The First Discourses of The Buddha 'Turning The Wheel of Dhamma' - DR - Rewata Dhamma 001132 OCR Text

HE _ _ ___,
OF THE

T LIRNING THE w HEEL

OF DHAMMA

VENERABLE DR. REWATA 0HAMMA

Fqreword by Venerable Ajahn ~Sumedho
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DEPARTMENT OF RELIGIOUS AFFAIRS.
YANGON,MYAN
2001

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THE FIRST lJl~(~ULIRSf
()f THE BLlf)[)t~A
"Printod and Published by U Nyunt Maung
Director, Rogd! No.524/:02405
at the Religious affairs Dept: Pross.
Yangon, MYA AR.
HE
'
OF THE
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T lll~NIN(~ THF_ w HEEi (JI- [)HAMMA
VENrRAl)LE l)R. RrWATA l)HAMMA
Foreword by Venerable Ajal11z ',)1Jmedl10

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CONTENTS

Foreword by Ajahn Sumedho Vtt
Preface ix
Acknowledgments xi
Introduction xiii
1 BACKGROUND 1
The Life of the Buddha 1
Social and Philosophical Context of the Buddha's Lifetime 9
The Buddha's Dhamma 12
2 THE FIRST DISCOURSE OF THE BUDDHA: TURNING THE WHEEL OF

DHAMMA 17
3 THE MIDDLE WAY 21

Avoiding the Two Extremes 24
Vision and Knowledge 28

4 THE NOBLE EIGHTFOLD PATH 33

One: Right Speech 34
Two: Right Action 35
Three: Right Livelihood 36
Four: Right Effort 37
Five: Right Mindfulness 38
Six: Right Concentration 41
Seven: Right Understanding 45
Eight: Right Thought 53
5 THE FOUR NOBLE TRUTHS 55

One: Dukkha 56
Two: The Origin of Dukkpa 60
Three: The ~essation of Dukkha 64
Four: The Path Leading co the Cessation of Dukkha 67
T1 it l~L 11 >1 1~-JA
-----------------------''--------- -
r 1it 111l" i r )(\l.l)l tll..,, l )'
- - - ---
()11L: l>t1rit\' l>f. ;vt<)r;1lit\' ;7 /

1;.,.l>: l>t1rit\' l>I I\li11tl 71
'l'l1rlc: l>t1rit\'
l)f. \'il'\\' 72
l:<>t1r: l>t1rit)' l)y' ( )\'L'rLl>111i11g i)l>tJl)t 73
l:i\c: J>t1rit) I))' l11sigl1t ;111<.l \ 1 isiu11 of What is I>acl1 a11d N<)t l)ach 73
Six: l>t1rity I>)' 1...:11<1\\'IL<..lgc ;111<..i Visio11 of cl1e C~ot1rse of l)racrice 74
Sl'\'l'11: l>t1rit)' I>)' l11sigl1t ;111c.l \'isi<)11 75
I >rl> f(11111 Li K 11 <>'.,I L'OgL ,76
\'if);tss.111;\, rl1L' l>rLli111i11;1ry l>;1tl1 I --
I

7 '('\\ll\'I. ASl'l<:IS l)I; W!S[)()!\l IN 1111-: l~t)L'I{ Nt>l~l.I l'IZL'l llS 81

111l 1rt1tl1 <>f. I )t1kkl1;1 8I
111c 1rt1rl1 <)f. tl1c ( )rigir1 c)f I )t1kkl1a 84
111c llt1tl1 c1f tl1t: (~t:ss;1tic)!l uf. l)ukkh;t 89
111c 1rt1tl1 l>f. tl1L 1>;1111 9/
\'iIJ;1ss;111:1 ;111LI tl1e 1:<)11r Nc>l)lt: 'lrt1cl1s 94
111l l~t1<.ltll1;1's l~11ligl1tt:r1r11t:11t 95
l\c.flt:<.:ti<)r1s ;111c.l Accl;1111atic)11s <>11 che 1)!1;1111111;1 9.~
1Vt>ft'S 1 ()I
(;/oss1TJ'} 1 1(}5
-
/1i/J/ir1,f(,Jllpl~}' 112
FORE~'()RD
THIS EXCELLENT TRANSLATION a11d comprehensive ex11ositic111 of the

Dhamma,cakkappavattana Sutta emphasizes the impo1car1<.:t' l>f ~1raccice for
realizing the-Four Noble Truths. This sutta is rl1e ~sse11ti~1l teJcl1ir1g of the
Lord Buddha leading to complete enlighte11ment. Yet c11i . . 111os1 p ofound
and fundamental discourse is ofte11times 0\1 erl(1<.)~\.ed in f~.1\'l>r of c11e corn-

mentarial works on teachings that came later.

The truth of the matter is that this first sermon is perfect in itself. By this
I mean that, if.. you had nothing else
,
but this sermon to follow, it would give
you all the necessary- information and instruction for profound insight into
th~ truth of what ''is'' which is, of course, enlightenment.
I have used this.sutta as my main guide to practice over the past rwenty-
eiglit years, constantly referring to and reflecting upon the Four Noble
Truths, the three aspects of each truth, and the twelve insights even mem-
orizing the Pali form for chanting.
The. Buddha established his teaching on the universal truth of the
impermanence of the conditioned world. This quality of impermanence is
the focus for meditation and contemplation so that the grasping tendencies
of our conditioned attitudes and assumptions may be recognized and
relinq.ished, leaving the mind free of its condicior1ed habits. This allows
for perfect knowledge and insight to arise.
The Venerable Dr. Rew.ata Dhamr11a is ;1l1lc cc> Sl)eak fror11 scholarly and
meditacive experience. Thert"~ore, this work is r11c>sc sig11iflL;111r ~1nd very much
needed. Most of the Pali Canon has bec11 tr;111slace<l l1)' scl1ol;1rs who, though

accurate in translation, do not have i1!sigl1t i11t<> Bt1ddhadh;1n11na through the
practice of vipassana meditation. The Venerable Rewata Dha1nn1a has made
his k.'lowledge available in this important tra11slacion and cornmentary.
I offer my appreciation and gratitude co the Venerable Dr. Rewata

Dhamma for writing this superb work.
Ajah11 Sumedho
( fJhra Sumedhachariya)
Amaravati 81,ddhist Monastery
Great Gaddesd011, Hertfordshire, E,ngland
VII
PREFACE
Two MONTHS AFTER THE BUDDHA attained enlightenment, he delivered

his first discourse to five ascetics in Deer Park near Varanasi. This first dis-
course has coine to be known as the Dhammacakkappavattana Sutta, which
meanS the ''discourse on the turning of the wheel of Dhamma." Popularly,
it is known simply as the Dhammacakka Szttta (the Wheel of Dhamma
Discourse). This sutta represents the essence of the Buddha's reachings. All
of his subsequent teachings over the remaining forty-five years of his life
were more or less based on it. In this first discourse, the Buddha explained
the way to freedom from universal suffering through the teachings of the
Four Noble Truths and the Noble Eightfold Middle Path free from the
extremes of self-mortification and self-indulgence.
In Burma and in other Theravadin countries, Buddhists learn the
Dhammacakka Sutta by heart and recite it daily. 011 special occasions, such
as festivals or full-moon days,. special groups or associations meet to chant
the sutta in unison. Yet, despite this devotion to the recitation of the sutta, .
many Buddhists merely recite the Dhammacakka Sutta out of devotion

without understanding its full meaning and practical import. Though the
, '.~u1ta; concerns meditation directly, translations in Burmese, English, and
other languages typically give only the literal meaning of this important
discourse. Rarely

are its practical implications
elaborated. One great excep-
tion is the nine expositions on the sutta by the late Mahasi Sayadaw of
Burma. Mahasi Sayadaw is renowned as the greatest vipassana meditation
master of this century. His exposition of the Dl1am1nacakka Sutta elucidates
for Buddhist. medication practitior1ers the precise steps reqt1ired for the
realization of the l1hamma. Mahasi's expositions were originally presented
in the Burmese vernacular for a lay Burmese audier1ce arid \Vere then trans-
lated into English by U Ko Lay, the retired rector of Mandalay Ur1iversity.
Most of cl1e boc)ks available on Theravada Buddhism in English explai11
the Four Noble lruchs and the Noble Eightfold Pach. It is rare, however, to

find any writings that present the practical aspeccs and experiences ot che
meditator.
In chis book I aim to further explicate the practical as~)ects of the sutta by
drawing on Lhe \Vork ot Mahasi Sayadaw and elaborati11g on the sutta in
tiecail according co che Burn1ese monastic scholarly tradition ~111d 111y own
.
'
expcncnce.
IX
While I was u11dertaking the writing of this translatio11, some of my stu-
dents reco111111e11Jcd cl1at I write i11 simpler la11guagc in order that the book
rnight haV<: a Il1(lre ge11er~1I ap11eal. However, it is not easy to express che
deeper sig11ificance of tl1e l)t1ddl1a's teachings i11 everyday language; che pre-
cise se11sc an(l Jeptl1 of 111eani11g can 011ly be preserved in traditional terms,
including the t1se of Pali expressio11s where a1Jpropriatc. Tl1e content of the
book, insofar as it deals with tl1e central the1nes of Buddhism, bears re-
readi11g i11 any case. 111 so doi11g, the reader will gain ~1 richer t1nderscand-
i11g of the strtta a11d Buddhism rnore ge11erally.
'I'he pri111ary contribt1tion of this book is the n1anner of presentation of
the tr~111slatio11 of the origi11al succa, being couched in easily understood lan-
guage. l:acl1 IJ~1ragraph explains its particular subject matter accordi11g to
u
the tra(litio11~1l scriptures. However, che reader is co understand that the
Noble r~igl1ctold J>ath is not only to be understood intellectually, but is also
to be comprehended by way of practice. There are many peo1Jle who prac-
tice \'i1.,~1ssa11a 111editation under the direction of different teachers wich
(fiffere11t tech11iques. The explanations given in this book are devoid of
sectari~111 tl1<>ughc.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
THERE ARE MANY PEOPLE ~ho helped me in writing this book and to whom
I would like to express my particular thanks. Foremost,

Yann Lovelock and
Dr. Mar Mar Lwin were most helpful and their support was greatly appre-
ciated. Also, I very ~eh appreciate and am grateful to Bodhidhamma
BhiJ<ldiu and Margery Lamont who read and edited the final draft~ I would
also like to express special thanks to the Venerable Sumedho Bhikkhu, who
wrote the foreword and inspired me greatly. And last, but certainly not
least, my thanks to Denys Richards without whose support and help it
would have been impossible for me to finish this work.
Finally, I would like to extend my sincere tha:nks and gratitude to
Wisdom Publications. By publishing this book, Wisdom Publications is
enabling the book to reach a wide readership. I am also most appreciative
of Dr. Mar Mar Lwin's further financial support in contributing to the
printing costs of this publication.
May all beings be well and happy.
U Rewata Dhamma
Buddhist Vihara
Birmingham, Englant/
1111: I1 Ul\I ISI II:'.!{ cRA11~1:LJI.l Y
ack110\vlcc.lges tl1e generous support of che
Bir111i11gl1ar11 l~ttll<ll1ist Vil1ara i11 l1cl1Jir1g co sponsor the production of
cl1is lJll<lk.
INTRODUCTION
THE REASON FOR THE POPUlAiun: of the Dha1nmacakka Sutta, or the Wheel
ofDhamma Discourse, amor1g 1~h~ravadins is thJ.t it v.'as the first sermon the
Buddha gave after his enlightenment and is recognized as rhe foundation of
all the Buddha's teachings. This book is essentially a commentary on that
sutta. In order to help the reader, the presentation of the cor1tents of the
book mirrors the outline of the content.~ ;_)f- the sutta. Chapter 011e begins
with. a review of the Buddha's life, telling how he was born as a royal prince
and lived in luxury until his renunciation at the age of twenty-nine. The

Buddha then practiced austerities for six years u11der the guidance of
prominent teachers in India. This chapter expl<1ins \'cry briefly how the
Buddha practiced these austerities with the aim of attaining nihbana
(enlightenment). After a six-yea1 struggle, the L\uddha realized chat the

practice of self-mortification is coo extreme (one of t\vo extremes, actually),

and he decided to undertake instead a more n1oc.fcrace path, the Mi<.idle
Way. Soon after this he becan1e c11lightened.
At the time of the Buddha in India. there \\'ere six 111ain r1rincipal
philosophers and religious leaders all of chem \\'~111dering ascetics who
were presenting their respective teachings. The Bt1ddha presented his teach-
ings as a respo11se to the prevalent religi<)Lts at1li philos<)pl1ical clirnate of his
time. During his lifetime, .he endeavorcc.i t<) abolisl1 the caste system. He
tirelessly ca1npaigned against animal S<lcrifices, e1nphasizi11g i11 his teaching
loving-kindness and 'compassion toward all l)cings.
l"he Buddl1a tc.1t1ght rhe doctrine of k11n11na (Skt. kar1na). which is the
law of cause an<.i effc.~ct. Accordi:1g to the Bt1<.idl1:1, ;1 11erson is the arcl1itect
of his or her own desti11y. It is u1111ecessc.1r)' t l1c1ctore, to seek help from
excer11al agents, sue~ as gods and g<>li1..lcs-.cs. 1hc l~t1ddhc.i <ldvoc;lted f"ree-
dorn <)f religior1. freedo111 of. tl1ot1gl1t .. 111<.1, !)_\' C<>li<l).'S 111easure, de111ocraric.-
l)ri11cir1l(.'i for a harrno11if>t1s society.
C~l1.1r1tcr 'lw<> co11tains cl1e cra11sl;1titlll <)f. tl1e I )/,,11111111111kk11 ~'i11tt11. 111c
c.ii<\ccJl1rsc describes che tW<l excrc1nc.:s ~111c.I eh(, MiJlllc \\'/;1v, , kn<>w11 as cl1e
Eighrfc>ld I>ach. l3y practici11g the f:ightf<llJ ll;1tl1. <>11c realizes cl1e Fc>t11

N<>hle rrutl1s. rhc Butidha 1Jroclain1eli l1i111sclf. t<> l1c l'r1lighte11c.<.i <lfcer l1c
rcalized tl1e f:<1t1r N<lhlc: 1rt1tl1s.
'J'hc 11ext fi\'(,' cl1;1f1tcr<, l<>111r1ris1.. ;111 l'Xfl<>'>ititlll ,,f- 1!1i' lrr-.t I )isc<>t1rsl'.
It ll I llZ\ I I )l\l l )l 11\\I ( )( 11 ll l~Lll )()~~A
Cl1apter 'l l1rce tells of. the l~uddha's r11eetir1g witl1 the five ascetics in Deer
I>;1rk ~1e i)re;1cl1cd to 1l1e111 of 1l1e t\\'O extremes indulgence ir1 sensual
l)le;1sures ;111J selt:.r11<)rtif!catior1 a11d of the Middle (>arl1 between these
t\\'O. c:!1a11tcr 1:l)llf Cl)lltair1s a detailed ex11l;1r1;1tion ()f the N')l)le Eightfold
J>;1tl1. 'l'l1c Jefl11itior1 l>f. e;1cl1 aspect of the J>arh is <)ffercd fro111 the tr;ldi-
tio11al scri1)tt1res, .is \veil ;1s a11 expl;111atior1 as to l1<>w tl1e Nl>blc: Eightfold
J>ath c;1r1 l1l' t1r1Jersto<>J ir1 relatio11 tl> <>11e's owr1 r11editatil>r1 practice.
c:hapter Five lle;1ls \Vitl1 tl1e F()Uf Noble lrt1ths: suffcri11g, tl1e origir1 of suf:.
terir1g, the ccssaci<>r1 l>f. sutTerir1g, ar1d tl1c pacl1 leadir1g tl> tl1c cessatior1 <>f
st1ffcrir1g. 111c l~Llli<lha ide11tif!ed tl1e t1r1iversal ex1.,erie11cts l>t birtl1, decay,
;1r1ll Je;1tl1 as sufleri11g. l)r1e wl10 actai11s the higl1est state of i11sigl1t a11d l1as
cradicatcli ;111 craces <)f Jcfilc111c11ts l.,eCl>111es an 11r11IJa11t. Cl1apter Six sets
out cl1e SC\'cr1 st;1ges of.11L1riflc;1cic>11 by r11ca11s of. wl1icl1 111eliit;1t<>rs scrivc to
;1ttai11 i11sigl1t. 111 a11 Lfl(>rc <> l1cl11 cl1c re;1Jt'r i11 u11dcrsc;111lli11g l1is l)I. l1er
<1w11 111cdicatil)ll cx1)eriL11ccs, ;111 cx1)l;111;1ti<>11 l>f. tl1e tl1rec kir1ds of 11rofot111d
k11c>wledge is i11clt1dt'll hLre, as \Vcll ;1s fl.1rtl1e1 cc>111111c11t;11} <>11 tl1c tl11et:fold
1)atl1 ir1 relatio11 t<> \'iJ);1ss;111;1 J>r;1ctice. 1!1c sever1tl1 cl1a11ter cxi1l;1ir1s tl1e
t\vcl\'e as11elts c>f. \Vis<lc>111. f~;1cl1 of- cl1e 1:<>L11 N<>l1lc 1rucl1s l1as rl1rce types of
k11c>\vlcdgc or c1t11l1: 1!1c k110\\'lellgc <>f. cl1c trt1tl1, till' kr1cJ\vlcdge l>f cl1c fu11c-
til>11 <>f. tl1c t1t1tl1, ;111J tl1c k11c>\'>'lcc.lge <>f. cl1e ft111ctic>11 <>f cl1e crt1th 1!1at has
l)l'l'll j)l'fft>fllll'll.
I clc>"L' 1l1c l,1st cl1;11)te1 l)}' rcl;1ti11g tl1c acclan1atil>l1 <>f. tl1e disc<>t1rsc by the
<leicil'-. ,111ll l)}' L'XJJl;1i11i11g tl1e \V;1y of- ;1ttai11111c11t C)f i11sigl1c L..,y tl1c five
.1 . . clrics \Vil<> listl'.11cd t<> tl1e l~L1lilll1a's first ser111(>J1, tl1e \'(lf1t'el uj'D/Ja1r111111
I Jistt1111jl', i11 L)cl'r J>;1rk ..i\t 1l1c c11Li of- tl1e LiisC<)Urse, till'}' ;lJ)f)l,1t1ded cl1e
l~t1lllll1;1's tL;1cl1i11gs ,111li Cl1Lir \Visclt>111 l')'CS l>f)Clll'll. 111L'}' ;1sklll cl1c l~t1ddl1a
t<> ;ICCL'l)l 1l1l111 i11r<> 1l1l <>rJLr <>f. 111<>11ks s~> cl1;11tl1ey111igl11 li\l' tl1t l1ol}' life.
'l l1c l~t1t!tll1;1 ;tl.CCJ)tL'111e ;111d i)r,1ctiLc tl1c l1oly
Iii~ f~)r cllL' s.11\.L' <>f. ti1e L<>lllf)ll'ce tt1<li11g t>f. st1t.fl-ri11g."
I 11.1\L' ;1!...,1) 111llt1lll..,...,~1r\' tl> ;1ssi:-.t till' rc;1tll'r \\'ill> 111a\' l)c t111fa111il-
i.1r ,,.ill1 till' I).iii 1t1111-..
1
BACKGROUND
A unique being, an extraordinary man arises in this world for the

benefit of the many, for the happi11ess of the many, ouc of
compassion for the world, for the good, benefit, and
happiness of devas and human beings. Who is this unique being? le
is che Tarhagata, che exalted, fully enlil?;htened one.
Anguttara Nikaya, 1.22
Well expounded is the Dhamma by the exalted one,

to be selt. . realized. with immediate fruit, rnviting
investigation, leadi11g l>11 co Nibbana, to be <..omprehended
by rl1c \Vise, each for himself.
J\111Jjl1i1111t Nikaya, 1.37
THE LIFE OF THE BUDDHA
IN 1HE YEAR 623 B.C.E., on the full-moon day of May, the bodhisatta (future
Buddha) was born in the kingdom of Kapilavatthu on the border of present-
day India and Nepal. Born into the royal Sakya clan, he was given the name
of Siddhattha, meaning ''one whose purpose has bee11 achieved." He
received the conventional prince's education. which included training in
the use of arms, extempore composition, and knowledge of polite deport-
ment rules (which he subsequently incorporated into the conduct rules for
monks and nuns in his order). He lived a life of lt1xury.
I was delicate, exceisivelY. delicate. In my father's dwelling three lotus-

ponds were made purposely for me. Blue lotuses bloomed in one, red
in another, and white in another. I used no sandalwood that was not
of Kasi. My turban, tunic, dress and cloak, were all from Kasi ...
Night and day a white parasol was held over me so that I might not
be t<>tr . . l1l<l h\' l1cat or cold, dust, leaves or de'N .
i11i1e were 1l1rce palaces for me: one for the cold season, one for rht
hc>t ..,c:ason .. 111<1 <>ne for the rainy sea~on. [)uri11g the fc>ur rainy
mo11tl1~. I li\'l'<.i in the palace for the rainy season withot1t ever com-
ing <.i<>\\'11 fron1 it, entertained the while by fen1ale musicians. 1
Alcl1ot1gh it is nowhere 111entione<l i11 tl1e scriptures, it has been conjec-
tured chat tl1e roy<tl C<>t1rt st1pp<>rted the Sacrikhya teachings, a non-Vedic
pl1iloso1)l1y C<>r111ecte<l witl1 the early scl1ools of Yc>ga and described later by
Patafijali i11 his treatise, tl1e Yoga Siitra. l'l1ere can be no doubt that
Si<.l<.lhattl1a l)ractice<l s<.>111e for111 of co11templatic>11 while he was still young
an<l at the age of twenty-11ine, he became convinced of the unsatisfactori-
ness of l1is life. ~I'he future l~t1Jdl1a reflected thus:
Youth, the pri1ne of life, en<ls i11 old <tge a11d 1na11's se11ses fail him
when they a1e rnost 11eeded. 1he hale a11d hearty lose their vigor and
health \vhe11 disease sudde11ly creeps i11. l~i11;1lly death comes, sudden
perl1;1p~ and t111expecced, and f)Uts <111 end to this brief span of life.
Surely cl1ere r11ust be a11 escape fron1 tl1is t111satisfaccoriness, from
agi11g and <le;1ch.2
So ca111e about the event chat ca111e t<> be k11t)WJ1 as tl1e great renunciation.
The palace w;1s no 1011ger a co11ge11i;1l 1)l;1cc fc>r Sie.idhatcl1a. Neither his
beautift1l \\ ife 11or 11ewl)<)r11 so11 C<>t1l<.l l1c>ld l1i111 Ll<lck. I-1.e was destined for
1
an i11fi11itely rncJre i1111)<>rt;111t ;111d l)e11eflci;1l role tl1a11 tl1;it <Jf a dt1tiful hus-
ba11d or even a ki11g <>f. kings. 1-Ie left secretly at n1id11ight asst1111ing the garb
of a religious wa11<lerer i11 searcl1 <>f. the highest trutl1.
Meeti11g with the G'reat ]~izcl1ers

-
Eventually the bodl1isatta ca111e to hear uf tl1e great teacl1er A!ara the
Kala111a, who live<.f \vitl1 three l1u11<lre<l ptlf)ils i11 Vesal1 (or Vaisali, nc>w i11
the state of Bil1<1r). I le descril>ee.i tl1ei1 encc)t111ter as fc>llows:
I-l<1vi11g gc>11e f(>rtl1 ,111<.I llt"C<>I11e ;1 reclt1se i11 11t1rst1ic <>f what is holy a11d
good, seekir1g tl1e st111rcr11e, i11cc>1111);1r;1bl<. 11c;1ce elf nibl1ana, I drev.
near co \Vl1erc Al;1ra cl1e K~J;1111;1 \V;ts ;111J a<l<.lressed l1im thus: ''Friend

Kala111<1, I <.l<.sirt to le;1J cl1c l1c>l\ lite t111<ler v<>L1r <lc>ctri11e a11<.I <lisci-
1
plir1e." 111cr1 K;ll;1111a re11lied, '' 1:rier1<l (~c>t<1111a Si<l<lh;1ttl1a is \velcome

to rer11;1ir1 i11 rl1is te;1chir1g. ()f. st1ch ;1 r1att1rc is tl1is l)h;1111r11;1 char ir1 a
shore tin1e ;111 i11;Llligcnt r11a11 ca11 realize fc>r l1ir11self a11<.l ;1bi<.le i11 pos-
sessic>r1 of. \Vl1;1t l1is te;1cl1er l1as rc;ilizecl <ls l1is cl\\'11. ''.~
-
Wl1at i111~1rtsse<.I 1i1e bo<ll1isatt<l \\1;1s 1\!ar;1's <l\'c>iJ;111ce c>f l}Llotatio11
fro111 scri11turc <>r fro111 other teacl1ers ;111<l his i11siscc11ce tl1;1c ;1 doctri11e is
trt1stwc>rtl1y <lJ1<.l cc>11vi11ci11g <>r1ly it. it ca11 l)c rc;1lizc<.f l)!' <)Ileself a11<.l ir1
2
BACKGROUND
this lifetime. He thought to himself that it was not by mere faitl1 that
Alara

announced that he had learned the Dhamma. !-le felt that Alara

had surely realized the Dhamma for himself, that he knew and un<ler-
stood it.
-
What A!ara the Kalama was teaching was a form of contemplative yoga.
Instructed by him, the bodhisatta practiced diligently and quickly realized the
''realm of nothingness," an advanced stage of concentration. His gene1ous
teacher was delighted to hear of his success and treated him as an equal, but
the bodhisatta himself was not satisfied with this attainment. It did not lead
to d'" L.!chment, cessation of suffering, tranquillity, intuition, enlightenment,
and nibbana. Nor was he anxious to lead a religious school. He theref:)re
went on to practice under Udaka Ramaputta, another teacher of yoga (,un-
templation, and achieved similar but not better resuits.
The bodhisatta reported to Udaka his attainment of the final stage or
realm in the practice of jhana, or meditative absorption, the realm of ''11eitl1er
perception nor nonperception." The sage Udaka told him that he \Vas
delighted and that the bodhisatta could proceed no further in tl1e p;1th.
-
Like his former teacher A1ara, Udaka honored the bodhisatta b)' i11viti11g
him to take full charge of all the disciples as their teacher.
Happy friend, we are extremely happy, in that we see st1ch a ve11era-

ble fellow-ascetic as you! The doctrine which ascetic Ran1a knew, }'Otl
know; the doctrine which you know, ascetic Rama knew. As \vas
Rama so you are; as you are, so wa~ Ran1a. Come friend, l1enceforth
you shall lead this company of ascetics.4
At the tir11e of meeting with the bodhisatta, Udaka himself had not att;li1.::d
the realm of neither perception nor nonperception. He told the bodhis; ta 1
that only the ascetic Rama had achieved it. So, when the bodhisatta 1>roved
himself to be the equal of his master, he offered the bodhisatta the lea(~1:r
ship, and practicing under the bodhisatta's guidance, he himself <lttai 11ec.i
the highest jhanic state of neither perception nor no11perception.
The Practice ofAusi-erity

The bodhisatta remained leader of the C0011lllllli{\' for a sh(>rt while. s()()ll it
occurred to him that this highest state of. ;1l)sl1r1)tion was not wl1at he
yearned for. It did not lead to detach111ent, cess;1tio11 of st1fferi11g, t1a1i<_It illi-
ty, intuition, enlighter1ment, and 11ibbana. I-le realized that the higl1esc c1 t1tl1
is co be found within oneself, and he ceased seeki11g excer11al ;1ssist;111L<--. It
3
Tl-11 FllZ\T l.)l\ll)LllZSE_ ()t Tl~I l~Lll)l)l-JA
was the11 tl1ac the bc>dl1isacta decidec.l tl1ac his quest muse be an individual
011e. He settled i11 the Urt1vela forest, 11ear chc 111arket tow11 of Se11ani in the
cou11try of Magadha. ,<\.ltl1ot1gh he was to practice austerities, tl1e spot itself
was attractive, with tl1e flowi11g Ner;1njara l~iver, a ~)Je;1sant sa11dy ford, a
charming forest grove, a11d a village 11earl1y tl1ac would serve as a place to
beg aln1s. l'hen he thought thus:
l,ovely i11deed is this sl1ot of grottil<.l, c.l1;1r11 1 i11g is tl1e fc>rest grove,
pleasa11c is che flc1wi11g rivt:r \Vitl1 s;111tl)' fc>rJs, ;111<l ne;1rl)y is cl1c: village
\\'here I cc>uld ol)tai11 foot!. St1i1.1l)le i11tltt<l is rl1is pl;1ce for sl1iritt1;1J
exercio11 ft>r chose 11c>l)lc '><>Ils \\'l1<> tlt-.irL t<> -.1rive."i
Havi11g heard al1c>t1l Lill' bc>Lll1is;1tc;1's 1c11L111ciatio11, a L1r;1}1111;11);1 11;1111ed

Kondanfia, \vl10 }1;1tl ll1c>11l1csittl SiLltll1;1ttl1;1's fl.1ct1re l1t1dtll1;1l1c>c>J at l1is
birch, ca111e co rl1t: f(>rt:'>t ;1lt>11g \\irl1 fot11 trie11ds 13l1addi)'<l, Vapp<1,
Maha11a111a, a11c.I Ass;1ji t<> 11r;1ctice at1steriries i11 rl1e cc>1111><111y of
Siddhacrha. These fl,c )'<>t111g seekers \\'<>ttltl eve11tt1ally l>tco111e tl1c
Buddha's first disci1>lt:-. ;111d would lisre11 ;1s tl1c 13utitll1a caugl1t tht:
D/Ja1nmacakka Sutta i11 1)eer P;1rk at Isi1)<lt;111;1 (11rese11t-tl<1)' S;1111;1tl1) 11e;1r
Varanasi.
The Buddl1a 111e11tio11s 011ly tv.'o austc1ities tl1;1t l1e 11r;1ccict:J Juri11g tl1;1t
period. 011e was a for111 of breath rete11tic>11 vvl1icl1 l1;1s l'Xtrc111tly pai11f-t1l
pl1ysiological results. ~111e other w;1s al1sti11t11ct frc>111 food so exrre111e tl1;1t
he was reduced to almost a skeleto11. 'f"l1t: 13t1dtll1;1 c.lesc1il1es rl1is J>ractice t<>
tl1e wa11derer, Aggivessa11;1.
I, Aggivessa11a, \Vitl1 111y reetl1 clencl1ccl, \Vitl1 111y ro11gt1e 11rtssec.i

against the p;1l;1te, my 111i11ti sl1c>ultl st1l1<lt1c, <lc>111i11;1te, a11d restr;1i11
111y 111inti. \X'hile I was st1l1tlt1ing, rcstr;1i11i11g, ;111J llo111i11;1ti11g 111y
111i11d, with teerl1 cle11chec.{, cl1e ro11guc l)rc:ssl'<l agai11sr rhe p;1l;1te,
swear l1oure<l fron1 ITI)' arn111ir. It is ;1-. if, Aggi\'l'ss;111;1, a srro11g 111a11,
l1aving taken l10IJ of a v.'eaker n1;111 l1)' l1is l1eatl or sl1ot1l<lers, \\'ot1l<l
st1b<lt1e, rcstr;1i11, ;111(l cic)111i11;1tc l1i111. Nc\crtl1eless, Aggi\css;111;1,
t111slt1ggisl1 e11ergy c;1111e t<> l1c stirretl t111 i11 111c, u11111t1tldleti 111i11c.lft1l-
11ess set LIJ1, yet rny L1otl)' \\';ls rt1rl1ulc111, 11c)t c;1[111e<l, bec;1t1se I \Vas
harassed L1) srrivi11g ;1gai11st tl1;1t \'e1y 1-1;1i11. l~ttt, yet, Aggi\'ess~111;1, tl1.1t
1
p;1i11ful fc:eli11g arisi11g i11 r11c: l1crsistc:tl \\irl1ot1t i1111li11gi11g <>11 Ill)'
mi11d.
It occt1rreti to 111e, Aggive.ss;111;1: Sttl)l)l)SL' 11c>\\' tl1;1t I sl1<>t1lcl 111ttlir;1tc
+
l)Al:KGRl)l INL)
the non-breathing n1editation? So I, Aggivessana, stopped breathing

in and out through the mouth and through the nose. When I,
Aggivessana, had stopped breathi11g, there came to be an exceedingly
loud noise of wind escaping by the auditor}' passages, as there comes
to be an exceedi11gly loud noise from the roaring of a smith's bellows.
Nevertheless 111y energy was strenuous. Such painful sensations did
not affect my n1i11d. It occurred to me again that I should still medi-
tate the non-breathing meditation. So I, Aggivessana, stopped breath-
ing in and out through the mouth and through the nose and through
the ears. And then exceedingly loud winds rent my head. As a strong
man might cleave one's head with a sharp-edged sword. Nevertl1eless
my energy was strenuous. Such painful se11sations did not .tlf~ct my
mind. It occurred to me again that I should still meditate the nc>11-
breathing meditation. So I, Aggivessana, stopped breathing :ii, before,
I came to have very bad headaches, as a strong man might cla;np a tL1r-

ban on one's head with a tight leather strap. Nevertheless 111)'' energy
was strenuous. Such painful sensations did not affect my mind .

It occurred to me again that I should still meditate the n<.Jl1 breath-
ing meditation. So I, Aggivessana, stopped breathing as l)cf<.1re, thl n
very strong winds cut through my stomach, as a skilled cattle bt1tLl1cr
or his apprentice might cut through the stomach with a sharp bt1tch-
er's knife. Nevertheless my energy was strenuous. Such painful sensa-
tions did not affect my mind. It occurred to me again that I should
still meditate the non-breathing n1editatit>n. So I, Aggivessana,
stopped b.reathing as before. Then there came to be a fierce heat in my
body, as twostrong men, having taken hold of a weaker man by his
limbs, might set- fire to him, might make him sizzle t111 over a charcoal
pit. Nevertheless my energy was strenuous and indomitable. My
mindfulness was established and unperturbed. Yet my body was
fatigued and was not c~1lmed as a result of that painful endeavor bei11g
overpowered by exertion, even though such painful sensations did not
at all affect my mind.6
Abstinence .from Food

Then, Agg1vessana, the follo~ing thought occurred to me: I should
tak~ food little by little, a small quantity of the juice of green gram, or
vetch, or lentils, or peas! As I :roGk such a small quantity of solid and
liquid food, my body became extremely emaciated. Just as are the joints
of knot-grasses or bulrushes, even so were the major and minor parts of
I 1ii F11's i I )1scc)L Jl~f o~ THE BL lf)lJHA
11~ 1 t)olly l)\V111g to l;1ck of food. Just as is the camel's hoof, even so were
11)' ~1i1Js fc)r wa11t of food. Just as is a string of beads, even so did my
l1;1ll\l)o11e st.111d ot1t a11d !Jend i11 for lack of food. Just as che rafters of
1 (lil;11)ili;1ted l1all fall tl1is way and that, even so appeared my ribs
, l1rot1gl1 lalk of suste11ance. Just as i11 a deep well may be seen scars sunk
ltl'l) i11 tl1e \\'ater, even S<) did 1ny eyeballs appear deep sunk in their
... >l l~ets IJei11g de\'C)ill of food. Just as a bitter pumpki11, when cue
,.11 ile r;l\V, \\ill by wi11d a11d sun get shriveled and witl1ered, even so
(lit! tl1e ski11 l)f. 1ny l1ead,get shriveled and withered, dt1e co lack of
11ste11;111ce .
.i\11tl I, Aggivess;111a, intending to touch my belly's skin, would
1:-.teJtl seize 111y !Jackbone. When I intended to toucl1 n1y backbone,
'~'ot1IJ seizt 111y belly's skin. So was l that, owing co lack of st1fficient
.>oll, 111y !Jell)''s skin clung co che backbone, and I, on going to pass
.;treca cJr uri11e, would in char very spot stumble and fall dov.'11, for
;111t <)f fooll. An l;1ck <>f. sustenance. To such an extent was the pure cc)lc>r c)f
111)' ski11 i1111);1ire<i owing co lack of food.
1111..11, Aggivess;111a, cl1e following thought occur1eJ t<) n1e:
1
''\. J1;1tst)C.'ver ;1scetics or brahmanas of cl1e past have exnerie11ced acute,
J
1);1i11lt1I, sl1;1r1), a11c.i 1)ierci11g se11s;1ti<)ns, tl1ey must have ex1)erie11ced

tl1c.'111 co s11cl1 a high degree as this a11d 11ot beyond. WJ1;1tsoever
;1~tttics ;111d brahma9as of the future \viii experie11ce acute, pai11ful,
~.l1;1r[), ;1nd piercing sensatio11s they too will experience the111 to such a
I igl1 lll'g1l'e a11d 11cJt beyo11d. Yee by all cl1ese bitter and difficult aus-
' rities I sl1all not attain to excellence, wc)rthy of supre111e knowledge
;; :1c.I i11sight, cra11scending chose of hun1a11 scares. Migl1c rl1ere be
J11other parl1 for e11lighten111e11r!7
The 'fiddle J>atl1

Ha .1g realized the li111itatio11s of 1)r;1ctic111g st1cl1 austericit:s ;111d recalli11g tl1e
pelll1isatt;1
res .: t<l to fir1;1ll1. Hc>V.'l'\'t:r, witl1 a l)0Jy S<> trtttrl)
wea 1.:11ed as his 11c kr1t\V he could 11c>t )'Cl follt)\\' tl1is ~)at 11 ".\'it}1 ;111)' Ll1.111cl
of s .... less. 1-fe rl1erlf()rc bcga11 to t~ike t11<)t1gl1 f()<)d t<> re~torc l1is l1e;1ltl1 .111ll
srrei gtl1. Scti11g tl1is, tl1c five disciples who l1dd l1eer1 ;1tter1di11g l1i111 lef.1 i11
dis:. 11)<>ir11111t:111, l)elievi11g rl1;1t l1l' l1ad gi\'Cil llfJ tl1e 1..111tst i11 ordt:r to rt:rur11
ro.:t life c>f l-<)111forc.
BACKCRC1L INI)
------- . - -- --- ----- --- - - - -------- - ----
- The bodhisatta was resolved to make his final search in complete solitude.
He sat cross-legged under the Bodhi tree on the bank of the river Nerafijara
and made the final effort with the inflexible resolution: ''Though only my
skin, sinews, and bones remain, and my bldod and flesh dry up and with-
er away, yet will I never stir from this seat until I have attained full enlight-
enment. ''8
Soon after applying mindfulness on in- and out-breathing (dndpdnasati),
the bodhisatta entered upo11 and achieved the first meditative absorption,
c- jhana. As he continued his practice he gained the second, third, and
fourth stages. By developing the jhanas he gained perfect one-pointedness
of mind. Thus cleansing his mind of impurities, he directed it to the knowl-
edge ofrecollecting past birrl1s (pubbenivdsdnussatifzd!la). This, indeed, was
the first knowledge, which he realized in the first watch of the night (6:00
P.M. to 10:00 P.M.). Ther1 the bodhisatta directed his mind to the knowledge
of the disappearing and reappearing of beings of varied forms, in good
states of existence and in states of woe, all faring accordirig to their deeds
( cuti-upapattifzd!la). This was the second knowledge, which he realized in the
second watch of the night ( 10:00 P.M. to 2:00 A.M.). He then directed his
mind~ to the knowledge of the destruction of the taints (asavakkhayafuitza)
and perceived:
This is dukkha; this is the 'arising of dukkha' (dukkhasamudaya); this

- ~
is the 'cessation of dukkha' (dukkhanirodha); this is the 'path leading

to the cessation of dukkha' (dukkhanirodhagamini pafipada-').
Likewise, he understood as it really is: These are taints (asava), this is
the 'arising of taints' (asavasamudaya), this is the 'cessation of taints'
(dsavanirodha), this is the 'path leading to the cessation of taints'
(dsavanirodhagdmini pafipada).9
Knowing thus, seeing thus, his mind was liberated from the taints of sense
pleasures (kdmdsava), from the taints of becoming (bhavdsava), and from
the taints of ignorance (avijjasava). His mind was liberated; he realized,
''Rebirth is ended. Fulfilled is the holy life. Done what was to be done.
There is no more of this state again."IO
This was the third knowledge ~trained by him in the last watch of the
night (2:00 A.M. to 6:00 A.M.). Tl1us did Siddhattha Gotama, the bodhisatta,
on the full-moon day of May, at the age of thirty-five, attain supreme enlight-
enment, by comprehending the Four Noble Truths in their fullness. Therein
did he become a Buddha, a fully enlightened or awakened one. I I
7
Bci11g sLtlJjecr t<> l)i1rh, aging, disease, death, s<>rrow, and defilement;
seeing da11g<:r ir1 \vl1;1t is subject to these tl1ings; seeki11g the unborn,
u11agi11g, diseasclcss, deathless, sorrowless, undefi_lcd, sL1pre111c security
fro111 bor1dagc 11ilJlJar1a, I ;1crained it. Knowledge a11d visior1 arose in
111e; u11shakalJlc is 111\' delivcra11ce of mi11d. l"l1is is the last bir rh, now
'
there is 11<l 111<>rt' bcc<>111i11g, 11<> n1ore rebirrh. 12
Af-ter attai11ir1g e11ligl1tc11111c11c, the l)uddha sac f<)r ;1 week ir1 che sarne pos-
ture at chc f<><>t <)t- tl1e l~otil1i tree ex1)erie11ci11g the bliss of deliverance. He
~lJiltt,111pl;1ted de1)c11<.lc11c ;1risi11g, <>r caL1sal genesis (pafilcasamuppad(t).
111e l~ucidl1;1 rl1c11 s11e11c six 111<>re \\'eeks i11 solitary retreat ;it six different
1)l;1ces i11 rl1e vici 11 it y <)f. rl1e l3otil1 i t ree.1-~
Ac cl1e e11d <lf- rl1c se\'e11 \\'teks, he 111ade Lrp l1is mi11d to teach l1is first ser-
r11c)Il co son1e<>11e wl10 \\'OL1ld quickly grasr> it. He co11si<i~red A!ara the
Kalar11a who was lear11ed, clever, wise, a11d J1;tll l(>r 1011g bee11 with little dusr
i11 his eyes. Ho\\'e\er, tl1rough his supernor111al visio11 it beca111c clear to rl1c
-
Bt1ddl1a tl1ac A!ara tl1e Kalama had passed away just seve11 d;1ys l)efore.
rl-l1e11 he thought of tl1e hermit Udaka, SOil of the great sage Rama. But
through his sL1per11orm;1J vision he realized rl1at tl1e hermit Uclaka had die<l
or1ly cl1e evening before.
Finally, he thought of the five energetic ascetics who had acter....ded hin1
duri11g his struggle for er1ligl1ter1n1ent. With l1is st1perr1orn1al vision he
perceived tl1ac tile)' \Vcre residi11g in Deer J>ark at Isipatana, the resort of
seers, 11ear V;1ra11;1si. f 1e then left the bodhimatztJala (vici11ity of tl1e Bodhi
tree) for lsipata11a, i11 tl1c vici11it)' of Vara11asi, to teach his first sermon, tl1e
W/;eel of Dl1a1111l'1a !Jis(rJ11rSl'.
Meeti11g zt1it/J llj>r1kr1

011 tl1c r<)~ld C<) \';lr;l11;1si, 11e;1r the city of Gaya, the Buddha met a wan-
deri11g ;1stetic 11;1111e<.I U1);1k;1. Upaka addressed the Buddha thus: ''Oh
fric11d, yt>ur sc11sts .ire extre111ely clear, and your complexion is pure and
clea11. Fric11d, 011 ;1cc<)L111t of \vhor11 has your renunciation been made?
Wl10 is yotir teacl1er? '' "I'he Buddha replied:
All have I <>vercc>1ne, all do I know,

Fro1n all am I detacl1ed, all have I renou11ced.
Wl1olly al)sorbel{ a1n I i11 che desrrt1ction of craving.
Having ccln11)rcl1e11<.led all by myself. wl1on1 shall I call 01)' teacl1er?
8
BACKGROLIND

No teacher have I. An equal to me there is not.

In the world including gods there is no rival to me.
Indeed an arahant am I in this world. An unsurpassed teacher am I;
Alone am I, the all-enlightened. Cool and appeased am I.
To establish-the wh.eel of Dhamma to the city of Kasi go I.
In this blind world I shall beat the drum of deathlessness. 14
SOCIAL AND PHILOSOPHICAL CONTEXT ()f'' rJ-IE BUDDHA'S LIFETIME
The Bt1ddha taught in northeast India, along the \'alley of the river Ganges,
where Brahrnanism (the early fqrm of today's Hinduism) was the dominant
religion. Brahma11ism taugl1t that escape from transmigration, or the salva-
tion of the soul (atrrzan), could only be attained by the due performance qf

Vedic sacrifices, observances of religious rites, ceremonies, and the offering

of gifts to brahmar:ias (or priests). Society was divided into four castes:
brahmar:ias, lq;atriyas (warriors), vaisyas (cultivators), and sudras (servants).
Caste membership was determined by birth, and occupation and social
standing were fixed very strictly throughout life according to one's caste.
Brahmanism taught the doctrine of kamma in a limited sense, such that the
conditions of one's rebirth depended on sacrificial deeds performed during
one's life.
The primary scriptures of Brahmanism, called the Vedas, are collections
of invocations to deities in the form of hymns and prayers. They were
recited at Vedic sacrificial rirt1als, which brahmar:ias performed with the aim
of increasing wealth a11cf proge11y, defeating enemies, and so on. The philo-
sophical stance of rhc Vedas is nor very clear, but it does seem to support
the notion of a cre~ltor god, k11own as Prajapari. It' is characteristic of all
later forms of Brahmanisr11 a11d Hinduism that the Vedas are held as sacred
and eternal. Over time, the followers of the Vedas composed new treatises,
known as the brdh1nal}as. Together,
,
rhe Vedas and the Brahmar:ias corn-
prised the corpus known as Sruti.
At this time in India there we1e many forest dwellers and sages who were
seeking for spiritual understanding; the conversations chat took place
between such sages and their pupils are recorded in the Upanifuds. The
main teachings of these t~xts were that rhe absolt1te ieality, or Brahman, is
identical to the individual soul, or acn1an. The acman does not realize: that
it is Brahman because it is entangled i11 illusio11 ( rrzdyd). When the atma11

realizes its true identity through medication, it IJecomes free from the
beg; 1ningless cycle of transmigrations and attains salvation.
9
I 1-1~ t-11ls T I )tsl l)L lllSI <. )~ r HL l~L 11 )I )HA
Kapila the Rationalist

Conter11porary to the teacl1ers of the Upanifads was the unique philosopher
Kapila.. His systen1, kr1owr1 as the Sacrkhya systern, was of a startling nature.
Accordir1g to him, truth must be supported by proof in the forn-1 of either
perception or ir1ference. 111ere is Il<) truth without proof. Kapila denied the
theory of the creation of tl1e universe by a beir1g or god. He said that the
empirical universe C()t1sists of r11;111ifcst tl1ir1gs ( vyakta) and ur1manifest
things (avyakt11). l3oth the ma11ifest ;lt1d the u11n1ar1ifest have a cause, but
that cause itself is in(leper1dent a11d t111caused. Kapila t<1t1gl1t the two ft1nda-
mentals of self (purufa) and 11ature (prakrti), or subject and object. All expe-
rience is based 011 the duality of the st1bject and c>bject. Kapila also speaks of
three co11stituc11ts (gu?111s): lightness (sattva), motion (rajas), and heaviness
(tar11as). 1l1ese three are like the co11stituents of a larnp tl1e flame, oil. ar1d
wick. Wher1 tl1e tl1rec gtrt~as are in perfect balar1ce, r1or1e overpowerir1g the
others, tl1e ur1iverse ;lf)l)ears to be static (acet11na) and ceases to become man-
ifest. Wl1er1 tl1ey are 11ot ir1 balar1ce, one overpowers the (>thers, ar1d the uni-
verse becomes dynan1ic (s11cetarJa) a11d becornes n1a11ifest. Kapila mai11tained
that the cause of imbala11ce was suffering, or dukkha.
Non-Brtihmanic

Teachers
The sixth century R.<.:.r'.. in I11dia was a tin1e ren1arkable for its spiritual
unrest, i11tellcctt1;1l tomc11t, a11d changing social con(litio11s. !'here> were
wanderir1g sages (sa1n11?111s) who rejected the traditional Vedic concepts of
sacrificial rituals practi(:ed by bral1n1a1.1as. There were also naked ascetics
(tijivakas) wh(> likewise cc>11dc11111ed traditional Bral1rnanism. Sixty-two
schools of philosl>phy are reputed to have opposed traditio11al .Brahmanism.
In the Buddhist scriptures, frequent reference is made to six contempo-
raries of the Ruddl1a, eacl1 of wl1om was a fou11dcr of a religi<>tts scl1c)ol with
a large f..::>llo\vir1g. l'heir names a11(l tl1e i)artict1lar <loctri11cs tl1ey l1eld are
briefly stated i11 tl1e l~tt(llil1ist texts. iv1l>st <>f. tl1c esser1tial doctrines of these
six schools were rejected l>)' rl1e l3ttlidl1;1. A brief elaboratio11 of these six
philosophical schc)(>ls is therefore illt1r11ir1;1tir1g fc>r an trr1dersta11ding of the
Buddha's ow11 te;1cl1ings.
1. The doctri11e <>f r1on-actio11 (akir1j1zz111da), t;1ugl1t by J>urar.1a Kassap<l,

maintained that tl1e soul was 11ot ~1fTccted in an)' \vay l1y ka1nrna. Neither
unwholesome r1or wholeson1e actior1s l1ave a11y effect (kiriya) on the sot1l.
When a person dies, all the elen1er1 ts of wl1 ich tl1c persor1 is r11ade return to
their original state. Nothing survives after death, 11eitl1er bo(iy 11or soul.
ro
BACKCRC)L INI)
2. The doctrine of fate or destiny (niyativtida), propounded by

Ghosala, was a kind of fatalism or philosophical determinism. He arguM that
no one can do anything or undo anytl1ing. Things happen by themselves; no
one can make them happen. No one can remove unhappiness, nor increase
nor diminish it. One must undergo one's share of experiences of the world.
Makkhali Ghosala belonged to a sect of 11aked ascetics (ace/aka). He taught
that liberation is attained only b) ~)assi11g through all kinds of existences. He
did not believe that there \\'as 'ln; s~Jccial cause either for the misery of human
~eings nor for their delivcra11cc a11J he held thac all beings were helpless
against destiny. Accordi11g to l1in1, dil L)eings, wl1etl1e1 wise or foolish, were
destined to pass through the C)'Clc of rebirth (samsara), and tl1eir misery would
end at the completion of the cycle. No huma11 effort could reduce or length-
en this period. Samsara had a fIXed ter1n through which every being must pass.
3. The doctrine of nihilism (ucchedavtida), expounded by Ajita Kesakambala,

taught that sacrifice and offerings had no effect whatsoever. There was no
such thing as the result or effect of deeds to be enjoyed or suffered by the soul.
There is neither heaven nor hell. Man was made of certain elements, into
which the body dissolved after death. Ajita Kesakambala also held that it was
useless to talk about the next world; both the wise and the ignorant die and
have no future life after death.
4. The doctrine of ''one or.the otl1er'' (11fziiofzavada), preached by Pakudha

Kacciyana, was also a kind of- doct1i11e of' non-action (akiriyavtida).
According to this doctrine, there are scve11 ele111ents that make up a being,
namely: earth, water, fire, air, happiness, L1nhappiness, and soul. Each ele-
ment is independent of the others and they do 11ot affect one another. They
exist independentl)' and they are eternal. Nothing can destroy them. If a
man chops 0ff the head of anotl1er man he does not kill him. The weapon
has simply entered the seven elements. According to Pakudha Kacciyana,
the seven elements are immutable and do not in any way contribute to plea-
sure or pain. The body is ultimately dissolved into these eternal dements.
S. The doctrine of skepticism (vikkhepavada) was a subtle philosophy

caught by Safijaya Belaputta. Safijaya Belaputta argued, ''Were someone to
ask me if there is a heaven, if I felt there was I would say 'yes.' But if I felc
there was no heaven, then I would say 'no.' If I am asked whether human
beings are created, whether man ha.~ to suffer che result of his actions, good
or bad, and whether the soul Iives on after death, I say nay to all because I
I I
THI FIRST I )I\( 'Ol IRSE ()~ THE l~Lll )()HA
do not t~ink they exist.'' Sanjaya Belaputta always declined to give cate-
gorical answers to problems facing the human mind.
6. The doctrine of restraint of four precepts (catuyarnasaJ?1varavada) was

preached by Nigar:irhanathaputca, who was also known as Mahavira. This
is the 011ly one of the six schools which still surviv~s today. In India and
elsewhere it is the religious tradition known as Jainism. Mahavira, the
founder, or according to Jain tradition, the last prophet of the present
world cycle, seems to l1ave been slightly older tha11 the I~uddha. He taught
ethical doctrines sin1ilar to chose of the ascetic J>arasvanach, his predecessor
by abot1t 250 years. Jains believe chat the soul has co u11dergo rebirth
because of the bad kamma incurred in the past life and the prese11t life.
Mahavira prescribed five moral precepts in terms of four restraints
(catuyamasam1Jara): ( 1) 11c)t to kill; (2) not co steal; (3) 11ot co cell lies; a11d
(4) not to own property and to observe celibacy. He said that by observi11g
the precepts one prevents bad kamr11a. Accordi11g co Jains, however, Jai11ism
is not only an ethical systen1, but also a philosophy based on the d()Ctri11e
of many possibilities (al1ekantavada).
Ti IE Bul)i)I-1A's D11Ai\1tv1A
l"herein, bhikkl1u, when those recluses a11d brah1ni11s wh<l are

eter11aliscs proclain1 on fot1r grounds the self and cl1e world to
be eternal that is only the feeling of those who do r1ot know
.. nd do nor see; that is only ri1e agitatio11 and vacillatio11 of
those who are imn1ersed i11 craving.
Bral11najala S11tta, Digha Nikaya, 1.13
l"he teachings of the Buddl1a were frequently sai<i to be agair1st the grain
(patisota~fl;dmi) of the practices and beliefs current in his time. Tl1e truth tl1at
the Buddha realized whe11 he attained enlightcnmc11t u11der the Bodhi tree
did not correspond to the tenets of Brahma11isrn. 111 fact, the Buddha waged
a11 energetic can1paig11 agai11sc the Vedic practice (>f ~111in1al sacrifice, tcacl1i11g
i11stead the value of life and the t,~;1efit elf cultivati11g lovi11g-ki11d11ess :111d
Ctlmpassion tc)\Vard ~111 livi11g bei11gs. At tl1c sa1r1e ti1nc, the Bu<idha did 11oc
discover the trt1tl1 tl1rot1gh tl1e teachi11gs ()f ,111j' clf. l1is contcmi1oraries wl10
rejected Brahn1anism, includi11g the six 111<)'>t (lr(lt11i11e11t of these \\'110 ;1re
described above. Rather, the I~t1c.idl1a lc)okcc.! <lirlctly i11to the nature <Jf rcal-
iry and discoveref dep<:ndent origir1ation (pa.ticc,1sa1n11ppadt1).
I 2.
13ACKC.~RC)L IND
--------
In the words of the Venerable Assaji, spoken to Upatissa:
Whatever f1om a cause proceeds, thereof

The Tathagata has explained the cause,
Its cessation too he has explained.
This i~ the teaching of the suprerne sage.15
The Law ofKamma

The Buddha taught that there is an order to the physical worlc.i, that there is
an order to the movements and actions of the starry bodies, an order by
which seasons come and go in regular seque11ce, an order by which seeds
grow into trees a11d trees yield fruits and fruits give seed. 'l'hese are niyamas,
or universal laws, whicl1 produce an orderly sequence in nature. Similarly,
there is a moral order i11 huma!1 society. According to the Bt1ddha, this moral
order is not maintained b)' a creator God, but is rather maintai11ed by tl1e
kammaniydma, or the law of actio11. If wholeson1e actions (kusalakamrna)
are performed, the moral order is good. If the moral order is bad it is because
unwhol'esome actions (akusalakamma) have been u11dertaken. This is the
universal law of kamma and vipdka; kamma refers to an individual's actions
and vipaka refers to their result. According to tl1is la\v, the effect of the deed
is bound to follow tl1e deed, as st1rely as night follows day.
The Buddha's d()Ctrine c)f cat1s;1I rcl;1tio11s does 11ot postulate merely a si11-
gle cause for any give11 event. J{~1rhe1, ~)henomena or events are the product
of a multiplicity ()f cat1ses or conc.iitions. T~ere is no si11gle cause nor any first
cause which conditio11s a particular effect. 'T'l1e question of the cause of a first
eve11t docs not arise l)ecause a first eve11t ca11 11evcr be discovered.
In Buddhism, pr()Vi11g the primary origi11 of thi11gs is not e1npl1asized. l'hc
l~t1ddha discouraged 11hilosopl1ical spect1latio11s, st1ch as tl1ose rhat co11cern
the origin of the world, the existence of a creator God, lift ;1fccr death, and so
on, since they have 11orl1ing to do with ovc1coming h-t1m<111 st1fferi11g. He gave
the analogy of bci11g \V<)t1nded by an arro\v. 'I'he first tl1i11g one must do is to
remove the arrc)W. If i11sre~1c.i one i11sists upon investig<1ti11g wl10 s:10~ the arrow,
from whence it can1c, what ki11d of arrow it was, a11d so 011, one n1igl1t die
before ever fi11ding tl1c a11swers to st1ch c.1t1estio11s. Therefore, tl1e Buddl1a
empl1asized tl1at rather tl1a11 e11gaging in t1scless s~1ecularions, 011e 111ust t111der-
stand the truth of st1fferi11g (dukkha) a11d tl1e ~1~1tl1 f()J. <>vcrco111ing st1fleri11g.
Although the Buc.ldl1~1 ~1ccc~1tcd tl1;1t tl1erc is <l lll()r~1l (1rder [() the t111ivcrsc
and that this orJer j, l1~1scc.l U~1011 sl1e llllivcrS~lj l<lW of <lcti<lll, lie did n<1t
accept that tl1is 111<1r;1I or<ler i11 a11y \vay c:11c~1ilcc.i tl1e caste systc111 of
I 111 I lll..1., r r )I\( ( )l Ill..'-~ ()~ Tl~I BLll )()l~A
l~ral1111a1)ic f 1i11llL1is1n. Rather, the BL1ddha de11c.,unced all claims to superi-

ority <)n the grot111ds t1f l1irth and all social llisrinctions among humans. He
Jecl~treli char ka111111a, rl1e actio11s of the individual, deter111ines one's supe-
ric>riry <)r i11feric>rit)' 11e11ce, cl1e Bt1ddha did not bar women or persons
l1or11 ir1t() tl1e ll)Wer castes fro111 e.1try into the sangha.
'l'he Bt1dlll1:t also rejc.ctell rl1e notion, central to the Brahmar:iic tradition,
that there exisccc.i a11 everl;tscir1g self, sottl, or arrnan. 1 le asked l1is disciples to
investigate the SL1bsranciality of the self. through vipassana n1edicarion. Under
the scrLttiny of the ol1servatio11al J1<>wers of vi1..,assa11a, one can discover for
oneself chat cl1e self whicl1 one cl1i11ks is f..,e1n1ar1er1t is, in reality, made up of
five physical a11cl n1ental aggregates. and that :111 rl1ese aggregates are contir1-
uot1sly changi11g. Norl1i11g remains rl1e sa1ne for eve11 two consecutive
111oments. Everytl1ir1g is in111ern1ane11t. rhe l~t1lldl1a s:1id that whatever is
impermanent (anicca) is st1ffering (dukkha); ;1r1c.l he s~1id char whate\'er is
irnpermanent is also devoid l>f.self.l)f essence (arzatta). 'J(.., reach rl1is profouncl
realization he said:
All compounded things (dhammas) are impermanent an<l suffering.

All things, whether Ct)mpounded or uncompoL1nded.
Are free fro1n self or essence; when one sees this wicl1 \\'isdom,
One becon1es dispassio11ate cowarc.i c.lukkha.
This is the path of ptirification.16
Like Kapila, the Buddha also stressed chat reality mt1st rest on proof, that

thinking must be based on r:itionalism, and that there is suffering in the world.
He rejected the notion of a God ar1d a c;od-created Ltni,erse as having no log-
ical or factual basis. He rejected the extre1nes c)f i11c.lt1lge11ce i11 sense objects and
self-mortification, saying that these lead t<.) materialistic views of eternalism, on
the one hand, and nihilism on the other. 1he l~t1c.ldha advocated following the
Middle Path free from these excren1es.
The teaching of the Buddha can be summed tip i11 the word ''Dhamma."
This word means ''truth," or ''that which really is." Dhamma also means law,
the law that exists in a human being's heart and mind; it is the principle of righ-
teousness existing not only in human beings bur in the universe as well. All the
universe is a revelation of Dhamma. The Buddha appealed to human beings to
be noble, pure, and charitable, not in order to please any supreme deity but to
be true to the highest truth within themselves. If one lives in accordance with
Dhamma one may well escape suffering and realize nibbana. However, until
one is able to still the storm in one's hea1 l and extend compassion co all beings,
BACKCROLIND
----~------------ ---- . --~-- --- - --------
one will not be abie to take even the first step toward this end.
The Buddha taught that all human beings have the potential to becomt.
a buddha if they so aspire. Buddhas arise as a result of their own efforts and
practice over many lifetimes, and not on account of some external power.
A buddha is a man par excellence (purisuttama), living the life of a human
being outwardly, but inwardly l1e is transcendent.
Even as, monks, a lotus born and grown in muddy water stands above,
unsmeared by the muddy water, so is the Tathagata, monks, born and
grown up in the world, yet lives lord over the world without coming
together with the world.17
According to the Buddha, human bei11gs are masters of their O\vr1 destir1y.
He encouraged his disciples to seek refuge within themselves, to find the
way to free themselves from bondage to suffering through effort ar1d intel-
ligence. He showed the way to liberation, 11ibbana.
Oneself is one's own refuge; what other reft1ge can there be?
Purity and impurity depend on 1.)neself. No one can purify another. 18
The Position of Humarzs

In his first sermon, the Buddha taught the Middle Path, the path free from
the rwo extremes of. sensual indulgence and self-mortification, or excessive
ascetic practices (which he himself had followed before discovering the
Middle Path). 'fhe Middle Pach is a practical approach to freeing oneself
from suffering and attaining enlightenment. The Buddha attributed all his
realizations, attainments, and achieven1ents to human er1deavor and prac-
tice. The Budc.ihadhamma is applicable to all classes of n1en and women:
kings and peasants, high castes and low castes, ba11kers ar1tl beggars, holy
men and robbers, with no distinction between them. 'fhe path is open to
all chose who are ready to understand and follow the Dhamma. The
Buddha emphasized that he was only a guide co show ?eople the pacl1 (n1ag-
gaddta) and not one who could give salvation ( rr1okk/Jadata) . .He spoke of
individual responsibility. He encouraged a11d stimulated each perso11 to
develop himself or herself to work out their own emancipation, to liberate
themselves from bonds through their ow11 perso11:il effort and intelligence.
You should work for your own liberation,

for the Tathagatas only show the way. I<;
15
11 ii. l-11\-., T [ )l\t t )l 11\\I t )f THI [~l 11 )( >HA
lreedo111 of Religion
'I'l1e Rt1ddha advised his followers to rcs1)ect all ocl1er religious orders.
Upali, for i11st;111cc, a prc>mi11e11t, wealchy householder a11d well-known lay
liisci1)le of Nig;11~~l1;1 Nathaputta, beca111e convi11ced tl1ac the teachings (>f
che l)t1tldl1a were rigl1c ;1nd tl1ose of his teacl1er v..r1011g. He begged the
l)uddl1;1 to acce1)t l1i111 as one c>f his lay disci11les ( ttjJasaka). However, the
l)uddl1a asked ~ti111 co rcC(>11sider a11d 11ot re> b(' r<1sl1, for, ''co11si<leri11g carc-
ft1lly is g(>od for wtll-k11own rnen like yot1. '' Wl1e11 LJ1.,ali reiterated his
liesire, the l)t1ddha accepted l1i1n bt1r ret}tlested cl1;1t he cc>11cii1ue re> respect
;111d suppt>rt his ol(l religiot1s te;1chers as l1e was ac:ct1st(>I11cd tl> doing. 20
Gener;1l Sil1;1 ofVesali was also ;1 tlisciple of Niga1.1~l1;1 Narl1ar1t1tca, wl10,
;1ftcr Ct>nversi11g \vitl1 che Buddl1a, tlcclarl'd l1i111sell. l1is fc>lll1\ver. l)t1t tl1t~
Bt1ddha acct11tecl hin1 011ly 011 the u11derscandi11g tl1at Siha would conti11-
t1e to su pp<> rt his torn1er teacl1er. '1~11 is a rri t t1cle (>f. the l)t1litl l1a 111;1tle Sil1a
resr.,ect tl1e Buddha even nic>re.2 1 'I'l1e Bt1dtiha s11e.sse<.{ coler;111c~. tiis te;1cl1-
ings \Vere i11tc11ded t<> L>c a t111ityi11g, 11ot divisive, fc>1ce i11 sc>cicry.
7/;e J>atlJ {if J>urifiratio11

Scrictly speaki11g, Bt1ddhisn1 is 11ot a religio11 iri 1l1e st11se c<>r11111011ly ttndcr-
stood. le is a path of purificatio11 011en to all \Vitl1c>t1t discri111i11;1tio11. The
Buddl1a is 11eitl1er savior, i>ropl1et, nor g<>d. ()11c 11t'eci ll<)t ;1cccpt cl1t
Buddha personally to attai11 salvation. l'he [)t1<.idh;1 tat1gl1t out of C(>mpas-
sio11 coward all living bei11gs. tfc c;1t1ght that greed, a11ger, a11ti delt1sio11 are
latent mental dispositions in the human rnind. Because of g1eed, anger, and
delusion, one ca11not discrin1inate right from wro11g a11d co11sequencly <>ne
u11dertakes unv..:holesorne actions. If the n1i11d is pure, i11fluenced by lov-
ing-kind11ess (metta), compassio11 (karuna), and wisd(>In (paiifzd), one's
actions also become pure a11d wholeso111e.
Not to do any evil, to cultivate good,

to purify one's mind. This is the teachi11g of ~he buddhas.22
The Buddha stressed tl1at the first chi11g we n1ust do is seek light to dispel
the darkness of ignorance, which fuels tl1e fire of greed and hatred.
What is laughter, what is joy, wl1en the world is ~vt>r burning?

Shtouded by darkness would you i1ot seek tlie light? 23
16
2
THE FIRST DISCOURSE OF THE BUDDHA:
TURNING THE WHEEi~ OF 0HAMMA
Declared is che straight path, walk along, fairer nor;

Let each admonish himself, and by stages reach nibbana.
Theragathti, v. 63 7
I. THUS HAVE I HEARD: At one time the Blessed One was staying at
Deer Park, in lsipatana (the Sage's Resort) near Varanasi.
The Twr Extremes

II. Then the Buddha addressed the five ascetics: ''O bhikkhus, one who
has gone forth from worldly life should not indulge in these two
extremes. What are the two? There is indulgence in desirable sense
objects, which is Jow, vulgar, worldly, ignoble, unworthy, and
unprofitable and there is devotion to self-mortification, which is
painful, unworthy, and unprofitable.
The Middle Path

III. ''O bhikkhus, avoiding both these extremes, the 'fathagata has real-
ized the Middle Path. It produces visio11, it produces knowledge, it
leads to calm, to higher knowledge, to enlightenment, to nibba11a.
IV. ''And what is that Middle Path, 0 bhikkhus, that the Tathagaca has
realized? It is simply the Noble Eightfold Path, namely: Right under-
standing, right thought;, right speech, right action, right livelihood,
right effort, right awareness, and right concentration. This is the
Noble Eightfold Path realized by the Tathagata. It produces vision,
it produces knowledge, it leads to calm, to higher knowledge, to
enlightenment, to nibbana.
The Fou1 Noble Truths

V ''This, 0 bhikkhus, is the Noble Truth of sufferi11g (d1,kkl1a): Birth is
suffering, aging is suffering, sickness is suffering, death is suffering,
2
THi: ~1R.sT r)1sc()L1R.si: ()f fHi: BL1r)DHA
---- - --- - - - ------------
sorrow, and lamentatio11, pain, grief, and despair are suffering,24
association with the unloved or unpleasant condition is suffering,
separation from the beloved or pleasant condition is suffering, not
to get what one wants is suffering. In brief, tl1e five aggregates of
attachment are suffering.
VI. ''This, 0 bhikkhus, is the Noble Truth of the origin of suffering: It
is craving which produces rebirth, bound up with pleasure and
greed. Ir fi11ds delight in rhis and char, in other words, craving for
sense pleasures, craving for existence or becon1ing and craving for
r1onexisrence or self-annihilation.
Vil. '''fhis, 0 bhikkhus, is the Noble lruth of the cessation of suffering:

It is the complete cessation of suffering; giving up, renouncing,
relinquishing, detaching from cravi11g.
VIII. ''This, 0 bhikkhus, is the Noble Truth of the path le;1di11g to rhe ces-
satior1 of sufferir1g. It is simply the Noble Eightfold l>ath, namely:
Right understanding, right thought, right speech, right acrior1, right
livelihood, right effort, right awareness, a11d right concentratio11.
Twelve Aspects o/Wisdom

IX. ''This is the Noble Truth of sufferir1g. Thus, 0 bhikkl1us, concern-
ing things not heard before, there arose in me the vision, the knowl-
edge, the wisdon1, the insight, and the light.
X. ''Tl1is is the Noble Truth of suffering, which should be fully under-

stood. Thus, 0 bhikkhus, concerning things not heard before, there
arose in me the vision, the knowledge, the wisdom, the insight, and
rhe light.
XI. ''l'his is cl1L Nol1le Truth of suffering, which has been understood.
Thus, O bhikkhus, concerning things not heard before, there arose in
rne the vision, the kr1owledge, the wisdon1, the insight, and the light.
XII. ''l'his is the Noble Truth of the Origin of Suffering. Thus, 0
l1hikkht1s, concerning things not 11eard before, there arose in me the
vision, the k11owledge, rhe wisdon1, the insight, and the light.
XIII. ''This is che Noble lruth of the origir1 of sufferir1g, whicl1 should be
abandoned. Thus, 0 bl1ikkhus, cor1cernir1g things not heard by me
before, there arose i11 me the vision, the kr1owledge, che wisdorn, the
insight, and tl1e light.
18
THt ftRSI DISCOURSE OF THE BlJDDHA: TLIRNING THE WHEEL OF DHAMMA
XIV. "This is the Noble Truth of the origin of suffering, which has been
abandoned. Thus, 0 bhikkhus, concerning things not heard before,
there arose in me the vision, the knowledge, the wisdom, the insight,
and .the light.
XV. ''This is the Noble Truth of the cessation of suffering. Thus, 0
bhikkhus, concerning things not heard before, there arose in me
the vision, the knowledge, the wisdom, the insight, and the light.
XVI. ''This is the Noble Truth of the cessation of suffering, which should
be realized. Thus, 0 bhikkhus, concerning things not heard before,
there arose in me the vision, the knowledge, the wisdom, the insight,
and the light.
XVII. ''This is the Noble Truth of the cessation of sufferirtg, which has
been realized. Thus, 0 bhikkhus, concerning thing~ not heard
before, there arose in me the vision, the knowledge, the wisdom, the
insight, and the light.
XVIII. "This is the Noble Truth of the path leading to the cessation of suffer-
ing. Thus, 0 bhikkhus, concerning things not heard before, there
the light.
XIX. ''This is the Noble Truth of the path leading to the cessation of suf-
fering, which should be developed. Thus, 0 bhikkhus, concerning
things not heard before, there arose in me the vision, the knowledge,
the wisdom, the insight, and tpe light.
XX. ''This is the Noble Truth of the path leading to the cessation of suf-
fering, which has been developed. Thus, 0 bhikkhus, concerning
the wisdom, the insight, and the light.
Enlightenment Not. Yet Claimed

XXI. ''fu lorig, 0 bhik.khus, as my vision of true knowledge was not fully
clear in these three aspects and in these twelve ways regarding the
Four Noble Truths, I did not claim to have realized the perfect
enlightenment that is supreme in the world with its devas, maras
and brahmas, in this world with its recluses and-brahmanas,

with its
princes and men.
T1E FIRST DISCOLIRSE 01- THI: BLIL>L >HA
Enlightenment Claimed
XXII. ''But when, 0 bhikkhus, my vision of true knowledge was fully clear
ir:i these three aspects and in these twelve ways regarding the Four
Noble Truths, then I clain1ed to have realized the perfect enlighten-
n1enr that is suprerne in the world with its devas, maras and brahmas,
ir1 this world with its recluses ar1d brahmai:ias, with its princes and
r11er1.
XXIII. ''Indeed, a vision of true knowledge arose in rne thus: My mir1d's

deliverance is unassailable. 'fl1is is tl1e last bircl1. Now there is no more
becon1iI1g."
Reflections orz the Ser1rzon

XXIV. Thtts tl1e Bt1ddha spoke. 'fhe group of five bl1ikkhus was glad ar1d
acclaimed his words. While this doctriI1e was being expounded, there
arose iI1 tl1e Venerable Kor1dafifia the pure, ir11I11aculate vision of the
truth aI1d he realized, ''Wl1atsoever is st1bject to causatior1 is also sub-
. . ,,
JeCt to cessat10I1.
XXV. Wl1eI1 the Buddl1a expounded the discourse, thus putting into
motioI1 the turr1ing of tl1e wheel of Dhamina, rl1e devas of the earth
exclaimed: ''This excelleI1r wheel of Dhan1n1a, whicl1 could nor be
exp()Ltnded by any ascetic, l1rahmaI)a, <.ieva, mara or brahma in this
world, has beeI1 ()Ut iI1to I11otioI1 by the Blessed 011e at Deer Park,
i11 Isi1)araI1;1, near Var;1nasi."
I 1earing rl1is, rl1e dev;1s Catt1111al1arajika, 'f;1vaciI~1sa, YaI11a, Tussita,
Ni I11 I11aI1a r;1 r i, });1r;1I1i111111 i r;1v;1sa\1 a t i, a11d che b rah n1as of
B ral1111a 11aris;1 j j;1, I~ r;1!1111a11u rc)l1 i ta, M;1 l1;1bra11111a, l)a ri ttabha,
A J) ();l Ill ;11.1,1I)I1;1, A I) l1.1ss;1 ra' I)ari rt as Li l) 11 ;1, A p pan1 aI)aS u b ha'
St1l1l1;1ki1)1.1;1, \'L)1;11)1)l1.1l:1, A\'il1;1, 1\tappa, Su<.i;1ssa, St1<.iassi, and
Ak;111i~!l1;-1 ;1lsc> r.1isl'Li tl1L -.;1111e j(>yous Cr)'
11111s, .ll tl1;1t \'l'I.)' 1111>111<.11t, ;1l tl1at very i11sta11t, tl1is jc>yous cry
cxtc11<.ILll .1s t:?1 .1s tl1c l)r;1l1111.i rc;1l111. 111esc ccI1 tl1ot1sa11d world sys-
lL'111s t!t1;1kc<.I, l<>lll'l'L'LI, .111Li crc111l1lc<.I \'iole11tly. A radiar1t ligl1t, sur-
11;1ssi11g tl1L r;1Lli;111cc c)f. tl1c <.lcvas a11pcare<.i i11 tl1e world.
XXVI. 111c11 till' l~t1<.IJl1;1 s;1iLi, ''frie11ds, KoI~da11iia l1as i11dee<.i t1nderstoc>d.
1:ril.'11<.I..;, Kc>11<.l;1nna }1;1s i11Jecd 1111<.iL1src>c1d." 'J'hercfc>re, cl1e
\ 1c11cr;1l1lc Kc>11d;111ii;1 \\';ls 11;1111cLI Aiinasi Ko11daiiii;1 ''Ko11daiifi;1
\\ l1cJ 1111<.ll'rst;111Lls. ''
20
3
THE MIDDLE WAY
This is the only way,

There is none other for the purity of vision;
Do you follow this path?
This is the bewilderment of the evil one (Mara).
Dhammapada, v.274
Nibbana is no lie (no state unreal)

For it is known as truth by the noble ones.
But since they realize that truth
Desireless they pass away.
Suttaniptita, v.143
I. Thus have I heard At one time the Blessed One was staying at Deer
Park in lsipatana (the Sage's Resort) near Varanasi.
EVERY DISCOURSE IN THE SUTTA Pil~AKA

is introduced with the words ''Thus
-
have I heard." These were the introductory words that the Venerable Ananda
uttered when questioned by the Venerable Mahakassapa at the First Council,
which convened three months after the Buddha passed away. It was at this
meeting of the sangha that the Buddha's teachings were first compiled
-
togetl1er to be recited and committed to memory. The Venerable Ananda was
the first cousin of the Buddha and his personal attendant for twenty-five
years. For the first twenty years of his enlightenment, the Buddha had no
-
permanent attendant. This raises the question of how Ananda heard those
discourses which the Buddha delivered over the course of the first twenty
years of his teaching.
-
It is said that when the Buddha asked Ananda to become his attendant,
-
Ananda replied that he would accept the position only if the Blessed One
agreed co the following eight conditions:
1. The Buddha must not give him any robes for being his attendant.
2. He should not be given good food received by the Buddha.
3. He should nor be asked co scay in the 'Buddha's fragrant chamber,
but have a separate cell for himself.
21
f I ii I II\\ l I )ISL( )L IR\F ( )f T Hf f~L II)( )HA
4. l 1e sl1ot1ld 11oc l->e inclt1ded if anyone invited the Buddha co visit

l1is l1<>t1se ;111d parcake of food.
5. I It' 111t1sc l1;1ve cl1e right to accept any invitatio11 for the Buddha
;111J, <)11ce l1e h;1d accepted the invitation, the Buddha must go to
rl1,1c ir1vited f)lace.
(>. l 1e sl1<>t1l<.l l)e permitted, at any time, to bring co the Buddha a
<.iev<)tee co111ing fron1 a far-off place.
7. l-1e sl1ot1ld l>e fJerr11irred to place before the Buddha any problem

~lS SO<>Il ~lS It ;1rose.
8. 111e l)ull<.ll1a shc)uld re1)eat to hin1 ar1y discourse delivered in his

;1l>se11ce.
-
111e l)t1<.ldl1;1 ;1cCt'(>ted tl1ese cor1diti<>r1s bef<)re Anar1tia agreed to be his
-
atte11d;1r1t. Accortlir1g to the first f<>ur conditior1s, Ananda did not want any
111;1teri:1l bc11efic frc>r11 l1is relationship to the Bt1ddha. l'he last condition is
\'ery ir1111<>1t;111r \Vith res1>ecc to the words, ''l'l1us have I heard," because the
Buddha ;1J\\';1ys r<.'(Je;1ted C<> Ar1ar1da a11y discourse delivered i11 his absence.
l'l1ereforc, the Ve11eral1le Ananda knew all the discot1rses and teachings deliv-
ered L1y cl1e Bt1ddha durir1g l1is forty-five years of teaching. After the passing
aw<l)' c>f. tl1e l)t1<.i<.ll1:1, tl1e cl1ief disciple, M:1l1akassa1>a, decided to hold a
cot1r1cil f(>r tl1e future safety and purity of the Buddha's teachings. He asked
- --
Ar1;1r1d;1: '' ~rie11<l, Ar1a11da, wl1en was che wheel of Dhamrna delivered? By
who111 w;1s ic <.ielivered a11d 011 whose accou11t? And how was it delivered?''
-
111e11 Ar1ar1<.l;1 ;1r1swerc<l, ''Ver1erable Mahakassapa, tl1us have I heard: At one
ri111e tl1e Blesse<.l Or1e was srayir1g at Deer J>ark, i11 Isipatana (the Sage's
Resort) 11ear Vara11;1si. 1he11 tl1e Buddha addressed the five ascetics ... ''
As i11 t)tl1er st1ttas, there is 110 definite dare to this discourse. Precise
cl1ro11c)logical data as t<> the year and the r11onth in which each sutta was
delivered W<)t1ld l1ave L1eer1 very helpful. Bur chronological details would be
a11 e11ct1111br;1r1ce t<> C<)I11rnirrir1g the sutras to men1ory and to their recita-
tit>r1. Nevercl1<.less, it is ge11erally believed that the Buddha raught this dis-
cot1rse or1 cl1e full-1noo11 day of July, two months after his e11lightenment.
Meeting l'-1itl1 tl1e l,lve Ascetics

l'l1e five ascetics wl10 h;1d atre11detf rhe bodhisarta while he undertook aus-
te1icy practices Ko11d;1nna, Bhaddiya, Vappa, Mahanama, ar1d Assaji-
lived i11 [)eer l)ark, i11 Isipatana (tl1e Sage's Resort). Whe11 the bodhisatta
ch;111ged his r11etl1od of practice from austerities to the Middle Path, the five
ascetics had ab;1r1<.lo11ed him, believi11g h~ had given up cl1e qt1est. When
22
THE. MIDDLE. WAY
they subsequently saw the Buddha, they decided not to pay him due respect
as they had misconstrued his discontinuance of rigid ascetic practices. They
made an agreement saying, ''Friends, the ascetic Gotama is corning. He is lux-
urious. He has given up striving and has turned to a life of abundance. He
should not be greeted and waited upon. His bowl and robe should not be
taken. Nevertheless, a seat should be prepared. If he wishes, let him sit
down." However, as the Buddha continued to draw nea1-, his august per-
sonality was such that they were compelled to receive him with due honor.
. '
One came forward and took his bowl and robe, another prepared a seat,
and yet another brought water for his feet. Nevertheless, they still addressed
him by name and called him friend (iivuso) Gotama, a form of address
applied generally to juniors and equals.
Then the Buddha said to them:
Do not, 0 bhikkhus, address the Tathagata by name or by the title

'friend.' An exalted one, 0 bhikkhus, is the Tathagata. A fully enlight-
. I
ened one is he. Give ear, 0 bhikkhus! Deathlessness (amata) has been
attained. I shall instruct and teach the Dhamma. If you act according
to my instructions, you will before long realize, attaining in this life
itself, by your own intuitive wisdom, that supreme consummation of
the holy life. for the sake of which sons of noble families rightly leave
home for homelessness. 25
The five ascetics replied:
By that demeanor of yours, friend Gotama, by that discipline. by

those painful austerities, you did not attain to any superhuman spe-
cific knowledge and insight worthy of a noble one. How will you,
when you have become luxurious,. have given up striving, and have
turned to a life of abundance, gain any such superhuman knowledge
and insight worthy of a noble one?
The Buddha explained to them:
The Tathagata, 0 bhikkhus, is not luxurious, 11as not given up striving

and has not turned to a life of abundance. An exalted one is the Tarhagara.
A fully enlightened one is he. Give ear, 0 bhikkhus! Deathlessness has
been attained. I shall instruct and teach the Dhamma.26
THF FIRST [)ISC()LIRSF OF THE 13Lll"JL)HA
- - - --

A second ci111e the prejudiced ascetics expressed their disappointment in the

same 111a1111er. A second time the Buddha reassured them of his attainment
of e11lighren111e11r. When the adamant ascetics refused to believe him and
expressed their view for the third rime, the Buddha questioned them thus,
''Do y<)tl k11<>w, 0 bhikkhus, of an occasion when I ever spoke to you thus
before?'' ''Nay, i11deed, Lord!'' they replied. The Buddha repeated for the
third ci111e cl1at l1e l1ad gai11ed enligl1tenment and that they also could real-
ize cl1e 1)ha111ma if they would act accordi11g to his instructions. At that
poi11c tl1ey were co11vinced and sac in silence to listen .
..
Avc)IL)INC~ iHi-: Two Ex11{EMES
II. Jl1e11 t!Jt' B11ddha addressed the five ascetics: ''O bhikkl1us, one who
l1as gorie fortl1 .fro1r1 worldly life should not indulge in these two
e.xt1t'111es. Wl1t1t are the two? 7'here is indulgence in desirable sense
objets, zi;/1icl1 is low, vulgar, worldly, igrzoble, unwortl1y, and
1111prfJjitable and tl1ere is devotion to sclf r1101tification, which is
pairifz1I, 11r1zvorthy. and unprofitable.''
l~ccat1se it \Vas co111mo11ly l)elieved cl1at haf)piness or ultimate truth could

011ly l1e ex11erie11ced rl1rough extreme asceticism a11d sclf'-n1orcificacio11, the
bodl1isatt<1 h;1ll also l1racticed variot1s forms of at1stericies for six years l>efore
realizi11g tl1ei1 ft1tiliry. 'I'he five ascetics firn1ly l1elieved th<1t without strict
;1sceticis111 lil1er;1tio11 was not possible. So the Bt1ddl1a elal>orated for them
rl1e tW<l extre111es co be avoided.
111e first cxtre111e \Vas rl1e i11dt1lge11ce in desiraL1le sc11se objects (sight,
St)Llllll, s111ell, casrc, <111d tol1cl1). 'Iaki11g delight in st1ch clbjeccs of pleasure
;111J e11j<>yi11g tl1e111 rlJ1ysic;1lly and 111entally i11cli11es <>ne to f1l!rStle these
sc11sl10L1s {Jlcas11res. 'l'l1e Bt1ddha experie11ced this extren1e as a {Jrince before
re1101111ci11g sc11s11al pleasures. 'J'l1e other extre1ne, involving atten1pts to
i11flict t<)rct1re 011 011eself, col1ld res11lt only in sufferi11g. llejecci11g food a11d
t:lorl1i11g, wl1ich one is 11orn1ally lised to, is a form of self-cortl1re and is 1
t1111..,roflt;1ble. 'I'l1e re11t111ciacio11 <>f the W<lrldly life does nc>t necessarily
Illl'<lll ;111 <llttrigl1t clc11ial of life's s11pports.
[)eligl1ti11g i11 sc11sl!Ol1s l..,leasl1res a11d relisl1ing rhen1 is to be regarded as
;1 \'l1lg;1r {Jr;1ctice. Sucl1 e11joy111ents lead to the forr11acio11 of l1asc desirl-'5-
\vl1icl1 are cli11gi11g ar1d lt1stfl1l a11d tend co develop co11ceit a11d avarice.
()11e \vho enj<>ys sens11ous objects L1elieves chat 110 one else is ir1 a position
re~ e11joy Sltch i)leasl1re and does 11ot wisl1 to sl1are the good fortune with
THE Mll)()Lf WAY
---- - - --- . - - - - - - - . --- - --- . - .. - - -- -
- - -- - --
. -- - .
others, or else is overcome by thoughts of jealousy. Indulgence in sensual

pleasures does not suit those who have gone forth from the worldly life.
This kind of practice is the concern of so-called 'urban civilization,' which
condones sensuous pleasures as the highest attributes of bliss; the greater
the pleasures, the greater the happiness. Paradoxically~ insecurity, ill will,
violence, and war are the end results of such an attitude.
There were people who held the belief that supreme bliss could be
attained here and now (di.tfhadhammanibbanavada). According to them,
sensual pleasure was blissful and should be enjoyed in this very life; it would
be foolish to let precious moments of enjoyment pass, waiting for bliss in a
future life that does not exist. 27
The Buddha taught that indulgence in sensuous pleasures is not the prac-
tice of enlightened, noble ones (ariyas). Noble ones who live the worldly life
do not have attachment to sense objects. For example, in the first stage of
an enlightened noble life, the sotapanna, or stream winner, has not yet
overcome lust and passions. Incipient perceptions of rhe agreeableness of
carnal pleasures (sukhasafifia) still linger. Nevertheless, the stream-winner
will not feel the need to indulge in worldly pleasures.
Indulgence in sensual pleasures does nor lead to one's own welfare or well-
being. In general, accumulating wealth, establishing a family life, striving for
success and prosperity in this world seem to mean working for one's own
welfare. But, in reality, attaining such wC:rldly success and prosperity does
not amount co one's ultimate well-being. Striving for one's own welfare may
condition greater or lesser well-being in the cycle of rebirths in samsdra. Bue
this is not the way co overcome old age, disease and death, nor to free one-
self from all forms of suffering. In order co eradicate suffering, one must
practice morality (sila), concentration (samadhi), and wisdom (pafifia) to
which the pursuit of sensual pleasures proves a hi11drance.
Worldlings and Sensual Pleasures

The sutta says that one who has gone forth from the worldly life should not
indulge in sensuous pleasures. The question, therefore, arises whether ordi-
nary worldlings may freely enjoy sensual pleasures. Since the gratification
of sense desires is a human preoccupation, the Buddha emphasized the
Middle Pach. When one lives amidst worldly surroundings, one can enjoy
sensual pleasures with wisdom; but one should avoid habits which lead co
craving. The householder whose practice is serious should cry co rein in and
diminish his or her desires and observe the third moral precept co abstain
from misuse of the senses (kamesumicchdcdra).
25
l 111 I 111.." T I )1'-t t )l 111.. '-I <. )f r111 l\t 11 )I >111\
------~------+--------------------
,)e/fA1ortifira tion
l)t:v<.>ti<.>11 t<> self-n1<.)rtificati<>r1 is tl1e 0111)<>site c>f se11st1~1I i11<lulge11ce. It is a
for111 <>f self".t<>rtt1rc J>racticc<.I t111<.lcr tl1e l)elicf tl1;1t lt1xt11iot1s livi11g causes
attacl1111e11t t<> sc11st1al i>le~1st1rcs ;111d tl1at <>11ly extre111e at1steriry could lead to
etcrr1;1I J)C;lCC. 5l>II1C llf tl1c J1ractiC<:S 11c:rfl>r111etf l>y <:Xtrc:1n<: ascetics i11cluded
lle11ial of f<>od ;111<.I clochi11g; i11111"lersic)n i11 frigid w~1ter <it11ing cold weather;
a11d i11 l1<)t weatl1er, ex11l>st1re tl> cl1c: st111 <>r sta11<.ii11g 11e;1r l)t1r11i11g fires. "fhey
did 11ot t1se l1c:lls l)tlt, i11stea<.I, t<>ok rest 11ake<l <>n tl1e grot111<.I. Son1e resc>rted
to lyi11g 011 11rick1y tl1or11s cc>vered <>11ly l>y a sl1eet. Otl1ers rcn1ained i11 a sit-
ci11g posture for d;1ys, <>r ke11t t<.> sca11tli11g <>11ly, 11eicl1er lyi11g 11or sitti11g d<.l\\'ll.
Son1e co1111>lecely ct1t off food a11d water. 'I'here were sc>111e wl1c> ate 011 alcer-
11ace days 011ly, while l1tl1trs ate 011ce in CW<) or rl1rc:<: days. Some eve11
abstained fro111 fc>oll and water for flfree11 days <>11 e11d. Sc>111e reduced their
nieal to just 011c l1a11dful c>f fol>d, \vhile <>tl1ers lived 011 11<>tl1i11g l>tJt grec11
vegetables a11d grass or ever1 cc>w excre1ne11t. l'he Bt1ddl1a ;1lsl> 11r;1ctice<.f in
this way dt1ring l1is six-year strt1ggle l>efore discoveri11g tl1e J\1iddle P;1tl1.
l~he 11ractice of self-r11ortificatic1r1 was regarded l>y nakc:d ascetics as being
a holy pursuit. Son1e naked ascetics ar the time of. Buddl1a believed tl1at cl1ey
-
had to experience 11hysical sufferi11g as the result of previous unwl1oleson1e
actions. They pracciced self-mortification i11 order to exl1aust the results of
unwholesome actions of past existences. Whe11 the Budtf l1a asked them if
they knew how many unwholesome acts they l1ad comn1itred in previous
existences, they were unable to reply. The Buddha, knowing that as long as
they adhered to chat belief tl1ey would 11c>t be receptive t<> the Noble
Eightfold Pach, then explained to chem that it was unwortl1y and fruitless co
practice self-mc)rtificacion, neither knowing if nlisdeeds had been committed,
nor how many of them had been expiated.
Throughout India this kind of practice was widely respected as a noble
t1ndertaking long before the Buddha's enlighter1ment. It wa& universally
-
held that only. self-mortification could lead to higher knowledge, and the
group of five monks also held strongly to this belief. T'herefore, the Buddha
began his first discourse denouncing self-morcificacio11 as coo rigid. Only
subsequently did he expound the doctrine of the Nol1le Eightfold IJath.
Arduous Effort
There are some teachers whose interpretation of self-mortification contra-
dicts the teaching of the Budclha. According co them, the earnest, tireless
effort required for meditation amounts to self-mortification. The Buddha
advised strenuous, unrelenting exertion and strong determination co attain
Ti-if M11 )l)Lf. Ww
- -- ,,
the goal of concentration and insight. His own ~'\'ds were ''I.et only skin,
sinew, and bone remain. Let the flesh and hlt)o<.l '(_fry t111. f \viii I1<)t stop or rest
until I achieve the goal I strive for."28 However, such -strong <.fetermination
only follows rigorous, unrelenting practice and effort. The t1lrin1at<.' ain1 is 11ot
immediately required of the beginner. Anything \\hicl1 pro111<)tcs mor~1liry,
concentration, and wisdt1m is beneficial to one's practice.
There are some who hold that contempl<1tior1 on pleasant feelings cor1-
stitutes indulgence in sensuous pleasure, \vhile conternplation on p<1i11t.ul
feelings constitutes self-mortification. According to chern, one shottl<.i J\'<.)id
both of the~e feelings and only conternplate on eqt1animity, tl1<1t is, 11eithLr
pleasant n~r unpleasant feelings. However, in the M11IJasatip11fflJa11a S'11tt11,
the Buddha states explicitly that pleasant feeling, painf11I feeling, arid
neutral feeling are all objects for contemplation. This is reiterated i11
many of the other discourses. Therefore, any feeling that is experienced,
whether pleasant, painful, or neutral sho11ld be <.)bserved as an object of
meditation.
There are also some who say that while engaged in meditation one n1ay
repeatedly change postures in order to avoid feelings of fatigue, pain,
numbness, excessive heat, or other bodily discomforts. They argue that if
one persists in meditating despite unpleasant sensations, one is actually
engaged in the practice of self-mortification. But meditation is an oppor-
tunity to practice patience and self-control (khanti, sa'!lvara) despite the
natural processes of such bodily discomforts. One-pointedness of mir1d, or
concentration (ekaggatJ), can be achieved onlY. through patiently bearing
and quietly watchir1g bodily discomfort. Continually changing postures is
not conducive to the development of concentration.
The Buddha said:
A bhikkhu meditates after making a firm resolution: ''Unclinging, I

will remain seated, without changing the crossed-legged position until
the taints (iisavas) have been removed." Stich a bhikkhu is an adorn-
ment to the Gosinga monastery in the forest of sala trees, a valuable
asset to the forest abode. 29
Any practitioner who is not concerned with promotin~s1la, samadhi, and

pafifia, but believes instead that suffering itself leads to nibbana, can be con-
sider<;d to be practicing a form of self-mortification. Alcernatively, arduous
effort, no matter how painful and distres~ing, if undertaken for the devel-
opment of sila, samadhi, and pafifia, does not consticute self-mortification.
27
111e l~ulllll1a l1i111self, after av(Jiding the two extremes (tcJo lax or too rigid)
~111ll by fcJllowi11g tl1e NolJle Eigl1cfold J>ach, attained buddhahood and
g~1i11eli e11ligl1 re11111e11 c.
1/Je l~e11ejitj of!)'i/11, SarnadlJi, and i)afziia

111 cl1e A11<e;11ttt1rt1 Nikaya, cl1e Bt1ddl1a enurneraced the following consolations
for tl 11( le1taki 11g t l1c ct1l ti va rio11 of sila, sa111adhi, a11d pafi fia.
'I'hus, 0 Kal~1111as, wicl1 a n1i11d freeli fi-0111 greed a11d ill will, unde-
filed, a11d purified, the 11oble discir,le is already during this lifetime
assured of a fourfold co11solatio11:
''If there is a11other world, a11d a fruit and result of wholesome and
unwholeson1e actions, then it t11ay be chat, at the dissolution of the
body, after death, I shall be reborn in a happy realm, a heavenly
world.'' Of this first consolation he is assured.
''And if tl1ere is 110 ocl1er world, 110 fruit and rest1lt of wh()lesome
a11d unwholesorne actions, the11 I live at least here, in this world, an
untroubled and l1~1~1r'Y life, free from hate and ill will.'' Of this second
consolation he is assured.
''And if evil thi11gs befall evil-doers, but I do not harbor ill will
against anyone, how ca11 I, who an1 doing no evil, n1eet with evil
things?'' Of this third co11solation he is assured.
''And if no evil things befall the evil-doer, then I know myself in
both ways pure." Of this fourth consolatio11 lie is assured.30
VISION AND KNOWI~El)GE
ill. 0 bhikk/Jits, avoiding both these extrernes, tlJe Tathagata has real-
ized the Middle Path. it produces vision, it prod11ces knowledge, it
leads to calm, to higher knowledge, to enlightenment, to nibbana.
With these words the Buddha informed the group of five monks that
after relinquishing the two extremes he discovered the Middle Path, by
1nea11s of which he attained enlightenment. The Buddha's resun1ption of
meals after fruitless years of ci 1 1Stericy practice enabled him to engage in
meditation exercise on mindfulness breathing an integral part of the
Middle Pach. As the food was taken in moderacio11 in a mindful manner,
it was not regarded as enjoyment of.sensuous pleasures, nor was it self-
mortification.
THE MIDDLE WAY
One who has practiced mindfulness meditation will not indulge in

these two extremes. He or she will enjoy sensual objects with mindfulness;
this is an example of the Middle Way without craving. Thus, there will be
no indulgence in the two extremes. Furthermore, the necessary material
requisites such as food, clothing, shelter, and medicine should be used
-
with either reflective contemplation or mindfulness meditation. Whenever
sense objects come into contact with mind and body, one should be aware
of them as they are. Each and every moment should be noted, and one
should be aware of sense objects objectively. Because of noting and objec-
tive awareness, no craving or aversion can arise. If one avoids the two
extremes, one stands in the Middle Path.
Whenever sensuous objects (sight, sound, smell, taste, and touch) come
into contact with the senses, seeing, hearing, smelling, tasting, and touching
arise at the sense bases as the sense consciousnesses respectively. At that time,
one should develop awareness in each precise moment until one realizes that
objects arise and pass away and do not remain for even two consecutive
-
moments. If at the moment of contact with one of the sense objects greed,
anger, or delusion arises, these are also observed as transient objects of
awareness. This realization is called insight, or ''understanding things as
they really ~.re." By cultivating this understanding, one comes to have a dif-
ferent relationship to food, clothing, and other sense objects. One will tend
not to indulge in these for the purpose of mere sensual stimulation and
enjoyment. Instead, the awareness of every object appearing at the ~ense
doors will be recognized and understood according to its true nature: as
impermanent (anicca), suffering (dukkha), and insubstantial (anatta). Then
vision will arise and the wisdom-eye will open, leading to the realization of
nibbana. Wl1en the Noble Eightfold Path is developed, the true nature of
mind and matter becomes discernable. The fact of their constantly arising
becomes clearly evident, as does the recognition that all these mental and
material phenomena are subject to impermanence, suffering, and quies-
cence. In the final stage of the cultivation of the Noble Eightfold Path, the
nature of nibbana {the quiescence of all physical and mental formations
and the cessation of suffering in the roynds of existence) is clearly and fully
realized for oneself
Leading to Calmness (Upasamd)

The Noble Eightfold Path leads to the calming of mental defilements
(kilesas). For one who develops the Middle Path through awareness, con-
centration, and wisdom, mental defilements become reduced and
I 111 I Ill\ T I )f\(. <.. )l fll\I <..)I T f-11 l~L 11 >I )f'!A
cal111ed. tf<..>wever, 011ly whe11 one l1as 111astered the practice ca11 mental
Jeflle1ne11cs be eradicate(l gratlL1ally according to tl1e stage of insight one
l1as att~1i11ed.
l11dt1lge11ce ir1se11se1)le~1st1res or in self-mortiftcf!tic>11 does not lead to the
cal111i11g of deflle111l'I1ts, l)tlt i11stead excites 111ore a11d 111ore of these. Once
011e l1as givc11 i11 t<> cl1e ce1111)t;1tio11 c>f se11st1;1l e11joy111e11t the craving for
rei)eatell gratiflc;1tio11 results. Co111i11g i11t<> p(>ssession of one pleasing

object leads t<> tl1e desire t<> 1)ossess 111c>re a11d rnore. 011e craving brings
111ore ;111t~ r11ore cravi11gs. 111ere is 11<..> e11d t<> it.
Si111il;1rly, tl1e pr;1ctice <..>f. self-111ortifl.catic>11 dc>es 11ot lead to calmness.
()11e's \'italicy is lc>\11erell as a rest1lc of extrerne ;1t1stcrity, a11d this keeps the men-
1
tal deflle111e11ts te1111)orarily i11 cl1eck. As when <>11e is seriously ill or suffering
frorn 1)ai11fi.1l diseases, 1)l1ysical stre11gth is at a low ebb and defilements
remain ten1porarily dor1n;1nt. 011ce 11or1nal l1ealtl1 a11d stre11gcl1 is regai11ed,
desires f(>r se11su;1l gr;1cificatio11 111;1ke tl1eir appeara11ce as usual. While self-
n1orcificatio11 is practiced, gross defilen1e11ts remain su1>pressed bt1t subtle
defileme11ts conti11ue to arise. l;or example, tl1e defile111ent of wrong view of
self, co11ceit, and eve11 wrong belief in how co practice rnay still have occasion

to arise.
Higher Knowledge (Abl1ifziid)

The Middle I>ach also leads to higher knowledge (abhifzna). l~he wisdom
chat realizes che Four N<>ble 'frutl1s is i11 this context called the bigher
k11owledge. Whe11 one develo1Js insight and practices tl1e Middle Path, one
t111derstands and realizes tl1rough one's ow11 exi)erience the nature of the
1nc11tal a11d n1aterial \Vorld as imperr11a11e11t, sufferi11g, and devoid of self.
011e sees cl1ac all cl1e aggregates <>f clinging are dt1kkha, the suffering char
one experie11ces ;1s a bei11g, a11 ''I," or self. Due to this profound penetra-
tio11 into tl1e true 11att1re c>f tl1e r11ental and 111ateri;1l world, cl1ere occurs in
che praccicio11er a se11se of detacl1n1e11t coward all cravings and the realiza-
tio11 cl1at cravi11g itself is the origi11 of dukkha. If 011e comprehends the
Noble 'lruch of dukkha by observi11g any of the five aggregates of clinging,
there will ;1rise si111ulta11eously the realizacio11 of the three remai11ing truths
as well. 'fhis is called knowing the Four Noble lruths by 111eans of i11sighc,
or vipassa11a. As vipassana insight atcai11s full maturity, nibba11a is realized
and tl1e factors of the Middle Pach become the noble path, in chat the
Four Noble 'fruths are k11own as they should be known by rneans of the
Noble Eigl1cfold Pacl1. Therefore, it is said chat the Middle Path gives rise
to higher knowledge.
THE Mll)[)LE WAY
--------------- -- ~---- -- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
-
Enlightenment (Sambodha)
The Middle Path leads to enlighte11ment (sambodha) through penetrative

insight (vipassanti). In Pali there is no distinction drawn between the higher
knowledge (abhififia) and enlightenment (sambodha). Ho\vever, abhififia
denotes vipassana insight and the noble path insight (ariyamaggandrza)
which have not yet been developed (knowledge of the path of the enlight-
ened or noble ones o,f which there are four stages: sotdpanna, sakaddgami,
andgdmi, and arahant). Sambodha means penetrative insight through
.vhich one sees the Four Noble Truths clearly. One who has never observed
mental and material objects morr1ent to morner1t cannot see thi11gs clearly
because ignorance (avijja} obscures them. But when the noble path is devel-
oped an.d ignorance has been uprooted, one can se~ or realize things as they
really are. This understanding or v.risdon1 is called enlightenment, the real-
ization of the Four Noble Truths.
Nibbdna
The Middle Path ultimately leads to tl1e attain1nent of nibbana. For one
who penetrates the Four Noble Truths with arahant path insight and also
realizes nibbana with arahant fruit (phala) i11sight, it is the attainment of
the end of suffering. Nibbana is the final goal for those who want to be free
from all forms of worldly sufferings. Therefore, it was mentioned as a sepa-
rate attainment by the Buddha. If the Noble Eightfold Path is developed,
the Four Noble Truths will be penetrated and nibbana realized by arah~nt-

magga and phala. When the arahant passes away, it is called attainment of
parinibbana, or final liberation. At that moment, all physical and mental
-
phenome11a cease and no further existence in the cycle of rebirth becon1es
possible. This is the cessation of all suffering.
Thus, one who is not i'nvolved in sense pleasures and self-mortification
and practices the Middle Pach that opens vision, develops knowledge, calms
mental defilements, produces higher knowledge, and achieves enlighten-
ment, finally attaining the state of nibbana.
31
4
THE NOBLE EIGHTFOLD PATH
The best of paths is the Eightfold Path.

The best of truths are t~.e four sayings.
Nonattachment is the best of states.
The best of bipeds is the seeing one.
Dhammapada, v. 213
IV. And wh(Jt is that Middle Pat~, 0 bhikkhus, that the Tathiigata has
realized? It is simply the Noble Eightfold Path, namely: Right
understanding, right thought, right speech, right action, right liveli-
hood, right effort, 1ight mindfolness, and right concentration. This
is the Noble Eightfold Path realized by the Tathiigata. It produces
vision, it produces knowledge, it leads to calm, to higher knowledge,
to enlightenment, to nibbiina.
THE BUDDHA'S TEACHINGS are essentially a ''path of purification.'' The

Buddha never intended that people should worship him or accept his
teachings on faith alone. He wanted all beings to be free from the bondage
of greed, anger, and delusion. Liberation in Buddhism means freedom from
all kinds of mental impurities. In order to accomplish this, one must devel-
op the Noble Eightfold Path. During his forty-five years as a fully enlight-
ened one, the Buddha imparted the Dhamma according to individual
capacities, aptitudes, and depths of understanding. But the essence of all
the discourses recorded in Buddhist scriptures are to be found in the teach-
ings on the Noble Eightfold Path, which are:
1. right understanding (sammti diffhi)

2. righc choughc (sammti sankappa)
3. righc speech (sammti vtica)
4. right action (sammti kammanta)
S. righc livelihood (sammti tijiva)
6. right effort (sammti vtiyti'!'a)
7. righc mindfulness (sammti sati)
8. right concencration (sammti samtidhi)
33
3
f 111 I 11z, I I )i<.,C "l)l 11\ ',f ()f Tl-lE l~l 11 >I >I-IA
1ht: <lrder i11 which the tactors of the Noble Eigl1tfold Path are listed is
11ot rl> l)e t111(lt:1st(>()t1 ~is st1ccessiye stages (>f practice. They are all to be
t1cvelo1)ed tl>getl1er. Since cacl1 factor is li11ked to the others, and all are
r11ut11~1ll~' st1p1)(>1rive, tl1e l)<lth (_onstitutes a 111ethod of training which
111t1st l)e i)r<1cricecl <ls a whole in order to be effective. The above ordering
l>f rl1e eigl1t f:1ct<>rs l>f rl1e Nohle f,ightfold l)ath are arranged in order of
teacl1i11gs (de.1ar1akk11rr:a). ()rl1cr pedagogic approaches list the eight fac-
tors ir1 <)t(1er ()f <1risi11g (uppattikka111a); in order of eradicating
(p11J1ar11zl<k11r1111); ir1 l>rllt:r 11f. praltice (p1I.fipattikka111a); a11d according to
real rns ( b/1tJ1r1 ikk1111111).
As Wt.' l1ave 'ieer1, tl1c N<>l>lc t~igl1tf(>lc1 J>arh c<>rn11rises tl1ree aspects:
r11oral co11(lt1ct l>r se]f:..ciiscipli11e (sil<1), C<)ncentration or 1nental discipline
(s<1r11adl1i), a11cl wis(l<)t11 (1><1r111a). It \vill l1e l1(l11f11l to 11nderstand them and
l'Xf1lai11 rher11 acco1tii11g to tl1ese tl11ec ;1-,1Jects. IZight speech, right action,
<1nd righr livelil1<><.lIl, a11d right livtliho,)tl, <>tlf~tlisci1Jli11c is established. 'l'he nleditation
gr<>t111 is 111~1Je t111 of. rigl1t efi{>rc, rigl1t n1i11dfulr1css, and right conce11tration.
iv1e11ral disci11li11e is est<thlished by dcvelopi11g tl1ese. Right u11derstanding
;111(1 rigl1t th<>t1gl1c ;1re asr)ects <>f" \visdc>nl. l)evelopi11g tl1ese leads one to
i11sigl1t (vi1)ass;111a) <1r1,l tra11sce11<.lent;1l k11cJwledge (mat,gaphaUzfzd':la), in other
vvc>r<ls, wistlc>111 ~1c1t ;1i r1 i r1g t(> l1otl1 1n t111d<111e and supra1n 11ndane levels. Each
<>f rhcst: f:1crors <>f. tl1c p;1th \viii l1e dt:scrihed ir1 brief, empl1asizing their prac-
ric;1I as1Jcccs. 111c c>icler l>f 1J1cst11t;1tion will follc)w the order c>f the three train-
i11gs: si\;1, sa111adl1i, a11d iJafi1-1<1.
\Xfl1;1t, () l>l1ikkl1t1s, is rigl1t s~1cech? It is avoidance of telling lies,

;1\'Cli<.l;111cc <>f. sl;111tit'ri11g, <lV<>itf;111ce <)f h~1tef.t1l or abusive la11guage,
~l\"<>itl;111cL' <>f. t.ri\'<.>l<>tts t;1lk c>r t1scless ch;1ttt:r. Bhikkl1t1s, a\'oidance of
rl1t.st' t(>tir tir1\\l1c>les<>r11e s11eecl1es is called rigl1t speech.JI
1\ccc>r<.li11g t<> tl1is clt:fl11iti(>11, <>Ilt: sl1<>ul(l 1111de1srand rl1at religious conver-
.s;1tic>11 <>r trt1tl1f-t1l11t:ss ;1l<>11c is r1<.>t rigl1t s~>eccl1. Absti11e11ce from unwhole-
sc>r11t '>J>L'tcl1 is tl1t t:SSL'tlCt' <>f rigl1t SfJCc<:h. It sl1<>t1ld be noted that whe11
<>CL;1si<)IJ ,1risL's tc>r 1>11t I<> SJ>l';tk t:1lst.I)' tl> sl~111(1er, tl> use ab11sive lang11age,
<>r tl1;1tt<1 lt'-.tlL'"I> il \>11'- rl''>t1;1i11.., <>11t..,elf fr<>111 d<)i11g SC), one is establish-
i11g tl1L 11r;1LtiLL' 1>l. rigl11 'J>l'l'<.11. l11dt:t:t.l, ()JlC vv'ho rcfrair1s from false speech
\\ill tr1g.1g'- <>111> i11 'f)l'1(l1 \\ l1icl1 is trt1thft1l, gentle, ;111<i l)c:1eficial and will
THE NOBLE E1CHTFOLl1 PATH
--------------------------------- ---------- -
promote harmony. The essential point is that one who abstains from
wrong speech establishes the moral foundation of the path.
Furthermore, whenever one sees, hears, smells, touches, or thinks, if by
awareness and insight one realizes that sense objects are impermanent, no
defilements can arise that would cause the utterance of wrong speech. In
this way, through mindfulness meditation, one can temporarily prevent
the arising of defilements or kilesas. However: if one develops insight and
attains the transcendental noble path with realization of nibbana, then
wrong speech will have been dispelled completely. As. one progressively
attains the stages of sainthood, one gradually uproots mental defilements
which are the cause of wrong speech. It is said that the first stage of saint-
hood (sotiipanna) dispels false speech or telling lies; the third stage of saint-
hood (aniigiimi) dispels slandering and abusive language; the fourth and
final stage of sainthood (arahant) dispels frivolous talk or useless chatter.
Here speech is to be understood as any vocal action, whether following
from deliberate mental intention or, if 'unthinking,' as a manifestation of
a basic state of mind. If the mind is impure, one speaks wrongly; if it is
pure, one speaks rightly. Therefore, purity of mind is very important.
Two: RIGHT ACTION (SAMMA-l<AMMANTA)
What, 0 bhikkhus, is right action? It is the avoidance of killing, the

avoidance of stealing, and the avoidance of sexual misconduct or
misuse of the senses. 0 bhikkhus, avoid::1nce of these three physical
evils is called right action.32
Here too restraint underlies right action, whether such actions are deliber-
ate or arise unthinkingly from mental ill-discipline. When, for instance,
occasion arises for one to commit killing, stealing, and sexual misconduct,
if one restrains oneself from doing them, one is establishing the practice of
right action. Here physical action or kamma is based on mental volition
(cetan4). These unwholesome deed~ are committed only when the mind is
overwhelmed with greed,-anger, or delusion. Whenever these mental states
arise in the mind, one should observe them objectively until they have dis-
appeared or insight develops (seeing them as impermanent, productive of
suffering, or insubstantial). This insight leads co the attainment of tran-
scendental wisdom (arzya magga). With the development of insigl1t medi-
tation, mental defilements gradually fall away by themselves. The Middle
Path is ultimately transcended by a state of consciousness in which all
35
It II I llZ\T I )l\l:l)lllZ'\I l)~ lH~ l~lll >I >HA
<lctio11s ;1re Sf)<)11c;111cc)t1sl)' right 111ir1ded. However, at the beginning, one

111t1sc <)l)scrve cl1c 1)rcce1)ts as a mc)ral discipline and as the basis for what is
l<> C<)llll'.
-
'J~l I l{l~l.: l\I< ;111 LIVEl.IHOOD (SAMMA-AJIVA)
. \Vhat, () l)hikkl1t1s, is rigl1t livelihc)c)d? 111 this teaching, the noble dis-
cii)lt: <lV<)ilis <l \\'r<)11g way of living, gets his means of living by a right
\V<ly. 'I'his is c;1llell rigl1c livelil1oc>d.33
\Vl1e11<>11e's111l';111s c>t.li\'i11g is l)<lseJ 011 com1nitti11g the three unwholesome

11l1~sic;1I ;1cci<>11s ;111li tl1e fi.>111 t111wl1c>lesome vocal actions, it is called wrong
livl'lih<><>li. It' <>11c rcstrai11s f'rc>111 t111\\ holesorne actions and speech for one's
1
111t:a11s <>f. livi11g, it is calleci rigl1t livclil1cJod.

Wrc)11g livclil1<><)11stic11tes ear11ing 011e's livi11g through unlawful or
1111\vhc>lcs<>111l' 111<.;111s, st1Ll1 ;1s killing ar1d steali11g. However, if one cornn1its
cl1e cl1rec t1nwl1olesome ;1ctio11s ;111d che four unwholesome types of speech
<)Utside che co11 cext of car11i11g or1e's livelihood, tl1en these constitute wrong
;1ction (1t1it,IJ11k11rr111111r1t11) ;111li wror1g speech (micchavdca) respectively, but

11<>C \vror1g livelil1oc>d. l:or i11sta11ce, killing flies, mosquitoes, insects, snakes,
<>r a11 er1e111y thr<>t1gl1 ;1r1ger ;1r1101111cs co a11 t111wholesorne act .or deed, a
wrc>ng actic)Jl, lJut 11ot wro11g livelihood. Killing animals such :ls poultry,
11igs, g<><tts, or fisl1 for rl1e rnarkec or for one's own table definitely consti-
ct1res wr<>r1g livelil1ood.
111 ge11er;1I, ste;1li11g is 111ociv;1ted L)y ecor1omic reasons and is therefore
calll'd wrc>11g livclihc>c>d. If, l1owever, cl1e 111otivation for an action is drive11
by reve11ge <>r habit, the11 it is considered wrong action a11d not wrong
livelil1c><><i. l)r<>stitt1tio11 a11d rhe selli11g of ar1ns, meat, poisons, and intoxi-
c;1nts are all rc:garde<.i as \Vro11g livelihood. Lying is wrong speech when not
111c>tivatl'd l)y ecc>Jl<>mic re;1sons. However, when falsehood is employed in
<l C<>n1mcrcial tra11sactior1 or in a court of law to promote business, it
an1<>t1ncs to wro11g livelil1c>c>d.

111 tl1e l)egi1111ing. one should practice right livelihood by observing the
m<>ral precepts. As one practices insight meditation positive action and
right livelihc><)d is established effortlessly.
Before one <.fevelops insight, or the noble path, it is impossible to establish
chcse n1c>ral 1)rinciples; therefore, one should take the basic five precepts
(r1c>t to kill, sceal, lie, commit adt1ltery, or take intoxicants) as the founda-
rio11 of practice. Monks ar1d nuns who practice vipassana should purify
. THE NOBLE EtGHTFOL[) PATH
- - - ----- - - - - ~-
their respective precepts before practice is begun, since development of

concentration and wisdom is dependent on moral purity.
FOUR: RIGHT EFFORT (SAMMA-VAYAMA)
What, 0 bhikkhus, is right effort? Here in this teaching, 0 bhikkhus,

a bhikkhu rouses his mind to avoid evil, unwholesome things not yet
arisen, to overcome evil, unwholesome things aleady arisen, to arouse
wholesome things not yet arisen, to maintain wholesome things
already arisen and not to let chem disappear but to bring ther.1 to
growth, to maturity and to the full perfection of develop(Tlent. And he
makes effort, puts forth his energy, exerts his Jnind and strives. This is
called right effort.34
According to this teaching there are four kinds of effort:
1. There is the effort to prevent any evil or unwholesome things chat have not
yet arisen. One should make an effort not to do any unwholesome actions.
Whenever sense objects are present, sense awareness generally arises at that
moment followed by craving or aversion. If one makes an effort to develop
moment to moment awareness by watching them objectively, one will be
able to prevent the arising of unwholesome things or any craving or aversion.
2. There is the effort to dispel any evil or unwholesome things that have
already arisen. There are three types of mental defilements: ( 1) the defile-
ments that arise by committing evil physical and vocal actions ( vitikkanza-
kilesa), such as killing, stealing, or lying; (2) the defilements that arise in
the mind if something conditioned (pariyutrhana-kilesa), such as desire or
1
anger, arises; and (3) the arising of latent dispositions, which are the result
of previ0us unwholesome actions (anusaya-kilesa).
Of these three kinds of defilements, physical a11d vocal accio11s can be
dispelled by practicing the moral precepts. Defile111e11cs arising in the
mind can also be prevented with the practice of co11cencrarion. Latent dis-
positions may be calmed momentarily by i11sight meditacio11. They c;111 be
rooted out gradually only as one attains the stages of sai11cl1ood. le is with
the aim of completely uprooting unwholesome late11t dispositions chat
vipassana medication is practiced. One muse exert great effort in n1edica-
cion in order to attain the noble path which eradicates chose defilements
latent in the mind as subtle dispositions.
37
l H~ ~Ill~ T 01SCOLIRSE OF THE BLIDDHA

3. rhere is the effort co bring about pure or wholesome things which have
not yet arisen. One should make an effort to accomplish any wholesome
actions which have not yet been accomplished, such as acts of generosity
(dana), 1noralicy (sila), medication (bhtivana), loving-1.ci11dness (mettr1}, com-
passion (karuna), and so on. These efforts will cultivate mental purification
and the accumulation of wholesome thoughts. In short, effort should be
nlade co introduce any type of wholesome thing which has not yet arisen.
011e should especially make greac effort co develop 'a\vareness, concentra-
cio11, and wisdom, so chat one may reach che path of the noble ones.
4. l'here is efforc co maincain the pure or wholesome states ihat have already
ariser1, and to develop chem to maturity and perfection. One should make
ar1 effort to cor1cinue any rneritorious deeds or wholesome things toward
\vl1icl1 there is alreac.iy a disposition. One should develop objective and pre-
cise aware11ess at che moment of seeing, hearing, touching, feeling, thinking,
l)r k11owing ser1se objeccs. At chat mome11t, one is not only preventing impu-
rities l)r t111wl1oleson1e thoughts from arising, but also endeavoring to eradicate
im1)t1rities l>r t111wholesome thoughts, speech, or action. This is perfecting
i11sigl1r rl1at has already arise11. Thus, every time one is aware of each phe-
lll)llte11<>11 as a 111e<litatio11 practice, one is developing the path of right effon.
fI\'l:: ll1c111 MINL)FULNI<:ss (SAMMA-SATI)

What, 0 bhikkhus, is right nii11<lfulness? Here, in this teaching, a
bl1ikkhu dwells contemplating the body (material qualities) in the
body, arde11tly, clearly comprehending, and mindfully, removing
covetot1s11ess a11J grief in the world (of corporeality); he dwells con-
templating the feeli11g i11 the feelings; he dwells contemplating the
co11sciou~ness i11 the C<l11scious11ess; he dwells contemplating the
nie11t4l objects i11 the 111e11tal objects, ardent, clearly comprehending,
and mi11dful. ren1ovi11g <..:ovetot1sness a11d grief in the world (of the
five aggregate~). l"his is c;tlled rigl1t n1i11dfulness.35
'fhe path <)f rigl1r 111i11<1f11l11ess is com1)rised of tl1e fot1r foundations of

1ni11dfulness n1i11Jf.t1l11ess of b<l<.ly, tl:cli11g, n1i11d, a11d objects of tl1e mind.
Contcmplatio11 of the l)ody (k11_y1iJ1r1pa.fs1111d) is carried out in either of two
ways: l)y conte1111)lacio11 ()(} res1)iration, a11apana (observing the in-b1each
a11<.l the ot1t-brt:;1rh) or Cl>11rcmpl~1tion on the thirty-two IJarts of thf'body,
k(>!!l1;1sa (observi11g the stparate i)arcs of the body as head hair, body hair,
.,) 8
.. - . - . ---- --- ~----~-- -- -- -
nails, teeth, skin, and so on). According to tradition, one can achieve medi-
tative absorption (appanii-jhiina) by these two types of meditation. Through
observation of the rest of the objects of mindfulness (feeli11g, mind, or men-
tal objects), one can achie\'e :iccess concentration (upatd1-a-samadhi). Access
concentration is suitable as a fot1ndatio!1 fer vipassana meditation.
Anyone, therefore, who wants to develop right 111i11dfulness should select
either body, feeling, mind, or mental objects as a foundation for mindful-
ness or aware11ess. It is very importa11t to note or to be J.ware of the object
in the present n1on1ent. For exa1...-1ple, if tl1e mecfitJ.tor co11cemi1iates on tl1e
in-breatl1 or out-breach, he or she n1ust 110re 01 be J.ware of cl1e precise
n1on1ent of the risi11g or falling of the breati1. \\J'hile (."u11cen1placing bod}'
postures such as walking, sicti11g, scandi11g, or lyi11g do\.vn <)ne should
be aware of each mon1e11t. If any othe1 1ni11or body postures are assumed,
one should also become aware of rhese precisely a11li wirl1 bare attention.
Another method of practice is to select the i1l1ysica! elL:n1c11ts earth, wate1,
fire, and air as objects of co11te111plario11. l~l1e c~11tl1 ele1nent lienl)tes the
quality of heaviness 01 lighcness in the l1<.)c.fy; the \.Vatc1 t'lement refers to the
quality of cohesion; the fire elc111e11t refers to tl1e qu . ~lir1 of l1eat or cold;
and the air eleme11t refers to the quality of n1otion a11J 111ovc111e11t in the
body. Of these, the water elen1cnt, wl1ich is rl1e qu,1li1y <.>f ccJl1esic.l11 i11 the
body, is so subtle chat it is extren1el}' Jit.riLuit co i1e1c:ci\c. 1''01 tl1is 1easo11, the
elements of eartl1, fire, and air are recon1111e11Jed for 111i11dfulncss n1editatio11.
If one experie11ces any feeli11gs i11 the l1<J<ly, wl1etl1L'r g1oss <>r subtle, onL
should be aware of tl1em i11 tl1e l1resc11t 1110111e11t. I'hc1c a1e three ki11ds of
feelings: pleasa11t, painful, ;111d ncL1t1al (r1eitl1t'r l)lc;1sa11t 11or pai11ful).
Whatever the feeli11g experienced, 011e sh<)uld l1e ~1wa1c <.>t- it objectively a11J
precisely, without ref1ecti11g lil)Ot1 it with discursive rl10L1ght. (1ne sh<)ltlLI
not anticipate any partict1lar tee' !:1g. l111e sl1oulr c.lisliking, desire, anger,
or doubt, these sll<)uld be takc11 as r11cditati<>I1 <>l1jccts. When 011e sees,
hears, smells, tastes, toucl1es, <.>r tl1i11ks, 011t: sl1<)uld l)c aw,1re of these se11-
sations as they are. It is very in1porta11r 11clt tt) reject <.111y <>bject that arises
in the consciousness; ratl1e1, accc11r ~111y fecli11g, state ot- niind, or 1nental
object as the foundation of aware11ess. As <l\varc11ess c.fl'vcl<)J1S, 111c11tal hin-
drances are overcon1e and access C<>11ce11cr;1ti<)fl ;1rises. Tl1e11 rl1e 111cdit<1tor
realizes that all mental and pl1ysic,1l fc>r111ati<.)r1s ;1rc in111er111;1ne11t, sL1l)jcct t<>
change, and do not ren1airi f'>r evcr1 t\\'O L<>11sect11ivl' 1110111e11ts. 1his r~al
ization is called i11sighr. yhus, \vl1c11 ;1w;1rc11css ;1rises \Vith i11sigl1t or rigl1r
understanding, that awareness is ;1lst> k11c>w11 ;1s rigl1t 111ir1dfl.1l11ess.~'l
THl FlllST UIS(:( )l lllSf ( )f THF l~l 11 >I >HA
- - ' -
Did the Buddha Teach in Detail?
The Dhammacakka Sutta, as we have ic today, lists che factors of the noble
path only in the form of headings without a11y detailed elaboration of
method or content. Yet, it is recounted cl1ac the Venerable Kondafifia and
others attained higher knowledge or becarne liberated by che end of the dis-
course. Therefore, the question arises, did they ft1lly understand the mean-
ing and method required in applying right mindft1lr1css? le is certain that if
they did not have a clear comprehe11sio11 of cl1c 1nechod of a1)1Jlication, they
would not have been able co develop right r11i11dful11ess. 111 rl1e absence of
right mindfulness, attainment of higher k11owledge of the noble path and
fruition is impossible.
There are two plausible explanatio11s co this ()ttzzle. l'he first is that the
Venerable Kondafifia and others were already fully ri1)e with uncomrnon,
unique perfections (paramitds), desti11ed for final liberation upon just
hearing the summary of the Noble Eightfold I)ach. 'fhcy 111ay have applied
mindfulness upon hearing the Buddha and accordingly attained higher
knowledge or a state of enlightenment. The second possibility is chat when
the discourse was first given, the Buddl1a did i11dee<l elaborate upon the
headings of the Noble Eightfold Path a11d expou11ded the fot1r foundations
of mindfulness. At the time of recici11g cl1is st1cc~1 ac the First Cot1ncil, how-
ever, the Noble Eightfold Path, as such a11<.i as a co111ponent of the Four
Noble Truths, was conde11sed in tl1e fc>rn1 of 11eadi11gs 011ly, si11ce there
already existed separate expositio11s or exegeses 011 the111 i11 other suttas.
Likewi.se, there are still other suttas, for exa111ple the .\atipaffhdna Sutta in
'
the Majjhima Niktiya, cl1at seen1 likely to h~1ve been recited ir1 condensed
form at the First Council. Ac the Sixth C~<.>uncil, held i11 Bur111a from 1954
to 1956, the n1issing portion of cl1e sutt~l \V;1s filled in a11d recorded, based
on the Mahdsatipaffhdna ~)utta of the /Ji,rz,l1t1 Nikt1ya. Other st1ttas, in addi-
tion co che Mahtisatipaff/Jd11t1 S11tttl, stl()(Jly ex1JcJsicior1s and elaborations
on the sun1marized headings of rl1c Nt>l)le r:igl1tfold I>ach.
No Insight Witho11t Mir1dji1!11ess

According to Theravada Bt1d<ll1isr11, rnir1dft1lncss a11<.i wisdom are essential
for the attainme11c of the flrral gc)al t)f enligl1rer1r11er1t. Moreover, it is con-
sidered esse11tial cl1at these be <.ievelope<.i sir11t1lra11cc>usly. 'l'l1e Buddha
tat1ghc how to cultivate 111ir1dft1l11css ;111<l wisdo111 ir1 order to overcon1e
ht1n1an sufferi11g ar1d reali1,e rl1c I )!1~1111111;1 (t1ltin1ate trt1tl1). l11sight wis-
don1 i11 Buddl1is111 n1ea11s t111derst;111<li11g tl1e I )}1;1111111a thr<.1ugl1 personal
THE NOBLE Elt..;HTFOLD PATH
experience, not through reasoning or intellectual intuition. The realization

of the -bhamma is not possible without developing insight and wisdom
through any one of the four foundations of mindfulness (through mind-
fulness of body, feelings, mind, or mental objects).
At the time of the Buddha, many individuals realized the Dhamma, and
became enlightened, directly upon hearing the teachings because they had
fulfilled the necessary perfections (paramitiis) in previous existences. Their
liheratiop became possible with only a few moments of mindfulness prac-
tice. What was essential was rhe practice of awareness of the objects and
not just the mere fact of listening to the discourse. While right mindful-
ness is essential to developing the
highest insight, it

is
not sufficient by
itself. Three conditions are also necessary to achieve the goal, namely,
ardor (tltapt), clear comprehension (sampajafifia), and mindfulness
(satima). Thus, the one who is ardent, clea.rly comprehending, and mind-
ful of the object will know what causes the arising of objects and their
ceasing. This is insight, knowing things as they really are (samudaya
dhammtlnupdsst).
SIX: RIGHT CONCENTRATION (5AMMA-5AMADHI)
What, 0 bhikkhus, is right concentration? Here, in this teaching, the

.bhikkhu, being detached from all sensual objects, detached from
other unwholesome things, enters into the first stage of absorption
(jhana), which is accompanied by applied thought (vitakka) and sus-
tained thought (vicara), is filled with rapture (piti) and happiness
(sukha), born of detachment from unwholesome thoughts.
After the subsiding of applied and sustained thought, and by gain-
ing inner tranquillity and oneness of the mind, he enters into a stage
free from vitakka and vicara, the second absorption, which is born of
concentration and filled with rapture and happiness.
After the fading away of rapture, he dwells in equanimity
(upekkha), attentiveness, and is clearly conscious; he experiences in
his person chat feeling of which the noble ones say, ''Happy. is the
man of equanimity and attentive mind'' thus, he enters the third
absorption. .
After the giving up of pleasure and pain, and through the disap-
pearance of previous happiness and &rief, he enters into a state
beyond pleasure and pain, into the fourth absorption, which is puri-
fied by equanimity and attentiveness. This is right concentracion.37
4J
Tl--lE FIRST [)ISLOL IRSE O~ THE (~L II lLJHA
11.ere, absorptio11, or jhana, means not allowing the mind to wander, but to
l1ave it fixed 011 a si11gle object. Jhana is also described as chat which burns
out all negative forces or hindra11ces (nivaratza). There are four stages of
jhana according co the suttas:
1. l'he first stage of jhana is constituted by five factors, namely, vicakka (ini-
tial application); vicara (sustained application); piti (rapture); sukha (hap-
piness); and ekaggaca (one-poi11tedness of n1i11d).
2. After the subsiding of vicakka and vicara chrot1gh conci11ued n1edication,

the second stage of jhana arises a11d is constituted by che three remaining
factors (pici, sukha, a11d ekaggata).
3. After the fading away of piti through continued n1edicacion, tl1e rhird
jhana is formed wich the two factors of sul<l1a and ekaggaca.
4. In the fourth jhana, sukha is replace(i by upekklla, so chat the fourth

jhana has two factors: upekkl1a and ekaggaca.
l'hese jl1anic states belong to the n1undane realms known as che ropa
(form) and arupa (forn1less) planes. Bt1t, if they are accompanied by the
noble path and fruition consciousnesses, chey chc11 belo11g to che supra-
mundane realm. Scriccly speaki11g, only cl1e sttf1ra111u11dane state of concen-
tration, or sarnadhi, is right conce11cracio11. l-fowever, the munda11e state of
concentration is also classed as right C<lr1ce11cr~1tio11 if ic fc)rn1s the basis for
the developn1ent of vipassana meditatio11.
l'here are forty ki11ds of objects for tl1c development of concentration
(samatha-bhavana). 'I'he medicator can select an object that appeals most
to his or her cem~1erament. l'his object is called che preli111inary object
(parikam111a-nimitta). One should cor1ce11crate i11tencly on this object u11til
one becomes so wholly absorbed in it chat all thoughts are excluded from
the mind. Ultimately, a stage is reached i11 which one is able to visualize
the object even with closed eyes. (}11 this visualized in1age (ugg,al1a-nimitta),
one conce11trates conci11uously t111cil it develops into a conceptualized
image (pafibhaga-ninzitt11): As one concentrates conci11ually on this
abstract object, one is said to be in possession of access concentration
_( upacdra-samadhi) a11d the five hi11drances (nivaratzas) namely, sense
(iesire, hatred, sloth and torpo1, restlessness a11d worry, and doubt are
terr1porarily dispelled. Eventually, one actai11s absorption conce11cration
THE NOBLE EIGHTFOLD PATH
(appana-samidhi),. or the jhanic state.

There are three factors of the Noble Eightfold Path which are necessary
for right concentration, or samadhi. First, there is the application of effort
in the practice of mindfulness in order to develop moment-to-moment
awareness. Second, there is the development of one-pointedness of mind,
which is the ability to tix one's awareness on any object arising at the sense

doors. This 1s a momentary concentration (as distinguished from the

absorption concentration of jhapic states) because awareness is arising with
different objects in different moments. Third, whatever object the mind
concentrates on is perceived in terms of its ultimate reality as impermanent,
unsatisfactory, and devoid of a self or an essence. These factors of samadhi
together cultivate the conditions for the realization of the noble path and
its fruition, nibbana
Insight Without jhana

It has been argued that vipassana c.an be developed only after attaining jhana.
This, it is reasoned, is on account of the capacity of the jhanas to purify the
mind (cittavisuddhi) a requisite for the development of insight. Bue this
position seems extreme and dogmatic since upacara samadhi, or access con-
centration, can be achieved by contemplating such objects as body postures
(a practice not directed coward attaining jhanic states) while still achieving
the same benefits of meditative absorption, namely, temporarily dispelling
the hindrances, purifying the mind, and developing vipassana. Many indi-
viduals have achieved arahantship with this method. The Anussatifhdna
Sutta states that samadhi that is developed by the practice of the recollec-
tion of the virtues of the Buddha, for example, is adequate co be used as a
basic concentration for the development of higher insight up co the state
of arahancship.3 8 le is very common chat pici, or rapture, can be aroused by
just recollecting the virtues of the Buddha and the sangha. One who medi-
tates on the impermanence of rapture may subsequently attain arahantship.
Furthermore, in11umerable people at the time of the Buddha became lib-
erated during the course of talks given by the Buddha, and many of these
people were not skilled in jhanic practices. Nevertheless, they muse have
achieved purification of the mind, because their minds are said to have been

sound (kaila), tender (mudu), free from hind1ances (vinii1arana),

exultant
(udagga), and gladdened (pasanna). At the mome11t cl1e Buddha delivered the
most exalted discourse of the Four Noble Truths, the audience understood
and 'comprehended the Dhamma, attaining the higl1esc state of insight, and
becoming liberated from the blJndage of greed, a11ger, and dc:lusion.
TH~ FIRST OtSCOLIRSf. OF THf. BLIL)l)HA
Thus, definitions of right concentration given in terms of the four

jhanas, or absorptions, should be regarded as an excellent method. Access
concencracio11, although described as an inferior method, is also right con-
centration since ic accomplishes purification of mind and the dispelling of
hindra11ces jusc as che firsc jhana does. le also has che same five jhanic fac-
tors. In vipassana medicacion awareness and concencracion arise momenc
co momenc with each objecc of mindfulness. This concentration is known
as vipassand khatzika samadhi. or momentary concencracion. It also has che
same capacity to dispel hindra11ces i11 the same rnanner as access concen-
tration. Therefore, ic should be regarded both as access concentracion and
momentary concentration under rl1e category of the firsc jhana (as well as
a weaker form of the first jhana meditative absorption). Jhana means
closely observing a11 object with strong attencion. Concentrated attention
given to a selected objecc of meditation, such as, cl1e breath for tranquil-
lity concentratio11, gives rise to samatha jha11a, whereas watching the
characteristic nature of mi11d and body and concemplati11g their imper-
manence, unsatisfactoriness, and insubsca11tialiry brings about vipassana
jhana.
Threefold Concentration
There are three kinds of concentration: appana samadhi (co11centrative
absorption}, upacara samadhi (access co11centratio11), and khal)ika
samadhi (momentary or vipassana concentration). Of chese, the concen-
tration developed by meditating on a selected objecc uncil che n1ind
absorbs onto the objecc is called appana samadhi. The concentration that
is able to dispel hindrances, but which has not yet reached che scare of
absorption, is called upacara, neighborhood, or access concentration.
Finally, the concentration developed by observing objects and cheir nature
of arising and passing away momenc to momenc is called khal)ika
samadhi, momentary concencration. This momentary concentration refers
to the calm firm state of mind prior to access co11centration. le also refers
to vipassana samadhi. Vipassana samadhi has the same capacity to dispel
hindrances in the same manner as access concentration. 1'herefore, it can
also be called access concentration. When vipassana concentration is. well
developed, the mind becomes absorbed with the object, as in concencra-
tive absorption. This state of absorpcion can be experienced directly by
those who practice mindfulness meditation. If momentary khal)ika
satnadhi arises withouc incerrupcion, cranquilliry is maincained and nega-
rive forces or defilements cannoc arise .

44
THE. NOBLE. E.IGHTFC)LD PATH
SEVEN: RIGHT UNDERSTANDING (SAMMA. 0ITfHI)
What, 0 bhikkhus, is right understanding? To understand suffering,

to understand the origination of suffering, to understand extinction
of suffering, to understand the path leading to the extinction of suf-
fering; this is called right und~rstanding. 39
Right understanding means the realization of the Four Noble Truths, which
one can realize through developing right mindfulness and right concentra-
tion. According to the commentaries (Anguttara and , Uparipatztziisa
A.tfhakatha), there are altogether six kinds of right u11derstanding:
1. right understanding of kamma as belonging to beings (kammas-

sakatii sammiiditthi)

2. right understanding of concentrative absorptions (jhiina

sammiiditthi)

3. right understanding of insight (vipassanii sammiidi.tfhi)
4. right understanding of the noble path (mag,ga sammiidi.tfhi)
5. right understanding of the fruition of .che noble path (phala
sammiidittht)

6. right understanding of reobservation (paccavekkhatzii sammiid~tfhi)
In the case of understanding the fruition of the noble path and of reobser
vation, no specific effort is required for their development since they are
realized spontaneously as a result of understanding the noble path. As soon
as one attains the realization of the Four Noble Truths, realization of the
four fruitions follow spontaneously. Reobservation is the reflection of the
path and fruition, which also follows spontaneously after the attainment of
these. Therefore, one need actively strive only for the first four kinds of
right underst~nding.
Right Understanding ofKamma

The doctrine of kamma plays a very important part in Buddhism. It is the
central point to grasp in the teachings of the Buddha, and one needs to
understand it firmly before one can practice the Noble Eightfold Path.

Right understanding of kamma urges the individual to understand moral

causation, which includes th.e understanding of the ten kammically whole-
some actions (kusa/a kamma) namely, generosity~ morality, meditation,
reverence, service, dedication of merit, rejoicing in others' merit, hearing

45
1111 f llZ\ l I )l\l l )L llZ\I l )I T~ll l~l 11 ll ll I/\
..
tl1e Joccrir1e, ceacl1ing the doctrine, ar1cl correcting ochers' wrong views.
lligl1t t1r1liersta11ding also 111clt1cles tl1e t1r1<.!<:rst;111<.lir1g <)f tl1e ten kamrnically
t111\vl1<.llesl1me actions (ak11sala karr1mr1) 11;lr11ely. killi11g, stealing, sexual
111iscor1liuct, lying, sla11deri11g, l1arsh speecl1, vair1 t;1lk, c<>vecousness, ill will,
ar1li v.'r<)11g vic\v. \X'l1clleson1e ;1ctio11s l)ring g<)ol1 rest1lrs. 'f"hey are merirori-
ot1s ;111ll lead to l1;11)1)i11ess here ~111d l1ereafte.1. 'I'hc ter1 wl1olesome actior1s,
tl1eref<)re, art calll'<.l g<1<l<.I cot1rses elf. ;1lti<l11 (k11sr1la kamn1apatha).
Ur1wh<>lesor11c acti<>11s give rise to evil co11sec1uc11ces. 111ey are demeritori-
ous and le;1d to sufferi11g ;1nli u11ha11pi11css htre ;111d hereafter. l"he ten
unwl1c1lesorne acti<>11s, cl1ereforc, ;1re callc<l evil c<>t1rses of action (akz1sala
karnmtlf>tl tha).
Kan1rna liter,111)' 111e;111s ;1cti<)J1. l~he Rt1<.IJl1a <ll'fi11ed ir as rnencal volition
(cetarzrt). Ar1y action 011e perforr11s with pure intenrio11 is called wholesorne
kan1111a. If tl1c ir1te11tio11 is ir1111t1re, then it is calleli t1nwl1olesorne karnma.
Kam111;1, therefore, is 11ot 111erely the affair of- exrer11al or visual deeds, bur
it is the motive or volition involved in thi11king, speaking, or doi11g. Any
deed devoid of will or ir1tenrion car1not properly be called kamma.
Therefore. moral or immoral kamma is threefold according to rhe doors of
actio11 bodily action, verbal action, and- mental action. Any action one
pe.rforms with volition through body, speech, and mind is called kamma.
Whether kan1n1a is wl1olesome or unwholesome is dependent on the state
of mind at the mon1enr of the action.
The Buddha, more rt1a11 once, emphatically stressed the psychological
importance of kamma. ''O bhikkhus, it is volition (cetana) that I call
kamma. Having willed, one aces through body, speech, and mind. ''40 The
understanding of moral causation urges a thoughtful i1erson to refrain from
unwholesome deeds and to do good. One who acknowledges moral causa-
tion knows well that it is their own actions that n1ake their life miserable or
otherwise. They know that the direct cause of the differer1ces and inequal-
ities of birth _in this life are due to the good arid unwholesome actio11s of
past existences, as well as chose of this life. Thus, they understand kamma

and its results and strive to promote moral and spiritual progress. This kind
of understanding, even on a mundar1e level, paves the way toward the real-
ization of the Four Noble Truths.
In the endless cycle of rebirth, the law of kan1ma prevails with good
actions leading to positive results and unwholesor11e actions leading to neg-
ative cor1sequences. As a resttlt of unwl1olesome kan1111a committed in past
existences, one has to stiffer ill consequences, sucl1 as , a short life span, var-
ious ailments, t1gliness, poverty, and so forth. A11yo11c \\'110 co111n1its ar1
THE NOBLE EICHTf(}L[) PATH
--- --- - ---- ----- - ------ - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - --- -
unwholesome action in this life will bear the consequences in a future

existence, perhaps by being born in an inferior plane of existence and accom-
panied by simila1 painful retributions.
As a consequence of good actions performed in previous existences, one.
lives happily and healthily in this present life, enjoying longevity, freedom
from ailments, beauty, and wealth. By refraining from unwholesome
actions and performing good actions of generosity and serving others, one
is reborn in higher realms of existence, enjoying the results of these good
actions. By understanding the result of wholesome and unwholesome kam-
mas, one refrains from wrongdoing and accumulates good deeds, thereby
establishing morality (sila), which is the foundation of concentration
(samadh1) and wisdom (pafzfza).
The Buddha said:
0 bhikkhu, when you have purified your s1la and maintained the
straight view, then, leaning on your sila and established on it, you can
develop the four foundations of mindfulness. 4 I
Three Paths
Clearly, right understanding of kamma and the observance of sila are pre-
liminary foundations, or basic paths (miila magga), that must be established
before one practices meditation. As discussed earlier, on the developme11t
of vipassana, appana samadhi (absorption concer1tration) and upacara
samadhi (access concentration) are prereqisites for achieving the initial
purification of the mind. Since vipassana is a preliminary path (pubbabhaga
magga), it needs to be developed first in order to lead to the noble path
(ariya magga). Thus, there are three essential steps included in the Noble
Eightfold Path: basic path (miila magga), prelirninary path (pubbabhaga
magga), ~nd noble path (ariya magga).
'
The Meditation Method

After fulfilling the basic requirements of ur1derstanding the law of kamma
and purifying sila, the meditator chooses one particular object on which to
focus. When attention is disp.ersed over man.y objects or on some objects
that are not easily observable, development of concentration will take a long
time. Therefore, the meditator should limit the number of objects they are
fpcusing on and choose a vivid object suitable to his or her temper~ment.
At first, the meditator may begin ~y contemplating their in-coming ar1c1
out-going breaths. After establishing conce11tration for some time, tl1e
47
l ~If ~fR"i T I )fSCl)L If{ \f <.)f THE. 13L II >l )HA
meditator should direct his or her observations not to the breach itself, but
to the pl1ysical se11sation of the breach. That is, one should observe the
motion or m<.)ven1e11t <)f the breath, its heavin~ss or lightness, its qualities of
heat or cold. 'Jo develop awareness and roncentratic>n, one should observe
the e11tire breath i11 three phases, its beginning, middle, and end. For
instance, when the in-breath touches the 11oscrils, one should be aware of its

beginning, middle, and e11d, tryi11g to remairt with chat awareness until the
out-breath is felt on cl1e 11oscrils. 111 cl1e same way, ic is 11ecessary to be aware
of the out-breath with its tl1ree ~)l1ases. 'l'his awareness should also remain
until the in-breach co111es and toucl1cs it so there will be no gap between the
two breaths. The mind will stay with the touch-feeling of the breaths, expe-
riencing the entire breath (sabbakaya-pafisaf!zvedl) in each moment.
After establishing awareness and conce11tration by observing the physi-
cal sensation of the breath at the nostrils, tl1e medicator can observe other
mental and material objects that arise 111oment to mornent ir1 the body or
the mind, such as seeing, hearing, smelling, tasting, touching, and think-
ing. The meditator should be aware of any kind of feeling that arises in the
body,'whether gross or subtle, painful, pleasurable, or neutral. He or she
should also be aware of cravings, aversions, happiness, sorrow, grief, and all
kinds of mental and physical phenomena arising in the body and mind.
This should be done objectively and precisely. The meditator should not
think about them until he or she has developed insight, or che understand-
ing of the true nature of these phenomena as impermanent, suffering, and
without substance or self.
According to Mahasi Sayadaw's method, the meditator should begin by
noting the element of air (vayo dhatu), the characteristics of which are stiff-
ness, pressure, and motion, and which become evident in the region of the
abdomen. As the abdon1cn rises, note ''rising." As ic falls, note ''falling."
One begins noting just these two motions, rising and falling. But this does
not comprise all that is to be done. Wl1ile 11oting the rising and falling of
the abdomen, if thinking arises, note that too as ''thinking'' and then return
to noting the. rising and falling. If some painful feeling appears in the body,
note "that too; when it subsides or when it has been noted for some time,

return to the rising and falling. If there is bending, stretching, or moving of

the limbs, the meditator rnust note ''bending," ''stretching," or ''moving."
Whatever bodily moven1ent occt1rs, one should note it in the precise
moment of its occurrence, and then return to the risir1g and falling of the
abdomen. When the meditator se~s or hears anytl1ing clearly, note ''seeing''
or ''hearing'' for a moment, and then return to the rising and falling process
THE NC..)BLE E.ICHTFOL[) PATH
-- - - ---
-- ------
--------- --- -. -------
of the abdomen. If the meditator is aware of every process by noting it

attentively, the mind becomes distinctly calm and concentrated and also
realizes arising and awareness and objects differently. This is the beginning of
the development of insight, which distinguishes mind from matter or object.
Vipassand with jhdna

The meditator who practices vipassana after attaining jhana is called
. jhdnakibhi, or one who is accomplished with absorption. The knowledge that
accompanies the jhanic concentration is jhana sammad~tthi. While it is not
necessary for vipassana practice, nevertheless, jhanic concentration is good in
itself because it purifies the mind temporarily and is thus a good foundation
for vipassana meditation. At first, the meditator needs to attain concentra-
tive absorption through tranquillity meditation. He or she then emerges
from the jhanic state and starts to observe the jhanic factors or mental
states, such as i11itial application, sustained application, rapture, one-point-
edness of the mind, happiness, contact, volition, intention, and so forth.
These mental states become very clear, as do the material states on which
jhana depends. When the meditator observes these as they arise and pass
away from rnoment to moment, he or she realizes thac in every moment all
these states

are impermanent, unsatisfactory, and without permanent sub-
stance. The meditacor progressively attains different jhanic states, emerging
from them to observe che mental and material phenomena that constitute
chem. As 011e continues to practice, vipassana insight becomes more and

more developed, leading finally to the realization of the 11ibbanic state. Thus
the Buddha said:
ln this teaching, 0 bhikkhus, the bhikkhu enters and stays in the first
jhana. When he emerges from chat jhanic state he contemplates on the
physical body, feelings, perceptions, mental formations and conscious-
ness that exist during che jhanic moment and he sees chem as transitory,
painful, and insubstantial. Seeing thus he stays with vipassana insight so
gained and attains arahanchood, the cessation of all cankers.42

This passage tells us how a medicacor who accomplishes jhanic absorptions

attains the noble path through meditating on jhanic consciousness by focus-
ing on the mental concomitants and material qualities that have arisen and
passed away in the mind-body continuum. After entering into and rising
from jhanic states, the meditator who is endowed with jhanic absorptions

meditates on the arising and passing away of mental and material states that
49
occl1rred fron1 n1oment to mo111ent. The 111editator who is not endowed
with jl1anas focuses 011 the arising and passi11g away of any mental and
rnaterial states (for exa111ple, sensual desires, tl1ot1gl1ts, feelings, and so on)
as tl1ey occur fron1 moment to moment un.ril he or she realizes these to be
in1per111anent, suffering, and insubstantial.
1ne Advantages ofjhar1a

The nleditaror who is endowed wich jha11as e11cers into a jhanic scare and
thus 111editates on any object which is very clear. When fatigue overtakes
the rneditator, as a rest1lc of observing ma11y different objects appearing at
the se11se doors, he or she reveres to the jl1anic stare to ease fatigue or relax
the mind. After recuperating, one continues with the observation of n1ental
and material objects whenever they appear. Thus based on jhana, vipassana
insight develops u11til it is strong e11ough to lead to che realization of nibbana
through insight of the noble path (ariyamaggaiiana).
In these words, the Buddha talked about che time whe11 l1e developed
insight medication based on jhana. ''Truly, whe11 a n1editator's
samadhi and vipassana are not yet fully mature, if he sits for a long
time practicing insight meditation fatigue overwheln1s him. Burning
sensations fill the body as if flames are bursting out from it and sweat
pours out from che armpits. The meditator feels as if hot stearny gas
is rushing forth from the top of his head. The tortured mind twitches
and struggles. The meditator reverts to the jhanic states to reduce the
mental and physical strain and to get relief fron1 the111. In this way he
refreshes himself. He then returns to the task of meditating. Sitting
for long periods of time he may again fatigue hirnself and seek relief
once more by reentering a jhanic state. l11deed, he should do so.
Entering jhanic states is greatly beneficial to vipassana meditation."43
The meditator who is nor endowed with jhana observes all kinds ot
mental and material objects. When fatigue overtakes one while meditating,
one cannot, of course, seek relief by entering jhanic states. One should then
revere to the limited object of the in- and our-breaths, in other words, keep-
ing attention on che nostrils and focusing on breaching in and breaching
out. By limiting the object of meditation, mental and physical fatigue and
strain are alleviated. Refreshed, one can return to observation of all kinds
of objects. When vipassana samadhi becomes strengthened, che meditacor
is able co engage in meditation practice day and night without physical and
50
f HF Ne. )!"\LE
'
E.ll~HTf()LI) PATH
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~----~~~~~~----~~--
mental discomfort or distress. At this stage, whenever objects arise, the

meditat9r observes them objectively without effort, realizing the nature of
these objects as they really are, namely, as impermanent, painful, and insub-
sta11tial. This understanding gathers speed and finally both sense objects
and awareness plunge into the state of cessation. This is the realization of
tl1e state of nibbana by means of the noble path.
The Vipassand Path

As stated earlier, there are three stages of the Noble Eightfold Path. The
basic path, which consists of the right understanding of kamma (kam-
masakatd sammddiffhi) and morality (sila), must first be accomplished
-
before the start of meditation. The samatha yanika meditator, who has
accomplished meditative absorptions before vipassana practice, has to
develop either access concencr,ation (upacdra samadhi) or absorption con-
centration (apfand samddhi). The suddha vipassana-yanika medicator, who
practices bare vipassana without absorption concentration, must accom-
~-,lish the basic samadhi path while contemplating the four primary materi-
al elen1ents (rna/J1ibhutas). Whenever the meditator becomes aware of any
'iense object accon1panied with one-pointedness of tnind and momentary
cor1centration (khanika samadhi), the mind ceases to wander to other
objects. In this way, the mind becomes purified and every subsequent
momen~ of awareness develops the vipassana path.
The Development of Vipassand Samadhi

Effort exerted on behalf of awareness and mindfulness _of each and every
sense object arising at the sense doors (feeling, seeing, hearing, thinking,
and so forth) constitutes the path of 1ight effort (sammdvdydma magga).
Awareness, or mindfulness, of these objects is the path of right mindfulness
(sammdsati magga). Whenever mindfulness arises on an object and becomes
fixed upon it, that is, becomes one-pointed, it is called the path of right
concentration (sammasarnadhi magga). Together these are known as vipas-
sana khai:iika samadhi, or vipassana momentary concentration. These three
paths right effort, right mindfulness, and right concentration together
make up the path of concentration (samddhi magga).
The Development of Vipassand Insight

The knowledge -chat distinguishes sense objects from awareness arises after
purity of mind has been attained chrough 1he_pach of concentration. This
clear comprehension of the distinction becw'een the discerning mind and the
51
I 111 ~ lll..'-t l J )l'-tl .C. )L lll..'-t~ c.)~ THF 13L II >I )HA
n1ateri~1l ol)ject cor1stitutes purification of view. For example, when the med-
itacor observes i11-l)reachs a11d ouc-breacl1s, if awareness and concentration are
develo~Jed, l1e or sl1e knows or disti11guishes awarer1ess from the breaths. This
is followed lJy tfiscer11111e11t of the nature of cause and effect while in the
course of 111etlicatior1. fc.)r exan1ple, the 1neditator may recognize chat there is
aware11ess because of i11-breachs or out-l)reachs, char there is bending because
of the desire t<.) l)end, strecchi11g becaL1se of the desire to screech, movement
because of the desire co 111ove. '!'he n1edicacor 111ay perceive how seeing aris-
es because there is a11 eye tc.) see a11d a11 object co be seen, or chat hearing aris-
es because chere is a11 ear to 11ear ar1d a sou11d to be heard, and so forth.
As meditatio11 co11cinues the nleditator becomes aware of the arising and
dissolution of every object. This results in the realization of che 11acure of
in1pern1a11er1ce with respect to both the ser1se object and awareness itself.
This process ,of the arising and passing away of mer1cal and rnaterial states
without ar1y break leads co the convictior1 chat samsara is fearful, unpleas-
ant, or suffering, rnere insubstanciality, nor responsive co one's will or con-
trol. This lucid cor11prehension conscicuces c~1e pacl1 of right u11derstanding
(sarrzmddiffhi magga).
The BL1ddha said ''dukkhe nanarp" understa11ding the cruch of
dukkha is che pach of right understandi11g. When one observes mental
and material objects from mon1enc to moment, one realizes che three
characteristics of i1nperma11er1ce, sufferir1g, and insubstantialicy through
one's own experience and thereby compreher1ds che truth of dukkha. The
cask of con1prehe11ding rhe remai11ing three Noble Truths can then be
accomplished. (A discussio11 of this will follow in che section 011 the fourth
Noble Trurl1, magga sacca.) Ber1di11g or directing cl1e mind co comprehend
che crue nature of me11~al and material states as annica, dukkha, and anat-
ta is che path of right thought (sammasankappa magga). The two paths of
right understanding arid right thought are grouped together as the path of
insight (panfia magga).
The three paths of concentration and the two paths of insight are classi-
fied as working paths (karaka rrzaggas), or cask forces. They are forces for the
development of awareness, concentration, and wisdom, and also for the
realization of the Four Noble Truths. The path of morality (sila magga)-
right speech, right action, a11d right livelihood has been established even
before meditation begins and remains firm, becoming purer during the
course of meditation. In addition to these three paths, there is a combined
-
total of eight paths, known as preliminay paths (pubbabhdga magga), chat

are developed with the progress of vipassana meditation.
52
THE NOBLE E.IGHTFOLD PATH

EIGHT: RIGHT THOUGHT (SAMMA-SANKAPPA)
What, 0 bhikkhus, is right thought? Thoughts free from sensuous

desire (nekkhama-sankappa), thoughts free from ill will (abyapada-
sankappa), and thoughts free from cruelty (avihimsa-sankappa): this is
called right thought.44
All thoughts of good deeds are considered factors of renunciation

(nekkhama-sankappa). These may include the practice of generosity, the
renunciation of selfish attachments (such as going forth from home into
homelessness), listening to discourses, or practicing righteousness .

Practicing vipassana meditation fulfills the thought of renunciation since it
is a practice aimed at eliminating attachments and cravings. Thoughts of
non-killing, wishing others well, and developing loving-kindness (metta
bhavana) render the mind free from ill will (abyapada-sankappa). Thoughts
of non-violence, considerateness, and compassion toward other beings are
thoughts free from cruelty (avihif!Zsa-sankappa).
Since thoughts of killing or crt1elry ca11not arise during vipassana medita-
tion practice these f\vo factors of right thought are fulfilled during meditation.
Vipassana n1edir~1tior1 ir1volves the slight be11ding or directing of the mind
toward recognizing the reality of 1ne11tal ~111d material states in their true
nature of arising and dissolvi11g ~1nd the trt1th concerning their imperma-
11e11ce, suffering, arid inst1bsta11tiality.
r11e basic path (mztla nztl._'<ttl) and the prelimi11ary path (pubbabhaga
nzagga) are known together as the eightfold vipassana path. When this vipas-
sana path becomes fully developed, it is tra11scen(.ieli and the noble path is
attained, leading to tl1e realization of nil1l1ar1a. 'l"l1crefore, the preliminary
path may be called che to1erur111cr of" che n()blc ~1ath. 111 otl1er words, they
form the first and last parts (>f rhe s~1111c C<>r1tint1ot1s path respectively. To
attain the noble patl1, the nieditat<>r r11t1st first develop the vipassana path.
J-faving become establis}lC(.i in t}1e ll<>l)lC f1atll, the nlC(.iitator l)l'COmes a noble
011e ~1nd experiences the bliss t>f" 11ibban~1.
5~
5
THE FOLIR NOBLE TRLITHS
Whosoever is free from sense perceptions, in him no more bonds exist;

Whosoever by insight freedom gains, all delusions cease in him;
But whosoever clings co sense perceprior1s and co viewpoints wrong and false
He lives wrar1gli11g in this world.
Sutta11ipdta, v. 159
Contemplating the rise and fall of aggregates as they really are,

I rose up with mind free (of taints); completed is the Buddha-word.
Therigdthd, v. 96
FOLLOWING SIX YEARS OF STRUGGLE, the Buddha realized the Four Noble
Truths under the Bodhi tree. These Noble Truths are found in all beings as
realities of the universe. The Buddha stated:

In this very one-fathom-long body, along with its perceptions and

thoughts, do I proclaim the world, the origin of the world, the cessa-
tion of the world, and the path leading to rhe cessation of the world.45
In this particular context, the term ''world'' (loka) implies life or being. The
Dhamma is an incontrovertible fact of life. Whether buddhas arise or not,
these truths exist. A bt1ddha reveals the Dhamma to the deluded world.
These are called Nohle lruths because they were discovered or realized by
the ariyas or noble (enligl1tened) ones. The Buddha tat1ght the Four Noble
Truths to the five ascetics in his first sermon at Deer Park. The Four Noble

Truths constitt1te the cenr1al tenets of Bt1ddhism. They are:
1. The Noble rrutl1 of st1ffering (d11kkl1a)

2. The Noble 'l'rt1th of the origin of suffering (samudaya)
3. The Noble 'lrt1th of the cessation of suffering (rzirodha)
4. The Noble 1rt1rl1 of the path leading to the cessation of suffering
(magga)
'fhe Bt1ddha is regarded as the ''peerless physician'' ( bhisakka) who is

capable of diagnosing exactly rhe illness of each and every being. It was in
-) )-
f HI ~IRST l)ISC()LIRSF ()~ THE f3L II )LlHA
--------- - -------
this manner of expression that the Buddha taught the Four Noble Truths.
First, he established that the world is founded on suffering (dukkhe loko
patiffhito)46 and that suffering is an undeniable and universal phenomenon
(pariiifziitabba) one must strive to comprehend. He then established the
cause of the disease: the origin of suffering is craving (ta!lha). Then the
Buddha described the cure for the disease, which is nibbana (nirodha).
Finally, he recommended the remedy, which is the Noble Eightfold Path.
ONE: OUKKHA
V. This, 0 bhikkhus, is the Noble Truth ofsuffering (dukkha): Birth

is suffering, aging is suffering, sickness is suffering, death is suffer-
ing, sorrow and lamentation, pain, grief, and despair are suffering,
association with the unloved or unpleasant condition is suffering,
separation from the beloved or pleasant condition is suffering, not to
get what one wants is suffering. 11! brief, the five at,gregates of
attachment are suffering.
Dukkha is a J>ali term that ca11not be translated adequately into English.

There seems to be no equivalent in any other language. In ordinary usage,
rhe word dukkha mea11s ''suffering, pain, u11satisfactoriness, ill, sorrow, and
misery," but there are further nuances. l'he word dukkha as it appears in
the first Noble Truth represe11ts the broadest frame of the Buddha's per-
spective of life and the world. le means not 011ly ordinary suffering but also
includes the deeper meaning of impermanence, imperfection, emptiness,
and insubstantiality.
Threefold Dukkha
There are three aspects of the; term dukkha: ( 1) dukkha dukkha, which is
ordinary suffering; (2) vipari!la"!a dz1kkha, which is suffering experie11ced
by cha11ge; and (3) sankhiira dukkha, whicl1 is sufferi11g experienced by con-
ditioned states.
The first as~1ect, dukkl1a dukkl1a, co11tains two co111ponents of ordinary
sufferi11g. l'he refers to life, or bei11g, as it is constituted by mental and
n1aterial forces (11iima-rupd), which are known 1nore specifically as the five
aggregates (pafzc{1kkhandha). The Buddha defi11ed tl1ese five aggregates as
dukkl1a.47 In other words, the bare fact of life itself is dukkha. The seco11d
dukkha implies u11iversal n1aladies. Whe11 mental a11d material forces, or
I
, the five aggregates, manifest or come i11co existence they are bound to be
56
-THE FOLIR N(1f~LE TRLITH\
------------------ -----------
experienced as all kinds of suffering. This is the dukkha experienced in

birth, old age, sickness, death, association with unloved ones and unpleas-
ant conditions, separation from loved ones and pleasant conditions, not
getting what one wants, sorrow, lamentation, pain, grief, and despair. I11
short, dukkha is all kinds of physical and mental suffering that are univer-
sally accep_ted as suffering or painful.
The second aspect of suffering is viparii:iama clukkha. Viparii:iama means
''changing.'' It is the nature of the u11iverse that things constantly change. A
happy feeling, a happy condition in life these cannot last. They are imper-
manent by nature. When they change, suffering, pain, or unpleasant feelings
are the result. ''Whatever is impermanent is suffering (yadanicca'!l tarn pi
dukkha'!l),"48 said the Buddha. Whenever one is faced with worldly vicissi-
tudes, one experiences suffering in life. These two aspects of suffering are easy
to understand as they are common experiences in daily life. Because these
aspects of suffering are readily recognizable as general experiences, they have
typically come to stand for the meaning of dukkha referred to in the First
-
Noble Truth. However, this does not convey the full meaning of dukkha as
the Bud'dha used the term when referring to the First Noble Truth.
The third aspect of suffering, sankhara dukkha, is conditioned states.
Everything in the universe, whether physical or mental, is conditioned and
conditioning. This kind of dukkha will be clearly understood through
direct experience in vipassana meditation. One who practices vipassana
needs to be aware of physical and mental phenomena until he or she real-
izes the ever-changing processes that cons~itute the universe. Then one will
understand dukkha as a consequence. In order to understand this forn1 of
dukkha, the meditator focuses on the notion of a ''being'' or an ''individual''
or what is referred to as ''I."
The Five Aggregates

According to Buddhism, a being or an individual, the ''I," is merely a com-
bination of ever-changing physical and mental forces or energies, which
may be divided into five groups, or aggregates (pafzcakkhandha). As stated
in the Wheel of Dhamma Discourse: ''In brief, the five aggregates of attach-
ment are suffering." The five aggregates are:
1. The first aggregate is that of matter (riipakkhandhtt), which includes the

four great principal elements: the element of earth (pa!havi-dhtitu), which
is the quality of heaviness and lighsness in material form; the element of
water (Apo-dhtitu), which is the quality of cohesion or fluidity; the element
57
-r1~1 FIR"i T r )l"i(_:(_)LIRSF (_)~ TH~ l~L II )f )HA

of fire (tejo-dhtitu), whicl1 is the quality of heat and cold; and the element
of air ( viiyo-dhatu) which is the quality 0f motions and movements in the
material elements. l'he derivatives of these four principal elements

(upadiiya-rupa) are also i11cluded. They are the five material sense organs-
che faculties of eye, ear, nose, co11gt1e, and body plus their corresponding
objects in_ the external world visible form, so~nd, odor, taste, and tangible

things. Thus, the whole of matter, both i11ternal a11d external, is included in
the aggregate of matter.
2. The second a,ggregate is that of sensations (vedantikkhandha). All kinds

of feelings pleasant, unpleasant, or neutral whether physical or mental,
are experienced through the contact of physical and mental organs with
the external world. All of these are included in the aggregate of.sensations .

There are six kinds of feelings: chose experienced through the contact of
the eye with visible form; ear with sound; nose with odor; tongue with
taste; body with tangible objects; and the contact of the mind with men-
tal objects, thoughts, or ideas. All our physical and mental sensations are
included in this group.
3. The third aggregate is chat of perception (safznakkhandha). Perception

refers to chat faculty' char recognizes sensations. Perceptions, like sensa-
tions, are also of six kinds and relate to six internal faculties with six cor-

responding external objects. Whenever our sense organs come into contact
~with external objects, sensations arise and from them follows perception.
It is perception chat recognizes both physical and mental objects .

4. The fourth aggregate is that of mental formations (sankhtirakkhandha).

All volitional or mental activities are included in this group. According to
the Abhidhamma, with the exception of vedana (sensation) and safifia
(perception), the remaining fifty kinds of mental activities are called
sankhara. These include contact (phassa), volition (cetana), attention
(manasiktira),- will (chanda), determination (adhimokkha), confidence
(saddha), cuncentration (samadhi), wisdom (pafzfza), energy ( viriya), greed
(/obha), hatred (dosa), delusion (moha), conceit (mdna), and so on.
Sankhara (mental formations) comprises all our good and bad actions and
reactions in daily life. What is generally known as kamma comes under
this group. The Buddha defined kamma in this way, ''O monks, it -is voli-
tion (cetana) that I call kamma. Haiving willed, one acts through body,
speech, and mind."49 Volition is mental construction, mental activity. Its

58
THE Fe. )L IR Ne. )~LE. TRL ITH~
function is to direct the mind in the sphere of good, bad, or neutral activ-
ities. It can, therefore, be called the stimulus for kammic formations.
When our six sense faculties and their corresponding six objects in the
external world come into contact, sense awareness arises. Then, respective
sensations a11d perceptions arise. These are followed by our actio11s and
reactions. Sensations and perceptions are not volitional actions so the~' do
not produce any kammic force; but, sankhara aces and reacts as kan1ma
and produces kamn1ic effects.
5. The fifth aggregate is that of consciousness ( vinfziinakkhandha).

Consciousness is a response, or aware11ess, cl1ac arises ac one of the six

sense faculty bases (eyes, ears, nose, and so on). For i11star1ce, visual con-
sciousness has the eye as its base and visible forn1 as ics object. The
Buddha said, ''When the visible object arises ac the sense eye base, visible
consciousness arises (cakkhu-vifzfzana)."50 Likewise, wl1en sound contacts
the sense ear base, odor contacts cl1e nose base, caste contacts the tongue
base, tangible things contact the body base, and n1encal objects contact
the mind base, then hearing, smelling, c~1scing, touching, and mental con-
-
sciousness arise at each respective sense base. Conscious11ess, then, is of six
kinds, in relation to the six internal bases and the corresponding six exter-
nal objects.
It should be noted char consciousness does not have the capacity to rec-
ognize an object as a particular thing. le is characterized only by the quality
of being aware of chat sense object. When the eye, for instance, comes into
contact with the color blue, visible consciot1sness of the presence of a color
arises as awareness. However, consciousness does not recognize chat color as
blue. There is no recognition at this stage. Perception (the third aggregate)
is the faculty chat recognizes and identifies che color as blue. Thus, the
aggregate of consciousness is merely the awareness of sense experience aris-
ing from moment co moment ac the sense bases. These sense experiences do
not remain the same for even two consecutive moments, but are in a state
of flux, continuously arising and vanishing.
These are, very briefly, the five aggregates. When they are combined
together, we gee che idea of labeling or naming chem as ''I'' or a ''being'' or
an ''individual." However, they are all impermanent, constantly changing,
and therefore they are dukkha. Thus, there is no unchanging sub~tance,
essence, or self chat can be called ''I'' within these five aggregates or outside
them. The Buddha said, ''Whatever is impermanent is dukkha." Elsewhere,
the Buddha expounded:
59
T Hf FIRST I )ISl'l)l IRSE. ()~ lfiE. l~L 11 )I )HA
--- ------- - -- -- - -- -- . ----------
0 bhikkhus, when these five aggregates are born, decay, and die every
moment, you are born, decay, and die every moment.5 1
And:
He who sees dukkha sees the arising of dukkha, sees the cessation of
dukkha, and sees the path leading co the cessation of dukkha. 52
Therefore, one wl10 realizes dukkha through direct experience (through

meditation) fully understar1ds the First Noble Truth of dukkha, or suffering.
Two: THE OR1c~1N C)F DuKKHA
VI. This, 0 bhikkhus, is the Noble Truth ofthe origin ofsuffering: It is

craving that produces rebirth, bound up with pleasure and greed. ft
finds delight in this and that, in other words, craving/or sense plea-
sures, craving/or existence or becoming, and craving for nonexistence
or self-annihilation.
The Buddha explained how life itself is not different from dukkha. He
established char the cause of dukkha is craving, or thirst (ta!Jha}. ~fhere is
no arbitrary creator who controls our destinies. Suffering and the cause of
suffering are not attributable to any external agency, but can be explained
by life itself. Craving, a mental factor, is the most po~erful fo_rce causing
not only suffering in this very life, but also the perpetuation of existence. It
builds and rebuilds the world over and over again. Life depends on the
desire for life. However, craving is not the first or only cause for the arising
of dukkha. Craving is itself conditioned by other causes. The most imme-
diate cause of ta9ha is vedana, or feeling. According to Buddhism, there is
no first cause. There are innumerable and begi,nningless causes and effects,
which are interdependent and related one to the other. Things are neither
due to one single cause nor are they causeless. Everything in the universe is
conditioned, interdependent, and related. Craving, or ta9ha, is regarded as
the pruximate cause of suffering. According to the Abhidhamma, the cause
of the arising of suffering, or dukkha samudaya, is lobha (greed), one of the
fifty-rwo mental states. Ta9ha (;ilso translated as ''thirst''), raga (craving),
and upadana (attachment) are closely related to lobha (greed). Lobha con-
ditions and causes the arising of dukkha, whereas ta9ha is the root cause of
suffering ( ta!Jhti dukkhassa miilaYfl).
6o
THE FOLIR NOBLE TRLITHS
Kamma and Rebirth

A ''being'' refers to the five aggregates we call a ''life.'' Life is dukkha and
dukkha is life. Tal)ha (craving or desire) is one of the mental states of a
''being~'' When one is born as a being, one has craving or desire to be born
again; and because of this desire the being accumulates wholesome or
unwholesome kamma. Therefore, on a account of kamma one is born
again has another becoming ( bhava). In other words, desire produces
rebirth.
Kamma's result proceeds from kamma,

Result has kamma for its source,
Future becoming springs from kamma,
And this is how the world goes round. 53
For those beings who are hindered by ignorance, fettered by craving,

delighting in this and that (objects), there comes to be recurrence of
becoming again in the future.54
How Does Rebirth Take Place?
It is easy to understand that insofar as taryha has the nature of delighting

in and clinging to objects, a being finds delight in whatever existence it
is born into and enjoys any sense present there. When one wishes to
remain in existence and to get or enjoy pleasurable objects, then voli-
tional activities come into play. 'I'hese kammas (volitional actions), which
may be wholesome or u11wholeson1e, are the cause of rebirth into new

existences.
When a person is abot1t to die, 011e of the wholesome or unwholesome
kammas accumulated over the course of the person's lifetime appears at
his or her sense doors. This sense object may be kamma or a sign of
kamma (kamma-nimitta) that is, a11y sight, sound, smell, taste, touch, or
idea that had been obtained at the time of tl1at kan1ma. Alternatively, the
object may be a sign of destiny (gati-nin-1itta), chat is, the sign of the next
existence where one is destined to take rebirth as the result of one's pre-
vious kamma. These arise with the process of co11sciousness for five
moments just before the death rnomenr ( rr1arat1asar111a-javana) a11d func-
rio11 as a ne\v conditioning consciousness (f1bhisf11ikhara vififiatza) for the
rebircl1.
According co the Bt1tidha, ka111ma resembles a field in which con-
scious11ess may grow (kammflf!l khettaf!l). Consciot1sness is just like a seed
THI FlllST [)l\COllRsE Of- THI l~lll )[>HA
( 11iiifia,1a'!' bijarrz) for the growth of the relinking consciousness (pafisandhi-

11ifzfiana); and craving is likened to the moisture or water element (tal}ha
si,zelJo). which is an essential factor for its growth. 55 A r1ew conditioning
consciousness (abhisanklJiira-vifzfiiina) that conditions r1ew becomir1g takes
as its object kan1n1a, a sign of kamma, or a sign of destiny at the moment of
dying. There arc two causes for new life: kamma ar1d car:iha. But kamma
without tar:iha car1r1ot bring about new becoming. Tar)ha is the main cause.
'I'l1erefore, it is said chat tanha produces rebirth.
The. consciousr1ess that arises at the first rnon1cnt <>f conception, kr1owr1
as relir1king consciousness, also cakes as its object kamma, a sign of kamma,
or a sig11 of destiny. The relinking consciousness is followed by the life con-
rir1ut1r11 consciousness (bhavanga citta), which goes on continuously
tl1rot1gl1out life, even if there is no sense consciousness arising. According co
the Abliidharnrna, relinking consciousness, life concinuun1 consciousness,
and death consciousness within a single life are all ir1 the same category. They
drise as the result of one particular kamma in the past life that appeared at
the moment of d) ir1g. l'hus, ca9ha forms the root cause of the new existence
1
or new beconiing.
Craving for Sense Pleasure

When we experience ariy kind of suffering or pain in this life, it is because
of ot1r cravi11g fo1 or attachn1ent to ser1se objects. For instar1ce, if our child
is ill, we are worriell arid feel lots of suffering. But if a11other person's child
is ill, we dor1't worry or feel as 1nuch, because we dc)n't l1ave so rnuch attach-
r1ier1t to a11c>ther's child. Ariything that we have accachn1er1t co or craving
for, which changes or is lost, causes sufferir1g. The Bt1ddha said:
l~roni cravi11g arises grief, from cravi1ig arises fear;

for lie wh<> is free fro11i cravir1g there is rlo grief, 11iuch less fear.56
(~reed, llesire, thirst, lust, yearning, and affectio1i are some of the cl1aracter-
iscics i11cluded iri tl1e terr11 craving. Craving is tl1e er1e11iy of the whole world;
it is throt1gl1 cravi11g tl1at all unwholeson1e tliir1gs come co living beings.
c:raving arid attaclir1ic1it can arise for physical and r1011-physical things.
1hus, we c~11i l1ave cravi11g for and attachmer1t to sense objects, wealth, or

l)roperty as well as ro rites ar1d ritt1als, philosopl1y, views, ideas, or religion,
all of wliicl1 car1 lead t<> st1fferir1g, frustration, ar1d u11sacisfactoriness .

Now, where a1id how does this craving arise or cake place? Where there is
<lelight and attachrne1it (nandi-riiga sahagata}, craving arises and r11a11ifests.
. THE. FOLIR NOBLE. TRLITHS

All sixfold sense bases are the place at which craving arises, because it is
through these bases that a person recognizes sense objects. When one sees
an object, then one reacts with like or dislike. Likewise when one hears
sound, smells, tastes, touches, and thinks, then like or dislike arises. Some
may say that there is no difficulty ii:i accepting liking as craving, but how
can one accept that disliking is craving, for it is aversion or hatred. On say-
ing that if one dislikes a particular thing it means one likes something else.
Therefore, both like and dislik, are regarded as craving. Visual forms,
sounds, smells, tastes, tangible things, and thoughts or ideas are delightful
and pleasurable and when these objects arise at cheir respective sense
organs, craving arises. The craving thac arises wich regard to sense objects is
called kama-tai:iha, or sensual craving.
Craving for Becoming

Craving associaced wich belief in ecernal exiscence, is called ''craving for
existence or becoming'' (bhava-ta1:1ha). When sensual objects arise, one
aevelops craving as like or dislike, and according co one or the other, one
accumulates wholesome or unwholesome kamma as a result of which one
has to be reborn again. There are some people who believe in a fucure life
and crave to be born again in a beccer life. Therefore, chey accempt to
accumulace good kamn1a so char chey may be reborr1 inco a becter life.
However, chis is also a form of dukkha, for ''birth is also suffering'' (jdti
pi dukkha). Craving for becoming, che desire co continue exiscing, or to
concinue co be reborn forever is what is known as che view of eternalism
(sassata-ditthi)

.
Cravingfor An11ihifation
When craving is associaced wich che belief in self-ar1nil1ilatio11, it is called
craving for nonexistence (vibha1;a-ta1:1ha). 'I'his is what is known as the
view of nihilism (uccheda-dif!hi). Believing there are r10 co11sL'<lt1cr1ces to
his or her actions, the nihilist ma)' reject all religi<)US 111c1ral 1)ri11ciples, as
well as the belief in life after death or future existe11cLs. S11cl1 ~1 i)erso11 may
perform moral or immoral accions. But irres~1ectivc <)f. cl1L rL'jlLtio11 of till'
consequences, whether one believes in k~1n1111~1 <Jr 11<>t, tl1e 1est1lt ot.
karnn1a will be that one is bc>r11 agai11 ir1to cxistc11CL'. 1<> l>L' 11,)111 ag~1i11 is
dukkha. As long as one remai11s i11 the cycle of rel1ir1l1, c>r s;11i1s.1r;1, there
is dukkha, regardless of wl1etl1er the 1el1irtl1 is 11.11>~>!' <)r t1i1l1;1f)f))
Therefore, it is said tl1at these tl1ree ki11Js <>f. t;11.il1;I ;1re tllL' <>ri~i11, <>r rc><>l
cat1se, of sufflring.
THF FIRST [)ISCOL IRSE. OF THE. BLIDLJHA
- -- - -~----~--. ---------
THREE: THE CESSATION OF 0UKKHA
VII. This, 0 bhikkhus, is the Noble Truth of the cessation of suffering.

It is the complete cessation ofsuffering; giving up, renouncing, relin-
quishing, detaching from craving.
The cessation of suffering (nirodha) is known as nibbana, which literally

111eans ''freedom from cravin~'' While the literal meaning may help one to
understand the term, it can not help one to experience the bliss of 11ibbana.
Only the one who applies the Noble Eightfold Path of sila, samadhi, and
pafifia can comprehend the full meaning of 11ibban;1 through direct experi-
ence. It is impossible to make one understa11d witl1 111ere explanations or
definitions. Jt1st as the sweet11ess of mango frt1it ca1111ot be n1adc k11own to
one who has 110 previous experience of it u11til l1e l)Uts a s111all piece 011 his
tongue, so too must one ''taste'' 11ibba11a.
Nibba11a is the summum bon11m of Bt1lilil1is111. Altl1ougl1 1n;111y terms
are used to describe it and rnany detailed ex1)la11acio11s 11r<>vidcd, the actu-
al understanding of 11il1bana remains elt1sivc t<> tl1<>se \vhc) woL1IJ 011ly'
seek to comprehe11d it analytically a11d ccJ11ceptually (11t11kk111111ct1ro). The
Buddha defined 11ibbana i11 botl1 positive a11d 11cgacive cer111s. But,
nibbana is neither positive nor negative, tor tl1e idea of both 11egative and
positive are relative and dualistic, whereas nibbana is alJsolute reality ;111d
beyond duality and relativity. These terms ca11not t'ully express tl1e trL1e
meaning of nibba11a, which can only be realized thr<)ugl1 111editatio11 a11d
mental training. For those who delight i11 sensual pleasures it is difficult
to imagi11e what a blissful and sublime state 1night be like wl1ich is 11ot
characterized by any of tl1e qt1alities experie11ced through che five sense
doors.
Nevertheless, if nibbana is de~cribed and defined i11 positive a11d 11eg-
ative terms, one may still get some notio11 about wl1at nibba11a 111e;111s i11
relative language. 111 this discourse, the Buddha used tl1e word d11kk/;,1-
nirodha (cessation of dukkha). Altl1ougl1 the word nibba11a is 11ot 111e11-
tioned, these words are sy11onymous. In positive tern1s, 11ibba11a 111ea11s

peace (santi), sublimity (patzita), purity (suddhi), release (11ir1111tti), sect1-
rity (khema), excellent happiness (paramasukha), a11d so forth; ,vl1ile i11
negative terms it is defined as deatl1less (amataf!L), unco11ditio11ed
(asankhata), extinction of craving (tatzhtikkhayo), extinction of hatred
(dosakkhayo), extinction of delusion (mohakkhayo), cessatio11 of dt1kkl1a

THE FOLIR ~OBLE TRLITHS
--- -- -- ---
(nirodha), extinction of thirst (viraga), and so on.
Saupadisesa Nibbana
There are two kinds ot' nibbana: saupadisesa-nibbana, meaning ''nibbana
with the aggregates remaining'' and anupadisesa-nibbana, meaning 'nibbana
without the aggregates remaining." The meditator who practices vipassana
meditation attains stages of insight and subsequently enters the stream of the
noble path. At that time, he or she realizes for the first time the bliss of
nibbana. During vipassana meditation the meditator realizes that the whole
of mentality and materiality, which is held as ''I," or a being, is impermanent
(anicca), suffering (dukkha), and insubstantial (anatta). As the meditator
understanding and awareness develops to its culmination, awareness sud-
denly ceases. He or she sees the other side of reality (the realization of the
cessation ofdukkha). 1~his is the first moment in which the meditator expe-
riences the bliss of nibbana in his or her beginriingless round of samsara.
Such. . a person is called a sotapanna, or stream winner the one who can
reobserve the bliss of nibbana as fruition (phala). This 'nibbana is called
''nibbana with the aggregates remaining."
Likewise, those who practic<; with the aim of reaching highe1 .stages
uproot defilelllents according to the stages reached in the holy life. Their
experience is also of nibbana with a base (substratum) remaining. The
arahant, one whose taints (tisava) are completely destroyed through ~he
practice of meditation, experiences the bliss of 11ibbana. This kind of
nibbana is called ''nibbana with a base remaining." Although the arahant
is liberated from the bonds of becomi11g, such as, greed, anger, and delu-
sion, his sense faculties have not yet been demolished and he experiences
pleasure and pain, because his five aggregates still remain. The extinction
of greed, hatred, and delusion describes ''nibbana with a base remaining''
(saupadisesa nibbiirza dhatzt). When the Venerable Saripucta, the chief dis-
ciple of cl1e Bt1ddha, was asked by the devotee Jabukhadaka, ''Nibbana,
nibbana, is che saying, friend, Saripucca. What is nibbana?'' Saript1tta
replied, ''che descructio11 of lusc, the destruction of hatred, che descruccio11
of delusio11, friend, is called 11ibba11a."'i7 le is also called the cessation of
defilements (kilesa-nibba11a). Therefore, it is said, in 1heravad~1
Bt1ddl1is111, that it is possible co ex~1erie11ce the l1liss of 11ibh;1n~1 here ;111d.
11ow, i11 this very life. 'I'here is 11t> neeli to w;1ic t111til yot1 die.
l'ari 11il1!1a11a
rhcrc ;1re rl1rcc r<>Ltlllis <>f.l1cc<>111i11g: k;1111111;1, Lilflle111c11ts <.>r kilcs;1, ;t11Li rl1c
5
T lif
----
. -----------------
,~IRSl [ )ISC()l IRSE OF THE BLID[JHA
.
resulcs c)f kar11r11a or vipaka. These are interdependent, repeatedly eom-

ir1~ ir1c) exiscer1ce as cl1e wheel of life, or samsara. When one is born as
a bcir1g (l1ccomir1g), tl1is is the birth of the five aggregates. Whenever
sense objects arise ac the sense bases, craving and attachment i:no.t~vated
by ignt)r;1nce arise. Thus, by craving sense objects one accu~ ylates
1
wholesor11e ;1nci t1r1wholesome kamma. Then, as a result of kammct', one
has tc1 be l1c)rn again. However, for the arahant who totally eradicates all
traces <)f ciefiler11e!1ts that lead to becoming or rebirth, there is no more
rebirth. ~le is lihcrace<l frorn the cycle of samsara, from repeated exis-
tence. "I"he <1r;1l1an t nlay have performed many good deeds in his lifetime,
but his actions are ineffective for they are not motivated by mental
defilcmen cs (ki lcs;1) st1ch as greed (lobha), hatred (dosa), and ignorance
(moha). Any ;1ctior1 chat gives a result is called kamma. The action that
does riot give aI1)' wholesome or unwholesome result is called kiriya
(ft1r1ccioni11g). A seed cannot grow without soil and fertilizer. Likewise,
for the aral1;1nt \\'l10 has ui1rooced ignorance and desire, there is no fer-
tile soil in \vl1icl1 k;1n1111ic energies can arise and produce a result. When
the arahant diLs, the five aggregates cease. When the wax and wick of a
can(ilc bt1rr1 (f(>\v11, tl1c fl;1n1e dies out. In the same way, the arahant who
has no ka1nm;1 will t1pon death have no further becoming. There is only
'
tl1t e11ti clf clt1kkha peace. This is ''nibbana without the aggregates
rcn1;1i11i11g'' ;1r1tl is kno\vn as parinibbana, or the final passing away o.f the
ar;1l1anr.
111crc is, () l1hikkl1us, the unborn, unoriginated, unmade, and

t111ct>11tf irio11tcf. Were there nor the u11born, unoriginated, unmade,
;1r1d t111c<>11tfitior1etf, there could be no escape for the born, originat-
etf, 111a<.ll', ;111tf cc>r1cf itioned. Since there is the unborn, unoriginated,
t1nn1;1Lic, ;1nd t1ncl>ndirio11ed, there is escape for the born, originated,
111;1lll .:11ll Lc>11ditioned.58
l~cc;1t1sc 111l>l>;111;1 is expressed in negative terms, some rnay think that it is

11cg;1ti\c ;111ti CXJ>rcsscs sclf-annil1ilation. Nibbana is not annihilation of
sell~ l1c<.:;1t1se tl1cre is Ill) self to annihilate. Rather, nibbana can be said to
l1c tl1c ;11111il1il;1tion of. cravir1g, hatred, delusion, and the false perceptio.n
<>f. sclll1<>(l<.l. Nil)\1;-1r1a does -not signify nothingness. Nibbana is ultimate
crt1tl1 <lr rt;1lic:', i11cc>111prehensible to the experience of the worldly person.
It j.., 1l1L' Ll<>111;1i11 <.>f. s;1i11cs only, a11d is realized by the wisdom of their own
t'XJ>lric11tL (f111111tt111!1 veditc:bbo vinnuhi).
66

FOUR: THE PATH LEADING TO THE CESS.l\TION OF DUKKHA
VIII. This, 0 bhikkhits, is the Noble Truth ofthe path leading to the ces-
sation of suffering. ft is simply the Noble Eightfold Path, nanzely:
Right understanding, right thought, right speech, t;ight action, right
livelihood, right effort, r1gl1t awareness, and right concentration.
Because the noble path has already been elaborated upon, only the points
necessary for an u11dersranding of how to practice the Middle Way will be
Jiscussed again. The Noble Eightfold Path is comprised of three aspects:
sila, samadhi, and pafifia. These th1ee aspects are the conditions for eradi-
cating the three kinds of defilements, or kilesa: (1) mental defilements that
arise by transgression of ethical precepts (vitikkama- kilesa); (2) mental
obsession~ that arise due to conditions (pariyuffhdna- kilesa); and (3) latent
tendencies or dispositions (anusaya-kilesa).
If one.observes sila which is comprised of right speech, right action,
and right livelihood one will not cultivate unwholesome actions, such
as, harming living beings, stealing, sexual misc?nduct, and wrong speech.
If one practices san1adhi which is comprised of right effort, right aware-
ness, and right concenttation then mental obsessions or any reaction of
like and dislike will not arise whenever sense bases come into contact with
sense objects. For chose who practice samadhi, like or dislike does not
arise, because when they see or hear they are aware of these just as seeing
and hearing. Latent tendencies are chose mental defilements that are
stored in the mind as dispositions in the beginningless cycle of rebirth as
a result of unwholesome actions. These kinds of subtle defilements can be
uprooted througl1 pafifia, which is constituted by right understanding and
right thought. The main root cause of these dispositions is avijja, or igno-
rance. Avijja is delusion '"'' darkness, and pafifia is wisdom or light. When
light arises, the darkness dis;1~1pears; when one's mind is free from delu-
sion, it is in the state of en:ightenme11t. Therefore, the Buddha instructed
on three kinds of training to t->urify the three kinds of impurities of the
mind.
The eight paths and the three aspects of training should be practiced
simultaneously, not in nu1nerical order. When one experience.:; problems or
unpleasant feelings, it is because of o~e's own mind: one sees or hears and
gives judgement, posjtive or negative, according to one's own d~spositio11.
For example: one sees somcthi11g for '.he .first time and likes what one sees
T 11f 1-11{s 1 I )IS( l)L 11{.sF o~ THF Bt J[)OHA
-- -- -- - - -------~-
and i~ happy; but on seeing it for the second time does not like it and is
unhappy; the feeling of unhappiness is not because of the thing itself, but
on account of the change in one's attitude or state of mind. ''Because the
mind is defiled, beings suffer (cittasa'!lkilesti sattti sa'!lkilissanti),"59 said the
Buddha. We are responsible for our own happiness and sorrow. We create
our o\\'n heaven a11d hell. Our judgments and feelings are dependent on
our own ego, 01 personality, and the ignorance that is latent in the mind.
The aim of tl1e teachi11g of the noble path is co purify the rnind.
Higher Morality
Before practici11g san1adhi a11d f1afifia, ic is esse11cial co establish sila by observ-
ing tl1e five moral precepts (pafzcasila), or code of discipline. If, however, the
ain1 of practice is co achieve the highest wisdom or e11lighcenn1ent, then the
higher n1oralicy (11clhisila) is rel}Llired. 'I'l1is is l1ecause u11wholesome actions
and speech are 11erfor1ned 011ly when rl1e n1ir1d is overwl1elmed by greed,
a11ger, or delusio11. l(an1111~1 is 111e11cal volition a11d 11ot cl1e function. .or mani-
of
-
festatio11 of rl1c action. According to the state of mi11d at che time action,
kamn1a (volitior1) bccl)111es wholeso111e or u11wl1olesome. 'I'he meditator who
does 11ot practice l>tl1e1 as11ccts of sa111~1Jl1i a11d pafifia is u11able to achieve
higher n1or;1lity. As 011e devel011s samadl1i a11d pafifia, so the quality of
morality is als<.> developed. It is \'cry co111111011 to fi11J tl1at worldly persons are
able to <1bserve 111oralit)' wl1e11ever the sirt1ati<.>11 is 11ositive or good. If, how-
ever, tl1e sitt1;1tio11 is 11egati\'e or t111st1itable, rl1ey fl11<.l it n1t1ch n1ore difficult
to ol1se1ve 111oral l1rece11ts. 1-l1ere are 111a11y 11eo11le \\'11<) practice 1neditation
regt1larl)', live in rl1e co1n111t111it)' \Vitl1 l1;1rr11<>11y, a11<.l talk ;1bout patience and
co111passio11, but fi11<.l it diftlct1lr t<1 live witl1 otl1crs l>Lttsidc of the commu-
11iry. As 111c11tio11ed bef<>re, tl1e1e ;1rc 111e11ral ol1sessio11s tl1at arise only whe11

a sitt1;1tior1 is cl1a11gcd. If 011c dc>es 11ot t1pro<.>t late11r 111e11cal aberrations or

defile111e11ts, \\l1c11 tl1c sitt1;1tio11 is t111st1itable l>r agai11st 011e's <1wn ideal, the
reactio11 of' like ;111<.l clislikc, <>r cra\'i11g ;1nd aversio11, arises. These become
111e11r~1l ol1s<.ssil>r1s ;111<.l 11cg;1tive forces of' rhe 1nind conditioning the accu-
111t1lacio11 <>f t111\\'l1<>lcs<>r11e ;1ctio11s. 'I'l1rougl1 the practice of vipassana,
t111\vhc>lcsl>I11e 111e11r;1l <.lis11<>sitil>11s l1econ1e eradicated, thereby developing the
11r;1ctitil>11er's s1l;1, \vl1icl1 itself l1ecor11es <l preco11dition to higher wisdom.
'I'l1e list of' rl1e Nt>l>le I~ightfc>ld l)atl1 is headed by right understanding.
Rigl1t u11Jcrsta11di11g (sa1n11111 diffl1i) rnea11s knowing things as they really are.
111c l3t1lllll1a ~ai<.l, ''l{igl1t t111de1srar1di11g is to u11derstar1d suffering, to under-
stan<.l cl1e cat1sc <)f suffcri11g, to t111dersca11ll the cessatior1 of sufferi11g, and ttl
t111dersca11<.i tl1e ~1;1rl1 leadi11g t<> tl1e cess;1ti<>11 <>f sufferi11g." The wisdom that
68
---------- --------------- ---- --------- - ------- - -- - --- - --
.
realizes the truth of suffering is right understanding. Right understanding is"

so essential t9 the path that the Btiddha taught it first.
The Noble Eightfold Path is intended not merely as an intellectual exer-
cise, but as a practical undertaking. If one understands the 11ature of dukkha,
one realizes all Four Truths as well To t1nderstand dt1kkha is essential, \vhich
is why the list of the Eightfold Path is headed by right t1nderstanding. Those
who understand the truth of life as suffering are able to ~1ractice vipassana,
which leads to the attainment of nibba1-ia. The order in \vhicl1 the eight
paths are listed in the Noble Eightfold Path is 11ot sig11ifica11t i11 rl1e se11se
that each path requires completion before 1no\ ing <)11 ro the r1ext one. All 1
eight paths are interdependent and i11tc1rel~i.t~l1, dnd ~1t the higl1est level
function simultaneously. At the hegin11ir1g ot- ~)ractice, eacl1 parl1 11eeds to
be infused with son1e degree of rigl1t t111derst~tndi11g, for it is the l1ill~1r of
the teachings.
0 bhikkhus, it is throt1gh not t1n<.lerst~111c.ii11g, tl1e 11ot pe11etr~1ting

Four Noble Truths, that we have rt111 so l(111g, \V~1r1dered S() !orig i11 this
round of existence (samsara) botl1 \'Oll ~111,i I. \"'Vhe11 these Foti r Noble
Truths, () bhikkhus, are u11derst<1od ~111<.i 11e11etr<ltec.i, fO()tec.i ot1t is the
craving for existence (bhava-tar)ha), destr<)yec.i is th;1t \vl1ich le~1<.ls to
renewed becoming, and there is no 111ore cor11i11g t<1 l1c.< 1<J
By right understanding alo11e, one ca1111ot realize tl1e trt1e 11att1re <)t- a11icca,
dukkha, and anatta. Rigl1t thot1gl1t is also reqt1i1<.'d. Rigl1t tl1ot1ght i11clt1des
thoughts of selfless rent1nciation, lo\'e, a11d no11-vi()le11ce exte11ded toward
all living beings. It is a pure a11c.1 l1alanced state of 1ni11c.i \Vitl1ot1t \vhicl1 right
t1nderstanding ca1111ot be develol1ed. Tl1e 111e<.iit;1to1 n1t1st i11\estigate the
true nature of the physical a11d 111('I1tal \Vorl<.is t-ro111 111<)111e11r t<) 111on1ent in
order to t1ndersta11d them as tb :v re;1ll,, ~1rc.'. For tl1is reas<)t1, tl1e Rt1ddl1a
1

taught right thougl1t after he taught rigl1t t111de1st<111di11g.
Meditation on the Four Noble Tr11tf;s

Although meditation on the Four N<)hle 'fi-t1tl1s is Il<1lL'<.I i11 tl1e 1Vf,1/;11sati-
paffhana Sutta, only two of tl1ese trt1tl1s, dt1kkl1a anc.i tl1e origi11 <Jt- c.it1kkl1;1,
are considered suitable for the practice <lf n1e<.iit;1ti<111. 'I'l1e.se t\vo tr11tl1s arc
mundane while the. other two are st11)r~1111t111c.i~111e. I\1L'<.iic~1tio11 reqt1ires
observation of objects chat are 1nu11d~111e a11d c<111<.iitio11eLI. St11Jr~1111t111li;111e
scares are not suitable for 1ncdiracic)n L)_ec;1usc tile)' ;1rc L1c)'<.>Illl tl1e gr;1s11 c.>f
ordinary worldlir1gs. They ca11not l1~1ve cl1e 11c>L1lc i1~1rl1 and fr11iti<111
bg
11 ii ~lllST I )IS<:< )l lllSI ()I 11-ll l~l 11 )I l~lA
(rr1agga-pha/,a) as a11 object of meditatio11 before attaining gotrabhu, which

is the state of consciousness that has realized nibbar1a and that changes one's
li11eage from a worldling co a noble one.
When vipassana insight beco111es ft1lly developed, adaptable insight
(ar1ulorr1a-fzdna) arises, wl1ich is followed by gocrabhu insight. Following
imn1ediately after gotrabhu is tl1e realizatio11 of tl1e noble patl1 and
fruition. At the moment of gotrabhu, the 111editator experiences a glimpse
of nibbana. Before that n1oment, it is not possible co cake nibbana as che
ol)ject of meditation, nor che patl1s and fruitil)llS. l {<)Wever, those who
practice contemplatior1 011 cl1e attril)Liti\e qu~1lities of nibbana
(upasarr1anussati), such as being devoid of lust ( tJiraga), ca11 gain tranquil-
lity or concentrative absorptions. But this practice is taken solely for the
purr)ose of achieving 011e-poi11redness of 111i11d arid Illlt tl1e realization of
the Four Noble rfrL1ths.
The n1editator should take cl1e five aggregates ~1s a 111etlitatio11 object. If
cl1e meditator observes one of the h\'e aggregates witl1 ~l\V~1rt"11ess, arid realizes
the truth of dukkha, that mome11c of pe11errariv1: i11sigl1t (pa,tiveda) permits
a simultaneous undersca11ding of tl1e l)ther cl1rct" trt1tl1s as \\'ell. Ac the time
of awakening (abhisamaya) the mediracor co111prehe11ds that suffering is to
be rightly understoc)d, chat the cause of suffering ( t1lt1l1ii) is to be aban-
doned, that the cessation of sufferi11g (dukkl1ar1irodl1a or nibbana) is co be
realized, and char che pach leadi11g co cl1e cessat io11 of suffering
(dukkhanirodhagamini pafipada} is to be developed. Indeed, through the
development of the Noble Eigl1tfold I)ach the meditator cornprehends life,
which is che five aggregates, as dukkha; eradicates tl1e origin of dukkha
(ta~ha}; and experie11ces the bliss c)f che ccssacio11 of suffering (nirodha),
which is the realization of nibbana.
When one practices vipassana, the object of- 1neditatior1111usc be one of the
five aggregates or mental and material (ndma-riipa) elen1cr1cs. rl'he meditator
should observe che object until it is clearly understood as impermanent. This
leads to che comprehension that because all things are impermanent they are
dukkha and also devoid of sel( When tl1e n1edicator comprehends these char-
acteristics of dukkha, anicca, and anatta through the direct experience of
\,them as universal laws, he or she has the11 realized the Four Noble Truths. He
or she becomes an ariya, a noble one.
6
THE SEVEN STAGES OF PLIRIFICATION
When a wise 1nan established well in virtue
. consciousness and understanding:
Develops .
Then as a bhikkhu ardent and sagacious,

He succeeds in disentangling this tangle.
Sa,,,yu tta Nikaya, 1.13
THE MAIN AIM OF FOLLOWING the Noble Eightfold Path is to attain the state
of enlightenment, the realization of nibbana. The path to enlightenment
must devel'?P through the seven stages of purification with their corre-
sponding levels of insight. The meditator can ascertain his or her own level
of progress according to the level of insight experienced. These stages of
insight are as follows.
ONE: PURITY OF MORALITY (SILA-VISlJDDI~11)
Righc speech, right action, and right livelihood are basic practices for 1noral
purification. Traditionally, observance of either five or eight moral precepts is
considered adequate for the lay person striving to achieve the n1oral purity
necessary to undertake vipassan2 meditation. For monks and 11u11s, addi-
tional precepts are observed according to the disciplinary monastic rules
(patimokkhasa,,,vara sila). The morality of restraini11g the senses
(indriyasa,,,vara si/a), the morality of pure liv~lihood (ajivapdrisuddhi sila),
and the morality of the proper use of requisites (paccayasannissita sila) are
essential precepts required by the meditator in order to co11rrol tl1e senses
for higher morality and to discipline the mind.
Two: PURITY OF MIND (C1iTA-V1suooH1)
When one first begins meditation, one finds it very difficult to control the
mind and to concentrate on an object.The mind wanders and thoughts fre-
quently arise because-the mind is not yet fully purified. l'he meditator feels
there is no progress in the practice. In order to progress, the mellitacor must
achieve purity of mind by developing one of the three co11centrarions:
71
l I ii , ,,, "l I )(\( ( )l lll..SI l )I i-1 ii l~l 11 )( >I -IA
111or11c11tary co11ce11tratior1, access C<Jncentratior1, or absorption concentra-

ti()Ils. l{ighc eff(Jrt, 1ight awareness, and rigl1t concer1tration are grouped
tt>geche1 as ''conce11cratio11'' (san1adhi) in the Noble Eightfold Path. These
tl1ree f~1ctl>rs r11L1st be develoiJcd to iJurify the 111i11d, which is otl1erwise per-

11ecually i11(lir1eli t(>\vard ser1se olJjects. Once a sense <>lJjcct arises in the sens-
es, 011e reacts wicl1 like or dislike. 'I'his bri11gs ;1l)<>ltt cl1<>L1gl1ts tl1at cause the
;1risi11g of' i1111Jltrities. Son1etirnes tl1t'.re 111ay }Jc 110 like or dislike ~111d no defile-
111t'.11ts, bL1t tl1ere are i11ter1l11Jti<>11s 1}1~11 l>ec<>Illt'. l1i11ll1~111ces to the practice.
011e sl10L1ld devcl'JlJ COilC('IltIatic>t1 t(> lJltrif) till' 111it1ll. l:<>r tl1e 111editator v.'ho
practices \'il)Jssar1a 111ltlit~1tio11 \vitl1 111(>111l11ta1)' cu11ce11tratio11 (kl1al}ika
sanz,1dl1i), aware11ess <1rises c>lJjccti\'el)' ~i11ll J>recisel)' <>11 111;111)' diflerer1t succes-
sive objects. At tl1is level, cl1lre is 11c> 1l'f lexivc tl1 i11ki11g ;1 l1<>l1 t cl1e object. 'I'here
is only bare ;1\vareness as tl1e 111ind co11ce11t1 ;1tes Ul)<111 tl1e <)lJject. When the
n1ind becon1es free fron1 111e11tal h!ndra11ces <1nd aw;1re11ess arises Ltninter-
ruptelily wirl1 its resiJective ohjects, then conce11tratio11 is estahlished along
\Vith pu1ity of. r11i11li. 'I'he develop1nent of vipassa11a i11sight may tl1en progress.
PL1rificatio11 of' view generally de11otes tl1c overco111i11g of tl1e fal~e idea of self,
or essence, ir1 rl1e so-called being. l'l1e 1neditator endowed with purity of
n1i11d observes 111e11ral and n1aterial processes in eacl1 n1(>t11e11t, understand-
ing the mind a11d body analytically. Wl1ile conce11tratir1g on breathing, he or
she comes to disti11guish bet\veen the in-lJreath and the out-breath a11d
-
becomes aware that the inte1val between the in-breath and its awareness
and tl1e out-breath a11d its awareness arise as different processes. In this way,
' .
the n1editator co1nes to recognize through direct experience that each 1nental
~nd material state is a ditTe1ent pr<.Jcess. 'I'he same logic applies ir1 the case
of the other sense functions. for exa111ple, wl1er1 seei11g a visual object, 011e
knows to distinguish each single factor involveli i11 tl1e l)rocess. 'fhe eye, the
visual object, seeing, and aware11ess are all perceived as disti11ct factors in
the visual process. By observir1g each of these, the 111editator can analyze
mental and material states according to their i:rue esse11ti:1l 11ature. l'his is
called ''analytical knowledge of 1nind a11d body'' (111111111-rupa pariccheda
iidna). When this knowledge l1as come Cl> maturity, the 111editator under-
stands that there is no esse11tial unchanging self, or essence, in any mental
or material process. l'nis is called purifi.cation of view.
,

No doer of the deeds is found, no being that nlay reap their fruits;
Empty phenomena roll on, this is the 011ly right view.61
THE SEVEN STACES OF PLIRIFICA1-ll)N
-- --------- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -- -------- ---------- -
FOUR: PURITY BY OVERCOMING DOUBT

(KANKHAVITARA~A VISUDDHI)
''Purity by overcoming doubt'' is that knowledge that comes about through

comprehending the conditions for the arising of mental and physical phe-
nomena. One overcomes doubts such as: ''Have I been in the past? Shall I
be in the future? Arn I now? Arn I nor?'' The understanding of dependent
origination, of karnrna, and rebirth are also inclL1ded here.
Who wishes to escape from doubt, sh<-1uld be attenti\'e and alert;

And should of mind and body both, perceive the caL1se and origiii.62
As the rneditator's concentration and knowledge develops, lie or she realizes

cause and effect while observing mind and body. When changing the sit-
ting position, the rneditator realizes that tliere is ari inrentiori char precedes
the act. When stretching a limb,, there is first the inrentio1i to stretch a limb.
The rneditator distinguishes between cat1se arid effect in each momerit.
This is the insight that distinguishes between cause and effect (parcaya-
pariggaha fztina).
As. time passes, the rneditator comes to cxperie1ice various painft1l feeling~
in the body. Just as awareness of one feeling arises, ariother arises sorne\vhere
else. The rneditator follows each feeling as it arises arid becomes a\vare of it.
But although he or she is engaged in watching these feelings as tl1ey arise,

only their initial phase of 'arising' is perceived and not their fi11al phase of
dissolution. Similarly, as mental irnages arise the act ()f awarer1ess is 1ioticcd,
bur not of their moment of dissolution. In this wa)' the rneditatof under-
stands and realizes that all mental and 1naterial processes are cor1ditioned or
conditioning. Apart from these, there is no perso11 or self who 11erfor1ns or
governs this phenomenal world. l'his is called tl1e pL1rity of insiglit l1y over-
coming doubt.
FIVE: PURI'I'Y BY INSIGH1 AND VISION ()f W~IAI. IS PAI~1

AND Nor PATH (MAGGi\MA(--;GANANAL)ASSANA v'1sLiI)I>I--1I)
As the medirator continues the meditation \Vith perfect aw;1re11ess ;111d con-
centration, he or she becomes aware tl1at every process of the 111ir1d and
body being observed is subject to change. The 11rocesses are in111er11i;1nent,
just arising and passing away. Stich knowledge is called tl1e ir1sight th;1t
observes, explores, and grasps inipermanence (anirra s11mrn11ss1111a fiana).
Recognizing all rnental and physical phenomena as impermanent, the
meditator realizes that they are r1ot wortl1 cherishing. The meditator con-
siders chem as a form of suffering (dukkha sammassana fztina). He or she
comprehends thac they are absent Qf self, as the processes of impersonal
phenomena (anattanupassana fzana). The comprehension that arises with
direct experience is called ''insight by comprehension of phenomena''
(sammassana fzana).
As the medicator brings atte11tion to bear on any process of the mind .or
body, the arising and dissolution of each process becomes prominenc. This
is the insight of arising and passing away (udayabbaya fzana). As che medi-
tator observes all mencal and macerial processes objectively in che moment,
as a result of insight, various phenome11a arise in hi1n or her. These may
include: a brilliant light, scrong mindfulness, strong or lucid awareness,
scrong faith, rapcure, cranquillity of mind, sublime happiness suffusing che
bod'<>vigor, equanimicy, but also a liking or subtle attachment to these. The
meditator, at first, is dclighced wich chese experiences believing he or she
has attained the goal. Ho,vever, observing these objectively, the meditator
realizes they are mere pheno1nena, subject to change and therefore corrup-
tions of insight. This understanding is called, ''puricy by knowledge and
vision of what is patl1 and not path.
SIX: PURITY BY KNOWLEDGE AND VISION OF THE COURSE

OF PRACTICE (PATIPADANANA DASSANA VisUDDHI)
As che meditator continues practice, the watching of arising and passing away
becomes accurate and matt1re, keen and strong. 'I'he meditator perceives only
two factors in each moment object and awareness. While giving attention
to these, he or she becomes aware that every factor is dissolving. For instance,
when hearing, seeing, smelling, or thinking, dissolution and nor arisinb
becomes prominent. This is the arising of the insight of dissolution (bhanga
fztina). With the development of the insight of dissolution, awarencis of fear
arises in the wake of the constant and rapid dissolution of all processes. This
is ~nsight-with the awareness of fea1 fulness ibhaya fztina). Perceiving the rapid

dissolution of all psycho-physical phenomena, the meditator sees them as

undesirable and harmful. This is the insight of misery (iidiriava iitina).
Psycho-physical manifestation is regarded as insubstantial, devoid of pl(';jsure,
and tiresome. This is the insight of disgust (nibbida fztina). These latter three
iasights are combined together as a single insight. T-herefore, some mcdita-
tors may experience only one or two of these .
. 74
.
Tl-tF SFVFN STA<.,F'-, (. )f PL llllFl<..:ATI<. )N
- - - -
As the meditator experiences all the processes of mind and body fear-
fulness, misery, and disgust a desire arises to renounce this mind-body
complex. This is the insight of desire for deliverance (mufzcitukamyatii
fiiina). The meditator 111akes a strong detern1ination ar1d effort to develop
awareness and concentration. All the processes of pl1ysical and 1nencal ele-
ments become calm and balanced. Painful feelings disappear. Awareness
arises smoothly and spontaneously, and equanimity continues for a longer
time than previ6usly experienced. This is the insight of ''equanimity of for-
mations'' (sarikharupekkhii fzana).
With the n1acuring of this insight, a\vareness becornes sharp. occurring
rwo or three tin1es rapidly and witl1ouc any s~Jecial efforc: Tl1is lase stage is

called insight leading co en1ergence (viffht111t;z gt11r1i11i), or i11sight of adapta-
tion (anuloma fzana). Vicchana means the 11ollle patl1 rl1ac asce11ds to and
glimpses nibba11a. Gamini means rhe speci~1l insight thac proceeds co the
noble path. Anuloma fiana is the lase of tl1c vipassana insigl1ts that occur in
the progression of vipassana insights and tl1e noble patl1. If the meditator
experiences this last vipassana insight, it is called purity by insight and
vision in tl1e course of practice. ln1mcdiately afterwards, a kind of insight
arises that falls, as it were, for the first rin1e into 11ibbana, which is void of

formations since it is the cessation of chem. This is called maturity insight

(gotrabhu fziina). Gocrabhu literally means ''the one who has become of the
lineage.'' In other words, by arcaining that insigl1t, one moves from the
worldling lir1eagc to chat of the 11oble ones .
. . -
SEVEN: PURITY BY lNSIGHl. ANl) VISION (NANADASSANA VISUDDHI)
The moment of che arising of path insight ( rriagga-fztina) is called purity

by insight and vision, the last of the seven purif-lcations. After the insight
of adaptation (anuloma fidna), n1aturity i11sight, and path a11d fruicio11
insighrs follow i11 successi<lll. l'he path insight lases 011ly for a fleeri11g
moment a11d realizes the cessation of all processes of conditioning. The
insight of fruition is followed by two or three insights of retrosJJec~io11
(paccavekkha1:1a fiana) that co11tcmplace the path of vipassar1a, a11d the patl1
of the noble ones. Pach insighc (wl1ich signifies purity by i11sight and
vision) and fruition insighc are insighcs of a stream winner (sotapanna). Tht
stream winner is one who encers for the first rime the strearn of che noble
path, thereby overcoming the concepc of a11 everlasting sclt: (foubts about
the path or teachings, and adherence to wrong rices and rituals. The screan1
winner has become free from rebirtl1 i11 any of the lower realms of existence.
75
l HI ~llZ.., T I )l"il( )L Ill..,~ ( )~ l HF l~L 11)1 )HA

'fhe individual who wisl1es to attain l1igher insights and stages of enlight-
e11ment should make an effort to develop vipassana insights beginning wich
the insight of arisi11g and dissl>lutio11 (udayabbaya fidna). This will lead co
higher lJaths and fruition i11sights tl'lr<>t1gl1 which one eradic~tes the remain-
ing fetters of defilements. 'I'he fi11al st;1ge arrived at is that of the arahant. For
the arahant there can be no furtllL'r 1c>t1nc.ls ()f rebirth in samsara.
For one practici11g vipassana 111Ltlit;t1 i<>11, in <>rder to attai11 the 11oble path,
it is necessary to develOfJ tl1rce l.:.i11<.ls <)f. fir<>f(>t111d k11<)\\'ledge in the progress
of meditation stages: ( 1) ft1ll t1r1lll'r<;t;1111li11g ;1s tl1e k11ow11 (ndta-parififia};
(2) full t111dersta11di11g as i11\'es1ig;1ti11g <)r jt1dgi11g (tirar111-parinna}; and (3)
full t1nderstanding as alJa11<.i<)11i11g (p,1/ .i11a-parififzli). r11ese are explained as
1
follows.
1. When one observes physical a11<.i 1ne11t;1l f>rocesscs with a\vareness and
concentratio11, they are see11 precise!)' fron1 n101ne11r t<) 11101ncnt, \\'ithout
concepts. For example, if a \'isihle c>lJjecr arises at the eye base, it is recog-
nized only as seeing (not as a tree or chair, and so on). 111tl1e11ext moment,
if a sound is heard it is recognized <>nly as hcari11g (not as clap, voice, and
so forth). Thoughts arise and are known only as thinking. If attention is
focused on the body, the quality <>f heavi11ess, lightness, heat, cold, or
nlotio11 is noticed. In this way, the n1editator discerns mental and material
iJhe110111ena in their trt1e 11ature. 111is is called full understanding as the
known (fidta parinfia).
2. If the meditator observes whatever mental and material processes arise

in the; body or mind objectively, he or she realizes their true nature
(tathata) as impermanent, suffering, and void of~ r1erm;111ent self or soul.
There are two kinds of irnpermanence, radic;1I cha11ge (afzfiatl1abhtiva) and

subsequent change (vipari1:Jama). A change from 011e stage to another, or

one situation to another, is radical change, while moment-to-moment
changing is subseqt1ent change. The meditator realizes that every phe-
nomenon is an ever-changing process. There is no n1oment, no instant,
when the changing stops. All phenomena are seen as suffering and clearly
understood as devoid of soul or self. In other words, the meditator sees
anicca, dukkha, and anatta: This profound knowledgt: is called full under-
standing as investigating (tira':la parifzfza).
THE SEVEN STAGES OF PLIRIFICATl()N
3. When the meditator's understanding of the three characteristics of all phys-

ical and mental phenomena beco~ protound, there then develops a full
understanding that enables him or her to dispel hallucinations (vipalldsa), ()I
erroneous observations; chat is, caking that which is true as being false, ;111J
chat which is false as true. There are three kinds of hallucination: h;1lluci11a--
tions of perception, thought, and view. One erroneously perceives, chi11ks,
and views impermanence as permanence, impurity as purity, suffe1i11g as
happiness, and soullessness as soul. If the meditator perfectly disce111s tl1e true
nature of the phenomenal world, these hallucinations becc.)me dispelled.
The Threefold Path

The basic path (miila magga), preliminary patl1 (p11bbabhaga magga), and
noble path (ariya magga) have already bee11 explai11ed i11 reference to the
realization of the Four Noble Truths, or accainrr1ent of e11ligl1te11n1e11t. 1-l1c
basic path includes the right understanding of kan1ma, the establishment
of morality, and the accomplishment of concentration. Tl1e r11editator
should accomplish one of three following kinds of cor1centr;1tion before
the practice of vipassana insight meditation: absorpti()l1 corrcentrarior1
(appana samddhi), access concentration (upacara sczrrzadhi), and 1non1e11-
tary concentration (vipassana kha'}ika sarrzddhi). l'he conce11cr;1ted 111i11d
dispels the hindrances, so that pt1tificacion of rr1ind may be <1chieved. 'fhis
basic path is an essential part of tl1e practice.
VIPASSANA, iHr: P1zr:I.IMINARY PATH
Vipassana practice is the application of tl1e Noble Eightfold l)acl1, but it is

only the preliminary path before the n1ec.litator enters :nto the st1ea111 of the
noble path. After establishing the basic path, the rnec.litator IJr;1ctices vi1Jas-
sana by observing physical and rr1e11tal processes within che five aggregates
of attachment, which are misunderstood as a self or being.
As the medicator develops awareness and concentratio11, l1is or her
understanding or insight develops and he or she realizes tl1ese processes as
they really are. The meditator experiences the insight stages aCC()rc.li11gly.
Whenever che meditator is engaged in meditation, there are five factors of
the Eightfold I>ach prese11t; tl1ree from the co111.entration gr(Jttp (rigl1t effort,
right awareness, and right concentration) and two from the wisc.lorr1 group
(right undersca11ding a11d right tl1oughr). These five factors are si111ulta11e-
ously involved in each mornenc of awareness and knowing. l~hey ;1re called
the working paths (karaka magga). In addition, there are also inv(Jlved tl1t
77
rcn1ai~ing three factors of Lhe moraliry grot1p (right speech, right action, and
right livelihood), which preserve the precepts through abstention. For exam-
ple, wl1en rl1e n1editator sees or hears any mental or physical object arising,
;twareness arises with each process without like or dislike and he or she
t111derstan(ls cl1c rrt1e 11;1ture of these processes as impermaner1r, suffering,
an(l (lcvoid of self 'J'l1t1s, right undcrsra11ding and right thought arise in eacl1
111ome11c as do right effort, right awareness, and right concentrati<J11, upon
whicl1 right u11dersta11ding a11d right thougl1t are dependc11t. Wl1en an
intentio11 arises to speak falsely or to commit a wrong action, cl1e meditator
is ;1\vare of ic ac rhac precise mon1enr a11d so he or she ahstair1s from wrong
speech, \Vrong action, ar1d wrong li\'elihood. In this way, tl1e meditator
applies the Nol1le Eigl1cfold I)acl1 as rhe preliminary path dt1ring vii1assana.
rhe view of sull1 ;t ~1e1son is the right view; his thoughts are right
thoughts; l1is ef.forcs are right efforts; l1is n1indfulness is rigl1r niind-
ft1lness; his C<)Ilcencracion is rigl1t concentration. Even bef<)re l1e starts
niedirati<)ll, the 1ne<litaror is well established in right spee(:l1, right
action, and right livelihood. Jc is in this way chat rl1e rnedirator
bec<)mes established in rhe Noble Eightfold Path.63
Knowledge of the Four Noble lruths ~Y Vipassand

It is or1ly by contemplating the rrurh of dt1kkha (the five aggregates) that
the Noble Eightfold Patl1 ca11 be (fevt.l()I1ed a11d the cause of suffering and
craving eradicated. Only whc11 tl1c vipassa11a path is accon1plished can
nibbana be realized. Having see11 the true 11ature of impermanence, suffer-
ing, an(l emptiness in each process, craving for these processes disappears.
'This is n1omentary eradication of craving, the truth of rl1e origin of suffer-
ing. With cessation of craving, n1omentary nibba11a, or nirodha, is achieved
by means of vipassa11a. When comprehension of the Fot1r Noble Truths
becomes fully mar11re, the noble path appears and nibbana is realized. The
preliminary Eightfold Pach is transcended and rhe suprarnundane state of
the. noble path is realized. The insight or knowledge developed with vipas-
sana is discursive knowledge, which has developed by observing sense

objects that arise at the sense bases. The insight of the noble path does not
have any sense object bllt is the realization of the Four Noble Truths .

Realization of tl1e Four Noble Truths by the Noble Path

At the culmination of vipassa11a insight, the cessation of craving (nirodha)
is realized. Nibbana is the cessation of craving, sufferings, a11d of all things
conditioned. Once the meditator has experienced the cessation of dukkha
and realized its peace, he or she comprehends that all conditioned states are
dukkha. Having recognized them as suffering, there is no longer any crav-
ing for them. The origin of suffering (ta~ha) is abandoned and the Noble
Eightfold Path becomes fully developed.
Vipassana and the Noble Path

The noble path (ariya mag;ga) has been given the. full title of ''the Noble
Truth of the path leading to the cessation of suffering'' because it leads to
the cessation of all sankharas. But the 11oble path itself, without the vipas-
sana path, cannot lead to the attai111nent of nibbana where all sufferings
cease. In accordance with one's previous perfections (pd1ar;1ita}, one has to
practice vipassana for one's own liberatior1. The noble path a1ises as if it had
emerged out of the vipassana path itself. It is for this reason that the vipassana
path is called the preliminary path to the noble path, which is the ultimate
goal. The Noble Eightfold Path is a supramundane path, which cannot arise
without first following the preliminary vipassana path. Therefore, the noble
path together with the preliminary vipassana path is called the path leading
to the cessation of st1ffering (dukkhanirodhagamini pafipadii).64
7
TWELVE ASPECTS (}f WISDOM

IN THE FOLJR NO~LE TRLITHS
f()r he \vhc> l1as C()mpleced the jc)ur11ey (of existence),

l''c>r he \Vho is sorrowless.
For l1e \vl10 is \\'l1olly free who from e\'erychi11g,
F()r he "'l10 has c.lestr(>yed all ties (of fetters),
"}'he fever (of (lassion) exists not.
/Jl1t1n1n1ttpt1da, v.90
THERE ARE 1HRI-:E A.St>Lc1.s ()F KN()Wl~Eoc;1:: that relate to each of the Four
Noble Truths: kr1owledge of the truth (sacca flar1a), knowledge of the func-
tion of the trt1tl1 (kicca flar1a), arid knowledge of the function of the t1 uth
that has l1et'r1 pcrforrned (kata flana). After setting forth the definitions of
the Four Noble lruths in the Wl1eel of Dham111a Qiscourse, the Blessed
O_ne next explai11ed these three aspects of each of the Four Truths. Briefly,
these three aspects refer to three aspects or kinds of realization. The first
kind of knowledge recognizes that tl1e Noble lruth is indeed true. The sec-
ond kind of knowledge recognizes what is the appropriate action to take
with regard to that particular Noble Truth. And the third kind of knowl-
edge recognizes that the appropriate action 11as indee4 been done with
regard to that particular Noble Truth. When one has fully realized all twelve
aspects of knowledge with regard to the Four Noble Truths, one has
attained enlightenmer1t.
THE TRUTH OF 0UKKHA
IX This is the Noble Truth ofsuffering. Thus, 0 bhikkhus, concerning

the wisdom, rhe insight, and the light.
Knowledge ofthe Truth (Sacca Nana) of Dukkha

Here the Buddha explains how knowledge of the truth of suffering arises.
As described previously, all mental and p~ys~cal phenomena that arise at
the sense doors are seen by the noble on~ as suffering. In short, the five
81
6
'
aggregates. of attachment tl1at are regarded as ''being'' are ir1 fact an ever-
cl1a11gir1g process, and therefore are dukkha. Life itself is dukkha. l'he
l)t1ddha realized the truth of dul(kha tl1rc)L1gl1 tl1e i)ractice of vipassana and
tl1e attainrner1t of the noble path.
After attainir1g the aral1ant patl1 of i11sigl1t, the l)uddha experienced the
l)liss of 11ibl)ana ar1d understood the five ;1ggregates of attachrnent as dukkha.
l~l1is wisdorn ;1rose i11 him not fr<>111 a11y teacl1er, l)tlt by direct personal expe-
rier1ce after ct1ltivating the Nc>ble I:igl1tfc>l<.l l);1th. 111 the sutta it says, ''not
l1ear<.l l)efc>rc." l)ecause the Buddha \\ras a ft1lly self-enlightened one, he is
kr10\vn as a Sa111111asa1nbuddl1a. 'l"l1l' extr;1c>r<li11ary kr1owledge \vhich arose
i11 l1i111 was described as visi()ll (lakklJtt), k11c)Wll'<.lge ( fiana), wisdom
(paizfzd), ir1sight (vijjd), a11d ligl1t (dlok11). 1'11<.' l)L1Ll(ll1;1 used n1any descrip-
ti(>r1s so tl1at <.1iffcrent audie11ces could L1r1<.ll'r->t:tr1<.l l1is tc;1cl1i11gs according
to tl1eir te111pcran1er1ts. In the ser1se of seei11g, l<Ill>\\'llLlg<. is t<:11ned vision;
i11 tl1<: st'11sc of kr1owi11g, it is called kr1owledgc; 111 tl1<.' sc11se of knowing
;111;1l)ti<.<1lly r11 several ways, k11ov.'ledge is ter111ed \\'isd(>r11; i11 rl1e sense of
kr1<>\\ i11g l)Clll'trarively, k11()Wledge is calleJ i11sigl1t; ;111<.l i11 tl1c se11se of illt1-
1
111i11atir1g (sl1eddi11g light), it is tern1ed light.
Vision Arost' (C'akk1Ju1?1 Udapiidi)

l'he J>ali wc>rci <akkl111 cor1veys the idea of seei11g or vision. l'he knowledge'
whicl1 sees clearly ;is if with rl1c i)l1ysic;1l eye, is ter111ed visior1. J;or exa11111le, a
man who is bli11d a11<.i sudde11ly regains l1is C)'esigl1t sees clear!)' fc>r the first
time everything wl1ich he had r1ot scer1 l)efore. Likewise, after 011e has devel-
oped vipassana i11sigl1t and path insight, (>11e sees rl1e five aggregates <.1f attach-
ment as dukkl1a, ""l1icl1 bef(>re or1e l1a<.l 11ot seen clearly l>ecat1se <.>11c l1~1d be<.11

living i11 delL1sic>n. Witl1 tl1e develop111er1t <>f. till' r1c)hle patl1 i11sight, ;1 rne<.li-
tator's realiz;1ti<>11 c>f rl1c trt1e n;1turc of.sufT<:rir1g \viii l>e cvc11 <.l<.;1rer. Wher1 it
is said, ''the visic>11 ;1rose," it is as if tl1ere is cl~:.1r sc(ir1g.
'-
Knowledge Arose (N11na1?1 Udapadi)

~I'he

Pali word fzdna signifies kr1c>\\ ir1g <>1 kr1<>,vle<lgc. Ir 1s <l co111r11or1
1
expression of knowi11g, rneanir1g ''ig1101ancl' is rl)<>ll'(! (>tit.''

Wisdom Arose (l)afifid Udapadi)

'1'he word p11izfza sigr1iflcs k11owing ;111;1l:rically ir1 v;1riot1-> \\";1:s. Wl1er1 v.is-
dl>rn ;1rises duri11g vipassana mc<litati<)ll, cl1c nieditato1 k11c)\\'S cl1e <.1ifrl-1ence
l)etween 111i11d and 111atter, cause a11d effect, a11d l1e or sl1e k11()\\'S 110\v 111er1-
tal a11d niaterial ~)rocesses are arising a11~ p;1ssi11g away every 111or11er1t. 1he

TWELVE ASPECTS ()f WISDOM. IN THE FOLIR No~LE TRL ITHS
----------------------------------. . - --
meditator knows these to be impermanent, suffering, and not subject to

anyone's control. Such knowledge is described as knowing analytically. The

Buddha, therefore, said that such wisdom had arisen in him.
Insight Arose {Vijjti Udapiidi)

Vijjti means penetration, or penetrative insight. Knowing penetratively is
derived from the word pafiveda, penetrating through. Just as when hidden
by a screen or a wall objects cannot be seen, bur when a hole is 1nade in the
screen or wall objects become visible through these openings, likewise, this
penetrative insight is capable of piercing the veil of delusion, 01 moha. Ar
first under cover of delusion, what is seen, heard, and so fortl1 is not known
as impermanent, suffering, and egoless. Such knowledge is called knowing
penetratively. The Buddha, therefore, declared that such penetrative insight
had arisen in him.
Light Arose (Aloko Udapiidi)

-
Awko literally means bright, bur is used here to mean_ illumination or seeing
clearly. It refers to the knowledge that discerns all ~1henomena distinctly.
Before path knowledge, the rrLte 11ature ot- impermanence, suffering, and
selflessness is neither seen nor known. When vipassana insight and noble
path insight are developed, rl1eir true nature becomes apparent. The
Buddha, therefore, described cl1is light which arose in him.
Knowledge ofFunction (Kicca Nana) of Dukkha
X This is the Noble Truth of suffering which should be folly under-

stood. Thus, 0 bhikkhus, concerning things not heard before, there
the light.
When the Buddha says that the Noble Truth of suffering should be under-
stood, he means that one should not run away from life, bur should instead
strive to understand the suffering of life and investigate it. In vipassana
practice the meditator investigates and observes carefully the five aggregates
of attachment in order to understand rightly. The meditator realizes that
every process is impermanent because it perishes after arising (hutvii
abhiivato anicca). Suffering is awesome because it oppresses by incessant
arising and passing away (udayabbaya pafipilana.tfhena dukkha} and it is not
self or soul because it is not amenable to control. The mind-body process
t>cct1rs of its ow11, 11ot subject co 011e's will (avasa vattanafrhena anatta). In
tl1is 111;11111er, tl1e 111etiitator understands the truth of suffering comprehen-
si\'t'l~' ;111ll rigl1tly (parifzizeyya). While Buddha realized the truth of suffer-
i11g \\'ith<.>tlt l1avi11g l1eard it fron1 a11y <)11e else, disciples can realize the
L)l1;1111111;1 t>11ly after heari11g it fro111 tl1e Butidl1a or other disciples who have
gr;1spetl tl1e Dl1;1111111a. 011e should 11ote tl1at tl1e u11dersta11ding of the truth
111t1st ct>111e tl1r<)t1gh 1Jerso11al experie11cc, not by hearsay or intellectual
t111tlers t;111tii11 g.
K11ouJ/edge ofWl1at Has Bee11 [Jerfor1r1ed (K,1t11-Nr1r1r1) witf1 Regard to Dukkha
XI. 7/Jis i:; the NrJble Trutf1 of sufjeririg, zvf1icf1 h11s been understood
Th11s, 0 bf1ikkf111s, lor1cerr1ir1g tf1ings riot l1ea1d before, there arose in
111e tl1e 1isi<JJJ, tht' k11<11vledge, tht' wisdr11r1, the ir1sigl1t, a11d the light.
1
1-l1is is ho\v k11owlelige ;1rc.>se ;1s re> \vl1;1t has tc) be understood with regard
tt1 the trt1th of st1fferi11g. 111e t111clersta11di11g of i1nper111a11ence, st1fferi11g,
;111d 11<>-sclf ;1t tl1e 11reli111i11;1ry sr;1ge of vipassa11a is nc>t yet a nlature u11der-
sc;111tli11g. Wl1e11 tl1e 111etlitat(1r <>L)serves 111e11tal ;111ti IJhysical processes,
cl1ese are. understood ;1s i1111>e1111;111e11t, st1fferi11g, ;111d devoid of self,
;1lcht>t1gl1 the trt1e 11att1re c>f-11r<.>cesses whicl1 l1ave 11ot lJee11 observed 1nay
11ot l)c t111llerstood as st1cl1. It is 011ly \vl1e11 vipassa11a insigl1t is fully acco1n-
plisl1etl, a11d tl1e \vistl<>r11 (>f- tl1e 11<.>l1lc 1>;1th ft1lly devclo1Jed, that the cessa-
tit)l1 of- sufferi11g is ex11eric11ced. 1-l1en tl1e trt1tl1 of sufferi11g is rightly and
ft1lly accofn11lisl1eti.
Eve11 at tl1e first stage of- wisdo111 of the 11c.>ble path, the strea1n winner
(sotapatti rr1agga fiiir1a) l1as 11ot yet fully comprehended the truth of suffer-
i11g. Only when aral1a11tshi1J has been attai11ed is tl1e trt1tl1 of suffering fully
a11d completely realized. 011ce tl1e Buddh;1 l1ad g;1i11ed tl1e ;1raha11c path and
frt1itio11, and attai11ed full e11ligl1ten1nent, the truth of suffering was fully
realized 11othi11g rc111ai11ed co be dc>ne. l'his realizatic>11 came through the
knowledge of retrospectio11 (paccavekkhatz11 izdna) after attai11ing the ara-
hant path and fruitio11.
THE TRu1t1 OF r11E ORIGIN OF DUKKHA
XII. This is the Noble Truth of the origin of suffering. Thus, 0

bl1ikkhus, concernirzg things not heard before, there arose in me the
'
vision, the knowledge, the wisdom, the insight, and the light.
TWELVE ASPECTS OF WISDOM IN THE FOLIR NOBLE TRLJTHS
Knowledge ofthe Truth (Sacca-Nana} ofthe Origin ofDukkha

''This', refers to the three kinds of craving: sensual craving (kiima-taflhtfJ,
craving for existence (bhava-tarzhtl), and craving for annihilation (vibhava-
tarzha). These have already been explained. Kama-tal)ha, sensual craving,
is the craving for objects of sensual pleasure that have to be searched and
worked for in order to be obtained . It is evident that some people under-
go intense suffering, to the extent of losing their lives, while in pursuit of
the objects of their desires. Any attempt to curb the craving that has arisen
results in suffering and unhappiness. To look and work for things that are
not.easily attainable is also suffering. The task of protecting or preserving

things that are acquired is also very onerous. Whenever one experiences
unhappiness or sorrow in life it is mainly dt1e to craving. However, the
majority of people are under the delusion that ta9ha is the source of hap-
piness. They consider it blissft1l to enjoy the pleasures of various sensual
objects. If ta9ha is not aroused, in the absence of pleasurable objects, life
becomes dull and monotc)not1s. For these i11dividt1als, listening to Dhamma
is utterly boring while entertai11ment shows, cinema, TV, and so forth are
found to be enjoyable. By nurturi11g ta1)l1a one reinforces ignorance latent
in the mind.
Pleasurable sights a11d sot111ds excite, delight, and produce craving and
thi~ craving gives rise to attachn1ent. As a result of attachment, effort has
to be put forth for its fulfillmenc. This produces kamma, or sarikhiira, arid
sensual craving, or kama-bhava. Wl1en the moment of death arises, one of
the activities performed. in pt1rsuir of craving over a lifetime arises in con-
sciousness as javana conscious11ess, or abhisarikhara consciousness.
Craving holds onto the mental object which has appeared at the death
mon1ent and rebirth consciot1sness is im1nediacely conditioned upon that
death consciousness moment. From the mome11c of conception in the
new life, it may be said chat all the st1fferings wicl1 regard to chat new life
have begun, having their roots in craving. For the arahanc i11 whom ta9ha
has been eradicated, no further rebirth, hence no further st1ffering, is pos-
sible. Therefore, it is evident chat se11sual desire, kama-canha,

is the real
cause of suffering the truth of the origin of st1ffering.
Those who aspire to the realms of form a11d formless spheres and for
attainment of jhanic states of absorptions practice tranquillity meditation.
They are reborn into the worlds of rhe form and formless (riipa and
ariipa) as Brahmas, and they are free from the st1ffering of physical pains
as well as mental afflictions. 'fheir life span is meast1red in rerms of world
85
THE FIRST 01SCOLIRSE.OF THE BLIDDHA
cycles. From the worldly point of view, their life may be deemed one of
happiness, but when their life span is terminated they face death and suf-
fer the agonies of death. They suffer mental distress, too, for not having
the wish of immortality fulfilled. After death, troubles and tribulations
await chem in the sensual sphere (kdma loka) co which they are destined.
Thus craving for existence (bhava-tarzha} in the Brahma world is also the
truth of suffering. Craving for nonexiscence (vibhava-tarzha} after death is
also a cause for suffering, since it encourages unwholesome deeds in this
life. The nihilist does not fear the repercussions of undertaking unwhole-
some actions bt1t instead may pursue cl1ese t1nchecked. Having per-
formed unwholesome karnr11a, r1ihilists are rebor11 in the lower realms,
and undergo the woes ar1d rniseries of tl1c>se existences. It is certain,
therefore, chat craving for r1onexister1ce ( vibl1ava-tarzha) arises QUt of a
nihilistic view of life. This is also cl1e truth of the origin of suffering
(samudaya-sacca).
The Bu(ldha realized these as che root causes of suffering, as he
declared, ''the vision that ar<)SC ir1 n1e ... '' K110\vi11g that this is the Noble
Truth of the origin of st1ffering is rl1e kr1owledge of the trt1th (satca fzana).
This knowledge arises l1otl1 before ;111(_l after cl1e advent <>f the 11oble path.
At the 1110111e11t of the pacl1 i11sigh t, cl1c ft111ctior1 of kr1owing tl1e truth is
acco111plished, by way of ab;111(l<>r1i11g (p11/111f11t-/''1fivetl11) ;1s well. 'fc) sum-
marize: cl1at \vl1ich k11ows rl1<. 1:<>t1r 'l'rt1cl1s l>ef(>1e, after, ar1(l at the
moment of i1ath C<>11sciot1sr1ess i!-. Ll1e l.:.11<>\vlLdgc <>f. tl1e truth (sacca fzana).
Knowledgt' rif Fu11ctiof1 (Kicc,z-N111111) rif tilt' (Jrigi11 ofDukkha
XIII. 'Tl1is is tl1e Noble Trutl1 oftl1e origirz ofsuffering, which should be
abandoned. 7111ts, 0 bhikkl1us, concerning things rzot heard before,
there arose in me tl1e visiorz, the knowledge, the wisdom, the insight,
and the light.
If freedor11 from sufferi11g is desired, the root cause of suffering must be

removed. For exar11ple, in order co ct1re a disease the root cause of the ill-
ness rnusc be er;1dicaced by applyi11g a suitable medicine. In the same way,
ta9l1a is cl1e ro(>t cause of \vorldly suffering. Because of tar;iha, one has to
suffer re11eatedly i11 tl1e rounds of existence (sarizsdra). Tar;iha muse be
t1prooced i11 <>r(ier to overcon1e worldly sufferings. 'Iaryl1a is the truth of the
origin of sufferi11g which sl1ould be giver1 up (pahdtabba-dhamma).
le is most essenti;1I co know how tanha
is abandoned. The Buddha made
86
TWELVE ASPECTS OF WISDOM IN THE FOUR NOBLE--TRl..JTHS
-
~e resolution, ''Let craving not appear, let it no.t arise; I shall keep my
mind alone by itself, free from craving." Is it possible to maintain such a
state of mind? Those believing in the possibility of 4oing so should actu-
ally try to attain this state of mind and see hovV long they can maintain it.
It is impossible to maintain a ta9ha-free mind for a prolonged period of
time if craving is not yet totally uprooted. This is because human beings
are social beings, living social lives in a sensual realm. One has to suffer the
arising of tal)ha because one has not yet subdued it. Therefore, tal)ha needs
to be eradicated whenever possible (pahatabba-dhamma).
Threefold Ta1Jhti
There are three kinds of tal)ha which should be eliminated: (I) craving
that motivates physical and vocal actions; (2) craving that stimulates the
mind i the realm of imagination and fantasy; and (3) craving that is
latent in the mind waiting to manifest itself when the situation arises.
Of these, the craving th~t motivates physical and vocal actions is classi-
fied as vitikka1na-kilesa: those defilements which motivat~ transgression of .
ethical conduct. This kind of craving can be eradicated through the appli-
cation of the moral precepts (sila). For example, the ,person observing
moral precepts does not steal anything belonging to another, even though
he or she may desire it; neither does such a person commit.sexual miscon-
duct; nor does he or she tell lies; nor take intoxicating substances. in this
way craving is kept in abeyance. This is how craving is eliminated by
means of sila, moral precepts. .
The craving that arises in the mind due to mental objects (imaginings or
fantasies) is defined as pariyu.tfhtina kilesa, and can be eradicated by samadhi,
a concentrated mind. For one who practices tranqt1illicy 1nedication,
thoughts, desires, and imaginings about sensuous objects are suspended.
Only if the mind is left free co wander on its O\\'n is ic possible to become
lost in thoughts or imagination about desirable sense objects. For those first
practicing meditatipn, a11d for whom concentration is not yet developed,
thoughts of sensuous pleasures arise unabatedly. When concentrative
absorption is attained; thoughts regarding gross types of se11sual pleasures
cease to arise but only for the duration of absorption. "fhis is how samadhi
removes the craving for sensuous pleasures by 111eans of suppression
( vikkharrzbhana pahtina). .
Craving for existence (bhava-ta~Jha) and cravi11g for nonexisrence ( vih-
hava-ta1Jha) persist even in one who has attained jhanic absorptions.
They even remain with some of che brahmas whc) abide i11 t-he realm of
jhanic states. Therefore it can be seen that these kinds of craving cannot
be eradicated by samadhi or tranquillity meditation. They can only be
subdued.
Latent Defilement (Anusaya-Kilesa)
The craving that is latent in the mind waiting to manifest itself when the
sitt1ation arises is called latent defilements (anusaya-kilesa). These defile-
ments are of cwo kinds: the potential defilements which are latent in th~
sense objects (aramrrzarzdnusaya} and the potential defilements which are
latent in the 1ni11ds of beings (santandnusaya). When one perceives some
objects at cl1e mome11t of seeing, hearing, and so on, one is not aware of
these as anicca, dukkha, and anatta. Instead, craving for them arises upon
thinki11g of ch<.Jse objects. Stich defilen1ents are known as arammandnusaya.
These ki11ds of defileme11ts can be dispelled by vipassana insight. However,
vipassana i11sight is i11capable of removing defilements that may arise in the
objects of which one is unaware. The hidden, late11t defilements remain
unaffected.
The defilen1ent that has 11ot yet been eradicated by the noble path
insight, and ren1ai11s as a late11t dis11osition i11 the five aggregates of a being,
is known as santar1an11saya. Tl1is clcfllLr11e11c ca11 only be t1prooted. by means
of the noble' i1ath insigl1c which ca11 011ly be achieved throt1gh t.he culmi-
nation of vipassana ir1sight. 'fl1erefore, 011e should develo1J vipassana i~sight
in order to elin1i11~1te latent defilen1ents.
The knowledge of fu11ctio11 (kicca-fza11a) which knows what should be
done \vitl1 respect to the trt1th of the origin of suffering (samudaya sacca)
mt1st be developed prior to the advent of the noble path. The knowledge of
ft1nctio11(kit:ca na11a) is adva11ced knowledge of what 'should be known,
what shot1lcl be abandoned, what shot1ld be realized and what should be
developecl. l(J tl1e Bt1ddha, tl1is knowledge appeared without having heard
it previot1sly fron1 a11yone.
Knowledge ofWl1tzt Has Been Performed (Kata-Nana) with Regard to the

Trztt/1 of tf1e Origin of Dukkha
XIV. l'his is the Noble 7r11th of t/Je origin of suffering that has been
abtzrzdoned. 711us, 0 b/1ikkhus, concerrzing things not heard by me
before, there arose i11 1r1e tl1e vision, the knowledge, the wisdom, the
insight, and the ligl1t.
88
TWELVE ASrECTS OF WISDOM IN THE 'FoUR NOBLE TRLITHS
The Buddha explained how the knowled~ of craving that should be aban-
doned had been abandoned (kata fiana}, through the insight of retrospec-
tion. At the first stage of enlightenment, the stage of a stream winner
(sotiipanna}, cravi~g which leads to rebirth in the lower realms of existence
is eliminated. At the second stage of enlightenment (sakadagiimz), the
grosser forms of craving for sensuous pleasures (kiima-tatzhii) are abol-
ished. At the third stage of enlightenment (aniigiimi), the subtle forms of.
craving for sensuous pleasures are eradicated. At the fourth stage of
enlightenment (arahant}, all kinds of remaining cravings are completely
uprooted. Such eradication of craving is referred to as knowing the origin
of suffering by the penetrative insight of abandoning (pahdna-pafiveda).
The act of abandoning, or eradicating, constitutes knowing what should
be known by the noble path. Thus, the truth of the origin of suffering is
that which should be abandoned. This abandonment is penetrative aban-
doning (pahiina-pafiveda).
The knowledge that craving has been eradicated (kata-fiiina) is quite
important. The goal of practicing vipassana is to remove defilements
together with craving. Attainment of higher insight (the accomplishment

of what should be done) is co'mplete only when craving and defilements

are eradicated. It is essential to examine oneself to see whether one is really
free from craving or not. If craving still remains, then no claim for any
attainment of the noble path and fruition is admissible.
THE TRUTH OF THE CESSATION OF 0UKKHA
XV This is the Noble Truth of the cessation of suffering. Thus, 0

'
bhikkhus, concerning things not heard before, there arose in me tl1e
vision, the knowledge, the wisdom, the insight, and the light.
Knowledge of the Truth (Sacca-Nana)

The Noble Truth of the complete cessation of suffering refers to the state of
nibbana that is experienced at the moment of insight into the noble path.
When craving is abolished, all sufferings (mind, matter, and conditior1ing
states) cease. Knowing the truth of the cessation of suffering is called nirod-
ha-sacca-fidna. This knowledge arises before and after the noble patl1
insight, and is realized at rhe moment of the noble path. Ar the moment of
the noble path attainment (ariya-magga), the knowledge of truth (sacca-
fidna) is the same as the knowle'cige of the noble path (ariya-magga fid11a).
which experiences nibbana by realization.
89
-- .
K'f1ow!edge of tlJe F1111ction (Kicca-Ndna) of tlJe Noble Tr11tl1 of tlJe
Cessation of D11kk/Ja
XVI. 1/JiJ is t/Je Noble lr11tlJ of t/Je cesJt1tio11 of s11feri11g. zvhich s/1ould
be realized. Tl111s, () /7/1ikkhus, to11ce111i'f1g tl1i'f1gs nrJt heard /;efo1t',
tlJt're tlrose i1z 1r1e tl1e visior1, tl1e krzotlJledge, tl1e tl isdom, tl1e i11sig/Jt,
1
and the liglJt.
'fhe Bt1ddha saili tl1at tl1e trt1tl1 of the cessation of st1fferi11g, 11ilJl)a11a, sl1ould
be realized. Tl1e k11c)\\'lcdge tl1at k11ows the trt1rl1 of tl1t~ cessatio11 <>f suffer..:
i11g shot1ld be realized is calleli knowledge of rl1e ft111ctic)11 (kicct1-iit111a), si11ce
it is the knowlec.ige that k11ows wl1at fu11ction is to be perfor111ed \virl1
respect co the trt1th of cessario11 a11d how realizati()l1 rakes fJlace. At the
1nome11t of the ft1ll a11li firm establishn1enr of i11sigl1c, when cl1ere is a11
equa11in1ity coward all for111ations (sa1ik/Ja111pekkl1a-iidrza) a11<l while
observi11g ;1rising and passing away of phenomena, tl1e r1ace of awareness
accelerares until rhe objecrs a11d awareness (ja1ik/Jdrt1s) fJlunge i11ro a stare of
cessation where all sankharas come to an e11d.
Ar the time of realizing tl1e cessation of all conditio11ed states, cravi11g also
ceases. Thus, cessation of cra\ i11g is tern1ed the truth <)f cessati<>11 (r1irodha-
1
sacca), which is k11own by liirecr realizatio11 of the noble fJ;1th. Such rc;1liza-
tion is known as pe11errative i11sighr by realizario11 (sacchikiriytz-pafitJedtz).
'fhe Buddha accon1plished rhe knowledge of the ft111crion of nibbana
rhrough the parh and fruition of the fi11al stage of a11 ara}1;111t wl1ile sitri11g
at rhe foot of rhe Bodhi tree. He continued to recount how he had devel-
oped the knowledge of wl1at had been done regardir1g rhe rrt1th of cessation.
Knowledge of What Has Beerz Performed (Kata-Ndrza) UJith Regard to the

Noble Truth of the Cessation oj'Dukkha
X\1//. This is the Noble Trut/J oftlJe 't's.1atiorz ofsuffering whic/1 has been
realized. Tl111s, 0 bl1ikkhus, co11<er1zing tl1ings not heard before,
there arose irz nze tlJe vision, the knowledge, the wisdorn, the insight,
arzd tl1e light.
This is an account of how the knowledge of the Noble Truth of cessation

l1ali been realized by means of the attainmenr of rhe path and fruirion of
;1ral1a11tship. 'I'his k11owledge arises rhrot1gh the wisdo111 <>f retrospectio11
(paccavekk/Jal}a-ndna). Tl1e meditaror who attai11s absor11rions (jhana)
90
Twt:.L\ ~ A\l'E<.:Ts <.)f W1s1 )(. )M IN THE Fc)l IR N<.)l\l_F. T1lt ITHs
and/or the noble path and its fruitions (magga-phala) reobserves these after
they are achieved.
THE TRUTH OF THE PATH
XVI/I. This is the Noble fruth ofthe path leading to the cessation'ofsuf
faring. Thqi, 0 bhikkhus, concerning things not heard before, there
the light.
Knowledge of the Trttth (Sacla-Ndna) ofthe Path

The Noble Truth of the path leading to the cessation of suffering is known
in its shortened form as the truth of the path (magga-sacca), which is how I
will re.fer to it here. Knowing that the Noble Eightfold Path is tl1e path that
/
leads to the cessatio11 of suffering, nibbana, it is called the kno"Wledge of the

truth (sacca-fiana). This knowledge arises before, after, and at the moment
of the noble path. The meditator at first comes to know this by learning or
hearsay. It is said that the truth of the path is a Dhamma to be desired, to be
aspired for, and to be appreciated. Learning through hearing, the nleditator
develops a strong intention to practice. Likewise, there should be a strong
intention to realize the truth of cessation which a worldling cannot perceive.
The realization of the noble path, nibbana, is not a thi11g wl1ich one can con-
~
templa~e before attaining. As for the Buddha, just as he experienced the

truth of cessation through his own intuitive insight, he also gained the
knowledge of the truth of the path through his own intuition. That is why
he said, ''concerning things not heard by me before.'' At the moment of the
noble path only the cessation of suffering is realized. It is impossible to real-
ize nibbana without developing the noble path. This is known as penetrative
insight by development of the noble path (bhavand-pafiveda).
The truth of the path should be developed with direct experience. The
noble path cannot develop itself, one must begin by developing the pre-
liminary path {vipassana) as a first step. For this reason, vipassana is
regarded as the right path that leads to the cessation of suffering ( nirodha).
Knowledge ofFunctio11 (Kicca-Nana) of.the Truth of the Path
XIX This is the Noble Truth of the path leading to the-cessation ofsuf
faring which should be developed. Thus, 0 'bhiltkhus, co11cern1ng
things not heard before, there arose in me the visio11, the knditvledge,
91
THE. FIRST OISCOLIR.SE. OF THE. BLIDDHA
...--- - -
Knowing the truth of the path that should be developed within oneself i$
called the knowledge of function (kicca-fidna). It is the knowledge that
knows what should be developed. One should remember t4at the truth of
dukkha shot1ld be fully ur1derstood with direct experience and the truth of
the path should be developed within oneself. The aim of the development of
the path is to experience the bliss of nibbana, and the practice of vipassana
meditation is essential practice for the development of the noble path. The
truth of suffering can be realized through the preliminary path of vipassana.
During vipassana meditation the meditator observes mental and material
aggregates, which appear at every moment. 1'}1e meditator develops first the
insight of distinction between the object and its awareness. This is followed
by understandir1g the cat1se and its effect. As the meditator proceeds, he or
she comes to know the r1ature of perpetual change or flux. The phenomenal
world is constantly arisi11g a11d passing away. It is impermanent, suffer'ing,
and devoid of self. The personal realizatio11 of tl1ese realities is right under-
standi11g (samma-dffthi). When right understanding is developed, right
thought (samrnd-sankappa) and other paths have also been developed. When
the path of vipassana is developed and becomes fully established, the Noble
Eightfold Path has also evolved.
Intellectual understanding of the phenomena of aggregates is good as a
foundation prior to ~he advent of the 11oble path. But it should be remem-
bered char knowing the ft1nction of the noble path is kicca-fidna, which
should be developed through vipassar1a and the 11oble path In this way, one
realizes the truth of cessation, or nibbana.
Knowledge of What Has Been />er.formed (Kata-Ndna) with Regard to the

Noble Truth of the Path
XX T/Jis is the Noble TrutlJ of the path fl'ading to the cessatiorz of suf
fering, which has been developed. Th11s, 0 b/Jikkh11s, concerning
thi11gs rzot heard before, tlJere arose in me the vision, the knowledge,
When reobserving with tl1e \Visc.~om of rctros1">ectio11 "(paccavekkhatza-fzana),

the Buddha realized that cl1c Noble Eigl1tfold Path had bce11 fully devel-
oped at the attainn1ent of the path of arahantship. The three aspects of
k11c)wledge realization (sacca), fu11ctio11 (kicca), a11d accomplishment
(kata) with respect to the Fot1r Noble lruths have 11ow been explained in
twelve ways, that is, in ccrn1s of the fourfold three aspects of k11owledge.
TWELVE ASl'ECTS OF WISOOM IN THE FOLIR. N()l3LE TRLITHS
------------------------- - ------- --
These are summarized below.
I. Knowing the four truths before, after, and at the moment of the arising
of the path is called sacca-fzana, or knowledge of the truth. This knowledge
consists of knowing: (I) this is the truth of suffering; (2) this is the truth of
the origin of suffering; (3) this is the truth of the cessation ofsuffering; and
(4) this is the path leading to the cessation of suffering.
This knowledge arises in advance of the path. For disciples, the knowl-
edge of the truth of cessation and the path is acq~ired before the arising of
path consciousness (path i11sight) by only hearsay or learning (sutamaya-
fzana). The truth of cessation experienced at the mo1nent of the arising of
path insight, in addition to the remaining three truths, is also accomplished
at the moment of path insight as complete understanding (parifzfza), aban-
doning (pahana), and developing (bhavana) .
2. Prior knowledge of what should be known, what should be abandoned,

what should be realized, and what shot1ld be developed is kicca-fzana, or tl1e
knowledge of function. Knowledge of the fu11ction consists of knowir1g: ( 1)
that dukkha should be fully u11derstood; (2) that the origin of sufferi11g
(samudaya) should be abandor1ed; (3) that the cessatior1 of suffering
(nirodha) should be realized; and (4) that tl1e path leading to the cessation
of suffering should be developed. This knowledge arises before vipassana
meditation starts, as well as duri11g vipassar1a practice, but prior to the
advent of the noble path.
3. Knowing that what should be do11e l1as beel1 do11e is called k11t11-1i1i1111. If- cl1e
four functions of fully understar1dir1g, ~1l)<111d<l11i11g, realizi11g, ~i11J developi11g
have been accomplished, this fact is k110\v11 througl1 the wisdo111 of retrospec-
tion. This is known as the knowledge of- co111pletio11 of what has to be done.
These are the twelve ki11ds of kr1owledge that are made up of the four
truths: the fourfold knowledge of realization; the fourfold kr1owledge of
function; and the fourfold knowledge of wl1at has bee11 done. Of these
twelve, it is importa11t to know clearly how tl1e knowledge of trt1th arises and
how the four fur1ctions arc to l1e performed. A brief descriptio11 follows:
1. The Noble Truch of dukkha should be fully comprehended; such

comprehension is k11own as parifiii1i-pafi11ed11.
2. The Noble Truth of the 01igi11 <>f dukkl1a should l1e abando11ed; such
abandonment is known as pa/Jaf1a-pafiveda.
93
THE FIRST 01SCOLIRSE. Of THE BllDDHA
-------------------------

3. l'he Noble Truth of cessation should be realized; such realization is

k11own as sacchikiriya-pafiveda.
4. The Noble Trutl1 of the Path should be developed; such development
is known as bhdvanti-pafiveda.
It should be noted that when the medicator realizes cessation, nibbana, at

tl1e arisi11g of path insight, all four truths are simultaneously accomplished.
V11>ASSANA AND T~1E FOUi{ NOBI,E TRU1'HS
l)t11i11g vi~)assa11a practice, the Four Noble Truths are accomplished tem-
pl>rarily. If. tl1e r11editator observes the physical and mental processes of the five
:1ggrt:g:1ces as nle<.litacio11 objects (realizing chen1 to be impermanent, suffering,
a11<l <levoill of. self) tl1is is considered t1r1derstanding the truth of suffering. At
tl1at n1l)t11e11t, cravi11g cannoc arise; this is che temporary abandonment of
craving (t11dariga-pt1l1dna-pafiveda). At the same cirne, the delusion (avijjti) that
would n1isapprehen<l che observed object as permanent, happiness, and self,
temporarily ceases. Conseqt1ently, whe11 delusion ceases, other conditional
formatio11s (sarikl1aras) that arise when co11dicioned l1y delusion also cease.
l'his is realization tl1rot1gh ternporary cessacior1 (tadariga-nirodha). The vipas-
sar1a i1atl1 is develope<.i every 111or11ent cl1rot1gl1 u11<lersta119,ing the true nature
of ar1icca, dt1kkha, :111<l a11:1tt:1. 'l'his is bl1d1,a11a pt1fiveda. While practicing
0
vipassana 111editatio11 L)y k11owi11g tl1e trt1tl1 of dukkha through awareness, the
ren1ai11i11g three trt1tl1s are :1CCl)t11plisl1c<l l)y che completion of the ta.Sks of
abando11ir1g (pal1ar1t1), realizi11g (sat:lhikiriya), ar1d developing (bhtivanii-
pafiveda). l'l1t1s, all four truths are developed during vipassana practice.
XXI. As lorzg, () bl1ikkh11s, as my vision oftrue knowledge was not fully
clear i11 these tl1ree aspects and in these twelve ways regarding the
Four Noble Truths, I did not clairr1 to have realized the perfect
enlightenment tl1at is supreme in the world with its devas, mtiras,
and brahrntis, in this z,,orld with its recluses and brahmanas,

with
its prirzces arid rne11.
The Buddl1a's attainrnent of the insight of the arahant path is called sammti-
saf!1bodhi, fully self-enlightened, because insight was achieved without
instruction from otl1ers (sammti + SaJ'!l + bodhi: sa111mti, rightly or fully; sarrz,
oneself; bodhi, k11owledge). Through this wisdom the Buddha knew rightly
ar1d perfectly everytl1ing that was to be known. Therefore, it is also called
94
TWELVE. ASPECTS OF WISDOM IN THE. FOL IR N()~LE. TRLJTHS
- --- -~-------'''------------- ----- - ' - - - - - - -- ---
sabbafifiuta-fiana, to know everything. Pacceka-buddhas (silent buddhas)

are also self-enlightened (sambuddha), bui are unable to teach the Dham1na
to others. Their enlightenment is not as full as the samma-saqi-bu~dhas. If
the disciple (sii.vaka) attain~ the insight of the arahant path it is simply
known as bodhi, knowledge or enlightenment, without any attributions,
such as, sammii. (rightly) or sarrz (oneself).
When the Bud.dha attained the state of enlightenment, the knowledge
thai: knows all Dhammas (sabbafifiuta-fiii.na) also aro~e simultaneously.
After acquiring this faculty of knowing everything, buddhahood was
attained. Therefore, the full self-enlightenment (samma-sarrzbodhi) is
regarded as the knowledge responsible for the attainment of buddhahood.
According to the above passage, the Buddha said he had not yet declared
the attainment of perfect enlightenment which gives rise to buddhahood.
For how long did he withhold this admission of buddhahood? It was

stated that he withheld it for as long as his knowledge of the Four Noble
Truths in the three aspects and twelve ways was not fully clear to him. There
were some recluses and leaders of religious sects at the time of the Buddha
who claimed themselves to be enlightened, to kno'v everything of the past,
'
present, and the future. When learned people, recluses, and laymen began to
scrutinize them, they were found to fall far short of their claims. The Buddha,
therefore, reiterated that he had not previously clairned omniscience (sab-
bafifiuta) before his attainment of full self-enlightenment (sarr1md-sa'!lbodhi).
THE BUDDHA'S ENLIGHTENMENT
XX!l But uhen, 0 bhikkhus, my vision of true knowledge was folly

clear in these three aspects and in these twelve ways regarding the
Four Noble Truths, then I claimed to have realized tlJe perfect
enlightenment that is supreme in the world witlJ its devas, mdras,
and brahmiis, in this world with its recluses and brahmanas,

with
its princes and men.
,;
. After the knowledge of seeing reality as it is (yathabhuta-fidna), fully clear
in the three aspects and twelve ways, the Buddha declared his attainment
and realization of the incomparable, the most excellent and perfect enlight-
enment, the perfectly enlightened supreme buddhahood. This declaration
was made 11ot just co chat region, to that part of the world, but to the whole
universe with its powerful devas of sharp intellect, with its maras hostile to
the true teaching, and with irs more p01Werful and highly intelligent
95
TH~ FIR \T [)ISCOl ll~SE ()f THF BL I[)[ )HA
wrong view (di.tfhi), and free from doubt (vicikicchi1). When one attains the
state of the stream winner, the mind becomes free from defilements and the
eye of wisdom is opened. Or1e sees or realizes nibbana at that very moment.
When did the eye of wisdom open? Ar the moment when Kondafi.fi.a
realized that everyrl1i11g that has the nature of arising also has the nature of
dissolution. There are two r11odes of r~alizacion at rhis stage. Realizing by
means of vipassana insight is the moment of developing insight into the
arising and passing away of phenomena. Vipassana insight is fully developed
ar the stage of equanimity of formations, while observing the continuous
process of the arising and dissolution of phenon1ena (mind and body), a stage
is reached at which all formations cease completely and the peace of nibbana
is experienced. This is realization by n1eans of the r1oble path of insight.
XXV When tl1e Buddha expounded the discourse, thus putting into
motiorz the turning ofthe wheel ofDhamma, the devas ofthe earth
exclaimed: ''7/Jis excellent wheel of Dhamma wl1ich could not be
expounded by any ascetic, brdhma!la, deva, mara, or brahma in this
world, IJas beer1 put irzto motion by the Blessed One at Deer Park, in
Isipatana, near Varanasi.
Hearing this, the devas Catumaharajika, Tavatirrzsd, Yama,
Tussita, Nimrr1ar1arati, fJaranimmitavasavati, and the Brahmds

Brahmdparisajja, Brahmapurohita, Mahdbrahmd, Parittdbhd,

-
Apparrza!labha, Abhassara, Parittasubhd, Apparrid!lasubhd,
~)ubhaki!l!la, Vehapphald, Avihd, Atappd, Sudassa, Sudassi, and
Akaniffha also raised the same joyous cry.
Thtts, at that very moment, at that tJery instant, this joyous cry
exter1ded as far as tl1e brahrna realrr1. Tl1ese ten thousand world sys-
tems qitaked, tottered, and trembled violently. A radiant light, sur-
passing the radiance of the devas, appeared in the world.
When the Buddha sec in motion the wheel of Dhamma, the earth-bound
devas proclaimed in one voice: ''l'hc incomparable wheel of Dhamma has
heen set in motion by the Blessed One in Isipatar1a, at the Sage's Resort,
near Varanasi, a rnotion which no recluse nor brahman nor any deva nor
mara nor brahma nor any other being in this world can reverse.''
Having heard this proclamation by the earth-bot1nd devas,
catumaharajika devas, che devas in the upper realms, and the brahmas all
proclaimed in unison. In a single instant, the voice of proclamation went
forth up co ce11 thousand universes. The entire cosmos of myriad world
98

TWELVE ASPECTS OF WISDOM IN THE FOLIR NOBLE TRLITHS
systems s.hook upwards and downwards, and trembled in all four directions.
An immeasurable sublime radiance, caused by the mighty and profound
teaching, surpassed even the majestic divine radiance of the devas appearing
on earth.
XXVI. Then the Buddha said, ''friends, Kondafzfza has indeed under-
,
stood Friends, Kondafzfza has indeed understood '' Therefore, the

Venerable Kondafzfza was named Afzfziisi Kondafzfza ''Kondafzfza
who understands. ''
At the end of the discourse, the Buddha perceived that Kondafifia had

attained the knowledge of the stream winner. Therefore, he made this tltter-
ance: ''Friends, Kondaiifia has indeed .
understood. Friends,Kondafiiia has
indeed understood." It was in reference to this utterance that Kondafifia
became known as ''Aiiiiasi Kondafifia."
The Venerable Kondaiifia who, having seen the truth (dif!ha-dhammo),
arrived at the truth (patta-dhammo), clearly knew (vidita-dhammo) and pene-
trated the truth (pariyoga,la-dhamma); who, having overcome doubt (tirzrzavi-
cikiccho) and become free from skepticism (vigatakatha1'J'lkatho), having
acquired courage of conviction in the teaching (vesiirajjapatto) and become
independent of others (aparapaccayo) in the dispensation of the Buddha.
requested in these words: ''Lord, may I have leave to take up the ascetic life,
in the presence of the Buddha. May I receive the higher ordination.''
. The Buddha permitted him to join the order with these words: ''O
bhikkhu, come (ehi bhikkl1u)." He then said, ''Well taught is the Dhamma.
Come and practice the holy life for the sake of the complete ending of suf-
.ftrin~?' Kondaiifi.a was already an ascetic, but not of the Buddha's order. He,
therefore, as~ed for admission. When the Buddha said, ''Ehi bhikkhu," he
acknowledged Kondafifia's entry into the order.
There was a group of only five monks from the human world who heard
the first sermon,. but the Mili11rl11 Pt1iiha 6 6 states that 118 million brahmas
and innumerable devas atcaincll co che l1igher knowledge upon listening to
the Buddha's discourse. Among 1he five 111onks, only Kondafifia attained to
higher knowledge. The remaini11g four: Vappa, Bhaddiya, Mahanama, and
Assaji, had not yet attained to higher k11owledgc. After Kondafifia was
admitted to the order, the Buddha gave guidance and instructions on the
practice of the Dhamma to che remaining four members of the group.
Then Vappa and Bhaddiya attained the higher knowledge. The Buddha
accepted cheir request for admission in co the order by sayi11g, ''Etha
99
THE FIRST [)ISCC)Lll,~E ()I THE [~Llf)l)HA
bhikkhu'' {Come bhikkhus). The Buddha then gave instructions to

Mahanama and Assaji without going on the alms-rounds for food for him-
self. Three bhikkhus are said to have gone out for alms food and all the six,
including the Buddha, sustained themselves 011 the food brought back by
the other three. Being thus guided and instrt1cted by the Bt1ddha, the stain-
less eye of wisdom arose in Mahanar11a and Assaji. Having seen, having
reached, having clearly understood, ar1d havi11g penetrated through to the
Dhamma, leaving uncertainty behi11d, havi11g overcome all doubts, being
free from wavering resolution, having acquired the courage of cor1victior1
with respect to the teaching, havi11g pers<)nal k11owledge of tl1e Dl1amma,
11ot depending on others \Vith regard to the teaching, they made this

request to the Buddha:
May we, Lord, have leave to rake up the ascetic life, in the preser1ce of'
tl1e Buddha; may \Ve receive l1igl1e1 ordi11~1tio11 in rhe order.
The Buddha replied:
Etha bhikkhu, con1e bl1ikkhus, well taught is tl1e l)ha111ma. Co111e and
practice the holy life for the sake of the cor11plcte ending of suffering.67
This invitation by the Buddha is the act t)f ()rdi11ation and, acC<>rdi11gly,
Mahanan1a ar1d Assaji beca111e bhikkl1t1s i11 the order of the Bt1ddha's dis-
pensatior1. Accordi11g to the Pali Vi11~1ya text,() 8 the fot1r ascetics attained
the higher knowledge in uvo grot1ps of two eacl1, whereas tl1c co111n1cntaries
stared rl1at they att.ai11ed the higl1er k11owledge 011e by one as follows:
Kondafifia attained the higl1er k11c)\Vlec.lge 011 tl1e ft1ll-r110011 day of Jt1ly,
tl1e sa1ne day the Buddha taught the scrr11011. Vapi1a, Bhaddiya, Mal1anan1a,
a11d Assaji attained the higher k11owlecige 011 the first, scco11d, tl1i1d, ar1d
fourth wanir1g days respectively. A11d 011 tl1e fifi:l1 day, the Buc.ldl1a asse1nblcd
all five bhikkhu_s together and tat1ghr them tl1e Discourse ort the C/Jaralteristics
of No11-se/f (Anattalakkha!ltl Sutt11). At the c11d of this discourse, all five
bhikkht1s attai11eci aral1a11tship, the final stage of sair1tl1<)<>d. 111ere were rl1en
six arahants, includir1g the Buddha i11 the world a trt1ly wo11derft1l e\'e11t.
May all bei11gs be l1appy a11ci experie11ce the bliss of 11ibbana!
100
NOTES
1. Anguttara Nikaya 1.145; Gradual Sayings 1.128

2. The Buddha's Ancient Path 12.13
3. Majjhima Nikaya 1.163, 1.164
4. Majjhima Nikaya 1.240
5. Majjhima Nikaya 1. i67
-
6. Majjhima Nikaya 1.241, 1.244
7~ Majjhima Nikaya 1.245, 1.246
8. Samyutta Nikaya 2.28; Anguttara Nikaya 1. 50
~: Majjhima Nikaya 1.249
.
13. Vinaya Pi~aka 1.1-10
14. Majjhima Nikaya 1. 171
15. Digha Nikaya 1.40
16. Dhammapada Verse 277 ,278, 279
17. Samyutta Nikaya 3.138
18. Dham111apada Verse 160-165
19. Ohammapada Verse 27(-.
21. Vinaya Pi~aka 1.233; Anguttara Nikaya 4.179
22. Dhammapada Verse 18 5
23. Dhammapada Verse 146
'
24. In the original discourse of the Dhammacakkappavattana Sutta, which

appeared in the Vinaya Pi~aka, the words ''sickness is suffering'' (bytidhi
IOI
THE FlllST DISCOLIRSE. OF THE. Bllf~)OHA
--- ----
pi dukkho) is found in the list of sufferings, but the passage ''sorrow,

lamentations, pain, grief. and despair are suffering'' (soka-parideva-
dukkha-dornanassu-pdyasd pi dukkhi1) is missing. However, in other sut-
tas a11d in the Abhidhamrna, the word ''sickness, byadhi'' is not found
ir1 the list, while the passage, ''sorrow, lamentations, pain, grief, and
despair'' is ir1cluded. The commentaries, including Visuddhimagga, did
11ot n1e11tio11 sickr1ess (byadh1) in the definition of the Truth of
Suffering. l'hese different readings were cited in the sub-commentary
of the Vir1aya Pi!aka (Saratthadipani). The sub-commentary was writ-
ten in Sri Lanka during the rcig11 of King Parakkamabahu
( 1 153-1186 C.E.). l'he great con1mentators, Buddhaghosa,
Dhamr11apala, ere. who wrote exegeses on the
Dhammacakkappaz,attana S11tta in the Pali canon, did not mention the
different readings i11 the surras. Bt1ddl1aghosa and Dhamrnapala lived
betwee11 rl1e fifth and eighth centt1ries c.r.:. 1hey were silent on this
point because at char time there were no differences in the readings of
the Vinava " I)itaka,
. Sutta J>itaka,
. or Abhidhamrna Pitaka.
. Therefore,
the word sickr1ess (byad/Jz) should l1e replaced by ''sorrow, lamentation,
pain, grief, a11d despair'' (soka-parideva-dukkha-domanass-upayasa),
which then1selves e11co111i1ass sickr1ess.
25. Vinaya Pi!aka 1.9
26. Vinaya J>i!aka 1. 10
27. Digl1a Nikaya 1.36
28. Samyutta Nikaya 2.28; Angurtara Nikaya 1.50
29. Majjhima Nika)'a 2.312
30. Anguttara Nikaya 1.190-192
31. Digl1a Nikaya 2.312
34. Oigha Nikaya 2.312
36. According to tl1e commentary, the Visuddhimag,ga, vipassana (bare
i11sigl1t 1neditarion) produces a one-pointedness of mind and a capacity
to overcome hi11drances that is akin to the access concentration expe-
rienced ir1 tl1e jhanic states (absorbed concentrations). H9wever, it is
102
NOTE.S
emphasized that this one-pointedness of mind is in no way similar to

absorption concentration (appana samadhi) and therefore, is only figu-
ratively called access concentration. A more accurate rendering of this
term would be vipassana samadhi, insight concentration or khanika
samadhi, momentary concentration.
38. Anguttara Nikaya 3.284
41. Sa111yutta Nikaya 5.143
44; Oigha Nikaya 2.312
47. Sa111yutta Nikaya. 5.421; SN. 3.158
51. Anguttara Nikaya A~~hakarha 78
52. Sarpyutta Nikaya 5.437
53. The Path of Purification 699
55. Anguttara Nikaya 1. 223
56. Dhammapada Verse 216
57. Sarpyutta Nikaya 4.251
58. Udana Pali 80
59. Sa111yucca Nikaya 3.151
60 Samyucta Nika}a 5.431; Digha Nikaya 2.90; Vinaya I>itaka 1.231
10~
THE Fll{ST OISCl)l IR"oE (_)f THE l~L II )I )HA
-- -- - --- - - - - - - -- -- -----------
61. The Path of Purification 700
62. Pa!isa111bhidamagga 2.62
63. Majjhi111a Nikaya 3.289
64. Esa lokutrar<) ariyo a!!hangiko maggo, saha lokiyena maggena
duk~~hanirodhagaminipa!ipadati sarikham gaco. Vibhanga
Arrhakacha

114
65. Dhan1mapada Verse 153, 154
66. Mili11da J>anl1a P. 33 I
67. Vinaya Jli!aka. 1.13
68. Vinaya Pi!aka !.12, 13
ro4
GLOSSARY
AU words are from the Pali language, unkss otherwise indica~ed.
abhijjhti: covetousness anatta: non-self

abhififiti: higher knowledge, supernor- anekantaviida: doctrine of many
mal knowledge possibilities

abhisamaya: the moment of awakening, anzcca: impermanent
enlightenment afifiathtibhtiva: radical change
abhisankhara: volitional formation, afifiofiavti.da: doctrine of one the other
new conditioning
anusaya: underlying, latent disposition
abyapiida: without ill will or tendency

acetana: static anupddisesa: (nibbana) without the
adhicitta: higher consciousness substratum (aggregate) remaining
adhimokkha: determination apo: water
adhimutti: resolution dpo dhiitu: element of water, the quality
of cohesion in material form
adhisila: higher morality
appand: absorption concentration
tidinava: danger; misery
I araha11t: the perfected one who has
adosa: non-hare
eliminated all passions
djiva: livelihood
ara/Jatt11: the quality of being an
ajivaka: naked ascetic arahant, arahantship
iijivapdrisuddhi si!tz: morality of pure ariya: r1oble, 11c1ble one
livelihood
ariyam11gga1idna: insight of the noble
akiriyavada: doctri11e of r1c>1~ -acti<>n path
akusala: unwholeso111c ariipa: formless, the realm elf formless
iiloka.: light, illuminatio11 brahmas
.
amata: deathlessness, nibba11a asammoha: 11onconfusion, non-

delusion
antigiimi: never returner, no11-rcturner
(third stage of realizacion) asankhata: unconditior1ed scare,
nibbana
iinapii1za: in- and ouc-brearh,
- .
asava: taint
inhalation and exhalatior1
aniipiinasati: mindfulness of the in- iisav11kkhayafiti1111: knowledge of the
breath and the out-breath destruction of the taints

105
THf: F11~ST OISCOL IR.Sf: ()f THF 13l II ll lHA
dnr1ar1 (Skt.): Sl>ul, self bodhisatta: the aspirant for

enlightenment, the future Buddha
att11bhdva: persor1, persor1ality, self~
hood, rebirth bojjhanga: er1lightenmer1c factor

attan, atta: sot1l, self bra'hrnan: absolute reality, suchness in
11ttavada: doctrine of self Hir1duisn1
avil1i1.nsii sarikappa: thoughts f-ree from br11hmd: sublime being

crueltv br11IJ1nana:

sacred books of Hinduism,
'
... - .
1ll'IJJl1: 1gnorar1ce
avijjdsa11a: t~1ir1 ts (>f igr1orar1ce bra/111111vil1ara: divine abiding
avikkl1epa: r1on-distractil>n buddhi: er1lightenment
iivuso: frier1d byad/Ji: sickr1ess

- .
avyakt1l (Skt.): thi11gs rl1at are Jl(lt taga: ger1ert>s1 ry
manifest cakkh11: eye
b11f1uja1111: rnar1y ~1eople cakk/J11-vifzfzd1Ja: eye consciousness
bl1anga: dissolucior1 catuydma: four ~1recepts
/J/Java: becon1i11g teta;za: volitic>rl
b/J11va t1111/Jd: acrachn1ent for becoming l'l'tasik11: rnen t;1I state, C<lllC<)ITI itan t
l>r life ri1a11d11: will, zeal
/J/111z111n1l: develc>pn1ent, n1editatio11
citt11 1Jis11ddl1i: f>Uriry of n1incl
/Jl1111,.111iga: life cc>11tint1um

t'Ttti: clearh
co11sc1ousness
drl11r1: giving, ge11erosity
!Jl1a1,1!s11v11: taints of becon1ing
rlesarzd: reachi11g
b/1a11et11IJ/Ja: to l>c de\el<>f>ed
dts11nakkam11: (order of teaching che
bl1aya: fe;1r
. I Nt>ble Eightfold Pach) according to
b/Jikkhu: an almsma11, a 1no11k che teaching
b/Jiirr1i: grot1nd, soil, place; stage, deva: celestial beir1g, ''god''
realm
Dha1nrna: the law or teaching of the
bl1u1nikkarrza: (order of teaching the Bt1ddha
Noble Eightfold I>ath) according co
dhamma: state, thing, phenomenon
realn1s
mental object
bija: seed dhatu: element
bodhi: enlightenment, awakening
dittha:

sees, knows
bodhimaJJefala: vicinity of the Bodhi
ditthi:

view, belief

tree where che Buddha achieved
enligl1te11ment diffhi visuddhi: purity of view
106
Ct_l)SSAll..y'
- ------------------------ ------ --- - - .
domanassa: grief . kiima-loka: sensual plane

dosa: hate, ill will, anger kiima-r,(lga: greed for sense pleasures
duggati: unhappy destination, unhappy kamma: action, deed
rebirth
kamma bhava: becoming, preser1t

dukkha: suffering action
dviira: door kamma-niyama: the la\v of kamn1a
ekaggatii: one-pointedness of mind kammapatha: cot1rse of acrior1

gati: destination, destiny, place of karma (Skt.): actio11, deed

rebirth
karaka: doer
.
ghana: compact karunti: compassior1
ghiina: nose Kasi: a11cient province of Varanasi
gocara: resort, domain
kaya: body; grot1p
gotrabhu: the insight that enters another khandha: aggregate, group
lineage
khanika: mon1entaIJ'
gu!la: special quality and modes, the
primary constituents of nature in khanti: patience
Saqikhya philosophy kl1ema: security
hadaya: heart khetta: field
hadaya vatthu: heart basis (physical kicca: function
basis of the mind)
kilesa: defilement
iddhi: power, success
kiriya: functioning
indriyasarp.vara sila: the morality of
ko.tthasa: part
restraining the senses
k1atriya (Skt.; Pali. khattiya): warrior
iriytipatha: posture
caste
lsipatana: the sage's resort kusala: wholesome, skillfulness
jati: birth, caste
lobha: greed
javana: speed, impulsion loka: the world or universe, life
(consciousness)
lokiya: mundane, worldly
jhana: meditative absorption
lokuttara: supramundane
jhan11klbhi: one who accomplishes
absorption magga: path, path insight
kama: sensuality maggadiita: one who shows the way
kiimacchanda: lust or zeal for sense mahabhuta: primary material element

pleasures mahaggata: exalted
ktimlisava: cainlS of the sense pleasures manll.' mind
107
T HF FIRST [)1sc:C)l IRSE ( )f THF 13L ll )( )~iA
mdna: conceit, pride obhtisa: illumination

rnanasikara: making mind, attention ogha: flood
rnar1tra: chants, hymns paccavekkhatzii: reobservatio.n
mdra: obstructors and evil beings paccayapariggaha: insight char distin-
guishes benveen cause and effect
martitza: death, dying
paccay11sannissita sila: the morality of
maya: illusion, ignora11ce
the proper use of requisites
rr1etta: loving-kind11ess
pacceka: private, by 011eself
rnettii bhavana: dcvelop1nenr of lc>ving-
pad~ana: basic, principal; endeavor,
kindness
effort
micchii: wrong
pahiina: abandonment, eradication
moha: delusio11, ignora11ce
pahanakkama: (teaching of the Noble
rr1ohakkhayo: extinction of delt1sion Eightfold Pach) according to the
mokkhaddta: one who gives salvation order of eradicating
mudu: tender pahiitabba: to be uprooted

miila: basic paficakkhandha: five aggregates
muficitukarr1yatd: desire for deliverance paficasila: che five basic precepts of
morality for Buddhist laymen and
narna-rupa: mind-and-matter~
laywomen
mentality-and-materiality

pafifiii: wisdom
fidna: knowledge, insight, realization
paJJidhi: desire, aspiration
fitita: knowing
paJJita: sublin1e
fidnadassana: insight and visior1
papafica: obstacle, diversification
nandi: delight
parama sukha: excellent, happiness
nekkhamma-sankappa: thot1ghts free
from sensual desire, renur1ciation paranzattha: highest sense, ultimate
nibbtina: nibbana, extinction (of greed, para1nita: perfectio11
hate, and delusion) parideva: lan1entation
rzibbidd: disgust parikamma: prelin1i11ary

nzcca: permanent parinibbiina: complete extinction of

n1m1tta: sign aggregates, final liberation
nirodha: cessation (of dukkha) parififia: profound knowledge

nivarana: hindrance parififidtabba: to be fully understood

niyama: cosmic law pariyoga.la: penetrates

niyataviida: doctrine of face or destiny, pariyu.tfhdna: obsession
fatalism, determinism
108
GLOSSARY
pasanna: gladdened riipakkhandhtt: form or matter

passaddhi: tranquility aggrc;:gate
pathavi: earth sabbafifiuta: omniscient knowledge

pathavi-dhtitu: the element of earth, sabhtiva: individual essence

the quality of heaviness and sacca: truth, reality

lightness in material form
sacchiktitabba: to be realized
pafibhtiganimitta: counterpart sign
sacetana: dynamic
paficca: having depended, due to,
saddha: confidence, faith, devotion
dependent on
sakadagtimi: once returner {second
paficcasamupptida: dependent stage of realization)
origination, causal genesis
sakkaya di.tthi: the concept of !)elf
pafigha: resentment
sa.1.iiyatana: sixfold base
pafimokkhasa"!lvara sila: the morality
of the vows of the monastic order samatza: sage, recluse
- ..
pafipada: way, practice, path sarr1apatt1: attainment
pafipassaddhi: calmed samatha: serenity
pafipattikkama: process of practice, the samatha bhiivand: development.of

order in practice concentration
pafiveda: penetration samma: right

patta: arrives sammd tijiva: right livelihood
phala: fruition sammd di.tthi: right understanding
phassa: contact samma kammanta: right action

- .
.
pztz: rapture, JOY sammd sankappa: right thot1ght
prakrti (Skt. Pali. pakati): nature, sammd samadhi: right concentration

material form sammii sati: right mindfulness
pubbabhtiga: preliminary sam1na vacd: right speech
puggala: person sammd vaydma: righc effort
purisuttama: man par excellence, sam1nasana: grasping, comprehending,
superman thorot1gh knowing

purusa: God in Vedas, essence or sammutz: conver1t1on
subject in Samkhya philosophy
samrr1uti sacca: conventional reality
puthujjana: ordinary man, worldly man sa1'npajafifza: comprehension, ft1ll
rtiga: attachment awareness
rajas (Skt.}: light, passion samstira: wheel of life, round of
riipa: form, matter rebirth, transmigration
T 111 f 11zsT I )1sc<. )L 11,s1: <.)f THI: .l~L 11 )I )HA
sarr1uccheda: cutting off sukha: happiness

sar;1udaya: the (>rigin (lr the cause (of sukkha vipassaka: bare insight
sL1fferi11g) sutta (Skt. sutra): discourse of the

st1111vara:

restraint Buddha
samyojar111: fetter Sutta Pitaka:

the ''basket'' or collection
of the Buddha's discourses
sar1gl1a: the order, con1mL1nity

sanklJtlra: for1nati<>n, conditions, tadanga: temporarily

action and reactio11 tamas (Skt.}: dL1llness, darkness (in
Sa9khya philosophy)
sankharupekkha: equa11in1ity of
formations ta(1ha: rl1irst, craving, desire
Sa(zkhya: rationalism, one of six ta1Jhdkkl1ayo: <lestructio11 of craving
systems of Indian philosophy
tapas (Skt.}: heat energy
safznii: perception, recog11ition Tathagata: the Bt1ddha, perfect one

santatt: cont1nL11ty tatl1atii: true nature, suchness

sant1: peace tejo: fire
sasarza: dispe11sation tejo-dhatu: fire element, the quality of
sassata-ditthi:

the view of eternalism l1eat and cold in material form
sat (Skt.}: existence thina-middha: stiffness and torpor
sati: mindfulness tinnavicikiccha:

overco111es doubt

satirnii: mindful t1rana: overcon1e, 1nvest1gate
satta: a being uccl1eda-ditthi:

the view of nihilism
sattva (Skt.): goodness uccheda-vada: the doctrine of nihilism
saupadisesa: \Vith the substratum udagga: exultant
(aggregate) remaining
udayabbaya: rising and passing away
sekha: trainer upaciira: access, 11eighborhood
sikkhiipada: training precept upadiina: attachment
sila: morality, moral discipline upddaya: derivative or secondary
sila visuddhi: purity of morality (materiality)
sudra (Pali. sudda}: servant, the lowest upakkilesa: imperfectio11
caste in Hindu society
upasaka: a lay follower of the
somanassa: joy, mental p~easure Buddhadhamma
sotapanna: one who enters the stream upasama: peace (term for nibbana)
of noble path, stream winner, stream
upasamanussati: contemplation on
enterer (first stage of realization)
peace or the quality of nibbana
suddhi: purity

110
GLOSSARY
uptisikii. a female lay follower of the vififidna:

consciousness, mind
Buddhadhamma
vipiika: resultant, fruition
upaytisa: despair vipalliisa: hallucination
upekkha: equanimity viparit:zdma: subsequent change
uppiida: arising vipassana: insight, wisdom
uppattikkama: (the Noble Eightfold vipassandydnika: one whose vehicle is
Path) according to the order of arising
insight
vdcd: speech vipafipatti: wrong theory
vaifya (Skt.; Pali. vassa): cultivator, viraga: devoid of lust
trader
viriya: energy, effort
vdyama: effort
- . visuddhi: purification
vayo: air
vitakka: applied thought
vdyo-dhiitu: the element of air, the
quality of motions in the material vitha: street, thought process
form vitikkama: transgression
veda: the collection of hymns, the viveka: seclusion
sacred book of Hinduism
vu!fhanagdmini-vipassand: insight
vedand: feeling leading to emergence (of the path)
vesarajjapatto: acquires courage of vyakta (Skt.): things that are manifest
conviction in teachings
yathabhuta: as it is
vibhava: non-being, non-becoming
vibhava-tanha:

attachment for

nonex1stence
vicikiccha: doubt
vidita: having known
vigatakathankatho: overcomes
' skepticism
vihirnsa: cruelty
vijjd: insight, knowledge, clear vision
vikappa: alternative
vikkhambhana: dispelling, put away,

suppression
vimokkha: liberation
vimutti: release
vinaya: ffi()nastic discipline
I I1
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Angutta-affhakatha. Cha!!hasangayana edition. Rangoon, Burma

(Myanmar}, 1970.
Ar1guttara Nikdya. Edited by Rev. Richard Morris. London: Pali Text Society,
1885.
Dhamrrza. Yaranasi, India: Sanskric University, 1972.
l)hamn1apada-a!!hakatha, Cha!!hasangayana edition, Rangoon, Burma

(My;1111nar}, 1969.
Digha Nikay11. Edited by J.E. Carpenter. London: Pali Text Society, 1912-17.
!tivutt11ka. Edited by Ernst Windisch. l,ondon: Pali '[ext Society, 1889.
KatlJdvattlJu Mu.lafikd. Cha!!hasangayana edition. Rangoon, Burma
(Myar1mar), 1960.
Majj/Jim11 Niktiya. Edited by V. Tre11ckner. London: Pali Text Society, 1888.
Milirida />1111/Jd. Cha!!hasangayana edition. Rangoon, Burma (Myanmar),
1982.
J>afis11r11/;/Jid1imagg11. Edited by Arnold C. Taylor. London: Pali Text Society,
19()5-07.
,)a1i1; 11tt11 Nikaya. Edited M. l~eo11feer. London: Pali Text Society, 1880-98.
1
~'>11tta11ipata. Edited by Y. Fausboll. Lo11don: J>ali 'lext Society, 1885 .

'/tJ<'1agdt/Jd a11d T/Jerigat/Ja. Edited by H. Oldenberg and R. Pischel.
L.on<l<>11: (>;iii "Icxt Society, 1883.

Ud1i11t1. l:.llite<l l))' I~ Stei11thal. l~<>11do11: J>ali Text Society, 1885.

Vi11t1y11 l'if11kt1 (Vi11ay11 M11IJ1{z,111gg11). Edice<l by Hern1a11n Ol<le11berg.
L,011d()11: (>ali "!ext Society, 1879
Vib/11i.v,11-11ffl111k11tl11i. (:h;1!!l1;1s;11ig:1ya11a editi<>n. Rangoon, ilurma
(M1~111111;1r}, 19(>8.
Vis11tld/1irr111f!._v,11 1z11d Its r:orr11111r1t111y (lJevandg11ri). Edited by Dr. Rewata

1111;1111 nia. V;1r;111;1si, I11dia: Sanskrit U11 iversity, 1972.
I I 2.

. BIBLIOGRAPHY
TRANSLATIONS
Bhikkhu Bodhi. The Discourse on the All Embracing Net of Views. Kandy, Sri
Lanka: Buddhist Publication Societ), 1978.
~
Bhikkhu Nal).amoli. The Path ofPttrification. Kandy, Sri Lanka: Buddhist

Publication Society, 1975 .

Bhikkhu Nai:iamoli and Bhikkhu Bqdhi. The .".1iddle LerJgth Discourses ofthe
Buddha: A New Translation ofthe Majjhima !v'ikaya. Boston: Wisdom
Publications, 1995.
Mahasi Sayadaw. The Great Discourse on t,l'Je \~~-:~eet' of'D/1a111m. Translated by l.'
Ko Lay. Rangoon, Burma: Buddhasasanugga.li.a ()rganization. 1981.
Walshe, Maurice. The Long Discourses ofthe Buddha: A New Translation ofthe
Digha Niktiya. Boston: Wisdom Publications, 1995.
GENERAL BOOKS
Ambedkar, Dr. B.R. The.Buddha and His Dhamma. Bombay: Siddharch

Publications, 1974.
Narada Mal1athera. l'he Buddha and His Teachings. Malaysia: ntic.idhi~t
Missionary Society, 1973.
Nyanaponika Mahathera. The Heart of Buddhist Meditation. London: Ri(lc>r

Pocket Editio11, 1983.

Path to Deliverance. 4th ed. Kandy, Sri Lanka: Buddhist Pul)!ic;1tit1n
Society, 1982.
Piyadassi MahaLhera, The Buddha's Ancient Pt1tl1. Ka11dy, Sri L~nka; Buc.idl1isc
Publication Society, 1974.
Rahula Mahachera, Walpola. Whi.1t the Buddha Ta1tgl1t. Lo11don: Gordon Fraser.
1978.
Radhak.rishnan, S. A Sourcebook in Indian Philosopl7J l 2rl1 ed. Pri11cetor1:
1

Princeton University Press, 1989.

Silananda, Ven. U. The Four Foundations ofNfindji1Lr1esl. Boston: Wi5Jon1
Publications, 1990.
113
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The First Discourses of The Buddha 'Turning The Wheel of Dhamma' - DR - Rewata Dhamma 001132 OCR Text

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HE _ _ ___,

VENERABLE DR. REWATA 0HAMMA

Fqreword by Venerable Ajahn ~Sumedho

T lll~NIN(~ THF_ w HEEi (JI- [)HAMMA

VENrRAl)LE l)R. RrWATA l)HAMMA

Foreword by Venerable Ajal11z ',)1Jmedl10

Venerahle [)r. llewata f)h;1mm;1 I l)l)7

All rights rescr\cd.

Library of C'o11gress Catalogi11g-ir1-I>fiblicatio11 /)11t11

()2 ()1 ()() 99 98

Desigr1ed by: l:JSAWLic

l1 r1n1e<l in the U11ite<l States of America .

2 THE FIRST DISCOURSE OF THE BUDDHA: TURNING THE WHEEL OF

3 THE MIDDLE WAY 21

4 THE NOBLE EIGHTFOLD PATH 33

5 THE FOUR NOBLE TRUTHS 55

()11L: l>t1rit\' l>f. ;vt<)r;1lit\' ;7 /

7 '('\\ll\'I. ASl'l<:IS l)I; W!S[)()!\l IN 1111-: l~t)L'I{ Nt>l~l.I l'IZL'l llS 81

THIS EXCELLENT TRANSLATION a11d comprehensive ex11ositic111 of the

mentarial works on teachings that came later.

Dhamma for writing this superb work.

Two MONTHS AFTER THE BUDDHA attained enlightenment, he delivered

May all beings be well and happy.

practice of self-mortification is coo extreme (one of t\vo extremes, actually),

A unique being, an extraordinary man arises in this world for the

Well expounded is the Dhamma by the exalted one,

THE LIFE OF THE BUDDHA

I was delicate, exceisivelY. delicate. In my father's dwelling three lotus-

Meeti11g with the G'reat ]~izcl1ers

plir1e." 111cr1 K;ll;1111a re11lied, '' 1:rier1<l (~c>t<1111a Si<l<lh;1ttl1a is \velcome

Happy friend, we are extremely happy, in that we see st1ch a ve11era-

The Practice ofAusi-erity

Havi11g heard al1c>t1l Lill' bc>Lll1is;1tc;1's 1c11L111ciatio11, a L1r;1}1111;11);1 11;1111ed

I, Aggivessa11a, \Vitl1 111y reetl1 clencl1ccl, \Vitl1 111y ro11gt1e 11rtssec.i

the non-breathing n1editation? So I, Aggivessana, stopped breathing

Abstinence .from Food

1);1i11lt1I, sl1;1r1), a11c.i 1)ierci11g se11s;1ti<)ns, tl1ey must have ex1)erie11ced

The 'fiddle J>atl1

This is dukkha; this is the 'arising of dukkha' (dukkhasamudaya); this

is the 'cessation of dukkha' (dukkhanirodha); this is the 'path leading

Meeti11g zt1it/J llj>r1kr1

All have I <>vercc>1ne, all do I know,

No teacher have I. An equal to me there is not.

SOCIAL AND PHILOSOPHICAL CONTEXT ()f'' rJ-IE BUDDHA'S LIFETIME

Vedic sacrifices, observances of religious rites, ceremonies, and the offering

Kapila the Rationalist

1. The doctri11e <>f r1on-actio11 (akir1j1zz111da), t;1ugl1t by J>urar.1a Kassap<l,

2. The doctrine of fate or destiny (niyativtida), propounded by

3. The doctrine of nihilism (ucchedavtida), expounded by Ajita Kesakambala,

4. The doctrine of ''one or.the otl1er'' (11fziiofzavada), preached by Pakudha

S. The doctrine of skepticism (vikkhepavada) was a subtle philosophy

6. The doctrine of restraint of four precepts (catuyarnasaJ?1varavada) was

l"herein, bhikkl1u, when those recluses a11d brah1ni11s wh<l are

In the words of the Venerable Assaji, spoken to Upatissa:

Whatever f1om a cause proceeds, thereof

The Law ofKamma

l~ral1111a1)ic f 1i11llL1is1n. Rather, the BL1ddha de11c.,unced all claims to superi-

All compounded things (dhammas) are impermanent an<l suffering.

The Position of Humarzs

You should work for your own liberation,

7/;e J>atlJ {if J>urifiratio11

Not to do any evil, to cultivate good,

What is laughter, what is joy, wl1en the world is ~vt>r burning?