold outdoors, the body radiates heat to the cold glass surface
and is chilled. Sun striking glass, especially a tinted unit, heats the unit up well above skin
temperature, which then radiates heat to the body and induces a sense of overheating. The
mechanical system cannot easily overcome these situations, since it typically adjusts air
temperature only and not the temperature of the glass.
Cold glass will also induce a chilly downdraft. When windows will be near occupants,
insulating glazing is the best choice for comfort. Tinted glass in an insulating unit does not
cause the radiation problem described above since the tinted piece is typically in the
outboard pane. Glazing with a high visible transmittance can cause glare if preventive
measures are not taken. Some examples of glare avoidance discussed elsewhere in these
guidelines include user-operated shading devices, architectural modifiers, and balancing
window brightness with other light sources.

67
CHAPTER – 6- CASE STUDY - AIRPORT AUTHORITY OF INDIA, NEW DELHI

6.1 Introduction –
For economic reasons, one of the most common design configurations amongst the
commercial building is the deep plan office layout as it employs the maximum ratio of
usable floor area to the exterior envelope. The penetration of daylight in these types of
buildings is mainly through windows at the perimeter which reaches only up to 4.5 meters
because of physical obstructions primarily interior partitions. Also some buildings are
located in very dense urban areas where daylight availability already gets reduced by the
surrounding buildings. This results in non-homogenous illumination, with high
concentration of illuminance levels near the glazing causing discomfort glare. At the same
time the lighting levels are very low in the middle of the floor plate. Therefore, the core of
these buildings is dark and depends exclusively on electrical lighting for obtaining an
adequate illumination, its consequences being the increase in the overall energy
consumption.

The study focuses on the core area, the area beyond the partitions at a distance of 4.5m
from the periphery. To capture daylight and efficiently channel it towards the core areas, by
using different day lighting design principles to optimize day lighting levels and to
efficiently distribute it in core area (4.5mts. to 9.0mts from the perimeter). Due to the
variations of daylight according to location, season, and cloud cover, it is necessary to
supplement electric lighting with daylight in order to achieve optimal lighting
requirements.
The main objective of this seminar is to identify the appropriate devices and their
application in the office buildings for achieving optimal Day lighting along with the
thermal performance.

Project Description –
The selected building is an office building of Airport Authority of India at Safdarjung, New
Delhi. It consists of ground + 2 stories. Top floor has trussed roof along with false ceiling.
For calculation and analysis purposes, only top floor has been taken into consideration.

68
 Stucco plaster has been used in the external walls. Anodized Aluminium finish has been
adopted for window frames and heat reflected glass has been used. Gypsum tiles have
been used in false ceiling along with Armstrong tiles. Ceramic tiles have been used in
the flooring.
G.I. Corrugated sheet has been adopted over king post truss along with transparent fiber
sheet in the roof. Glass wool insulating has been used under the roof.

The areas break up and floor heights are given in Table -

Site Area – 702.71 m²
Total Floor Area: 1927.51 m²

S. No. Floor Description Floor Area (Sq. m.) Floor Height (m)
1 Ground Floor 610.498 3.0
2 First Floor 658.506 3.0
3 Second Floor 658.506 3.0

Table – 6.1 - Floor-wise area and height break-up

Software Implementation:-
The building has been modeled on Autodesk Revit and Ecotect version 5-20 has been used
as the simulation medium.

The Building Model:-

The first step for energy analysis is to accurately and appropriately convert the building
geometry into a 3D model by the software interface. This is very important, from the point
of view of achieving valid results from the software.
A building has been modeled along with their nearby buildings to sufficient detail as
required for analysis by the software.

The 3-d Building Model

(Fig: 6.1)

69
 Solar Position:-
The Sun Path Diagram for New Delhi is represented in Figure 6.5 as a Stereographic
Diagram. In form, stereographic diagrams can be likened to a photograph of the sky, taken
looking straight up towards the zenith and through a 180° fish eye lens. The paths of the
sun at different times of the year are then projected onto this flattened hemisphere to give
the blue lines shown below.

Fig. – 6.2 - Stereographic Diagram for New Delhi

The total daily incident solar radiation on a 1m² vertical surfaces throughout the year is
calculated and shown in figure 6.3. The red area of the graph represents the over-heated
period of the year whereas the blue area represents the under-heated period. Total solar
radiation collection in each of these periods is given as well as the total annual.

70
 • Total Annual Collection = 1088.00 kWh/m²
• Under heated Period = 371.06 kWh/m²
• Overheated Period = 178.47 kWh/m²

Location Data:-
Location : New Delhi.
Country : India.
Time Zone : +5:30 Hours.
Latitude : 28.6 ˚N.
Longitude : 77.2 ºE.
Altitude : 216 M.
Design Sky : 8000 Lux.

Fig. – 6.3 - Annual Incident Solar Radiation

71
 The relatively lesser incident solar radiation during the overheated period compared to the
greater radiation during the under heated period indicates a more favorable orientation than
other alternatives which may result in greater radiation in overheated and lesser radiation in
under heated periods.

Hourly Climatic Data:-

This function makes it is possible to view the raw hourly data. Figure 6.4 shows values for
an average day each month. The range of average maximum and minimum temperatures is
shown as a graded red scale along with direct and diffuse solar radiation. It is also possible
to overlay the thermal neutrality temperature and its associated comfort band (shown here
in green). The graph at the bottom of the screen shows all hourly values for the selected
day of the year.

Fig. – 6.4 - Hourly Climatic Data

72
 Hottest Day (Peak)
Hottest Day (Average)
Coldest Day (Peak)
Coldest Day (Average)
Brightest Sunny Day
Most Overcast Day
: 29th May.
: 30th June.
: 1st Jan.
: 1st Jan.
: 7th April.
: 8th Jan.

DAY LIGHTING ANALYSIS:-

Natural lighting, or day lighting, refers to the lighting of an enclosure by allowing in

diffuse natural light. Because the sun's position in the sky varies throughout the day, is
often obscured by clouds, and experiences significant changes in intensity throughout the
year, it does not make a suitably reliable light source with which to light the interior of
buildings. As a result, direct light from the sun is known as sunlight is rarely included in
architectural day lighting calculations.

The primary aim of day lighting is to provide sufficient light for tasks performed within a
space by providing enough apertures that let in diffuse light from the sky, but keep out
direct light from the sun. On a clear day for example, outside light levels may be in the
order of 55-60,000 lux whilst on an overcast day in winter this might fall to around 8-
10,000 lux. The required light level inside a building ranges from 100 lux in a corridor, to
300 lux in the average office. Thus, with some thoughtful design, day lighting can
potentially provide more than sufficient light for most buildings.

Light and heat normally come together. However, for the same lighting intensity, the
amount of heat produced by different lights can vary significantly. It turns out that in
terms of the number of lighting lumens per watt of heat energy, daylight is about 5
times more efficient than a normal incandescent globe and as much as twice as
efficient as a fluorescent tube. In a typical office building, turning the lights off and
substituting daylight alone can reduce overall heat loads by as much as 40%, principally
by reducing over-illumination near peripheral windows.

It is important that the day lighting system used does not add unnecessarily to the
buildings heat gain. This requires the careful use of shading devices and light diffusers to

73
 properly protect against summer direct sun penetration and to distribute the light deeper
into each space. Careful selection of glass type is also an important factor.

Parameters for Daylight Calculation:-

• Design Sky Illuminance = 8000 lux

• Work plane Height = 600 mm
• Window cleanliness factor = Average

Daylight Factor (DF):-

The Daylight factors have been calculated for the second floor, Figure 6.5 shows the plan
of floor with the coloured grid representing the variation of Daylight factors through the
workspace. The corresponding legend is also shown.

The average value of Daylight Factor (DF) observed is – 3.56 %

Figure 6.5

74
 Sky Component (SC):-

The Sky Component fraction of the Daylight Factor as depicted in Figure 6.17 is shown
in Figure 6.6

The average value of Sky Component (SC) observed is - 1.23 %

On studying the SC distributions in Figure 6.6, it is observed that the SC spread and
penetration is higher from the South-East face because it faces open lands, whereas it is
lesser from the North-West face because of the obstruction of nearby buildings.

Figure 6.6

Externally Reflected Component (ERC):-

The Externally Reflected Component fraction of the Daylight Factor as depicted in Figure
6.6 is shown in Figure 6.7.

The average value of Externally Reflected Component (ERC) observed is: - 1.60%

75
 On studying the ERC distributions in Figure 6.7, it is observed that the ERC spread and
penetration is higher from the North-West face because of the presence of nearby
buildings, whereas it is lesser from the South-East face because of the open lands across.

Figure 6.7

Internally Reflected Component (IRC):-

The Internally Reflected Component fraction of the Daylight Factor as depicted in Figure
6.6is shown in Figure 6.8.

The average value of Internally Reflected Component (IRC) observed is: - 2.10 %

On studying the IRC distributions in Figure 6.8, it is observed that the IRC spread and
penetration is more or less uniform throughout the workspace. This component is highly
dependent in the wall, ceiling and false ceiling surfaces.

76
 Figure 6.8

Daylight Levels:-

The Daylight levels in terms of lux are calculated for each grid by multiplying the
daylight factor with the design sky illuminance. The results are shown in Figure 6.9.

The average value of Daylight Level observed is: - 350.21 lux

On studying the daylight distributions in Figure 6.9, it is observed that the spread and
penetration is more or less uniform throughout the workspace.

77
 Figure 6.9

Daylight Autonomy:-

The daylight autonomy function gives the percentage of time when the lux level is above
the minimum user-specified design illuminance during a specified time and period of the
year. The results for a minimum required lux level of 500 lux throughout the entire year
(1st Jan - 31st Dec) are presented in Figure 6.9.

The average value of Daylight Autonomy for 500 lux is: - 87.37 %

On studying the daylight autonomy in Figure 6.10, it is observed that the minimum
requirement of 500 lux is more evenly satisfied.

78
 Figure 6.10

Summary of Results:-

Floor DF SC ERC IRC Lux Level

Value %of DF Value %of DF Value %of DF

Second Floor 3.56 1.23 34.55 1.60 44.97 1.94 53.25 350.21

Table – 6.2 -Summary of Day lighting Analysis Results

Overall, the daylight available inside the workspace is sufficient and satisfies uniform
levels of even 500 Lux for 87.37 % of the time throughout the year.

79
 The greatest contribution to the DF is from the IRC and hence, the designer should
carefully decide on the surface finishes (colour & texture) of the interior spaces.

THERMAL ANALYSIS:-

Admittance Method is used to determine internal temperatures and heat loads. This
thermal algorithm is very flexible and has no restrictions on building geometry or the
number of thermal zones that can be simultaneously analyzed.

The Admittance Method:-

The underlying assumption of the Admittance Method is that the internal temperature of
any building will always tend towards the local mean outdoor temperature. Any
fluctuations in outside temperature or solar load will cause the internal air temperature to
fluctuate in a similar way, though delayed and dampened somewhat by thermal
capacitance and resistance within the building fabric. When the total of all heat losses
become equal to the total of all gains, then internal temperatures stabilize.

In the Admittance Method, the temperature and load calculations are two separate
processes. As a first pass, the magnitude of potential heat gains and losses acting on the
building are calculated for each hour of each day, from which average daily load factors
can be determined. These are known as load factors because they are relative to mean
conditions, not actual conditions. Variations in the instantaneous load factor against each
daily average can then be used to determine the relative thermal stress each zone is
subject to each hour of the day. These variations in stress result in cyclic fluctuations in
internal temperature, from which hourly zone temperatures can be derived.

Once detailed hourly internal temperatures are known, a second calculation is performed
to determine the absolute heating and cooling loads. Given inside and outside
temperatures for each zone, fabric, ventilation and infiltration loads can be accurately
determined along with solar and internal loads.

Inter-zonal loads ate more complex because they cannot be factored in to the first pass
because internal temperatures were not known. Thus, additional iterations of both the first

80
 and second passes are then carried out to add in the effect fabric and infiltration gains
between adjacent spaces.

Whilst in summary it is a simplified method, the Admittance Method encapsulates the

effects of conductive heat flow through building fabric, infiltration and ventilation
through openings, direct solar gains through transparent materials, indirect solar gains
through opaque elements, internal heat gains from equipment, lights and people and the
effects of inter-zonal heat flow.

Parameters for Thermal Analysis:-

Occupancy per Floor : 65

Occupancy Activity Level : Sedentary.

HVAC System : Full air-conditioning.

Table 6.3 gives the construction details for the existing building elements and their
thermal properties.

Element Construction Detail Total Thickness U-Value

(mm) (W/m2K)
Walls 12 mm plaster + 230 mm brick + 12 mm 274 2.36

(External) plaster + 20 mm stucco plastering.

Walls 12 mm gypsum board + 85mm cavity + 109 2.48

(Internal) 12 mm gypsum board

Floor 15 mm plaster + 100 mm concrete + 70 mm 210 2.15

concrete screed + 25 mm ceramic floor tiles

Roof(Truss) G.I corrugated sheet + 20 mm gypsum 25 0.31

board.
False Ceiling 15 mm Armstrong tiles. 15 5.56
Window 6 mm single pane heat reflecting glass + 6 6

aluminium frame.

Table – 6.3 - Construction Details and their Thermal Properties

81
 Hourly Temperatures:-

Hourly temperature graphs display the external and internal temperatures of all visible
thermal poses in the model over a 24-hour period In order to better understand why
temperature fluctuations are occurring, additional environmental data is also displayed.
This includes solar radiation, outside air temperature and wind speed, as well as beam and
diffuse solar radiation.

Zone temperatures are shown in the assigned zone colour. If a thermal zone is selected, it
is highlighted in bold and its defined comfort band indicated by graded blue and red
horizontal colour bands - red indicating a temperature considered too warm and above the
comfort zone, blue too cool and below. Figures 6.11 and 6.12 show the hourly
temperature profiles of the Ground Floor on Jan 1st (average coldest day) and June 30th
(average hottest day) respectively.

It is possible to visually assess the existing internal comfort conditions after analyzing the
hourly temperature graphs. It is observed that on January 1st, which is also the average
coldest data as per the climatic data, the internal temperatures are mostly below the
comfort range indicating a 'too cool' condition. On June 30th, which is the average hottest
day, the internal temperatures are [above the comfort range throughout the day indicating
a 'too warm' condition.

Fig- 6.11 - Hourly Temperature Profile on January 1st (average coldest day)

82
 Fig – 6.12 - Hourly Temperature Profile on June 30th (average hottest day)

It is also observed that the fluctuation of internal temperatures through the day follow that
of the outside temperatures but after a lag caused by the thermal properties of the building
materials.

The summary of results of the hourly temperature analysis for ground floor is presented
below:-

Zone
Floor Area
Total Surface Area
Total Exposed Area
Total South Window
Total Window Area
Total Conductance
Total Admittance
: Floor
: 658.050 m²
: 1636.447 m² (248.5% flr area).
: 977.941 m² (148.5% flr area).
: 21.758 m² (3.3% flr area).
: 93.984 m² (14.3% flr area).
: 1221 W/°K
: 5694 W/°K

83
 SECOND FLOOR - HOURLY TEMPERATURES
January 1 (Average Coldest Day) June 30 (Average Hottest Day)

Avg. Int. 13 °C 35.5 °C

Temp
Hour Inside Outside Temp. Inside Temp. Outside Temp.
Temp, (˚C) Temp. (˚C) Diff. (˚C) (˚C) Temp. (˚C) Diff. (˚C)
0 14.1 6.1 8 37.1 31.7 5.4
1 14 5.8 8.2 37.0 31.3 5.7
2 13.9 5.4 8.5 36.9 31 5.9
3 13.1 5 8.1 36.8 30.7 6.1
4 12.9 4.5 8.4 36.7 30.6 6.1
5 12.8 4.1 8.1 36.7 30.3 6.4
6 12.7 4.5 8.2 37.1 32.0 5.1
7 12.8 4.9 7.9 37.8 33.7 4.1

8 12.9 5.1 7.8 38.5 35.4 3.1

9 13.4 9.1 4.3 38.7 36.5 2.2

10 14.6 12.8 1.8 38.8 37.7 1.1

11 15.7 16.7 -1 38.8 39 -0.2

12 16.7 17.7 -1 38.9 39.9 -1.0

13 17.2 18.7 -1.5 39.2 40.7 -1.5

14 17.7 19.6 -1.9 39.6 41.5 -1.9

15 17.8 19 -1.2 39.5 41.5 -2.0

16 17.7 18.3 -0.6 39.4 41.5 --2.1

17 17.6 17.7 -0.1 39.2 41.4 -2.2

18 17.1 15.3 1.8 38.8 39.9 -1.1

19 16.3 12.6 3.7 38.6 38.7 -0.1

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 20 15.5 10.1 5.4 38.4 37.4 1.0

21 14.9 9.5 5.4 38.1 35.9 2.2

22 14.6 8.8 5.8 37.7 34.4 3.3

23 14.3 7.9 6.4 37.3 31.5 5.8

Table – 6.4 - Comparative Hourly Temperature Profiles on Jan 1 and June 30th.

Hourly Heat Gains / Losses:-

The heat gains and losses graph displays the magnitude of all the different heat flow paths
acting on visible thermal zones in the model over a 24-hour period of the selected day.
The magnitude is in either Watts or kW as it is an instantaneous load.

In addition to the overall air-conditioning load (if air conditioned) the following load data
is displayed: -

• Conduction loads through the fabric.

• Indirect solar loads through solar gains on opaque surfaces.
• Direct solar gains through transparent windows.
• Ventilation and infiltration gains through crack and openings.
• Internal loads-from lights, people and equipment.
• Inter-zonal loads from heat flow between adjacent zones.

Figures 6.13 and 6.14 show the hourly heat gains / losses for all floors on January 2nd
(average coldest day) and June 30th (average hottest day) respectively.

It is observed that the HVAC and Conduction loads are the major contributors to the
overall building load in both the above cases. The HVAC load closely follows the profile
of the Conduction load suggesting a greater percentage contribution of the conduction
loads than the other loads. The loads peak around the mid-day mark in both the cases.

85
 Fig – 6.13 - Hourly Heat Gain / Loss Graph on January 1st (average coldest day)
)

Fig – 6.14 - Hourly Heat Gain / Loss Graph on June 30th (average hottest day)

86
 Monthly Loads / Discomfort

Monthly space load graphs display total heating and cooling loads (refer Figure 6.15).
Heating loads are displayed in red and project above the centre line of the graph whereas
cooling loads ire blue and project below. The vertical scale is in Wh, kWh or MWh
(Watt-hours). If no thermal zone is selected, the graph shows the total of all thermal
zones; otherwise it displays the loads only for the selected zone.

Fig – 6.15 - Total Monthly Heating / Cooling Loads

It is observed that the highest heating load occurs in January, whereas the highest cooling
load occurs in June.

The summary of results is presented below:-Total Floor Area: 658.050 m²

S.No. Month Heating Load (kWh) Cooling Load (kWh)

1 January 3162.996 0
2 February 905.842 0
3 March 127.189 2852.220
4 April 0 9127.999
5 May 0 13498.708
6 June 0 13742.801
7 July 0 9814.153
8 August 0 9098.025

87
 S.No. Month Heating Load (kWh) Cooling Load (kWh)

9 September 0 8638.883
10 October 0 6034.322
11 November 81.172 301.395
12 December 2597.418 0
Total Yearly Load 6874.617 73108.504
Total Load per Sq.m. 10.032 106.684

Table – 6.5 - Summary of Monthly Heating / Cooling Loads.

Cumulative Incident Solar Radiation (Insolation):-

Insolation refers to Incident Solar Radiation and represents the amount of radiation
incident on a point or surface over a specified period. First overshadowing masks are
generated at each point due to surrounding buildings and objects, and then hourly diffuse
and direct radiation data is read directly from the climate data over a user-set period.

Figure – 6.16

88
 Figure 6.16 shows the average daily cumulative insolation values for the second floor
incident on a workplane height of 600mm.

Table 6.6 summarises the yearly Cumulative Insolation occurring in the Second floor.
The direct and diffuse solar radiation components have also been presented.

S.No. Floor Average Insolation Component Cumulative Insolation

(Wh)
Direct (Wh) Diffuse (Wh)
1 Second 29.13 298.63 327.76

Table -6.6 - Summary of Incident Cumulative Insolation.

SUMMARY:-

Solar Radiation:-

The total daily incident solar radiation on a lm² vertical surface throughout the year is
calculated for the existing orientation:-

Total Annual Collection = 1088.00 kWh/m2

Under heated Period = 371.06 kWh/m2
Overheated Period = 178.47 KWh/m²

The relatively lesser incident solar radiation during the overheated period compared to the
greater radiation during the under heated period indicates a more favourable orientation
than other alternatives which may result in greater radiation in overheated and lesser
radiation in under heated periods.

DAYLIGHT ANALYSIS RESULTS:-

• Overall, the daylight available inside the workspace is sufficient and satisfies uniform
levels of even 500 lux for 87.37 % of the time throughout the year. This can be attributed
to the high glazing area which was calculated to be 14.3 % of the floor area.

89
 • The greatest contribution to the DF is from the IRC and hence, the designer should
carefully decide on the surface finishes (colour & texture) of the interior spaces.
• The contribution of the ERC is negligible to the makeup of the DF, but it indirectly is a
strong contributor as it decides the proportion of the IRC component.
Summary of Daylight Analysis Results:-

Floor DF SC ERC IRC Lux Level

Second Floor 3.56 1.23 34.55 1.60 44.97

Sky Component (SC):-

• The SC spread and penetration is higher from the South-East face because it faces
open lands, whereas it is lesser from the North-West face because of the
obstruction of nearby buildings.

Externally Reflected Component (ERC):-

• The ERC spread and penetration is higher from the North-West face because of
the presence of nearby buildings, whereas it is lesser from the South-East face
because of the open lands across.

Internally Reflected Component (IRC):-

The IRC spread and penetration is more or less uniform throughout the workspace. This
component is highly dependent in the wall, ceiling and false ceiling surfaces.

Daylight Levels (Lux):-

• The spread and penetration is more or less uniform throughout the workspace.

THERMAL ANALYSIS RESULTS:-

• Overall, the thermal performance of the building is unsatisfactory and hence

presents opportunities for improvement.

90
 • The unsatisfactory thermal conditions within the building results in a higher
HVAC load.
• Therefore, the energy efficiency needs to be improved.

Hourly Temperature Profiles:-

• On January 1st (the average coldest day), the internal temperatures are mostly
below
• The comfort range indicating a ‘too cool’ condition,
• On June 30th (the average hottest day), and the internal temperatures are above
the comfort range throughout the day indicating a ‘too warm’ condition,
• It is also observed that the fluctuation of internal temperatures through the day
follow that of the outside temperatures but after a lag caused by the thermal
properties of the building materials.

Hourly Heat Gains / Losses:-

• The HVAC and Conduction loads are the major contributors to the overall
building load,
• The HVAC load closely follows the profile of the Conduction load suggesting a
greater percentage contribution of the conduction loads than the other loads.

Loads:-

• The highest heating load occurs in January, whereas the highest cooling load
occurs in June.
• The average yearly heating load (per m²) is 10.032 kWh/m²
• The average yearly cooling load (per m²) is 106.684 kWh/m²

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CHAPTER – 7 – SIMULATE/ MODEL A BUILDING WITH THE HELP OF REVIT &
ECOTECT FOR THE OPTIMAL LIGHTING REQUIREMENT ALONG WITH OPTIMAL
THERMAL PERFORMANCE.

7.1 GENERAL:-

The main objective is to assess the significance of each input parameter, since this
analysis compares changes in output with changes in input. Knowledge of the influence
that the individual input parameter has on the outputs is useful for identifying the
important and critical characteristics. The results from the sensitivity analysis also
provide information about the response of the simulation tool and model to the input
parameters.

7.2 Methodology:-

The following steps explain the methodology to be adopted in carrying out the analyses:-

• Step 1: Identification of parameters to be considered for analyses.

 Change of ceiling height.

 Change of window configuration.
 Change of building materials.

• Step 2: Formulation of various options with respect to the base case building for
different scenarios under each of the parameters considered.
• Step 3: Carrying out the analysis for all the options.
• Step 4: Impact assessment of all the options.

 Impact on day lighting.

 Impact on thermal conditions.

• Step 5: Comparing results for all the options and select the best option.
• Step 6: Deriving inferences.

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 7.3 EFFECT OF DESIGN PARAMETERS:-
7.3.1 Variation with reference to ceiling height: - The change in ceiling height would
have drastic impact on the thermal characteristics of the building. However, there would
be not much impact on the Day lighting.

7.3.1.1 OPTION 1 – Increase in ceiling height: - The option would consider the
building height changed from 3 m. to 4.5 m.

Impact Analysis:-

• Solar Radiation: - The total daily incident solar radiation on a 1m2 vertical
surface throughout the year is calculated for the modified ceiling height of
4.5 m. –

Total Annual Collection = 1088.00 kWh/m2

Under heated Period = 371.06 kWh/m2
Overheated Period = 178.47 KWh/m²

• Daylight Factor (DF):- The average value of Daylight Factor (DF)

observed is – 3.51 %
• Sky Component (SC):- The average value of Sky Component (SC)
observed is - 1.21 %
• Externally Reflected Component (ERC):- The average value of
Externally Reflected Component (ERC) observed is: - 1.59 %
• Internally Reflected Component (IRC):- The average value of Internally
Reflected Component (IRC) observed is: - 1.47 %
• Daylight Levels: - The average value of Daylight Level observed is: -
348.73 lux.

Summary of Results:-

Floor DF SC ERC IRC Lux Level

Value %of DF Value %of DF Value %of DF

Second 3.51 1.21 34.47 1.59 45.22 1.47 41.88 348.73

Floor
(Table: 7.1) Summary of Day lighting Analysis Results
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 • Hourly Temperatures: - Jan 1st (average coldest day) with temperature of
13˚C and June 30th (average hottest day) with temperature of 35.5˚C
respectively.
• Annual Loads: - The total heating load required is 6922.686 kWh, and
the total cooling load required is 74484.917 kWh. The average yearly
healing load is 10.52 kWh/m² and the average yearly cooling load is
113.19 kWh/m².

• Cumulative Incident Solar Radiation (Insolation):- The trend observed is

that there is no change in cumulative insolation (both direct & diffuse) with
increase in ceiling height

Summary of Cumulative Insolation analysis results:-

S.No. Floor Average Insolation Component Cumulative Insolation

(Wh)
Direct (Wh) Diffuse (Wh)
1 Second Floor 29.13 298.83 327.76

(Table: 7.2) Cumulative Insolation Result for OPTION -1

7.3.1.2 OPTION 2 – Decrease in ceiling height: - The option would consider the
building height changed from 3 m. to 2.7 m.

Impact Analysis:-

• Solar Radiation: - The total daily incident solar radiation on a 1m2 vertical
surface throughout the year is calculated for the modified ceiling height of
2.7 m. –

Total Annual Collection = 1088.00 kWh/m²

Under heated Period = 371.06 kWh/m²

Overheated Period = 178.47 KWh/m²

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 • Daylight Factor (DF):- The average value of Daylight Factor (DF)
observed is – 3.59 %
• Sky Component (SC):- The average value of Sky Component (SC)
observed is - 1.23 %
• Externally Reflected Component (ERC):- The average value of
Externally Reflected Component (ERC) observed is: - 1.61%
• Internally Reflected Component (IRC):- The average value of Internally
Reflected Component (IRC) observed is: - 1.60%
• Daylight Levels: - The average value of Daylight Level observed is: -
353.71 lux.

Summary of Results:-

Floor DF SC ERC IRC Lux Level

Value %of DF Value %of DF Value %of DF

Second Floor 3.59 1.23 34.26 1.61 44.84 1.60 44.56 353.71

(Table: 7.3 a) Summary of Day lighting Analysis Results

• Hourly Temperatures: - Jan 1st (average coldest day) with temperature of

13˚C and June 30th (average hottest day) with temperature of 35.5˚C
respectively.
• Annual Loads: - The total heating load required is 6580.512 kWh, and
the total cooling load required is 70345.435 kWh.The average yearly
healing load is 10.00 kWh/m² and the average yearly cooling load is
106.90 kWh/m².

• Cumulative Incident Solar Radiation (Insolation):- The trend observed is

that there is no change in cumulative insolation (both direct & diffuse) with
decrease in ceiling height.

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 Summary of Cumulative Insolation analysis results:-

S.No. Floor Average Insolation Component Cumulative Insolation

Direct (Wh) Diffuse (Wh) (Wh)
1 Second Floor 29.13 298.83 327.76

(Table: 7.3b) Cumulative Insolation Result for OPTION -2

7.3.2 Variation with reference to size of openings: - Change in window configuration

would affect the thermal as well as day lighting characteristics of the building.

7.3.2.1 OPTION 1 – USE OF 900 X 1200 mm Windows: - This option considers

the reduction of window area. The existing column-to-column strip windows have
been replaced by 900mm wide x 1200mm high windows. The sill level has been
maintained at the existing 1200mm level. The analysis is carried out for the Second
Floor.

Impact Analysis:-

Daylight Analysis
• Window Area:-
 Total Window Area = 12.2% of Floor area
• Daylight Parameters (Second Floor):-
 Daylight Factor = 2.97 %
 Sky Component - 1.03 %
 Internally Reflected Component = 1.29 %
 Externally Reflected Component = 1.37 %
 Daylight Levels = 305.8 lux.
 Daylight Autonomy (500 lux) = 84.68 %

Annual Loads:-
• The total heating load required is 6773.812 kWh, and the total cooling
load required is 69803.96 kWh.
• The average yearly heating load per sq.m. is 10.29 kWh/m²

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 • The average yearly cooling load per sq.m. is 106.03 kWh/m²

Cumulative Insolation:-
• The cumulative insolation for the second floor was calculated to be
296.66 Wh.
• The diffuse solar radiation component was 271.93 Wh.
• The direct solar radiation component was 24.73 Wh.

7.3.2.2 OPTION 2 – USE OF 1500 X 1200 mm Windows: - This option

considers the reduction of window area. The existing column-to-column strip
windows have been replaced by 1500mm wide x 1200mm high windows. The sill
level has been maintained at the existing 1200mm level. The analysis is carried out
for the Second Floor.

Impact Analysis:-

Daylight Analysis
• Window Area:-
 Total Window Area = 16.3 % of Floor area
• Daylight Parameters (Second Floor):-
 Daylight Factor = 3.95 %
 Sky Component - 1.39 %
 Internally Reflected Component = 1.70 %
 Externally Reflected Component = 1.89 %
 Daylight Levels = 423.40 lux.
 Daylight Autonomy (500 lux) = 90.45 %

Annual Loads:-
• The total heating load required is 7001.208 kWh, and the total cooling
load required is 75421.029 kWh.
• The average yearly heating load per sq.m. is 10.63 kWh/m²
• The average yearly cooling load per sq.m. is 114.61 kWh/m²

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Cumulative Insolation:-
• The cumulative insolation for the second floor was calculated to be
309.44 Wh.
• The diffuse solar radiation component was 283.16 Wh.
• The direct solar radiation component was 26.28 Wh.

7.3.3 Variation with reference to materials: - This option would consider the change of
building materials used in the building. Table 7.4 gives the modified construction details.

Element Modified Construction Total Thickness New U-Value Old U-Value

materials
(mm) (W/m² K) (W/m2 K)
12 mm plaster +230 mm brick + 464 1.29 2.36
Walls
(External) 50 mm air cavity +110 mm brick
+12 mm plaster + 50 mm
sandstone cladding
Window Double glazed low emissivity 42 4.52 6.00

glass + aluminium frame

Table 7.4 - Details of Modified construction materials

Impact Analysis:-

Daylight Parameters (Second Floor):-

• Daylight Factor = 3.56 %
• Sky Component - 1.23 %
• Internally Reflected Component = 1.54 %
• Externally Reflected Component = 1.60 %
• Daylight Levels = 350.21 lux.
• Daylight Autonomy (500 lux) = 87.37 %

Monthly Loads:-
• The total heating load required is 5665.803 kWh, and the total cooling
load required is 64891.97 kWh.

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 • Avg. Yearly Heating Load per sq.m. is 8.76 kWh/m²
• Avg. Yearly Cooling Load per sq.m. is 98.96 kWh/m²

Cumulative Insolation:-
• The cumulative insolation for the second floor was calculated to be
347.896 Wh.
• The diffuse solar radiation component was 33.467 Wh.
• The direct solar radiation component was 314.429 Wh.

7.4. SUMMARY OF ANALYSES RESULTS:-

The comparative analysis of the results achieved by changing the parameters mentioned in
the earlier sections has been presented in Appendix.

The comparative graphs for the various design alternatives are shown from Figure 7.1 to
Figure 7.8. The key parameters undertaken for comparison are:-

• Glazing Ratio.
• Daylight Factor.
• Daylight Level.
• Average Yearly Heating Load.
• Average Yearly Heating Load per m².
• Average Yearly Cooling Load.
• Average Yearly Cooling Load per m².
• Cumulative Insolation.

Fig – 7.1 - Comparison of Glazing Materials

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 Fig – 7.2 - Comparison of Day Factor (D.F)

Fig – 7.3- Comparison of Day Lux Levels

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 Fig – 7.4- Comparison of Average Yearly Heating Load

Fig – 7.5- Comparison of Average Yearly Heating Load (per Sq.m.)

101
 Fig – 7.6- Comparison of Average Yearly Cooling Load

Fig – 7.7- Comparison of Average Yearly Cooling Load (per Sq.m.)

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 Fig – 7.8- Comparison of Cumulative Insolation

SIGNIFICANCE OF RESULTS

The following observations were made:-

• The existing building with its highest glazing ratio provided the maximum
amount of natural light. This also created the problem of unwanted heat gain.
• The option of Use of Windows - 900mm x 1200 mm with its least glazing ratio
still provided sufficient quantity of daylight in spite of its relative worst-case
scenario.
• Hence, day lighting was considered the lesser critical parameter and the main
focus was now on the thermal performance.
• The option of Windows - 900mm x 1650 mm was the most efficient in reducing
the cumulative insolation (by 9%). Amongst the various alternatives change in
building materials gives the best result.

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CHAPTER – 8- CONCLUSION

8.1 Introduction –
A brief study of day lighting has been made and also various factors affecting daylight has
been studied. The various methods of quantification are studied in detail and demerits in
each are identified and a method has been suggested out these for the quantification of day
lighting. The assessment of thermal performance has also done by understanding the role of
glazing their performance and the thermal values of different types of glazing.

An analysis has been done over an office building, on the basis of which daylight contours,
graphs, thermal performance and inferences have been drawn.

Finally recommendations and suggestions have given to optimize the daylight strategies
with respect to thermal performance.

8.2 Recommendations –

1. It is observed from the analysis results, that in the middle of a building the daylight
level is very less, so it is recommended to make the building plans width not more
than 30 -35 m.

2. In case of building width more than 40 - 45 m, it is recommended that the atrium,

courtyards, light wells etc.(based upon the function building served) should be
provided in order to maintain day light level equally in the whole building area.

3. The openings provided should be properly integrated with the shading devices in
order to reduce the direct sunlight.

4. The building envelope material selection should be based upon their thermal
properties, reflectivity index etc. which helps a lot in reducing the energy load.

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 5. It is observed that increase in ceiling height increase the comfort level as the
ventilation and air movement starts more effectively but as the volume of the room
increases so, we required more cooling load.

6. It is suggested that the building be modeled using the software interlace. This is
required to eliminate errors in recognizing the building characteristics. However,
complex geometries can be modeled in other familiar CAD software and imported.
Care should be taken to appropriately modify and assign the imported object's
parameters as per the software requirements.

8.3 Future Scope of the Project: –

1. Standardization of results for specific building types and configuration, for a

particular climatic type. This would serve as ready, handbook type design
recommendations.

2. Analysis of energy usage characteristics for different locations and building types,
and formulation of an energy compliance code.

3. Simulation of HVAC systems using specialized HVAC simulation software.

4. Analysis for energy savings.

5. Analysis for cost Effectiveness.

105
REFERENCES

1. Mannual of Tropical Housing by Koenigsberger, Orient Longman.

2. Climate Responsive Architecture – Arvind Krishan, Nick Baker, Simos Yannas, S V
Szokolay.
3. Lighting Design Basics – Mark Karlen, James R. Benya.
4. Indian Standards – SP – 41.
5. Energy Conservation Building Code (2007) - By Ministry of Power (GOI), Bureau of
Energy Efficiency.
6. ASHRAE Energy Standards.
7. Hand Book on Functional requirements of Buildings – By BIS.
8. IS – 2440 – 1975, Guide for day lighting of building, BIS.
9. Daylight in Buildings – A source book on day lighting systems and components.
10. Tips for Day lighting – An integrated approach.

WEB SITES

http://www.sustainablebuildingcentre.com

http://www.energydesignresources.com/

www.hmda.gov.in

http://ocw.mit.edu/

www.scribd.com

www.vibyor.com/resources/tips/148-ecotect-tutorials

www.daysim.com

www.gsd.harvard.edu/

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