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Waste Management
Developed through a multi-stakeholder process
facilitated by:
Water Management
This report is released by the International Solid Waste Association (ISWA) and the United
Nations Environment Programme. Unless otherwise stated, all the interpretation and findings set
forth in this publication are those of the International Solid Waste Association (ISWA)
The designations employed and the presentation of the material in this publication do not imply the
expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of the International Solid Waste Association
(ISWA) or the United Nations Environment Programme concerning the legal status of any country,
territory, city or area or of its authorities, or concerning delimitation of its frontiers or boundaries.
The contents of this volume do not necessarily reflect the views or policies of the United Nations
Environment Programme, nor does citing of trade names or commercial processes constitute
endorsement.
This publication may be reproduced in whole or in part and in any form for educational or non-
profit purposes without special permission from the copyright holders, provided acknowledgement
of the source is made.The International Solid Waste Association (ISWA) and the United Nations
Environment Programme would appreciate receiving a copy of any publication that uses this
publication as a source.
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1
Disclaimer
In a multi-stakeholder consultation facilitated by the United Nations Environment Programme, a
number of groups (including representatives from non-governmental organisations, labour unions,
research institutes and national governments) provided comments on a preliminary draft of this
report prepared by the International Solid Waste Association (ISWA). The report was then revised,
benefiting from stakeholder perspectives and input. The views expressed in the report remain those
of the authors, and do not necessarily reflect the views of the United Nations Environment
Programme or the individuals and organisations that participated in the consultation.
2 Waste Management
Contents 3
Contents
5 Foreword
9 Executive summary
13 Part I: Introduction
13 1.1 ISWA The International Solid Waste Association
14 1.2 Scope of the report
List of figures
20 Figure 1: Waste generation rates from 1960 to 1999 in the United States
20 Figure 2: 1999 total waste generation in the United States
21 Figure 3: Management of MSW in the United States
21 Figure 4: Total waste generation by sector EEA countries, 1992 to 1997
22 Figure 5: Is there still a correlation between economic growth and waste generation?
22 Figure 6: Waste generation from daily household and commercial activities
59 Figure 7: Desirability hierarchy in integrated waste management
60 Figure 8: Typical elements of a waste management system
Tables:
23 Table 1: Generation and transport of MSW in China
28 Table 2: Statistics of MSW generation and transport in 11 large cities in China
35 Table 3: Urban expenditure, total and on waste, selected cities and years
Foreword 5
Foreword
Since the 1992 World Summit in Rio de practices, the need for increased efficiency,
Janeiro, professional waste management has quality management and occupational health
made significant technological and managerial aspects.
contributions to the protection of the
environment. However, we are still facing The impact of waste management on the
numerous and serious problems.The 1990s environment has been widely recognised in
can be seen as a period of better less developed regions, as well. Getting control
understanding regarding the position and of the various waste streams from households,
function of the waste management sector as small shops, from the industry, the healthcare
specialist in the ecological, economic, and social sector, and numerous other sources, allows
framework.The new decade offers an their proper handling, treatment and disposal.
opportunity and at the same time shows the Furthermore, it has been recognised that very
necessity to proceed with the simple solutions for waste management often
implementation and consolidation of have tremendous effects on the health and
environmental regulations. Focused action is safety standards in developing countries.
required as soon as possible, especially in
developing countries. Waste collection is the basis for all subsequent
managerial measures and treatment
This document summarises contributions from technologies.The early stages we hope to
a number of International Solid Waste envisage comprise the establishment of a basic
Association (ISWA) national members.The regulatory framework, of collection schemes,
ISWA is well aware of the fact that the and of appropriate treatment and disposal
overview provided is far from being complete. facilities to prevent further damage to the
Nevertheless, the document clearly shows the environment.Training of operators and staff is
significant change of the role of waste a key element in this context. Local operators
management from the sectors limited scope and authorities can definitely benefit
of dealing with wastes to the new task of considerably from international support and
managing our societys metabolism. the transfer of know-how, so that they can run
at least basic collection and recycling
Waste management has for quite some time operations, landfills or compost plants in the
been understood as a key area in global best possible way under the given
environmental protection. Beyond that circumstances.
integrated waste management may be
regarded as an interface between the ISWA has recently entered into co-operation
production, distribution and consumption of with UNEP and is now able to offer training
goods on the one hand, and soil, groundwater, courses in developing countries. Furthermore,
air and climate on the other.Thus, it is an a special training pack for hazardous waste is
important partner in the context of being developed in order to support this
sustainable development. training programme.The tasks and challenges
we face today in our business and field of
Industrialised countries are currently fine- research are the result of decades, if not
tuning their regulatory framework and waste centuries, of economic and social
management infrastructure.The waste development.
management industry deals with considerably
rising environmental and legal standards, best
6 Foreword
know-how. Of course, immediate support that efficient measures with the biggest possible
facilitates the implementation of sound waste benefit for the environment?
management strategies and practices is most
valuable. In many cases, a small amount of Ten years after the World Summit of Rio de
money invested in training and education will Janeiro, environmental policy-makers now have
enable local staff and regional regulators to tools like environmental impact assessment, or
solve the problem themselves. cost-benefit analysis, life cycle analysis, material
flow analysis etc. for improved and scientifically
If the industrialised countries are willing to based decision making.The professional waste
donate just a minuscule fraction of the waste management sector anticipates that the 2002
management industrys profits for this purpose, Johannesburg Summit will address the macro
this sum allocated under acknowledged measures that will help us to overcome the
international auspices will make a stall we may face due to financial constraints in
tremendous difference. With its unique and the developing world.
balanced membership structure that
represents the public and the private sector as With this common goal in mind, we will
well as the academic and scientific world, the assume our shared responsibility for the
ISWA is ready to take the lead in this effort. future.
The more the waste management sector I would like to thank all ISWA members,
understands and accepts the paradigm of experts and staff involved in the preparation
sustainable development, the more it of this document and especially Helena
becomes obvious that our traditional Bergman, ISWA general secretariat, for her
approaches and common tools will soon have dedicated work.
reached their limits. Present planning and
regulation in waste management still focus on Christoph Scharff,
micro measures. On the other hand, very high President, ISWA January 2002
standards have been successfully achieved in
many technical areas, from emission control to
working conditions.This know-how, these
technologies and practices have not been
implemented in many parts of the world
not for technical reasons in the first place,
though.
Executive summary
Waste management is an important part of vast majority of countries are busy struggling
the urban infrastructure as it ensures the with such basic issues as ensuring sufficient
protection of the environment and of human collection services and implementing a minimal
health. It is not only a technical environmental degree of control at disposal sites at the same
issue, but also a highly political one. Waste time as they are facing increasing waste
management is closely related to a number of amounts due to the trend of urbanisation.
issues such as urban lifestyles, resource They also lack the technical and financial
consumption patterns, jobs and income levels, resources to safely manage solid wastes
and other socio-economic and cultural factors. which includes adequate provisions for storing
the waste at the point of generation as well as
The present report gives a brief review of the efficient and sufficient collection services. Final
development of the waste sector since the disposal in those countries is usually a matter
1992 Rio World Summit, as well as a status of transporting the collected wastes to the
description of the situation of waste nearest available open space and then
management today and of future challenges. discharging them.
The scope of the report is limited to the
management of municipal solid wastes (MSW). However, important progress has been made
in the waste sector over the last few years.
This report is divided into five parts. Part 2, The most important improvement is the
describes the status quo in the field of waste increased level of awareness among both the
management and presents relevant facts and public and politicians.This is the first step to
figures. Part 3 takes a look at the differences in ensure that action is taken and resources are
waste management in different parts of the allocated accordingly. On the other hand, the
world. Part 4 deals with the implementation of availability of resources is closely connected to
the three dimensions of sustainable the economic situation and waste
development in the waste industry. Part 5 management still holds a weak position in this
explains different means of how to implement context compared with other public services.
sustainable waste management systems. Some And since economic development is also
of the instruments are widely applied whereas closely linked to the generation of waste, the
others mainly concern a few countries that are last couple of years with strong economic
in the forefront of waste management. Part 6 development have resulted in increasing waste
looks into future challenges and goals for the quantities.
waste industry. A number of case studies can
be found in the annexes to the report. It has become more common to use different
instruments to reach environmental targets.
One characteristic feature of sustainable waste Legislation plays an important role in
management is that it is achieved by using the establishing the framework for these targets; it
technical, organisational, and financial resources is complemented with a number of market
available in a particular locality. based, economic and information related
instruments.Their application and effectiveness
The waste management situation in the depends on the situation. During the last ten
countries around the world is by no means years, new communication technologies and
uniform. It is easy to forget that the category networking have played an increasingly
of countries that are now fine-tuning their important role in the process of sharing know-
waste management systems is a minority.The how and experience across borders.
10 Executive summary
One major drawback for the industry is the investment in waste management systems.
difficulty to get acceptance for the siting of This is especially important in those
new waste treatment facilities.The NIMBY- countries where public health is adversely
syndrome (not in my backyard) makes the affected by insufficient or non-existent
siting of facilities lengthy and costly all over the services.
world.
It is of highest priority to achieve a
The most important challenge for the industry reduction in the amount of waste
is the prevention of waste, followed closely by generated and to decouple the link of
the need to obtain clear, transparent and economic growth and waste generation.
reliable data. Another task is the increased For this purpose, a uniform waste industry
cooperation across industrial sectors to approach to raise public and political
achieve the overall goal of improved resource interest is required in all parts of the world
management and to render waste less to establish sustainable waste management
hazardous. Solutions for those two goals will systems.
have to be found in the conception, design
and production phases of goods. A most pressing area for future progress is
the field of information and education.
It seems clear that the tail (waste There needs to be a co-ordinated strategy
management) cannot wag the dog (the entire with regard to information provision and
economy).The tools of material and substance considerable work needs to be done to
flow analysis, life cycle analysis and cost-benefit change peoples attitudes towards waste
analysis have to be applied more widely, since management as a whole and increase
focusing on the waste end only is the wrong participation in recycling and minimisation
approach in many cases.The combined schemes. Once the public is participating in
application of these methods for the recycling schemes it is important to
comprehensively defined systems will result in give them feedback on what happens with
concrete concepts of the optimal mix of the recycled waste to keep up their
measures.The goals of dematerialisation and interest in participation.
detoxification of all economic activities in a
long-term perspective have to become more Information and education are also needed
important than goals just restricted to waste to allay the fears that people have with
management. regard to waste management and to
encourage them to take responsibility for
The resulting concept could be called the waste they generate. One major goal
sustainable integrated resource and waste that needs to be achieved is increasing
management.The main future challenges and public confidence in the waste
goals for realising this concept are: management sector. Extensive work needs
to be done to remove negative
National waste policies have to be made perceptions and replace emotive views
more coherent; the legal framework, its with views based on sound science and
implementation and enforcement need to agreed facts.
be improved in all parts of the world.
Especially in developing countries, substantial Future progress is also needed in improving
efforts are of greatest importance in that the markets for recyclables. Producers must
field. Waste management plans at national be encouraged to incorporate life cycle
and local level are needed; these can serve assessments in the development stages of
as the basis for the improvement of and their products and consider waste
Executive summary 11
Part 1: Introduction
Waste management is an important part of The total lapse of more than a century from the
the urban infrastructure, as it ensures the first clear stirrings of public interest in urban
protection of the environment and of human waste services to the present time in high-income
health. It is not only a technical environmental countries suggests that a comparable change in
issue, but also a highly political one. Waste low-income countries, where public interest is not
management is closely related to a number of yet fully aroused, is not likely to be swift. Until
issues such as urban lifestyle, resource public interest is aroused, additional public
consumption patterns, jobs and income levels, funding for improved waste service is unlikely
and other socio-economic and cultural factors. unless accompanied by increased prosperity.
Lately there has been a trend to enlarge the (WHO, 1998) The organisation of efficient
scope of waste management and include it waste collection in western Europe and North
within the larger concept of resource America took around 20 years, as public and
management.Today, waste management must political interest in waste management was
be seen in its full context. It cannot be solved delayed to the 1960s and 1970s in the wake
with merely technical end-of-pipe solutions. of another period of economic growth.
(MacFarlane, 2001).
When we employ a long-term waste
management strategy to ensure sustainable Due to this complex situation, it is indeed a
development, this will not only affect a number challenging task to come to a satisfying
of different dimensions; there are also different solution. On the following pages, we have
levels of decision-making and action involved. prepared a general report on the components
Decision-making and action take place at necessary to attain sustainable waste
various levels nationwide, regional, local and management and we have included several
finally in households. All aspects and all actors relevant examples.The information used in this
must be considered when we develop a waste report was provided by a number of our
management system and implement it in daily national members and by a large number of
life. other sources (as referred to in the
bibliography). A UNEP reference group has
There are also large differences in the level of also contributed to this text by providing
proficiency in the countries of the world. It is material input and giving comments.The ISWA
easy to forget that the category of countries Scientific and Technical Committee and an
that are now fine-tuning their waste internal ISWA reference group have also been
management systems is a minority.The vast helpful with advice.
majority of countries is busy struggling with
such basic issues as ensuring sufficient collection
services and implementing a minimal degree of
1.1 The International Solid
control at disposal sites at the same time as Waste Association
they are facing increasing waste amounts due to The International Solid Waste Association
the trend of urbanisation.There is an interesting (ISWA) is a global body concerned with
parallel to draw between the problems faced professional waste management. ISWA is a
by the cities of todays low-income economies non-political and non-governmental association
and those of 19th century North America and by statutes and follows the mission statement
western Europe. In both cases, the pace of to promote and develop professional waste
population growth outstripped the capacity to management worldwide as a contribution to
manage urban services. sustainable development.
14 Introduction
Definitions of sustainable waste management Enforcement of the law and the powers of the
will differ depending on the circumstances.The regulatory authorities to ensure that the
following components are indispensable for regulatory framework is respected are
the purpose of guidelining the implementation necessary tools for efficient legislation.This is a
of a system that will be able to achieve the weak point in most countries. Non-compliance
overall environmental objectives of countries with environmental legislation is not always
and/or regions: deliberate. But there is still a tendency in
society to consider this kind of violation less
waste policy, including a waste hierarchy; serious than the violation of other laws.The
waste planning; lack of efficient enforcement of such laws is
regulatory framework; often due to the lack of financial and human
enforcement of the law. resources.
Waste management is usually regulated by a In the last few years, the concept of integrated
national and/or regional waste policy.The waste management has evolved. In such a
following hierarchy is generally accepted in this system, the technical solution of disposing of
context: waste is not the only focal point. Instead, it
relies on a number of different means to
waste prevention and minimisation; manage waste. It aims at a holistic approach to
reuse and recycling; the chain of waste management from
environmentally safe waste treatment generation to disposal and all stages in
including disposal. between. All actors participating in and
18 Implementing the three dimensions of sustainable development
affected by the waste management system are and support programmes. In those countries,
considered as well as cultural, social and separating and treating waste with
economic factors. intermediate technology is a truly sustainable
alternative to doing nothing at all. But since
Since the Rio summit in 1992, the focal point healthcare waste goes well beyond the scope
of waste management has shifted from raising of this report, there will be no further specific
the level of public awareness to taking action. consideration of this waste stream.That does
In most developed countries, the development not mean that the issue is not of a high
has gone from improving the technical priority in the achievement of sustainable
solutions of waste management to waste management.
understanding the importance of an integrated
waste management system.The fine-tuning of The individual steps in the waste management
the system will continue and technical chain can be divided into the following:
solutions are going to be complemented by
increased activities on social and waste prevention, waste minimisation and
communication aspects. waste detoxification;
collection, transfer, transport and storage;
2.2 Description of the waste reuse and recycling;
waste treatment including waste disposal.
industry
Over the years, the waste industry has Waste can be treated and recycled using a
developed into three main groups depending large number of different technologies. But the
on the type of waste dealt with: following categories specify the main groups of
treatments:
municipal solid waste: this group often
includes commercial and institutional biological treatment, for example
wastes, composting and anaerobic digestion;
industrial waste: industry-specific waste incineration with or without energy
depending upon the industrial activity recovery;
concerned, landfilling.
hazardous waste.
Apart from those controlled treatment
Household hazardous waste is usually included methods one cannot ignore the fact that a
in MSW. In developing countries there is often considerable amount of waste is still done
no distinction made between the different away with in an unacceptable way. Waste is still
sources of waste; it is simply all mixed. disposed of by dumping it in the open or into
the ocean, or by burning it on-site. Such ways
Healthcare waste is a small, but highly of disposal have irreversible and potentially
significant waste stream with a highly rated harmful effects on both human health and the
perception of risk. It contains a wide range of environment.These are clearly not methods
hazardous materials, as well as infectious that belong to sustainable waste management.
materials. In this field, there is a significant Nevertheless, such disposal methods are
potential for improvement in all countries frequently employed in an estimated 175
regarding waste prevention, segregation and sovereign nations and territories (Rushbrook,
recycling.This is especially true in developing 1999).
countries where there is a lack of special
management and an urgent need for training As mentioned earlier, there are a number of
different actors within the industry.These
Implementing the three dimensions of sustainable development 19
range from policy-makers and legislators on a municipal waste is normally within the
national level, to citizens taking part in the responsibility of the respective public authority.
waste collection schemes.The role of the local The system is set up according to the
authorities is to deliver sustainable waste demands of an overall waste policy and its
management to the citizens. Many of those targets.The amount of freedom to achieve set
who work in the field of waste management targets varies from one regulatory framework
are elected and appointed for a limited period to another.
of time.This is another factor that has an
impact on the decisions taken and on long- A number of different factors such as
term planning. environmental, cultural, social, economic, and
technical aspects must be taken into
The fact that the industry is dealing with the consideration in the setting up of a sustainable
public, influences the way industry works. waste management system.That is why waste
Changing and directing public behaviour in a management schemes vary substantially from
certain direction takes a long time and a large one country to another and also from one
information campaign. Once a system is set up, region/city to another.
it is difficult and costly to make changes to it.
Furthermore, if citizens are required to behave The patterns of waste generation, its
in a certain way, they want to be informed on composition and treatment are highly diverse
and assured of the environmental benefit of in the different regions, countries and parts of
their efforts.The public willingness and capacity the world. We have put together some
to pay for waste management are other statistical information illustrating those
factors that limit the scope of waste differences in the figures on pages 20 to 22.
management services.
Figure 1:Waste generation rates from 1960 to 1999 in the United States
150 6
100 4
Per capita generation (Y2)
50 2
0 0
1960 1970 1980 1990 1999
Figure 2: 1999 total waste generation in the United States - 230 million tonnes
Yard
Food waste waste
10.9% 12.1%
Paper
38.1%
Plastics
10.5%
Metals
7.8% Other
3.2%
Rubber, leather Wood
and textiles Glass 5.3%
6.6% 5.5%
Recovery
28%
Land
disposal
57% Combustion
15%
Other
5%
Municipal waste
14%
Construction
and demolition
22%
Energy
production
Mining
4%
and quarrying
Manufacturing
29%
26%
Note: Sewage sludge is included under other waste. EEA countires are the 15 member states of
the EU and Norway, Iceland and Liechtenstein.
Source: US EPA, 2000
22 Implementing the three dimensions of sustainable development
Figure 5: Is there still a correlation between economic growth and waste generation?
3
Manufacturing industries
2
Household waste
1
0
0 5 10 15 20 25
1,000 Euro per capita
Note:The variations in waste generated from daily household and commercial activities between
member countries are limited, except for Austria and Iceland, which have slightly lower generation
rates.The increase in Ireland can be related to such themes as improved collection of waste and a
more firm registration of waste or in changes in some of the household activities. Such as, the
number of single households and the lifestyle change towards pre-prepared food and take-away
restaurants. Source: EEA, 2000
Implementing the three dimensions of sustainable development 23
From the few examples given, one can draw management systems in place, other countries
the conclusion that worldwide waste with a long-term industrial base have not yet
production is still growing.That goes for EU developed hazardous waste management
countries as well, despite the fact that a waste systems to the same extent.
reduction policy was adopted and despite a
relatively low growth in economic activity and In the developed world, hazardous waste
a balanced population growth. Part of this management programmes were started
increase in waste quantities is due to an around 30 years ago.They were prompted by
improvement in statistical data collection and a number of pollution incidents. Some of those
monitoring, part of it is real growth. early mistakes turned out very costly, and the
task of cleaning up old pollution can be a very
The examples above may also be regarded as long one. In the United States of today, more
an indicator of the difficulty to obtain reliable money is spent on dealing with past pollution
and comparable data on waste generation and than on managing the current disposal of
treatment methods. hazardous wastes, even though the quantities
of newly generated waste are greater.
2.4 Hazardous waste
While each countrys hazardous waste
management(1) management system is different, the national
All countries generate hazardous waste.The systems have some common features. Perhaps
quantities generated and their potential the most important of those are the staged
impacts depend on many factors, including the introduction of controls and the gradual
level of industrial development, the way in development of facilities. While the proper
(1) The source of the
which wastes are managed, the existing state controls and facilities are put in place, interim information in this chapter is
of the local environment and the capacity of solutions are employed. Some environmentally the ISWA Training Resource
developing countries have already started to Pack for Hazardous Waste
the receiving media. While many developed Management in
countries now have effective hazardous waste develop a comprehensive system for the Environmentally Developing
Countries.
24 Implementing the three dimensions of sustainable development
It is obvious, however, that the tail (waste 3.3 Other high and medium
management) cannot wag the dog (the entire
economy). Since focusing on the waste end income countries
alone is certainly the wrong approach in many Some high- and medium-income countries
cases, material and substance flow analyses will obviously follow the approach of the EU, some
be more widely applied.The goals of follow that of the United States. Limited
dematerialisation and detoxification of all availability of land normally leads to more
economic activities in a long-term perspective European solutions (for example, Hong Kong,
will become more important than goals in the Singapore, Japan). Countries where this
field of waste management. limitation does not exist tend to follow the
pragmatic course of the United States (for
Thus, new ways of policy-making are needed. example, Australia).
These may result from a structured dialogue
between a broad range of stakeholders. Waste
management institutions will be challenged to
3.4 Economically developing
contribute to that dialogue, the topics of which countries
will be the whole picture and issues like supply 3.4.1 General overview
of primary resources, production, trade, Economically developing countries generally
transport and consumption. As a result of this lack policies aimed at the management of solid
comprehensive approach, the goals of waste wastes. In addition, most countries do not have
minimisation and decoupling economic growth modern regulations; existing regulations are
and waste generation may finally be achieved. antiquated and rarely enforced.
Within the next ten years, several accession However, solid waste management has
candidates will become member states of the become an issue of concern for public health
EU.They will have to fulfil the EUs legal and environmental protection agencies in
framework for waste (and resource) many developing countries.There are large
management, probably with specified extended differences in the waste management
deadlines. standards of developed countries.This gap is
even greater between developed and
3.2 The United States developing countries.The waste produced by
human settlements and the resulting problems
Compared with the EU, a more pragmatic
are mainly the same but there are
approach is used in the United States.
differences between regions and locations due
Economic considerations based on cost-
to variables such as climatic, cultural, industrial,
benefit analyses play an important role in
geological, legal and environmental factors.The
policy-making. Due to this approach, landfilling
waste management systems in different
continues to be the most common solution in
developing countries vary substantially and are
the United States.Two factors play an
in some cases virtually non-existent.
important role in this context: a relatively low
population density, and incomplete cost
Most developing countries do not have the
accounting on waste management alternatives.
technical and financial resources to manage
solid wastes safely.This means that storage at
the point of waste generation is often
inadequate and collection services are
inefficient and insufficient. Final disposal in
those countries is usually a matter of
Different approaches to waste management in different parts of the world 27
transporting the collected wastes to the the basic principles of occupational health and
nearest available open space and then in some instances cause significant
discharging them. In some cases, the waste is environmental problems such as the recovery
set on fire in order to reduce its volume and and reprocessing of automobile batteries at
to minimise the attraction of animals and the home level. Resource recovery or
vermin. scavenging, as it is commonly called, takes place
in most urban areas in developing countries.
Developing countries in the process of The process is carried out at various stages of
industrialisation have to cope with larger the waste management system and in different
quantities of more diverse materials.They are manners. Some of the most common methods
often hosting industries which are hazardous are briefly described in the following sections.
waste-intensive such as oil-refining,
petrochemicals, pharmaceuticals manufacture In large urban areas with an active and well-
and metal production. But the method for defined commercial area or an area with a
waste disposal is still the same as mentioned large number of apartment buildings occupied
earlier uncontrolled dumping.The challenge by people earning a high income, scavengers
in those cases is to get from no control to a typically sort through the waste before the
managed situation, and the first step towards authorised collection vehicle arrives.The most
that is through so-called transitional common materials that are recovered include
technologies. various types of paper products (cardboard,
newspaper, and office papers), some plastics
In many developing countries, the rapid and aluminium containers. In most cases, the
population growth and the increasing scavengers use carts or similar units for the
economic activity combined with a lack of storage and transport of the recovered
training in modern solid waste management materials. In areas where there is a relatively
practices complicate the effort to improve the high generation of recyclable materials, the
solid waste service. Some improvements have scavengers store the materials in specific
been made or are under planning, for example locations for their eventual collection by
extending the waste collection system and commercial trucks.There are isolated cases
storing the wastes under improved conditions. where scavengers travel from house to house
Table 2 (page 28) illustrates the problems buying secondary materials.
posed by the rapid growth of urban areas in
China. Another method of scavenging takes place
during the collection process. In this particular
3.4.2 Resource recovery in developing method, the collectors themselves and/or
countries(3) helpers conduct a certain amount of
Most developing countries have various segregation during the loading of the waste
processes aimed at the recovery of materials into the collection vehicles.The segregation
from the solid waste stream. Studies have process is facilitated in the situations where
shown that local industries are, in some cases, open trucks are used which allows for some
strongly dependent on the availability of of the collectors to be stationed inside the
secondary materials for re-processing. Some of vehicle.The recyclable materials are stored
these materials include: cardboard, various either inside the truck or on the sides of the
paper products, different types of plastics and vehicle.
metals.
The last and the certainly the most onerous (3) This chapter is an input
Unfortunately, the methods used to recover by L. F. Diaz , G. M. Savage and
type of scavenging is the one that takes place
L. L. Eggerth, CalRecovery, Inc.,
secondary materials are inefficient, disregard at the disposal site. Disposal sites, particularly Concord, California, USA.
28 Different approaches to waste management in different parts of the world
system.The third objective is to shift the Many of the employment opportunities are
waste focus of the whole waste debate to a regarded as blue collar jobs that require less
resource focus. Only when waste skills and training and therefore provide
management systems evolve into optimised opportunities for traditionally disadvantaged or
resource management systems will they be excluded elements of society. In addition,
truly sustainable. employment opportunities for less able bodied
and people with learning disabilities have
To put it in a nutshell, waste management has increased in recent years particularly due to
to become an integral part of sustainable the development of material reclamation
integrated resource and waste management. facilities (MRF).
NIMBYism (not in my backyard) has become committees, round table discussion groups,
an important factor, as the public is focused on open days, visits for schoolchildren, leafleting,
their right to a clean environment, and and special events. Many waste treatment
unfortunately there is mistrust regarding the facilities establish proactive liaison committees
level of environmental emissions associated with local residents, the local authority and the
with landfill and incineration even when the operators of the plant in order to address any
highest of standards are adhered to.This public issues of concern, promote good
antipathy has generally resulted from emotive communications practices, and raise the
rather than scientific evidence, promoted by publics awareness with regard to the facility.
environmental groups. This high level of engaging the public in waste
management projects is becoming more
Often, the public has a negative perception of widespread, particularly in the case of more
the waste industry.There is concern among contentious projects such as energy from
some sectors of the industry that waste and landfill.
environmental groups are unfairly targeting
them. Information provision is an important step in
minimising concerns that people may have
The negative press that the waste industry has regarding the safety of a waste management
received as a result of several incidents has system. Waste companies publish
made it imperative that good clear lines of environmental reports on a regular basis and
communication are opened up between waste make their company information more
managers and the local population in the siting accessible to the public.The increased use of
and operation of waste facilities.The publics the Internet has opened up new channels of
uncertainty concerning waste practices means it communication and the waste industry is
is increasingly difficult to obtain a consensus and already using it as an effective tool in
make people accept different waste information dissemination.
management options. Most, if not all, waste
facilities require a full environmental impact 4.2.3 Environmental justice
assessment, which takes into consideration An important issue in relation to the social
environmental and social issues. Where lines of dimension of waste management is
communication were opened in the early stages environmental justice. Environmental justice
of a project and information and data was can be defined as fair treatment for people of
transparent and accessible, the relationships all races, cultures, and incomes, regarding the
between the public and the proposer of the development of environmental laws,
waste facility have been more positive. regulations, and policies (US EPA). People are
concerned that minority populations and low-
The South East London Combined Heat and income populations bear a disproportionate
Power facility is a good example in the United amount of adverse health and environmental
Kingdom, where involvement of the public in effects. Is the increased attention to
the decision making process throughout meant environmental problems prevalent in all
that planning permission was eventually segments of the society?
granted for what is generally regarded as an
unpopular option by the public. Environmental justice and the right to a clean
environment are related to the location of
A number of different measures can be taken facilities.Today, it is very difficult to find
to improve relations with the public and locations for new waste treatment plants.
ensure that good environmental practice is Citizens groups are established to demonstrate
adhered to.These range from liaison against attempts to locate a facility in their
34 Implementation of sustainable development practices
Table 3: Urban expenditure, total and on waste, selected cities and years
Annual expenditure
City Year Total urban Solid Waste GNP % GNP
expenditure USD per capita per capita spent on
USD per capita waste
Accra1 1994 2.76 0.66 390 0.17
Ahmedabad2 1995 24.27 1.61 350 0.46
Bogota3 1994 7.75 1,620 0.48
Bombay2 1995 63.65 3.92 350 1.12
Bucharest4 1995 94.75 2.37 1,450 0.16
Budapest5 1995 310 13.80 4,130 0.33
Buenos Aires6 1989 10.15 2,160 0.47
Caracas6 1989 6.67 2,450 0.27
Dhaka7 1995 8.31 1.46 270 0.54
Hanoi8 1994 2.00 250 0.80
Jakarta9 1993 82.75 2.50 740 0.34
Kuala Lumpur10 1994 15.25 4,000 0.38
Lahore11 1985 9.70 1.77 390 0.45
London12 1991 46 16,550 0.28
Madras13 1995 14.75 1.77 350 0.51
Moroccan cities14 1990 1.12-2.03 950 0.12-0.21
New York15 1992 5,804 97 23,240 0.42
Riga5 1995 153 6.00 2420 0.25
So Paulo6 1989 13.32 2540 0.52
Strasbourg16 1995 1,600 63 24,990 0.25
Surabaya17 1993 3.90 740 0.53
Sydney18 1995 38 18,720 0.20
Tallinn5 1995 8.11 3,080 0.26
Tokyo19 1987 3,010 100 15,840 0.63
Toronto20 1994 2,043 48 19,510 0.25
Sources
1 World Bank, Washington, D.C., 1997 10 Hassan, M.N. & Rahman, R.A. Solid waste management in
2 Mazumdar, N.B. Municipal waste management: the Indian Malaysia: existing solution, issues and problems. Waste
perspective. Energy environment monitor, 12(2):57-69 management and research (accepted for publication),
(1996) 1998.
3 Canrede Inc., Resource Development Engineers and 11 Lahore Municipal Corporation, Lahore, Pakistan, 1988.
Planners, Whitby, Canada, 1996 12 Greater London Council, London, United Kingdom, 1993.
4 EX Corporation and Yachiyo Engineering Co.Ltd, for 13 World Bank, Washington, D.C., 1997.
Japan International Cooperation Agency (JICA). The study 14 Said, N. Management of solid waste in Morocco. University
on the solid waste management system for Bucharest of Mohammed V, Ecole Suprieure de Technologie, Sale,
Municipality in Romania Final report. Bucharest, Ministry Morocco, 1993.
of Public Works and Regional Planning, 1995 15 U.S. Department of Commerce, U.S. Bureau of the
5 Canadian Urban Institute ,Toronto, 199 Census. City government finances, 1991-1992,
6 Bartone, C.R et al. Private sector participation in municipal Washington, D.C., 1994
solid waste service: experience in Latin America. Waste 16 WHO European Centre for Environment and Health,
management and research, 9(6) (1991). Nancy, 1997.
7 Preliminary data provided by World Bank, Washington, 17 World Bank. Private sector participation in solid waste
D.C., 1998 management, Indonesia. 1995.
8 Solid Waste Management in Hanoi,Vietnam. Warmer 18 Beverage Industry Environment Council. Domestic waste
Bulletin, 44 (1995). management in Sydney: costs and efficiencies. Sydney,
9 Compiled from: (i) Porter, R.C. The economics of water 1997 (research project)
and waste: a case study of Jakarta, Indonesia. Aldershot, 19 Tokyo Municipal Corporation. The fiscal outlook for the
Avebury, 1996; (ii) World Bank. Private sector Metropolis of Tokyo, 1989.Tokyo. 1990
participation in solid waste management, Indonesia, 1995; 20 Ontario Ministry of Municipal Affairs. Municipal financial
and (iii) PT Katika Pradiptaprisma. Promotion of waste information, 1994.Toronto, Queens Printer for Ontario,
recycling and reuse in developing countries, Jakarta 1996.
Metropolitan City, Final report, April 1992. Bandung, Source: WHO, 1998
1992.
36 Implementation of sustainable development practices
expenditure per capita was available, it has Furthermore, what is done must be done with
been added. From this it is possible to portray an improved environmental performance. In
the proportion of waste costs to total urban several countries, different taxes on waste have
expenditure.The data should be taken as been introduced in order to divert waste from
indicative only, because no two cities provide landfill to options higher up in the waste
fully comparable services, and no uniform hierarchy.Those taxes are constituted in a
urban accountancy system has been adopted number of different ways and are sometimes
to permit reliable comparisons. However, the returned to the industry. But they will
data permit some assessment of relative cost nevertheless increase the costs for the disposal
burdens in these cities. of waste.
The costs implied with waste management can 4.3.2 Financing/cost recovery
be divided into three categories: The financing of waste management differs
from one country to another. Fees and
overhead as for administration, planning, charges recover the costs for waste
information, enforcement, inspections etc. management but taxes are also used. In some
New costs occur for municipalities when cases, there is no direct recovery from the
different systems for household hazardous collective using the waste services; instead, the
waste, batteries, electrical and electronic service is financed by the general municipal
waste etc. are implemented; budget.The contributor is normally the
collection and transport; significant household.
rationalisations have been made, but with
increased separation at source the industry Developing countries face the problem that
will be confronted with increased; people can hardly afford to pay for the waste
treatment of waste; the costs increase as service and are often not willing to do so. At
well. the same time, local taxation systems are often
inadequately developed and the financial basis
The total costs for waste management seem for waste management services is weak.There
to be increasing and the allocation of financial are systems, in both developed and developing
resources to the different components is countries, in which the costs for waste
changing.The increase in the overall costs management are linked to the electricity or
related to waste management is less important water bill to ensure that the services provided
than might be expected. Costs for collection are paid for.
and transportation have decreased due to
increased efficiency, improved collection Countries with well-established procedures for
technologies and better logistics. waste management cost recovery now
examine new systems to recover costs. A
On the other hand, overhead and treatment dilemma that may be observed in some
costs have increased.The legal requirements countries with far-reaching source separation
on treatment facilities and the political and a high level of public engagement in waste
ambitions to make better use of waste have prevention, recycling and separation is that
implied higher costs. As referred to on several people expect to pay less since they discard
occasions in this report, the increasing need smaller amounts of waste.
for information for and dialogue with the
public has incurred increased costs, as well. Citizens who take an active role in the
Some costs are new in the sense that they minimisation of waste consider it a reasonable
correspond to services that were not carried compensation for their effort to be charged
out before. less. Instead, they may even notice that costs
Implementation of sustainable development practices 37
are increasing. It is an important function of Other influences on the air environment are
the waste management authorities to explain the destruction of the ozone layer caused by
the mechanism behind the cost charged to the refrigerants and rain acidification caused by
consumer and which elements the charge sulphur dioxide and oxides from nitrogen from
consists of. incineration plants.The waste management
industry also affects the soil, ground and
There is a trend towards promoting the fairer surface waters through leachate escape from
distribution of waste management costs across landfills, land spreading and waste storage.
households.The base for calculating this fee or Leachate may contain persistent, toxic and bio-
charge can be made in a variety of ways by accumulable compounds, and nutrients that
household, by weight or volume, by size of can cause eutrophication.
domicile. Another trend is the use of
differentiated waste fees to change public 4.4.2 Waste quality and quantities
behaviour. Households play an important role Waste management is a service industry
in waste management.The application of providing recycling, recovery and different
service-related fees is a direct, visible and treatment methods and final disposal.The
immediate means of influencing peoples waste generated by the industry itself is
behaviour. minimal, especially considering the amounts
that the industry receives.The environmental
effects of the industry are in direct relation to
4.4 Waste management the quality and quantity of the waste it
today environmental receives.
dimension
In the last decades, the awareness of
4.4.1 Environmental effects sustainable consumption has increased and
Waste that is not properly collected, stored there is a trend to phase out a number of
and treated gives rise not only to detrimental products and substances that have direct and
environmental effects, but, what is even more unquestionable effects on human health and
urgent, it poses a risk to public health.The first on the environment (asbestos, PCBs etc).This
priority is therefore to ensure the proper has had positive effects on the environment
collection and storage of waste in order to and there is a large number of good examples
minimise risks to both the environment and to where the environment and its fauna and flora
public health. In countries without sufficient are recovering well.The trend of detoxification
coverage of collection services, the resulting of production and consumption has also had
adverse environmental effects clearly its effects on the environmental performance
correspond to the lack of collection services. of the waste industry. But there is still
important work to be done to increase the
A number of environmental effects is quality of waste through preventive actions in
potentially caused by the waste management the production and consumption phases.
industry and all of them should be properly
controlled. Waste management affects the One measure that affects both the quality and
environment through land use, through the quantity of the waste requiring disposal is
pollution with hazardous substances that the source separation of a number of types of
escape into air, water and soils. Waste facilities waste that are known to generate
produce greenhouse gases in varying environmental nuisances (household hazardous
quantities, either in the form of methane gas waste). As to the quality aspect, some fractions
from landfill sites or carbon dioxide from cause harm when found in the general MSW
composting or energy from waste plants. stream, but if taken care of correctly, the
38 Implementation of sustainable development practices
The second issue mainly concerns the final Commission has announced that they believe
disposal option. In most countries, biological that the pieces of legislation necessary for the
treatment is considered as a recycling option time being have been adopted and that focus
through the recuperation of compost and must be made on consolidation.
other end-products. Incineration with energy
recovery is considered as final disposal. As with Most modern waste legislation contains
all waste management options, there are large requirements on licensing, authorisation and
differences in the performance and efficiency compliance for waste management facilities.
levels of different incineration facilities and the Those requirements are complemented with
role of that option in different countries. In powers of inspection and enforcement.This is
some parts of the world waste-to-energy normally referred to as command-and-
makes an important input to public district control.The legal framework constitutes the
heating and is therefore regarded differently baseline. In several parts of the world, the
from incineration that takes place without industry has become a driving environmental
energy recovery. force that even goes ahead of the legislator in
some aspects.
In other parts of the world, incineration is
literally a technology: to put waste on fire to 5.1.3 Waste planning
reduce its volume and the risks for diseases. The national and/or regional waste policy
together with the legal framework forms the
5.1.2 Legal framework effective basis for waste planning on regional or local
implementation and enforcement level.The general policy must be transformed
Apart from the adoption of a detailed and into tangible action and the establishment of a
well-structured waste policy, the waste system that provides a service to the citizens.
industry requires a legal framework that
enables it to reach set objectives and targets. Thus, efficient waste planning is another
A well-elaborated legal framework will assist in necessary element to ensure a well functioning
the effective implementation of those targets. waste management system. Waste planning at
The legal framework must also be provided local level is often insufficient when compared
with an effective enforcement system. to national planning. Again, local factors must
be taken into consideration in the preparation
In most countries, environmental legislation of a waste management plan. Experience and
was introduced as a reaction to an occurring information can be transferred to and
environmental problem.There is often a lack collected from other regions and localities, but
of coordination between different pieces of each plan is specific to the local circumstances.
legislation that protect different environmental One major problem in the field of waste
interests. Legislation is often incoherent, as planning is the lack of competent and skilled
well, since it was developed at different times human resources.This problem is especially
and for different reasons, protects different pressing in developing countries.
interests and encompasses different objectives.
Local waste planning is of more tangible
In the context of environmental legislation, the character and a local waste plan will
EU is superior to national legislation. It has encompass figures on waste quantities, waste
instituted a large number of different legal acts composition and treatment capacity.Typically, it
in the field of environmental protection.The will also contain measures on waste
result is a good example of a legal framework minimisation and prevention, on recycling and
that has responded to environmental on a reduction of waste going to landfill. A
problems rather than being proactive.The well-prepared waste plan at local level can be
Means of implementation 41
a very useful tool for local waste managers to With the current trend towards deregulation
improve local waste management. and increased competitiveness in the industry
Furthermore, the long-term planning assists in and with the role of the local waste
making provisions and enables waste managers management authority as increasingly one of
to be pro-active before it comes to planning, determining and buying waste
deficiencies in the system (bottlenecks in the services, the role of public procurement
disposal capacity, major investments etc). becomes increasingly important.The buyer
needs to be competent in order to buy well
In developing countries, waste planning is and to know what to ask the service provider
concerned with other issues and realities; the for. It is not a question of only looking at the
most limiting factor is how to achieve the price but to look at the price for a given
most with the limited funds available to the quality and quantity level as specified by the
waste service. But improvements are not buyer.
necessarily dependent on massive investments.
Developing countries can probably increase There is a large number of innovative and
their performance by using what they already successful tenders, but it would require too
have in a more efficient way. Good much space to report them here.Therefore,
organisational structure and a high-quality we would like to give some examples of
management are two other important factors environmental considerations that could be
for efficient waste management.The process of specified in a tender for waste management
waste planning forces people to consider services:
those factors; it may help to stress their
importance. definition of the level of environmental
performance required,
requirement that an environmental
5.2 Market-based initiatives management scheme be used as part of a
5.2.1 Public procurement process,
The market for public procurement is large environmental classification of vehicles,
and therefore the potential to make green fuel standard used in vehicles,
environmental improvements is considerable. requirements on primary materials and
Environmental considerations can be recycled material in products,
introduced as an important aspect in the stipulation that a product or its
setting of tender specifications and evaluation components must have an eco-label or
of the responses. energy label or similar environmental label
if available,
Again, the legal framework is of importance in requirement on personnel involved to have
public procurement. In most countries, public specific training or specific environmental
procurement is regulated concerning both the experience.
content of the tenders and the criteria for
evaluating the responses.The legal framework 5.2.2 Environmental management
may hinder the consideration of environmental systems
effects at the evaluation stage if that implies Within the commercial sector, the drive (6) There are two main
higher costs. On the other hand, public towards more sustainable practices has recognised systems for EMS:
procurement can also enhance the markets for resulted in an increase in the implementation the worldwide recognised ISO
recyclables by promoting (or even making 14001 and the European
of environmental management systems voluntary scheme EMAS (Eco
obligatory) the use of recyclable materials in (EMS).(6) In some countries, the local Management and Audit
products that are subject to a tendering authorities have also taken the step towards Scheme). But there is no
obligation to have an EMS
process. implementing an EMS.The waste management certified or registered.
42 Means of implementation
industry (both public and private) has a high A study carried out by a number of European
public profile and is closely scrutinised by local waste management organisations in 1999
residents, pressure groups and environmental showed that there is an interest within the
authorities.Therefore it is advantageous and European waste industry to implement an
necessary for the industry to improve its EMS. At that time the number of EMAS-
environmental performance and thus also registrations and ISO 14001-certifications was
improve its image by addressing environmental not very high. But the number of companies
issues. participating is continually increasing.
The scope of environmental improvements 5.2.3 Life cycle assessment and cost-
through an EMS can be considerable. Many benefit analysis
waste management organisations are already Specific tools, such as life cycle assessments
reaping the rewards.The waste industry is (LCA), are extremely useful when we consider
therefore in a unique position to set an the overall impact of a product and assess its
example for high standards in environmental sustainability. LCA measures inputs and
management. outputs, from the mining of the resources to
final disposal. It can take into consideration
The arguments for implementing an EMS in environmental benefits and costs and include
the waste industry are the same as in other the technical, social and economic implications
industries. But it can be argued that the waste of different waste management options.
industry is more closely connected to the
environment than other industry sectors. LCA has been used to an increasing extent by
Whatever method is used to treat or dispose environmental groups or as a marketing
of waste, it is ultimately the environment that initiatives. LCA can be used to compare
is used to dilute, disperse, break down or comparative acceptability of consumer
stabilise the waste. Furthermore, the waste products, such as disposable nappies versus
industry in its role as a public service provider cotton nappies, plastic drinks containers versus
is not in the position to prescribe the quality glass. But it can also be used in more complex
of the waste that is delivered to them for situations as when evaluating the setting up of
treatment and/or disposal. By implementing an a local waste management system in order to
EMS, the waste industry can demonstrate that determine which treatment methods to rely
they take the environmental effects of their on. Any LCA will, of course, depend on the
activity seriously. local circumstances and the results may vary
from one region to another.
(7) There are also examples An EMS at its simplest has a systematic
of national simplified
approach to understanding how the laws of a The following example of LCA used in the
programmes. In Norway, for
example, there is a local country affect an organisations activities, to waste industry is from the United Kingdom.
environmental certification identifying which environmental effects its The WISARD (Waste Integrated Systems
scheme for companies named
Miljfyrtrn.This certification activities may generate, to developing a Assessment for Recovery and Disposal)
is much easier to obtain for strategy of how to reduce and control these computer software launched by the United
small-sized companies than effects and finally of how to communicate to Kingdom Environment Agency was designed to
ISO 14000 certification. It is
organised by the local the public the actions taken and the results of help waste managers identify more sustainable,
municipality and is a co- those actions. However, waste companies are integrated approaches to waste management.
operation of the industry and increasingly seeking recognition for the The system uses life cycle assessment for
the local authorities. 240
enterprises have so far standards they are achieving, which results in recovery and disposal and allows modelling of
achieved certification and 60 more companies registering for EMAS or all aspects of different waste management
municipalities have started to systems and compares their environmental
ISO14001.(7)
certify municipally owned
companies. impacts.
Means of implementation 43
Another example is an Austrian study(8) based Another kind of voluntary initiative are
on LCA and CBA that compares one-way initiatives taken by industry to show their
beverage packaging with refillables.The results goodwill and sense of responsibility in different
led to significant changes in the Austrian aspects environmental, social or educational.
legislation regarding targets for beverage Different companies have launched take-back
packaging. schemes in order to keep a high
environmental profile. Any such schemes are
5.2.4 Standardisation of benefit to the waste management as they
Standards within the waste industry can cover normally tend to sort out a waste fraction that
everything from the bins used for collection to is not desirable in the feed stock (for example
references for the best available technology. printer toners, ink cartouches, mobile
Even if waste management must take into telephones, batteries etc).
consideration local, political, cultural and socio-
economic factors in each country, there is still Voluntary agreements have recently become
some scope left for the co-operation across one way for the industry to be proactive to
country borders. avoid detailed national legislation. In Norway,
for example, there is at the moment no legal
A number of organisations promote best regulation of the collection and recycling
practice and the creation of best practice targets for packaging waste.The government
guidelines for the waste industry.The EU has and the industry have agreed on a voluntary
set up a body with the aim to establish initiative on the part of the industry to fulfil
reference documents for different activities certain collection and recycling targets. As long
covered by the EU Directive on Integrated as the industry lives up to its commitment, the
Production and Pollution Control.(9) There are government is not going to regulate.The list of
also different national initiatives to set national such examples could be very long.
standards. We believe that the correct way of
setting standards in a globalised world is to
turn to the international scene first and try to
5.3 Economic instruments
set standards there. Only if this attempt fails There are different economic instruments that
should recourse be made to national are increasingly used either directly in the
standards. waste industry (for example landfill taxes) or
at levels that directly influence the generation
5.2.5 Voluntary initiatives of waste (taxes or fees on packaging). It is very
In a large number of countries, different forms difficult to compare different financial initiatives (8) The legislative authorities
of voluntary initiatives have been introduced. in different countries since there is no and the relevant industries
There is no uniform terminology for voluntary common ground either for the definition of jointly commissioned the
initiatives, but it is a large field that expert opinion expressed in
taxes, charges, fees etc. or for defining who this study.
encompasses a large number of different contributes to them. A broad range of (9) The Reference
actions. instruments, including economic instruments Documents (BREFs) must be
taken into account when the
where appropriate, in the right mix is most competent authorities of EU
There have always been voluntary initiatives in likely to achieve the goals set. Member States determine the
the waste sector for the collection of different conditions for IPPC permits.
The BREFs will inform the
separated waste fractions.The establishment of A simple explanation of an economic decision makers about what
those initiatives relied upon a positive instrument used in waste management quickly may be technically and
economic market for the material in question. economically available to the
becomes complex.The costs for waste industry in order to improve
Different associations (charities, sport clubs, management include taxes and charges, and in their environmental
etc.) collected material to sell in order to some countries taxes are used as the basis for performance and
receive money. consequently improve the
the funding of waste management systems. whole environment.
44 Means of implementation
What is a tax in one country may be a charge In 1997, the European Commission presented
in another; a fee in one country does not a communication on Environmental Taxes and
necessary have an equivalent in another Charges in the Single Market. The paper
country. supports the increased use of fiscal
instruments to make environmental policy
In a large number of countries, there is a trend more efficient and cost-effective and to ensure
to shift the focus towards effective market- that the environmental taxes and charges are
based and other economic instruments such used in ways that are compatible with
as environmental charges and the use of fiscal Community legislation. At EU-level, any
instruments to achieve waste policy goals. economic instrument must in design and
application avoid trade barriers and a
Below we have tried to distinguish between distortion of competition. Customs duties and
different financial instruments that are used to charges with similar effects are not accepted.
change peoples behaviour or that simply This goes for state-aid rules, as well.
indicate a preferred direction of policy and
means of recovering the costs for waste A comparison of taxes is often misleading
management services. since both the tax-base and the tax-rate differ
from one country to another. It is difficult to
5.3.1 Taxes get comparable figures unless we study the
Similar measures may be defined variously as rules and applications of a tax.The structures
taxes, charges, levies, fees and duties in and the objectives of taxes are comparable,
different countries.The definition of a term in however.(11)
one language does not necessarily have an
exact counterpart in other languages.There 5.3.2 Cost recovery waste fees and
are also differences between taxes; some are charges
explicitly recognised as having an In this section, we will discuss the use of waste
environmental purpose whereas others have fees and charges as tools to instigate a certain
significant effects on the environment although desirable behaviour on the part of the
their original purpose was revenue population. As already mentioned above, the
considerations. In the following, we distinguish funding of waste management differs from one
between fiscal instruments and measures that country to another. Fees, charges and taxes are
are explicit or implicit payments for various used to recover the costs for waste
services.The latter type of instrument is management.The legal status of these
discussed in chapter 4.3.2 financing/cost instruments may differ considerably as may
recovery. those who contribute to the fee or charge. In
the case of municipal waste, it is normally the
(11) The United Kingdom, for
instance, has a landfill tax that Taxes can be divided into different categories: households that finance the system.
indirectly also provides income cost-covering charges where the revenue is
and economic support for used either to pay for disposal services or
other sectors via the landfill
The different methods for recovering the costs
tax credit scheme. Landfill to finance recycling; from the households are a good means to
operators can use 20% of incentive taxes levied to change influence and change public behaviour. It can
their landfill tax contribution environmentally damaging behaviour (with
to support or develop
also be a way of making people aware of the
environmental projects, thus no specific intention to raise revenues); fact that their behaviour has an impact on
generating further fiscal environmental taxes where the waste generation. When the costs are
employment and investment
surplus revenue from the tax can be used recovered via a tax, the use of innovative
opportunities.The scheme is
intended to direct at least to finance budget deficits or shift taxes methods is less transparent. It may even be
40% of the money available to from labour to resources.This can also be difficult to be transparent and show the costs
recycling and waste
minimisation projects.
referred to as ETR ecological tax reform. of the waste management system to the
Means of implementation 45
In the United Kindom, the campaign Are you spread information and knowledge in the field
doing your bit? is another example of a of waste management. A number of
nationwide awareness campaign.The 25 universities is also offering distance-learning
million publicity campaign was launched by the courses to provide training for those already
government to promote sustainable lifestyles. employed in this sector.There is a need not
Simple environmental messages (for example only to prepare people entering the sector, but
on recycling) are broadcast through TV, press also to make people active in the sector
and radio advertisements in addition road evaluate their practical experience and to
shows and special events. encourage them to go in for higher education.
Information and education are also needed waste. Considerable investment needs to
to allay the fears that people have with be made in emerging technologies and
regard to waste management and to support should be given to R&D on a
encourage them to take responsibility for national level.
the waste they generate. One major goal
that needs to be achieved is increasing Developing countries need appropriate
public confidence in the waste technologies and management approaches
management sector at large. Extensive which are compatible with the specific local
work needs to be done to remove the demands, requirements, capabilities, and
negative perceptions and replace emotive resources.
views with views based on sound science
and agreed facts. While progress has been encouraging to
date, partnerships need to be developed
The markets for recyclables have to be continually so that all stakeholders can
improved, as well. Producers must be work together towards a common goal.
encouraged to incorporate life cycle Participation by all parties in the decision
assessments (LCA) in the development making progress is an important issue.The
stages of their products and consider waste waste industry has to encourage and take
management issues in the design stages part in multiple stakeholder involvement.
something that does not happen as a
general rule at present. The key priorities and the most efficient
measures with the biggest possible benefit
Alternatives have to be made available so for the environment have to be identified
that consumers are encouraged to on the basis of facts and figures.Tools like
minimise their waste or buy products of a environmental impact assessment, material
comparably high standard and price that flow analysis or macro-economic cost-
are less harmful to the environment. benefit analysis must be applied more
widely for improved and scientifically based
The access to transparent and coherent decision-making.To achieve substantial
waste data is crucial if strategies are to be progress in the minimisation and
successful and sustainable waste detoxification of wastes, a broad range of
management practices achieved.The stakeholders must be involved.
industry needs to have access to clear,
transparent and replicable data and The waste industry must set and achieve
information.This access and the quality of sustainability targets.
waste data cause difficulties at a national
level, and the difficulties are even greater at Step by step, the isolated end of pipe view
the international or regional level.The waste of waste management must be
management industry, the public sector and transformed into integrated resource and
researches have to become more aware of waste management.The system definitions
the present and future networking for analyses used in decision- and policy-
opportunities to facilitate information flow making must include the issues of waste
and the exchange of know how. generation and resource consumption on a
global scale.This is especially important in
We need standards for the whole waste developing countries.
industry that include new and emerging
technologies and also the management of There needs to be access to training and
specific waste types such as agricultural education for everyone involved in waste
Future challenges and goals 51
The issue of rendering waste less hazardous is 6.3.5 Economy and costs
of great importance in developing countries, The issue of costs is an important one, and it
mainly for public health reasons. Most needs to be addressed by all stakeholders.
developing countries do not separate waste; Currently, landfilling is still the cheapest option
the waste collected consists of household and this creates difficulties when we attempt
waste, hazardous waste and healthcare waste. to persuade the local authorities to adopt
Improper storage, collection and treatment of more sustainable practices, which would
this waste pose a high risk to public health. probably result in higher charges. But the
This is a priority area for making implementation of a sustainable waste
improvements. management system needs to be funded
accordingly.
Hazardous waste, regardless if it originates
from households or industries, should not be 6.3.6 Improved public perception
included in the municipal waste fraction for A concerted effort will be needed to address
several reasons.The most important one was the poor public perception of the waste
mentioned above. Another reason why the industry today.There is severe opposition to
industry is interested in ensuring that the siting of landfills and waste to energy
hazardous wastes are properly collected and facilities, and even opposition to composting
taken care of is of commercial nature. As facilities, MRFs and recycling centres. People
attempts are being made to create markets for have to become more aware of their
recyclables, compost and other end-products responsibility for the waste they produce.The
from biological treatment, it is vital that waste industry needs to work closely with all
hazardous waste is taken care of correctly in stakeholders to implement a communication
order to eliminate any risk of contamination of strategy to change public perception and
those tradable waste fractions. ultimately encourage the public to make
lifestyle changes towards more sustainable
6.3.4 Developing countries practices.
Waste management is often either virtually
non-existent or unsatisfactory in developing 6.3.7 Occupational health
countries. Any measure taken will be a great This is an important issue in the field of waste
improvement to public health and to management that has been widely neglected
environmental protection.The increased even in the most advanced countries. In order
transfer of experience and knowledge from to avoid replacing one problem with another,
the north to the south, but also among we need to more research work on this topic
countries of the south, is a factor of high and we have to make it a priority issue.
importance in this context.The first step to
improve waste management systems in 6.3.8 Sustainability reporting and
developing countries is to use more efficiently performance indicators
what they already have and not necessarily Sustainability reporting has a larger scope than
immediately look at major investments to just environmental reporting; it covers
remedy the situation. economic and social issues, as well.
Sustainability reporting is a way for the waste
When waste management schemes are set up industry to present a clear picture of the
or improved, the large numbers of scavengers environmental, economic and social impacts of
have to be considered, as well.They should be the industry. It is important that the waste
integrated in the system in a socially balanced industry establishes widely accepted reporting
way that improves their health situation. principles that should be applied consistently
to promote transparency and credibility.The
Future challenges and goals 53
elaboration of a set of relevant performance information and the transfer of ideas and
indicators is an issue of importance for the good practice among them.
future.
Increased collaboration among all sectors is
6.3.9 Professional qualifications and of paramount importance. People have to
training recognise the need to work together
Improving the standards of waste management towards a common goal.
systems will have great effect on the issue of
environmental protection.Therefore, we need A greater sense of responsibility is needed
well-trained and highly qualified professional in the use of material resources and in the
waste managers who understand the effect of generation of waste.
poor operations and misguided policies on the
environment and who have the skills necessary Sustainable practices should be fully
to lead change.Thus, other challenges for the incorporated at the earliest possible time.
waste industry are the establishment of
guidelines for professional qualifications and
more access to qualified training in the future.
Legislation and policy to uphold this right have alarming rate as a culture of non payment
already been implemented or are currently in prevails in certain communities within the city.
the process of preparation or promulgation. The resulting lack of funds causes
These are: the White Paper on Integrated infrastructural problems as well as operational
Pollution and Waste Management Gazette and capital budget cutbacks. In addition to the
No. 20978 (DEAT, 1999), the National presence of many bureaucratic procedures,
Environmental Management Act (Act 107 of there is also a lack of performance
1998) and the National Waste Management management and incentives for staff.
Strategy (NWMS) (DEAT, 1999).This
legislation and the resulting actions once it is There are pockets of excellence in the
fully implemented will make a holistic, provision of services including the handling of
integrated and sustainable approach to waste solid waste.These are overshadowed by areas
management mandatory in South Africa. which are littered and which have become the
dumping ground for unscrupulous illegal
Waste disposal was specifically neglected in dumpers.These persons dump their waste at
the past; landfills were mostly poorly sited, the roadsides or in any open space in the
unengineered and badly managed.The dead of night or even in broad day light,
Environment Conservation Act (Act 73 of thereby causing health problems and other
1989) (DEAT, 1999) introduced new major environmental problems.
requirements for landfills. 11 years after the
promulgation of the act, some landfills have In every community there are people who
improved, but a number have not. A large have little concern for the state of the
number of landfills remain unlicensed. In order environment.This is due to ignorance or social
to implement the provisions of the Act, a hardship.There is little formal environmental
series of guideline documents (the Minimum education on a significant scale for the
Requirements)that enable compliance with the residents of Cape Town. Numerous clean-up
Act, were published in 1994 and revised in programmes have been run in the past, but
1998 (DWAF, 1998).The minimum they have had only limited success in keeping
requirements have become important Cape Town clean.
reference documents for waste disposal in
South Africa.These documents were also used The importance of waste disposal facilities has
to form the basis for waste disposal policy in been neglected in the past and the city is
other countries. facing a shortage of suitable landfill space for
both general and hazardous waste. But there is
Problems in the field of waste still an increase in hazardous waste imports
management into the Cape Town area from other cities in
The Unicity of Cape Town has recently been South Africa that are worse off with regard to
formed out of seven autonomous Councils hazardous waste facilities. An intensive capital
each with its own administration, level of investment programme was introduced to
service and tariffs for its residents.The address these problems; it aims at closing
problems in the field of waste management unsuitable sites, upgrading suitably positioned
are immense. Fourie (2000) reports that there sites and modernising facilities which have
is fragmentation and duplication of services become run-down. Legislation has been
which results in wastage and places a burden drafted to control the flow of waste into sites
on financial resources.The problems are in Cape Town from outside the metropolitan
exacerbated by the fact of ever increasing area.
debtors books which resulted from unpaid
accounts.These arrears are increasing at an
58 Annexe 2
The problems associated with illegal dumping that make up the city must take responsibility
and the task of getting all waste into the for keeping that area clean and ensuring a
formal waste stream and upgrading the strategy that keeps it clean. In this way, the
collection, transfer and disposal facilities cleaning of the street-scape is identified as a
coupled with the lack of supporting legislation roads function, the cleaning of beaches is
have resulted in a slow progress towards the within the responsibility of beach amenities
goals of waste reduction, minimisation and etc. In this way, the specialised solid waste
recycling.The waste stream is mixed and very systems of waste collection, transfer and
little pre-sorting takes place on a formal level. disposal can be customer-focused in their
business and do not have to perform the task
Structural reorganisation of cleaning up everyone elses mess. Along
Following the international trend, water, with this an intensive educational drive will
electricity and solid waste management are ensure that all citizens are aware of
reorganised into outcome focused, ring fenced environmental protection as well as of the
business units with an emphasis on the core effects of littering, illegal dumping and other
business of each unit.This will result in efficient, bad waste management practices.
cost-effective services for all residents, which
are not harnessed by unnecessary bureaucracy. The involvement of communities will be
In the initial study, the trading arm of solid encouraged through policies that assist in the
waste, which comprises waste transfer and employment of SMMEs (small, micro and
disposal, has been identified as an area of medium enterprises). In addition, policies are
progress, which could result in improved investigated that focus on waste management
internal mechanisms or corporatisation into, as a vehicle for job creation. Entrepreneurial
for example, a utility company.This part of the community-based collection systems have
service is tariff funded and has clearly defined already been successfully implemented in Cape
customers from both within as well as outside Town, where previously unemployed people
the council. are now small business owners and employers.
These community waste management systems
Waste collection is receiving attention and will all have a place in the integrated waste
be subject to similar studies at a later stage. If management plan for Cape Town.
the decision-makers favour utility companies,
as has been the case in Johannesburg, these Sustainable and integrated waste
companies will be registered with the council management
as the sole share holder.The adoption of clear The development of sustainable environmental
lines of responsibility, accountability, control of plans such as IMEP (integrated metropolitan
resources linked to performance management environmental programme) is under way
and possible incentive schemes will surely which include integrated waste plans for Cape
result in greater operational and economic Town.These plans cannot be developed and
efficiency. Bad debts might still remain a implemented overnight. In addition, continual
problem, however, we hope that the improved review and assessment are necessary to keep
levels of service as well as increased visibility the plans up to date and make sure that they
and responsiveness to the needs of all respond to the needs of a rapidly changing
customers will result in a culture of payment city.
for services over time.
It is important to understand the terms
The issue of cleaning the city has been sustainability and integrated in the context of
discussed in many debates. It has been waste management.These terms mean
proposed that the owners of the components different things depending on the context. In
Annexe 2 59
this paper, they are defined as follows: In order to be sustainable, waste management
must consider the waste stream in a holistic
sustainability: solving todays problems in a cradle-to-grave manner in order to optimise
responsible and environment-friendly the use of natural resources and reduce
manner without prejudicing the ability of environmental impacts. An integrated
future generations to exist or solve their approach, which combines several techniques
own problems, such as waste reduction, reuse, recycling,
integrated waste management: the composting, treatment and disposal must be
consideration of all components which considered. Figure 7 shows the widely
make up the waste hierarchy and the accepted desirability hierarchy in integrated
selection of appropriate components in waste management, which is used to guideline
consideration with each other in a cradle- waste management planning and policy
to-grave approach. development to an increasing extent.
The first step to sustainability can be achieved The decision on which processes to use must
by complying with all legislation in the field of be based on an appraisal of all costs and
environmental protection. In addition, specific benefits as well as of the impacts on the
impacts are analysed and mitigatory actions environment. Aumonier and Coleman (1997)
are taken to minimise those impacts. It must point out that LCA is an appropriate
be clear, however, that the waste management technique for examining waste management
approach alone cannot be considered scenarios.
sufficient to achieve sustainability.
The overall emphasis of the system used must
Just as waste management systems must have be on reducing waste quantities, thereby
an integrated approach, so too, must waste protecting natural resources and hence
management be integrated into other services reducing the mass requiring disposal.The mix
that have an impact on the environment. All of processes must be selected with a goal in
planning and operational activities must be mind. Figure 8 (page 60) shows a typical waste
considered holistically. A city development management system with a number of
strategy (CDS) for the city as a whole and a options. Once the desired mix of processes
council-specific integrated development plan has been selected, an environmental
(IDP) are being developed for Cape Town to management system (EMS) which embraces
facilitate overall integration. ISO 14001 needs to be developed and put in
place to ensure that environmental objectives
are met on an permanent basis in each
process.
Reduction
Reuse
Recycling
Desirability Composting
60 Annexe 2
Transfer
Recycling/ station
reuse
Materials
recovery
facility
Source Compost
separation making
In terms of the NWMS, all local authorities waste information system that can be kept up
will have to develop Integrated Waste to date to enable proper planning and
Management Plans for waste (DEAT, 1999). In continual review.
a move towards an integrated approach to
waste management, the former Cape It has been estimated that, on average, each
Metropolitan Council finalised a strategy with resident of the Cape generates approximately
regard to waste generation, reduction, 1kg of waste per day that requires landfill
transfer and disposal for the Cape Town area. disposal. Existing recycling and composting
In this plan (CMC, 1999), in which waste programmes were evaluated. Some 6% of
management objectives are set, emphasis is domestic waste is recycled. Judging from the
placed on a phased approach to the waste that goes to landfills, it is estimated that
implementation of more sustainable domestic waste recycling could be increased
processes in addition to solving immediate to about 22%. As a first step, sorting of mixed
problems with high priority followed by a waste is investigated, but long-term plans to
continual improvement through review and encourage and phase in source separation will
assessment. be put in place. Education and public
awareness are considered as critical
The selected disposal method is sanitary components in the success of the plan.
landfill, which must in all respects comply with
the Minimum Requirements. A waste stream Waste management is generally considered to
assessment and audit was carried out for the comprise two facets viz. community/logistics as
first time. Waste and transfer methods were well as scientific/engineering. In developing
assessed and landfill airspace and capacity for countries, these two facets are poles apart and
disposal were determined as well as the require different approaches to achieve
projected needs for the next 30 years. Waste sustainability.The cleansing and waste collection
generation statistics are now available for the services may be regarded as community
first time. It is essential, however, that this services requiring a logistics approach while the
information is transferred into a dynamic planning and management of waste transfer
Annexe 2 61
and disposal require a scientific/engineering rudimentary service, black bags service, and a
approach. In order to achieve sustainability, we containerised system.
need an approach that takes these two facets
into account. If they are considered separately, Illegal dumping in Cape Town must be stopped
we still need an integrated approach to brings as soon as possible. An intensive strategy was
the two together. launched to clean the city, but also to educate
and inform the people.This is seen as the
In Cape Town, cleansing (litter removal and corner-stone of any successful strategy; bylaws
street sweeping) and waste collection are the are redrafted to improve the enforcement of
most costly components of the waste the laws.The causes of the underlying
management systems.These will be replaced problems are established and solutions
by optimised, appropriate and cost effective developed; major cleanups without sustainable
systems. Communities will be encouraged to results are discouraged.The first and foremost
take responsibility for their waste; they will be task is to make all waste enter into the waste
consulted in the preparation of a strategy for stream. Communities will be encouraged to
cleaning their area. In addition, citizens will be take responsibility through proper campaigns
made aware of and continually reminded of that promote a clean and sustainable city.
the aims and objectives of the waste strategy
implemented in their area. Recycling and composting
Waste reduction, recycling and composting
Information on waste types and quantities will form major components of a sustainable waste
be made available.The implementation of any management system. Along with improved
strategy can only be successful with the active standards and increasing disposal and
participation and support of the communities. transport costs, waste reduction is also
The public must be involved in the entire becoming more financially attractive.This
process; people must be included early on in concept includes more than just separating
the process so that they understand the post-consumer materials; it also includes reuse,
effects and costs of management of the wastes re-processing and re-manufacturing.The
that they produce. complete loop must be considered to be able
to assess long-term viability and sustainability.
One of the common mistakes that were made
in the past was the belief that there is one Recycling is also a vehicle of job creation, and
solution.This is not the case. It is now a number of operations are being looked at to
accepted that there will be a number of determine which of them are suitable for the
different strategies with varying action plans sorting of waste to recover reusable products
and varying costs for different sectors of the and raw materials. It is reported that the
same city. For this purpose, appropriate status informal sector in Egypt was employed in the
quo analyses are carried out and achievable, cleaning, waste collection and recycling sectors,
acceptable and affordable strategies are thereby handling about one third of Cairos
developed along with action plans. waste (Iskandar Kamel, 1999).
The base is a minimum service level for all. It is important that proper planning is carried
From this basis, varying service levels will be out prior to implementing a programme.
selected with resulting differing costs.These Markets need to be assessed and the
depend on the type and quantity of waste dynamics understood. Realistic goals must be
produced as well as on the specific needs and set and the public must be involved. Decision-
demands of each community.There are makers must be made aware of the total costs
presently three levels of collection service: of the loop.The elements that should be
62 Annexe 2
included are, among others, source separation, required large subsidies. However, as
curbside collection, materials recovery facilities acceptable landfills are often scarce near areas
and mixed waste processing.There are many where waste is generated and transfer stations
combinations of these elements to be are implemented to move the waste further
considered. afield, a new move is evaluated towards
composting as a cost-effective alternative.
Drop-off points in Cape Town currently form Private sector involvement in these systems is
the major part of existing recycling initiatives. welcome. In this way, a significant amount of
Recycling schemes in schools and other organic wastes can be diverted away from
institutions all provide a necessary service and valuable landfill airspace.
earn an income in the process.There are many
success stories in school recycling schemes. In The method of reducing waste going to landfill
some cases, bottle and paper banks situated in by way of introducing a Web-based industrial
convenient spots also provide other solutions. waste exchange (IWE) system for Cape Town
These recycling centres are, however, often- (Dittke and Novella, 2000) is a unique solution
poorly sited and cause social nuisances. to the problem of reduced landfill space
(http://www.cmc.gov.za/iwe). While such an
These sites within urban areas are currently in approach is new to South Africa, similar
the spotlight as they reportedly encouraged systems have been used successfully
informal salvagers to break open bags or tip elsewhere, for example, in the United States
out the contents in a quest to find high value and in Australia, to promote the reuse of
waste. Managing these sites presents a waste materials.The system has its roots
challenge. Public pressure forces the city to somewhere between recycling and reuse with
consider closure of certain drop-off sites attractive financial rewards for waste providers
because of the social problems they cause. (in terms of reduced waste disposal costs and
Sites must not be neglected; instead, they the possible sale of waste materials) as well as
should be integrated into municipal for waste users (replacement of expensive
programmes with appropriate control. virgin material).The IWE system can form an
Litterbins must be available at each site. integral part of Cape Towns integrated waste
system and promote sustainability.
Composting is an internationally recognised
method of waste reduction (EPA 1989). Disposal by landfill
Organic material in household waste in the Both the NWMS and the study of an
form of green and kitchen waste is a resource integrated strategy for the Cape Town have
that should be returned to the environment to recognised landfill disposal as an appropriate
increase soil integrity and productivity. and a necessary component of waste
Composting is a natural way to turn waste management in South Africa. Landfills must be
into a resource in a controlled way before it is properly sited, well engineered, and efficiently
returned to the environment. operated, and the general effects of operations
and the impact on the environment must be
The scale of composting systems can vary monitored.Thus, landfills remain an important
from households with a compost heap in the component of Cape Towns integrated waste
backyard to small areas at drop-off facilities to management plan.
large plant installations. In Cape Town, there
are three large municipal composting facilities, Since landfills are increasingly situated in
all of which have been in operation for some remote areas transfer stations are established.
two decades.These plants have one thing in Some of them are rail based, and all of them
common they were not financially viable and are ideally located in strategic positions in
Annexe 2 63
97, 6th International Waste Management and Iskandar Kamel L (1999). MSW Management:
Landfill Symposium. S. Margherita di Pula, Italy. Local Knowledge and National Development A
October case study from Egypt. Proc. Sardinia99. 7th
International Waste Management and Landfill
Bertolini E, Meglioli E, Canovi L, Bonvicini V and symposium. S. Margherita di Pula, Cagliari, Italy.
Bertolotti L (1999). Implementation of an October.
environmental management system conformed to
the ISO 140001 regulation. Proc. Sardinia 1999, Novella PH (1999). Waste management in
7th International Waste Management and South Africa: Can sustainability be achieved?
Landfill Symposium. S. Margherita di Pula, Italy. Proc. Sardinia99, 7th International Landfill and
October waste management symposium. S. Margherita
di Pula, Sardinia, Italy. October
CMC (1999). Towards an Integrated Approach to
Waste Management in the Cape Metropolitan Reyneri G and Belfiore F (1999). Use of risk
Area. Cape Metropolitan Council P O BOX analysis in the implementation of an integrated
16548,Vlaeberg 8018. South Africa. management system at landfills. Proc. Sardinia
99, 7th International Waste Management and
DEAT (1999). Environment Conservation Act Landfill Symposium. S. Margherita di Pula, Italy.
(1989), Integrated Pollution and Waste October
Management./National Waste Management
Strategy. Department of Environmental Affairs Reyneri G, Kociolek P and Belfiore F (1999).
and Tourism, Private Bag X447, Pretoria 0001, Implementation of an environmental
South Africa management system (ISO 14001 and EMAS) at
landfills. Proc. Sardinia 99, 7th International
Dittke SY and Novella PH (2000). Industrial Waste Management and Landfill Symposium. S.
waste exchange as a powerful tool for waste Margherita di Pula, Italy. October.
reduction. Proc. Wastecon 2000 Biennial
conference of the Institute of Waste
Management (SA). Somerset West, Cape
Town, South Africa. September
Since the amounts of municipal solid wastes Although waste plastics have a high calorific
are so large and the proportion of sound value, they can not be simply incinerated
control is so low, the majority of cities are because incinerating polyvinyl chloride plastics
puzzled by the problem of what to do with at temperatures below 1,200C will generate
the refuse. By 1997, the refuse transport a very toxic matter: dioxin.The treatment of
capacity of the national environmental such incineration fumes will incur high
sanitation system was 100 million tonnes, while investments; such funds are not available to the
the amount of refuse discharged by urban general incinerator plants of the country.
residents was 200 million tonnes. Therefore, the pollution caused by waste
plastics is a prominent difficulty among the
The refuse that could not be transported was current refuse problems.
detained in uncontrolled sites.This is a source
of heavy pollution. Even if the refuse is Measures taken in the field of solid
transported to refuse sites, it is generally just waste management
piled up in the open. Large amount of stacked The national principles for preventing and
refuse tend to ferment and generate high controlling solid waste pollution are the
temperatures and methane, which often reduction of solid waste generation, the
causes explosive accidents. Furthermore, there appropriate utilisation of solid wastes
are serious environmental problems, such as wherever possible, and the sound disposal of
stink to high heaven, rampant mosquito and fly solid wastes.The state encourages and
populations, or damage caused by pathogenic supports clean production in order to reduce
bacteria and viruses. solid waste generation; it encourages and
supports the comprehensive utilisation of
Due to the limited financial input, the resources, the adequate and appropriate
provisions against leakage at landfill sites are recovering of solid wastes; and it adopts
generally inadequate, which allows refuse economic and technical policies and measures
pollution to leak from the ground into the that favour the comprehensive utilisation of
underground; the leakage seriously pollutes the solid wastes.
surrounding underground waters.
In response to the nationwide conditions, the
Another environmental problem caused by state has formulated a short-term technical
municipal solid wastes is that caused by the policy to control solid wastes pollution:
wide use of disposable plastic dinner sets and minimisation, recycling and decontamination.
Annexe 3 67
Decontamination will be the main point of solid wastes should be stimulated on the basis
solid waste pollution control for a relatively of the act for solid waste pollution control.
long-term. Later, the focus will be shifted from Special rules for hazardous wastes should be
decontamination to recycling. Recycling is an drawn up as soon as possible.The whole
important factor in the decontamination and process management of production, collection,
minimisation of municipal solid waste. storage, treatment, disposal or utilisation
should be implemented as soon as possible.
Strengthening the legal system
The state has issued a set of relevant laws and Implementing the policy of solid waste
regulations in order to effectively prevent and minimisation
control solid waste pollution, such as the The basic task of solid waste minimisation is to
Atmospheric Pollution Prevention and Control use appropriate tools to reduce the quantity
Law of the Peoples Republic of China; and volume of solid wastes. It should be
accomplished in two respects: treatment and
the Water Pollution Prevention and utilisation of solid wastes and reduction of
Control Law of the Peoples Republic of solid waste generation. In addition, a technical
China; policy and encouraging measures for clean
the Provisions on Preventing Electrical production should be stimulated. Action
Installation Containing PCBs and its Wastes; guidelines for waste minimisation of those
the Certain Provisions on Preventing and main industries (such as metallurgical industry,
Controlling Environmental Pollution in chemical industry, light industry, etc.) that
Chromic Compound Production; generate hazardous wastes should be laid
the Management Methods for Preventing down and implemented.
and Controlling Environmental Pollution of
Tailings; There are other measures to be implemented,
the Notice on Strictly Controlling as well.These are a reform of traditional
Transform of Hazardous Wastes from production modes, the improvement of
abroad to Our Country; process and equipment, the use of clean raw
the Control Standards for Agricultural Use materials and energy, and shifting the focus
of Refuse; from end-of-pipe management to source
the Pollution Control Standards for 11 control.The state has set up a Centre for
Pollutant Compounds of Industrial Solid Clean Production, and it has selectively
Wastes, etc. compiled the first set of effective techniques of
clean production in electrical, chemical,
The Solid Waste Pollution Control Law of the mechanical, light, textile, building material,
Peoples Republic of China was issued on metallurgical and nonferrous metal industries
30 October 1995.The law puts forward for allocation and dissemination.
directive principles for the comprehensive
prevention and control of solid waste pollution. Management measures and actions
This marks the end of a long period without In the field of municipal solid waste
laws and regulations for the prevention and management, the following measures and
control of solid waste pollution and without actions should be taken:
supervisory management.Thus, the prevention
and control of solid waste pollution in the Formulate and implement laws and
country enters into a new stage. regulations governing municipal solid
wastes, improve the system of managing
Detailed rules and regulations for the urban refuse with all due haste and
minimisation, recycling and decontamination of gradually introduce a system of fees for the
68 Annexe 3
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This report is part of a series facilitated by UNEP DTIE as a contribution to the World Summit on
Sustainable Development. UNEP DTIE provided a report outline based on Agenda 21 to interested
industrial sectors and co-ordinated a consultation process with relevant stakeholders. In turn,
participating industry sectors committed themselves to producing an honest account of performance
against sustainability goals.
The full set of reports is available from UNEP DTIEs web site (http://www.uneptie.org/wssd/), which
gives further details on the process and the organisations that made it possible.The following is a list of
related outputs from this process, all of which are available from UNEP both in electronic version and
hardcopy:
More generally, UNEP will be contributing to the World Summit on Sustainable Development with
various other products, including:
- the Global Environmental Outlook 3 (GEO 3), UNEPs third state of the environment assessment
report;
- a special issue of UNEPs Our Planet magazine for World Environment Day, with a focus on the
International Year of Mountains;
- the UNEP photobook Focus on Your World, with the best images from the Third International
Photographic Competition on the Environment.
Sustainability profile of the Waste Management industry
Achievements
- Improved environmental and technical performance.
- Awareness among decision-makers and consumers.
Unfinished business
- Integrated research on effects of waste management on soil, air, water and climate.
- Waste management in developing countries.