Tesis de Potvin PDF

EMPIRICAL OPEN 8TOPE DESIGN IN CANADA
By
YVES POTVIN
B . A . S c , U n i v e r s i t e LAVAL, Quebec 1982

M . A . S c . , U n i v e r s i t y o f B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a , 1985
A THESIS SUBMITTED I N PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF
THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF
DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY
in
THE FACULTY OF GRADUATE STUDIES
DEPARTMENT OF MINING AND MINERAL PROCESS ENGINEERING
We a c c e p t t h i s t h e s i s as conforming
to the required standard
THE UNIVERSITY OF BRITISH COLUMBIA
NOVEMBER 1988
@ Yves P o t v i n , 1988
In presenting this thesis in partial fulfilment of the requirements for an advanced
degree at the University of British Columbia, I agree that the Library shall make it
freely available for reference and study. I further agree that permission for extensive
copying of this thesis for scholarly purposes may be granted by the head of my
department or by his or her representatives. It is understood that copying or
publication of this thesis for financial gain shall not be allowed without my written
permission.
Department of KtKtii^C hiotfc*) PROCESS E/Q'
The University of British Columbia

1956 Main Mall
Vancouver, Canada
V6T 1Y3
Date hft<tctt \ \R<\

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n F . f i n / f t - n
ABSTRACT
This thesis addresses the t o p i c o f underground excavation
stability in open stope mining methods. There are three
fundamental aspects t o be considered i n an engineering rock
mechanics design of open stopes. The first aspect i s the
characterization o f the rock mass t o i d e n t i f y and q u a n t i f y the
properties and components affecting the rock mass behaviour.
The second aspect i s the e f f e c t o f the s t r e s s f i e l d s on the rock
mass that may result i n zones of high compressive stress or
zones of relaxation i n stope walls. The t h i r d aspect i s the
physical condition of the problem and i s d e f i n e d p r i m a r i l y by
the size, geometry and r e l a t i v e orientation o f openings with
regard t o t h e rock mass and the s t r e s s field. The i n t e r a c t i o n
of these t h r e e fundamental a s p e c t s c o n s t i t u t e s t h e problem t o be
investigated.
The principal objective of the study i s to develop a
reliable geomechanical model (based on the above t h r e e aspects)
that can predict the stability of open stopes in typical
Canadian geological settings. An e m p i r i c a l approach was chosen
for t h e development o f the model, because o f t h e complexity of
the problem and the difficulty in estimating the input
parameters with p r e c i s i o n . Empirical methods are l i k e l y t o be
more reliable since they make use of past experience. A
c o n s i d e r a b l e amount o f e f f o r t has been spent i n b u i l d i n g a broad
data base which includes more than 250 case histories of
ii
unsupported and supported stopes from 34 Canadian mines.
The application of the model in the b a c k - a n a l y s i s of a
large number of representative case histories allowed
calibration of each of the f a c t o r s composing the model. Since
the model's p r e d i c t i o n corresponds very w e l l t o the a c t u a l stope
behaviour in most case histories, the model is considered
empirically verified.
The effect of e x t e r n a l factors (parameters affecting stope
stability that are not related to the geotechnical or
g e o m e t r i c a l c o n d i t i o n s ) have a l s o been i n v e s t i g a t e d . The limit
of applicability of cable b o l t i n g has been d e f i n e d and rough
guidelines f o r the d e s i g n of c a b l e support systems are proposed
based on the systematic c o m p i l a t i o n of past experience. The
effect of b l a s t i n g , although not quantified, has been observed
in 18 case histories. More r e s e a r c h i s r e q u i r e d i n order t o
include the effect of blasting in the actual modelwhile the
effect of time i s not of concern i n open stope mining, when
there are no mining activities in the imediate area of the
i n v e s t i g a t e d stope.
iii
TABLE OF CONTENTS
PAGE
ABSTRACT i i
LIST OF TABLES. . xi
LIST OF FIGURES xiii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS xxi
CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION 1
1.1 DEFINITION OF THE PROBLEM 1
1.2 OBJECTIVE OF THE PROJECT 4
1.3 CONTENTS OF THE THESIS 6
CHAPTER 2 REVIEW OF OPEN STOPE MINING PRACTICES . . . . 8
2.1 INTRODUCTION 8
2.1.1 D e f i n i t i o n o f open stope mining . . . . . . . 8
2.1.2 A p p l i c a t i o n s o f open stope mining 9
2.2 CLASSIFICATION OF OPEN STOPE MINING METHODS . . . . 14
2.2.1 Mining d i r e c t i o n 14
2.2.2 Use o f p i l l a r s and b a c k f i l l 15
2.2.3 D r i l l h o l e diameter 20
2.2.4 Classification o f open stope mining . . . . . 21
2.3 DESCRIPTION OF OPEN STOPING PRE-PRODUCTION DEVELOPMENT 21
2.4 DESCRIPTION OF OPEN STOPE MINING AND SEQUENCING . . 24
2.4.1 Open stopirig with no b a c k f i l l 25
2.4.2 Open s t o p i n g w i t h b a c k f i l l 25
2.4.3 Stope and f i l l mining 32
iv
2.5 LONGHOLE OPEN STOPING 35
2.5.1 Longhole d r i l l i n g 37
2.5.2 Longhole b l a s t i n g . . . . . . . 39
2.5.3 Longhole r e t r e a t i n g methods 39
2.6 BLASTHOLE OPEN STOPING 41
2.6.1 Blasthole drilling 43
2.6.2 Blasthole blasting 45
2.6.3 Blasthole r e t r e a t i n g methods 46
2.7 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS 51
CHAPTER 3 STRESS 56
3.1 INTRODUCTION 56
3 .2 PRE-MINING STRESS 58
3.3 STRESS MEASUREMENT 60
3.3.1 Method 1; F l a t j a c k 60
3.3.2 Method 2; H y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r i n g 61
3.3.3 Method 3; O v e r c o r i n g techniques 62
3.3.4 C o m p i l a t i o n o f s t r e s s measurements 64
3.4 INDUCED STRESS AND STRESS DISTRIBUTION 66
3.4.1 Components o f s t r e s s . 68
3.4.2 Two d i m e n s i o n a l s t a t e o f s t r e s s 71
3.4.3 Two d i m e n s i o n a l c l o s e d form s o l u t i o n o f simple
e x c a v a t i o n shape 72
3.5 NUMERICAL MODELLING 78
3.5.1 Continuum approach 79
3.5.2 Discontinuum approach , 83
v
3.6 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS . . . 84
CHAPTER 4 FAILURE CRITERIA 87
4.1 INTRODUCTION 87
4.2 INTACT ROCK MATERIAL FAILURE CRITERIA 88
4.2.1 Laboratory t e s t i n g 88
4.2.1.1 U n i a x i a l compressive s t r e n g t h . . . . 89
4.2.1.2 M u l t i a x i a l compressive s t r e n g t h . . . 91
4.2.1.3 Uniaxial t e n s i l e strength 92
4.2.2 A n a l y t i c a l approach 93
4.2.3 E m p i r i c a l approach 94
4.3 SHEAR FAILURE CRITERION ALONG AN EXISTING DISCONTINUITY 94
4.3.1 Shear s t r e n g t h . 96
4.3.2 F r i c t i o n angle 98
4.4 JOINTED ROCK MASS FAILURE CRITERION 101
4.5 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS . 104
CHAPTER 5 REVIEW OF EXISTING DESIGN METHODS FOR UNDERGROUND
OPENINGS 108
5.1 INTRODUCTION 108
5.2 ROCK MASS CLASSIFICATION DESIGN CHARTS 109
5.2.1 B i e n i a w s k i RMR system 109
5.2.2 Barton e t a l . system . I l l
5.2.3 D i s c u s s i o n o f the Q and RMR systems 115
5.3 LAUBSCHER S GEOMECHANICS

1
CLASSIFICATION OF JOINTED
ROCK MASSES 120
vi
5.3.1 D e s c r i p t i o n o f the model 121
5.3.2 Open stope d e s i g n a p p l i c a t i o n 128
5.3.3 D i s c u s s i o n o f the method 130
5.4 MATHEWS' OPEN STOPE DESIGN METHOD 131
5.4.1 D e s c r i p t i o n o f t h e method 131
5.5 NUMERICAL MODELLING DESIGN 142
5.5.1 Open stope d e s i g n a p p l i c a t i o n 142
5.6 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS 146
CHAPTER 6 OPEN STOPE FAILURE MECHANISMS 149
6.2 NATURE OF THE ROCK MASS 149
6.3 INTACT ROCK BEHAVIOUR 155
6.4 DISCRETE BLOCK BEHAVIOUR . . . 156
6.5 JOINTED ROCK MASS BEHAVIOUR 158
6.6 SUMMARY AND CLASSIFICATION OF FAILURE MECHANISMS . . 160
CHAPTER 7 DEVELOPMENT OF THE GEOMECHANICAL MODEL . . . . 166
7.2 THE BLOCK SIZE FACTOR 169
7.2.1 Estimation of block s i z e 169
7.3 STRESS FACTOR . . . . . 174
7.3.1 E f f e c t o f compression 174
7.3.2 Open stope p a r a m e t r i c study 17 6
vii
7.3.2.1 General concept of the p a r a m e t r i c study 177
7.3.2.2 Longitudinal open s t o p i n g p a r a m e t r i c
study 179
7.3.2.3 T r a n s v e r s e open s t o p i n g p a r a m e t r i c study 187
7.4 EFFECT OF JOINT ORIENTATION 195
7.4.1 The c r i t i c a l joint factor 198
7.4.2 E f f e c t of anisotropy 200
7.4.3 Shear s t r e n g t h o f the c r i t i c a l joint . . . . 202
7.5 THE GRAVITY FACTOR 2 02
7.6 EFFECT OF STOPE SIZE AND SHAPE 203
7.7 CALCULATION OF THE MODIFIED STABILITY NUMBER AND
PRESENTATION OF THE MODIFIED STABILITY GRAPH . . . . 205
7.8 SUMMARY 207
CHAPTER 8 DATA BASE AND MODEL CALIBRATION 210
8.2 DATA COLLECTION 212
8.3 DATA BASE 213
8.3.1 Description o f the main data base 214
8.3.2 Description o f t h e complementary data base . 219
8.4 CALIBRATION OF THE FACTORS COMPOSING THE MODIFIED
STABILITY NUMBER 219
8.4.1 Block s i z e r a t i n g 224
8.4.2 Stress factor rating 225
8.4.3 Joint orientation factor rating 229
8.4.4 The g r a v i t y factor rating 231
viii
8.5 THE MODIFIED STABILITY GRAPH 232
8.6 DESIGN PHILOSOPHY 233
8.7 POSSIBILITY OF USING STASTISTICS 237
8.8 SUMMARY 238
CHAPTER 9 CABLE BOLT SUPPORT IN OPEN STOPE 240
9.2 DESIGN CONCEPT . 242
9.2.1 Prereinforcement 242
9.2.2 S t i f f n e s s o f t h e support system 244
9.3 CABLE BOLT SUPPORT SYSTEMS IN CANADIAN OPEN STOPE MINES 247
9.3.1 Cable b o l t p a t t e r n s f o r open stope backs . . 247
9.3.2 Cable b o l t p a t t e r n s f o r open stope w a l l s . . 251
9.4 DEVELOPMENT OF CABLE BOLT DESIGN GUIDELINES . . . . 257
9.4.1 Design a n a l y s i s o f c a b l e b o l t support data . 257
9.4.2 Density of b o l t i n g 264
9.4.3 Cable b o l t l e n g t h 266
9.4.4 Bolting factor 2 69
9.4.5 Cable b o l t o r i e n t a t i o n 269
9.5 SUMMARY 271
CHAPTER 10 EXTERNAL FACTORS; BLASTING. BACKFILL AND TIME
EFFECT 274
10.2 BLASTING EFFECT 274
10.2.1 Case h i s t o r i e s o f b l a s t induced damage . . . 275
ix
10.2.2 B l a s t m o n i t o r i n g and p r e d i c t i o n o f b l a s t damage 276
10.2.3 O p t i m i z a t i o n o f b l a s t d e s i g n f o r w a l l s t a b i l i t y 279
10.3 EFFECT OF BACKFILL IN ADJACENT STOPES 283
10.3.1 E f f e c t of b a c k f i l l i n l i m i t i n g w a l l s and back
exposure 285
10.3.2 Case h i s t o r i e s analyses 287
10.4 THE TIME EFFECT 292
10.5 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION 294
CHAPTER 11 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION 297
11.1 SUMMARY 297
11.2 APPLICABILITY OF THE DESIGN METHOD 301
11.3 INDUSTRY BENEFITS OF THIS STUDY 302
11.4 FUTURE WORK 3 04
11.5 CONCLUDING REMARKS 305
REFERENCES 307
APPENDIX I OREBODY DIAGRAMS AND ROCK MECHANICS DATA . . 311
APPENDIX I I DESCRIPTION OF THE BOUNDARY ELEMENT PROGRAMS
2D: BITEM AND 3D: BEAP 333
APPENDIX I I I PLOT OF INDUCED STRESSES FOR DIFFERENT
GEOMETRIES AND K RATIO 339
X
LIST OF TABLE
PAGE
TABLE 2.1 Approximate v a l u e of ore f o r mines u s i n g 19

backfill, and mines u s i n g permanent p i l l a r s .
TABLE 2.2 Comparison of the mining sequence used w i t h 54

the proposed open stope c l a s s i f i c a t i o n system.
TABLE 4 . 1 Values o f the c o n s t a n t A from t h e M u r r e l l 95

i n t a c t rock f a i l u r e c r i t e r i o n , and B from the Hoek
i n t a c t rock f a i l u r e c r i t e r i o n , f o r f i v e rock m a t e r i a l s .
( A f t e r B i e n i a w s k i , 1984)
TABLE 4.2 Values of Hoek and Brown c o n s t a n t s m and s f o r 105

d i s t u r b e d and u n d i s t u r b e d rock masses.
TABLE 5.1 B i e n i a w s k i CSIR geomechanics c l a s s i f i c a t i o n of 112

j o i n t e d rock mass. ( A f t e r Hoek and Brown)
TABLE 5.2 Barton c l a s s i f i c a t i o n of i n d i v i d u a l 116

parameters i n the NGI t u n n e l l i n g q u a l i t y index, (cont)
TABLE 5.3 The e x c a v a t i o n support r a t i o (ESR) f o r 117

d i f f e r e n t underground openings a p p l i c a t i o n s . ( A f t e r Hoek
and Brown 198 0)
TABLE 5.4 Assessment of j o i n t c o n d i t i o n s f o r the 122

Laubscher geomechanic c l a s s i f i c a t i o n of j o i n t e d rock
mass. ( A f t e r Laubscher, 1976)
TABLE 5.5 Summary of the f i v e b a s i c parameters o f the 12 5

Laubscher geomechanic c l a s s i f i c a t i o n of j o i n t e d rock
mass. ( A f t e r Laubscher, 1976)
TABLE 5.6 Adjustment f a c t o r f o r the number of j o i n t s 127

i n c l i n e d away from v e r t i c a l . ( A f t e r Laubscher, 1976)
TABLE 5.7 Adjustment f a c t o r f o r the e f f e c t of b l a s t i n g . 127

A f t e r Laubscher, 1976)
TABLE 5.8 Summary of the p o s s i b l e adjustment f a c t o r s . 12 7

( A f t e r Laubscher, 1976)
TABLE 5.9 Adjustment f a c t o r f o r the i n c l i n a t i o n of the 129

designed stope s u r f a c e . ( A f t e r Laubscher, 1976)
TABLE 8.1 Background i n f o r m a t i o n f o r the main data base. 215
xi
TABLE 8.2 Input parameters from the main data base 218
necessary f o r open stope d e s i g n b a c k - a n a l y s i s .
TABLE 8.3 Background i n f o r m a t i o n f o r the complementary 220

data base.
TABLE 8.4 Input parameters from the complementary data 222

base necessary f o r open stope d e s i g n b a c k - a n a l y s i s .
TABLE 8.5 R e l a t i o n s h i p between the r e l a t i v e b l o c k s i z e 226

f a c t o r (RQD/Jn / h y d r a u l i c r a d i u s ) , and rock mass
behaviour.
TABLE 9.1 Background i n f o r m a t i o n f o r the data base of 2 58

case h i s t o r i e s t h a t have used support.
TABLE 9.2 Input parameters f o r the data base of case 260

h i s t o r i e s t h a t have used support.
TABLE 10.1 R e l a t i o n s h i p between the peak p a r t i c l e 280

v e l o c i t y and the r e s u l t i n g c o n d i t i o n on rock s t r u c t u r e .
( A f t e r A t l a s Powder company, 1987)
TABLE 10.2 R e l a t i o n s h i p between the peak p a r t i c l e 280

v e l o c i t y , the rock mass q u a l i t y and the r e s u l t i n g
s t a b i l i t y of a stope.
TABLE 11.1 Importance of d i l u t i o n on the DCF ROR. (After 303

Bawden, 1988)
xii
LIST OF FIGURES
PAGE
FIGURE 1.1 P i e diagram showing t h e p r o p o r t i o n o f mines 2

having l e s s than 10% d i l u t i o n , between 10% and 20%
d i l u t i o n , between 20% and 35% d i l u t i o n and above
35% d i l u t i o n . ( A f t e r P a k a l n i s , 1986)
FIGURE 2.1 Range o f orebody d i p s i n open stope mining. 11
FIGURE 2.2 Range o f rock mass q u a l i t y (expressed i n 12

terms o f the Q index) i n open stope backs.
FIGURE 2.3 Range o f rock mass q u a l i t y (expressed i n 13

terms o f the Q index) i n hanging w a l l s .
FIGURE 2.4 Graph o f the orebody rock mass q u a l i t y 16

(expressed i n terms o f the Q i n d e x ) , v e r s u s the
orebody width, f o r l o n g i t u d i n a l open stope mines.
FIGURE 2.5 Graph o f the orebody rock mass q u a l i t y 16

(expressed i n terms o f the Q i n d e x ) , v e r s u s the
orebody width, f o r t r a n s v e r s e open stope mines.
FIGURE 2.6 Graph o f the stope w a l l s rock mass q u a l i t y 18

(expressed i n terms o f the Q i n d e x ) , v e r s u s t h e stope
w a l l s area, f o r open stope mines, u s i n g a " f u l l l e n s "
longitudinal extraction.
FIGURE 2.7 C l a s s i f i c a t i o n system f o r open stope mining 22

methods a p p l i e d t o Canadian mines.
FIGURE 2.8 I d e a l i z e d i s o m e t r i c drawing o f the " f u l l 26

l e n s " open stope mining method.
FIGURE 2.9 I d e a l i z e d i s o m e t r i c drawing o f the s u b - l e v e l 27

r e t r e a t open stope mining method.
FIGURE 2.10 I d e a l i z e d i s o m e t r i c drawing o f the 28

l o n g i t u d i n a l l o n g h o l e open stope mining method, with
permanent p i l l a r s .
FIGURE 2.11 I d e a l i z e d i s o m e t r i c drawing o f the t r a n s - 30

v e r s e b l a s t h o l e open stope mining method, u s i n g the
" l e a p f r o g " sequence o f e x t r a c t i o n .
FIGURE 2.12 I d e a l i z e d i s o m e t r i c drawing o f the 31

l o n g i t u d i n a l b l a s t h o l e open stope mining method, having
s m a l l primary stopes and l a r g e secondary s t o p e s .
xiii
FIGURE 2.13 L o n g i t u d i n a l s e c t i o n o f a b l a s t h o l e open 33
stope mining method, u s i n g the ( 1 - 5 - 9 ) sequence of
extraction.
FIGURE 2.14 I d e a l i z e d i s o m e t r i c drawing o f t h e 34

l o n g i t u d i n a l open stope mining method, u s i n g the "stope
and f i l l " sequence o f e x t r a c t i o n .
FIGURE 2.15 Plan view showing the "panel mining" 36

sequence o f e x t r a c t i o n , ( a f t e r Alexander and Fabjanczyck,
1981)
FIGURE 2.16 T y p i c a l longhole d r i l l i n g patterns employed 38

i n Canadian open stope mines.
FIGURE 2.17 Graph o f the maximum area o f rock t o be 40

broken by i n d i v i d u a l d r i l l h o l e (burden x s p a c i n g ) ,
v e r s u s h o l e diameters.
FIGURE 2.18 I d e a l i z e d i s o m e t r i c drawing o f t h e l o n g i t - 42

u d i n a l l o n g h o l e open stope mining method, u s i n g a f u l l
face r e t r e a t .
FIGURE 2.19 Typical blasthole d r i l l i n g patterns employed 44

i n Canadian open stope mines.
FIGURE 2.20 I l l u s t r a t i o n o f the l o a d i n g procedure f o r 47

l a r g e diameter b l a s t h o l e s .
FIGURE 2.21 I d e a l i z e d i s o m e t r i c drawing showing the 49

"mass b l a s t " r e t r e a t f o r b l a s t h o l e open stope mining
method.
FIGURE 2.22 Cross s e c t i o n o f the v e r t i c a l c r a t e r r e t r e a t 50

method used i n b l a s t h o l e open stope mining, showing an
i n i t i a l b l a s t , and the remnant crown b l a s t .
FIGURE 2.23 Cross s e c t i o n o f the i n v e r s e bench b l a s t i n g 52

method used i n narrow b l a s t h o l e open stope mining.
FIGURE 3.1 Analogy o f a f l o w i n g stream o b s t r u c t e d by 57

three bridge p i e r s , representing stress streamlines
around underground openings. ( A f t e r Hoek and Brown, 1980)
FIGURE 3.2 Plot of v e r t i c a l stresses against depth below 65

surface. ( A f t e r Hoek and Brown, 1980)
FIGURE 3.3 V a r i a t i o n o f r a t i o o f average h o r i z o n t a l 65

s t r e s s t o v e r t i c a l s t r e s s w i t h depth below s u r f a c e .
( A f t e r Hoek and Brown, 1980)
FIGURE 3.4 V a r i a t i o n o f r a t i o o f average h o r i z o n t a l 67
xiv
s t r e s s t o v e r t i c a l s t r e s s w i t h depth below s u r f a c e ,
from Canadian s h i e l d measurements. ( A f t e r Herget, 1987)
FIGURE 3.5 S t r e s s components a c t i n g on a s u r f a c e 69

element. ( A f t e r Hoek and Brown, 1980)
FIGURE 3.6 S t r e s s components a c t i n g on a c u b i c a l 69

element. ( A f t e r Hoek and Brown, 1980)
FIGURE 3.7 K i r s h equations f o r the s t r e s s e s i n the 74

m a t e r i a l surrounding a c i r c u l a r h o l e i n a s t r e s s e d
e l a s t i c orebody. ( A f t e r Hoek and Brown, 1980)
FIGURE 3.8 V a r i a t i o n i n the r a t i o o f t a n g e n t i a l s t r e s s 76

OQ t o t h e v e r t i c a l a p p l i e d s t r e s s pz w i t h r a d i a l
d i s t a n c e r along h o r i z o n t a l a x i s f o r K=0. ( A f t e r Hoek
and Brown, 1980)
FIGURE 3.9 D e f i n i t i o n o f nomenclature f o r an e l l i p t i c a l 76

e x c a v a t i o n with axes p a r a l l e l t o the f i e l d s t r e s s e s .
( A f t e r Brady and Brown, 1985)
FIGURE 3.10 Idealized s k e t c h showing the p r i n c i p l e o f 80

numerical m o d e l l i n g .
FIGURE 4.1 T y p i c a l s t r e s s s t r a i n r e l a t i o n s h i p d u r i n g the 90

t e s t i n g o f an unconfined e l a s t i c specimen i n compression.
FIGURE 4.2 I d e a l i z e d sketch showing a rock specimen 97

submitted t o t r i a x i a l compression.
FIGURE 4.3 G r a p h i c a l r e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f t h e Mohr c i r c l e 97

and f a i l u r e envelope. ( A f t e r Hoek and Brown, 198 0)
FIGURE 4.4 I d e a l i z e d sketch showing the s h e a r i n g along a 99

d i s c o n t i n u i t y s u r f a c e having an exaggerated roughness.
FIGURE 4.5 G r a p h i c a l r e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f the peak and 99

r e s i d u a l f r i c t i o n angle. ( A f t e r Brady and Brown, 1985)
FIGURE 4.6 T y p i c a l d i s c o n t i n u i t y roughness p r o f i l e f o r 102

the e v a l u a t i o n o f the JRC index. ( A f t e r Barton and
Choubey, 1977)
FIGURE 5.1 R e l a t i o n s h i p between the stand-up time o f an 113

unsupported underground e x c a v a t i o n span and the CSIR
Geomechanics C l a s s i f i c a t i o n . ( A f t e r B i e n i a w s k i , 1973)
FIGURE 5.2 R e l a t i o n s h i p between the maximum e q u i v a l e n t 118

dimension (De) of an unsupported underground e x c a v a t i o n
and t h e NGI t u n n e l l i n g q u a l i t y index Q. ( A f t e r Barton
xv
L i e n and Lunde, 1974)
FIGURE 5.3 Diagram f o r the e v a l u a t i o n o f t h e j o i n t 123

s p a c i n g parameter i n the Laubscher m o d i f i e d
geomechanics c l a s s i f i c a t i o n system. ( A f t e r Laubscher,
1976)
FIGURE 5 . 4 R e l a t i o n s h i p between the a d j u s t e d rock mass 129

r a t i n g and h y d r a u l i c r a d i u s o f a stope s u r f a c e . ( A f t e r
Laubscher, 197 6)
FIGURE 5.5 R e l a t i o n s h i p between the s t a b i l i t y number 133

and h y d r a u l i c r a d i u s o f a stope s u r f a c e . ( A f t e r Mathews
e t a l , 1980).
FIGURE 5.6 Graph f o r the e s t i m a t i o n o f f a c t o r A. ( A f t e r 135

Mathews e t a l , 1980).
FIGURE 5.7 Graph o f t h e s t r e s s induced on t h e major 13 6

s u r f a c e o f a stope v e r s u s the r a t i o o f opening
dimensions. ( A f t e r Mathews e t a l , 1980).
FIGURE 5.8 Graph o f the s t r e s s induced on the minor 137

s u r f a c e o f a stope v e r s u s the r a t i o o f opening
dimension. ( A f t e r Mathews e t a l , 1980).
FIGURE 5.9 Sketch f o r the e s t i m a t i o n o f the rock d e f e c t 139

o r i e n t a t i o n f a c t o r B. ( A f t e r Mathews e t a l , 1 9 8 0 ) .
FIGURE 5.10 Graph f o r the e s t i m a t i o n o f t h e stope 14 0

s u r f a c e i n c l i n a t i o n f a c t o r C ( A f t e r Mathews e t a l ,
1980) .
FIGURE 6.1 Triangular chart f o r the e s t i m a t i o n o f b l o c k 152

shape. ( A f t e r Folk, 1968).
FIGURE 6.2 I d e a l i s e d diagram showing the t r a n s i t i o n 154

from i n t a c t rock t o a h e a v i l y j o i n t e d rock mass with
i n c r e a s i n g sample s i z e . ( A f t e r Hoek and Brown, 1980)
FIGURE 6.3 F a i l u r e mechanism o f i n t a c t rock submitted 154

t o compressive s t r e s s .
FIGURE 6 . 4 F a i l u r e mechanism of i n t a c t rock i n s t a t e of 154

stress relaxation.
FIGURE 6.5 F a i l u r e mechanism o f d i s c r e t e b l o c k s f o r an 157

i s o t r o p i c rock m a t e r i a l submitted t o compressive s t r e s s .

i s o t r o p i c rock m a t e r i a l i n a s t a t e o f s t r e s s r e l a x a t i o n .
xv i
a n i s o t r o p i c rock m a t e r i a l having elongated b l o c k s
o r i e n t e d p a r a l l e l t o the stope s u r f a c e and submitted
t o a compressive s t r e s s .
FIGURE 6.8 F a i l u r e mechanism of d i s c r e t e b l o c k s f o r an 157

o r i e n t e d p a r a l l e l t o the stope s u r f a c e i n a s t a t e o f
stress relaxation.

o r i e n t e d p e r p e n d i c u l a r t o the stope s u r f a c e and
submitted t o compressive s t r e s s .
FIGURE 6.10 F a i l u r e mechanism of d i s c r e t e b l o c k s f o r an 159

o r i e n t e d p e r p e n d i c u l a r t o the stope s u r f a c e i n a
state of stress relaxation.
FIGURE 6.11 F a i l u r e mechanism o f j o i n t e d rock mass f o r 159

an i s o t r o p i c m a t e r i a l submitted t o compressive s t r e s s .

an i s o t r o p i c rock m a t e r i a l i n a s t a t e o f s t r e s s
relaxation.
FIGURE 6.13 F a i l u r e mechanism of j o i n t e d rock mass f o r 161

an a n i s o t r o p i c rock m a t e r i a l having elongated b l o c k s
o r i e n t e d p a r a l l e l t o the stope s u r f a c e and submitted
t o a compressive s t r e s s .
FIGURE 6.14 F a i l u r e mechanism o f a j o i n t e d rock mass 161

f o r an a n i s o t r o p i c rock m a t e r i a l having elongated b l o c k s
o r i e n t e d p a r a l l e l t o the stope s u r f a c e i n a s t a t e o f
stress relaxation.

o r i e n t e d p e r p e n d i c u l a r t o the stope s u r f a c e and
submitted t o compressive s t r e s s .

o r i e n t e d p e r p e n d i c u l a r t o t h e stope s u r f a c e i n a s t a t e
of s t r e s s r e l a x a t i o n .
FIGURE 6.17 C l a s s i f i c a t i o n o f the f a i l u r e mechanisms i n 163

open stope mining.
FIGURE 6.18 a) Sketch showing the g r a v i t y f a l l mode of 165

failure.
xvii
FIGURE 6.18 b) Sketch showing t h e s l i d i n g mode o f 165
failure.
FIGURE 6.18 c) Sketch showing t h e s l a b b i n g and b u c k l i n g 165

mode o f f a i l u r e .
FIGURE 7.1 V i s u a l i z a t i o n o f t h e geomechanical model. 168
FIGURE 7.2 Sketch showing t h e measurement o f j o i n t s 17 2

along a scan l i n e . ( A f t e r P r i e s t and Hudson, 1976)
FIGURE 7.3 R e l a t i o n s h i p between RQD and t h e average 172

number o f d i s c o n t i n u i t i e s p e r meter. ( A f t e r P r i e s t
and Hudson, 1976)
FIGURE 7.4 Graph f o r t h e e s t i m a t i o n of t h e compressive 17 5

stress factor.
FIGURE 7.5 D e f i n i t i o n o f t h e aspect r a t i o and K r a t i o 178

used i n t h e e s t i m a t i o n o f t h e induced s t r e s s a c t i n g
on a stope s u r f a c e .
FIGURE 7.6 Longitudinal open stope t y p i c a l dimensions. 181
FIGURE 7.7 Longitudinal open stope s t r e s s : hanging w a l l 182

horizontal plane.
FIGURE 7.8 Back and HW h o r i z o n t a l stresses: e f f e c t of 183

seam width.
FIGURE 7.9 Longitudinal open stope s t r e s s : hanging w a l l 185

v e r t i c a l plane.
FIGURE 7.10 Longitudinal open stope s t r e s s : back 18 6

stresses.
FIGURE 7.11 Longitudinal open stope s t r e s s : abutment 188

stress.
FIGURE 7.12 Summary o f t h e l o n g i t u d i n a l parametric 189

study.
FIGURE 7.13 T r a n s v e r s e open stope dimensions expressed 191

i n terms o f stope l e n g t h ( L ) .
FIGURE 7.14 T r a n s v e r s e stope boundary s t r e s s e s : 192

abutment w a l l .
FIGURE 7.15 T r a n s v e r s e stope boundary s t r e s s e s : pillar 194

wall.
xviii
FIGURE 7.16 T r a n s v e r s a l stope boundary s t r e s s e s : stope 196
end.
FIGURE 7.17 Summary o f the t r a n s v e r s e p a r a m e t r i c study. 197
FIGURE 7.18 I l l u s t r a t i o n o f the c r i t i c a l joint concept. 199
FIGURE 7.19 Influence of j o i n t o r i e n t a t i o n . 201
FIGURE 7.20 I n f l u e n c e o f g r a v i t y f o r s l a b b i n g and 204

g r a v i t y f a l l modes o f f a i l u r e .
FIGURE 7.21 I n f l u e n c e o f g r a v i t y f o r s l i d i n g mode o f 204

failure.
FIGURE 7.22 The m o d i f i e d stability graph. 206
FIGURE 8.1 M o d i f i e d s t a b i l i t y graph showing the case 228

h i s t o r i e s of h i g h compressive s t r e s s .

h i s t o r i e s of s t r e s s r e l a x a t i o n .

h i s t o r i e s i n c l u d e d i n the main data base.

h i s t o r i e s i n c l u d e d i n the t o t a l data base.
FIGURE 9.1 a) Uniform c a b l e b o l t p a t t e r n i n s t a l l e d in 248

open stope o v e r c u t s .
FIGURE 9.1 b) Uniform c a b l e b o l t p a t t e r n i n s t a l l e d i n 248

open stope o v e r c u t s and supplemented with s h o r t r e b a r .
FIGURE 9.2 Cable b o l t support system u s i n g i n c l i n e d 250

c a b l e s and two phases o f overcut development f o r
prereinforcement.
FIGURE 9.3 Cable b o l t support system u s i n g an i n t e r - 250

l a c e d support p a t t e r n .
FIGURE 9.4 Cable b o l t support system designed for 250

overcuts containing a small p i l l a r ( s ) .
FIGURE 9.5 Uniform c a b l e b o l t p a t t e r n i n s t a l l e d i n an 252

open stope w a l l .
FIGURE 9.6 C r e a t i o n o f a rock beam i n the hanging w a l l 253

by i n s t a l l i n g a l o c a l i z e d high d e n s i t y o f c a b l e b o l t s .
FIGURE 9.7 Cable b o l t support system f o r a hanging 255
xix
wall, installed from a p a r a l l e l b o l t i n g drift.
FIGURE 9.8 Cable b o l t support system s t a b i l i z i n g p i l l a r 256

walls.
FIGURE 9.9 The m o d i f i e d s t a b i l i t y graph f o r supported 263

case h i s t o r i e s .
FIGURE 9.10 R e l a t i o n s h i p between the d e n s i t y o f b o l t i n g 265

v e r s u s the r e l a t i v e b l o c k s i z e f a c t o r (RQD/Jn) /
hydraulic radius.
FIGURE 9.11 R e l a t i o n s h i p between t h e c a b l e b o l t l e n g t h 268

and h y d r a u l i c r a d i u s o f a stope s u r f a c e .
FIGURE 9.12 The m o d i f i e d s t a b i l i t y graph showing the 270

b o l t i n g f a c t o r f o r each o f the "supported" case
histories.
FIGURE 10.1 The m o d i f i e d s t a b i l i t y graph showing case 277

h i s t o r i e s t h a t had s i g n i f i c a n t b l a s t i n g e f f e c t .
FIGURE 10.2 R e l a t i o n s h i p between t h e r e d u c t i o n i n rock 281

mass q u a l i t y and the peak p a r t i c l e v e l o c i t y o r i g i n a t i n g
from a b l a s t . ( A f t e r Page, 1987)
FIGURE 10.3 The e f f e c t o f r e d u c i n g the burden on a 282

charge o f c o n s t a n t energy. ( A f t e r A t l a s powder
company, 1987)
FIGURE 10.4 The e f f e c t o f d e l a y i n g d e t o n a t i o n decks on 284

the r e s u l t i n g wave p a c k e t s . ( A f t e r S p r o t t , 1986)
FIGURE 10.5 I d e a l i z e d i s o m e t r i c view o f t h e mining and 286

b a c k f i l l o f a f o u r stope b l o c k .
FIGURE 10.6 I d e a l i z e d i s o m e t r i c view o f the mining 288

b l o c k a t Mine #19 o f the data base.

e f f e c t o f b a c k f i l l i n a d j a c e n t stopes.

time e f f e c t on seventeen case h i s t o r i e s from the
data base.
FIGURE l l . l The s t a b i l i t y graph method f o r open stope 299

design.
xx
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The author wishes t o thank the p r i n c i p a l sponsors o f t h i s

p r o j e c t , NSERC, Centre De Technologie Noranda and F a l c o n b r i d g e
Ltd as w e l l as the t h i r t y f o u r mining o p e r a t i o n s t h a t have
p r o v i d e d data and e x p e r t i s e . M a r t i n Hudyma and Dr W i l l Bawden
are a l s o acknowledged f o r t h e i r s i g n i f i c a n t c o n t r i b u t i o n i n
t h i s r e s e a r c h work. The a s s i s t a n c e p r o v i d e d by the t e c h n i c a l
commitee formed by Dr Hamish M i l l e r p r o j e c t s u p e r v i s o r , Ken
Mathews, A l l a n Moss, Dr Rimas P a k a l n i s , Chuck Brawner, A l l a n
Reed and Andy Mular was g r e a t l y a p p r e c i a t e d . Acknowledgement
goes t o the f o l l o w i n g persons f o r t h e i r continuous support and
encouragement d u r i n g my graduate s t u d i e s ; Wendy Cumming-Potvin,
Jacques P o t v i n , Jeanine P o t v i n , Audrey Cumming and Antonio de
Conceicao Ramos.
xx i
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
T h i s t h e s i s addresses the t o p i c of underground e x c a v a t i o n
stability i n open stope mining methods. The e f f i c i e n c y of open
stope mining operations r e l i e s on high p r o d u c t i v i t y resulting
from large, non-entry excavations and mechanized equipment.
Considering the high cost a s s o c i a t e d with the development of
each stope, the economic i n c e n t i v e t o produce a s m a l l e r number
of large open stopes i s tremendous. On the o t h e r hand, the
consequences of exceeding the maximum p o s s i b l e stope dimensions
can be disastrous. Instability around open stopes may cause
large remedial costs for ground rehabilitation, delay of
production, l o s s of mining equipment, l o s s of ore r e s e r v e s and
at the extreme, mine worker i n j u r i e s or fatalities.
In a Canadian mine survey done by Pakalnis (1986), the
actual performance of open stope design was investigated in
terms of d i l u t i o n . I t was found that forty seven p e r c e n t of
the open stope mines had more than 20% d i l u t i o n with twenty one
percent suffering more than 35% dilution (figure 1.1). This
confirmed the need f o r a r e l i a b l e e n g i n e e r i n g d e s i g n technique
to optimize open stope dimensions specifically adapted to
Canadian geotechnical conditions.
1.1 DEFINITION OF THE PROBLEM
There are t h r e e fundamental aspects t o be c o n s i d e r e d i n an
1
DILUTION - OPEN STOPING METHODS
DATA BASE - 15 MINES
FIGURE l . l P i e diagram showing the p r o p o r t i o n o f mines having

l e s s than 10% d i l u t i o n , between 10% and 20% d i l u t i o n ,
between 20% and 35% d i l u t i o n and above 35% d i l u t i o n . ( A f t e r
P a k a l n i s , 1986)
2
engineering rock mechanics design. The first aspect i s the
characterization o f the rock mass t o i d e n t i f y and q u a n t i f y the
properties and components a f f e c t i n g the rock mass behaviour.
The second aspect i s the e f f e c t o f s t r e s s fields on the rock
mass. R e d i s t r i b u t i o n o f t h e pre-mining s t r e s s f i e l d due t o the
creation o f openings, may r e s u l t i n zones o f h i g h compressive
s t r e s s , o r zones o f r e l a x a t i o n . Estimation o f t h e magnitude of
the (compressive or tensile) stress acting on each stope
surface i s very important i n the d e s i g n procedure. The t h i r d
aspect is the physical condition of the problem defined
primarily by the s i z e , geometry and r e l a t i v e o r i e n t a t i o n of
openings w i t h regard t o the rock mass and s t r e s s field. The
physical condition should also consider (at l e a s t i n d i r e c t l y )
the factors inherent t o the type o f opening environment. For
open s t o p i n g , these factors include: the e f f e c t o f p r o d u c t i o n
blasting, the influence of cable bolts, the influence of
backfill i n adjacent stopes and the l o n g e v i t y o f t h e openings
(time e f f e c t ) . In t h i s t h e s i s , these f a c t o r s w i l l be r e f e r r e d
t o as the e x t e r n a l factors.
The interaction of these three fundamental aspects
constitutes the problem t o be investigated. Each aspect i s
accounted f o r i n the model by one or more f a c t o r s empirically
calibrated through case h i s t o r i e s . The factors are based on
geotechnical parameters that can be estimated with on site
data. The p r i n c i p a l hypothesis defended in this thesis i s
s t a t e d as f o l l o w s ;
3
" The stability of open stopes can be predicted by
quantifying the effect of rock mass, stress and the physical
c o n d i t i o n of the problem."
1.2 OBJECTIVE OF THE PROJECT
The objective of the project is to develop a
geomechanical model f o r the p r e d i c t i o n of open stope stability.
S i n c e one of the major concerns of t h i s study i s to provide a
p r a c t i c a l d e s i g n t o o l f o r Canadian open s t o p i n g mine o p e r a t o r s ,
the following guidelines were set regarding the model
development:
The design method must be capable of predicting the
overall stability of a stope in terms of operating
problems. Instead of f o c u s s i n g on p r e c i s e calculations
and the identification of discrete block falls, the
method should concentrate on defining conservative
stope dimensions, less conservative stope dimensions
and critical stope dimensions (beyond which open
s t o p i n g become i m p r a c t i c a l ) .
The model must be r e l i a b l e and consequently i t must be
sensitive to all the significant geotechnical
parameters in underground stope stability. In
a d d i t i o n , i t i s important t h a t the d i f f e r e n t c o n d i t i o n s
associated with open stope mining, such as typical
stope geometry, mining sequence, blasting and
4
artificial support (backfill and cable bolts), be
d i r e c t l y or i n d i r e c t l y accounted f o r .
The methodology must be e a s i l y understood by mining or
geological engineers on site. The input parameters
should r e l y mainly on o b s e r v a t i o n a l methods r a t h e r than
expensive testing, lengthy s t u d i e s and sophisticated
equipment.
The d e s i g n method should be a p p l i c a b l e a t any stage of
mining, i n c l u d i n g d u r i n g the f e a s i b i l i t y study and f o r
short term and long term planning. Although the
precision of designs is largely a function of the
quality of the input parameters, which improves as
mining progresses, the method should be capable of
providing at least approximate answers at the
f e a s i b i l i t y study stage.
The approach must be representative of rock mass
behaviour and be capable of identifying underground
modes of failure. This will provide a better
understanding of the ground c o n d i t i o n s and help to
select the proper remedial a c t i o n s i n case of ground
control problems.
The model is based on an empirical approach and its
reliability i s t h e r e f o r e a f u n c t i o n of the e x t e n t of the data
base. A considerable amount of effort has been spent in
building a broad data base which i n c l u d e s more than 250 case
5
histories of unsupported and supported stopes from 34 Canadian
mines. Each mine has been visited (sometimes on several
occasions) and case histories were back-analyzed from
d i s c u s s i o n s w i t h mine p e r s o n n e l , underground o b s e r v a t i o n s , rock
mass classification and numerical modelling. Empirical
relationships have been derived from this systematic
compilation of experience acquired in Canadian open stope
operations.
1.3 CONTENTS OF THE THESIS
The first t a s k of t h i s study was t o p r o v i d e a good review
of open stope mining methods i n order t o d e f i n e the field of
applicability of the geomechanical model. Definition,
classification and identification of the principal variations
i n open stope mining p r a c t i c e s are g i v e n i n chapter 2. Chapter
3, 4 and 5 are literature reviews covering the three
fundamental aspects of stope design (ref. section 1.2). The
pre-mining stress and the p r i n c i p a l laws governing the stress
distribution for linear elastic behaviour are described in
c h a p t e r 3. Chapter 4 i s a review of rock f a i l u r e c r i t e r i a and
the principal techniques available to estimate the rock mass
properties. In chapter 5 the e x i s t i n g models which i n t e g r a t e
the rock mass characteristics, the effect of stress and the
physical conditions (of tunnels, caving methods and open
s t o p i n g methods) are reviewed.
6
The study of the f a i l u r e mechanisms a s s o c i a t e d with open
stope mining i s the i n i t i a l step of the model development.
From the l i t e r a t u r e review, and more importantly from field
o b s e r v a t i o n s of a c t u a l f a i l u r e s , a c l a s s i f i c a t i o n of open stope
failure mechanisms i s proposed in chapter 6. Chapter 7
provides g u i d e l i n e s f o r the s e l e c t i o n and definition of the
factors representing the rock mass, stress and physical
conditions. Techniques are recommended for the field
estimation of the geotechnical parameters composing each
factor (except f o r the e x t e r n a l f a c t o r s ) . The data base and
the empirical calibration o f the d e s i g n method are g i v e n i n
chapter 8. Chapter 9 and 10 focus on the effects of the
external factors. I t should be noted t h a t t h e i n v e s t i g a t i o n of
some of the external factors (blasting, backfill and time
effect) i s v e r y b r i e f because a v a i l a b l e i n f o r m a t i o n , mine site
technology and visual observation were not sufficient to
develop guidelines on their effect on stability.. A full
chapter (9) is allocated to cable bolt support because
observational methods were more effective, allowing for a
g r e a t e r data base and more d e t a i l e d i n v e s t i g a t i o n r e g a r d i n g i t s
effect on s t a b i l i t y . The c o n c l u s i o n of the study can be found
i n c h a p t e r 11.
7
CHAPTER 2
REVIEW OF OPEN STOPE MINING PRACTICES
2.1 INTRODUCTION
There a r e a wide v a r i e t y o f mining methods that can be
used f o r t h e e x t r a c t i o n o f underground orebodies. Open s t o p i n g
has been p r a c t i c e d i n Canada s i n c e the e a r l y 1930's. In recent
years i t has become the most p o p u l a r method of underground
extraction because i t i s cost efficient and s a f e . Several
modifications o f open stoping have evolved as a result of
modern technology such as new mining equipment and improved
drilling and b l a s t i n g techniques. This chapter w i l l provide a
definition and a c l a s s i f i c a t i o n o f the d i f f e r e n t open stope
mining methods. The p r i n c i p a l v a r i a t i o n s i n open stope mining
practices w i l l a l s o be d i s c u s s e d . T h i s review, based on over
30 Canadian underground mines, w i l l h e l p t o c l a r i f y some of the
design concepts developed i n this thesis and w i l l d e f i n e the
f i e l d o f a p p l i c a t i o n o f the proposed d e s i g n method.
2.1.1 D e f i n i t i o n o f open stope mining
There are three c h a r a c t e r i s t i c features that distinguish
open stope mining from the other methods of underground
extraction:
Open s t o p i n g i s a non-entry method. Consequently, after
production has s t a r t e d , the stope does not need t o be
8
e n t e r e d by mine workers, making t h i s one of the safest
mining methods. A l l the miner's a c t i v i t i e s are c o n f i n e d
to the stope periphery, away from the dangerous
production face. Cut and fill, longwall, room and
p i l l a r and shrinkage s t o p i n g are e n t r y mining methods.
The stopes are kept open u n t i l the f i n a l dimensions are
obtained. The broken ore i s removed as stope extraction
progresses. Stabilizing backfill is introduced only
after the completion of the stope (delayed b a c k f i l l ) .
Since AVOCA uses backfill during the extraction
sequence, and methods such as shrinkage and sometimes
VCR keep the stope full of broken ore, they are not
c o n s i d e r e d open stope methods.
The underground e x c a v a t i o n s are designed t o be s t a b l e as
opposed t o c a v i n g methods. This implies that there w i l l
be no l a r g e u n s t a b l e r e l e a s e s of energy due t o a sudden
change i n the opening geometry caused by c a v i n g .
The t h r e e c r i t e r i a above have a fundamental influence
on the d e s i g n of openings and on the degree of instability
t h a t can be tolerated.
2.1.2 A p p l i c a t i o n s o f open stope mining
Open stope mining i s more e f f i c i e n t when a p p l i e d to
certain types of orebodies and geological conditions.
Because open s t o p i n g r e l i e s on the g r a v i t y flow of the ore
9
to the stope bottom, t h e stope d i p should be above the
angle o f repose o f the broken ore m a t e r i a l (greater than
50 to 55). Figure 2.1 shows the d i s t r i b u t i o n of the
stope d i p s o f t h e mines i n the p r o j e c t data base. Although
open s t o p i n g i s more s u i t e d t o a s t e e p l y d i p p i n g orebody,
it can a l s o be successful i n a shallow dipping orebody
(approximately l e s s than 30). However t h e stopes must be
oriented sub-vertically, and t h e t h i c k n e s s o f t h e orebody,
should be a t l e a s t 15 t o 20 meters.
The orebody outline should be relatively regular,
because open stoping i s not s e l e c t i v e . In a d d i t i o n , a
minimum width o f 5 meters i s g e n e r a l l y necessary t o avoid
excessive dilution from wall damage created by b l a s t i n g
v i b r a t i o n s and/or d r i l l h o l e d e v i a t i o n s .
Open stoping usually involves large opening
dimensions. Since t h e r e i s no major support system such as
backfill or p i l l a r s inside the stope during the mining
process, at least a " f a i r " t o "good" rock mass s t r e n g t h i s
required i n t h e stope back and w a l l s i n order f o r the
excavation t o be s e l f supporting. The more competent the
country rock, the larger are the stopes that can be
created, and the more efficient open stoping will be.
Figures 2.2 and 2.3 show the d i s t r i b u t i o n o f rock mass
strength (expressed i n terms o f the NGI 'Q' index) f o r the
stope backs and the stope w a l l s o f the data base.
10
FIGURE 2.1 OREBODY DIP IN OPEN STOPE MINING
SUB-VERTICAL MINING ONLY
35 _. :
0 - 10 10 - 20 20 - 30 30 - 40 40 - 50 50 - 60 60 - 70 70 - 80 80 - 90
OREBODY DIP
FIGURE 2.2 ROCK MASS QUALITY IN OPEN STOPE BACKS
FROM 34 CANADIAN OPEN STOPE MINES
30 r
0.1 - 0.5 0.5 - 1.0 1 - 5 5 - 10 10 - 20 20 - 40 40 - 80 80 +
ROCK MASS QUALITY (Q')

FIGURE 2.3 ROCK MASS QUALITY M HANGING WALLS
FROM 34 CANADIAN OPEN STOPE MINES
30 :
28 -
26 -
0.1 - 0.5 0.5 - 1.0 1 - 5 5 - 1 0 10 - 20 20 - 40 40 - 80 80 +
ROCK MASS QUALITY (Q")

2.2 CLASSIFICATION OF OPEN STOPE MINING METHODS
The elements t h a t form open stope mining methods are
numerous and v a r i a b l e . Consequently, t h e r e a r e no two open
stoping applications t h a t are e x a c t l y t h e same. A proposed
classification uses the t h r e e following specifications to
group t h e open stope mining methods:
mining d i r e c t i o n ( l o n g i t u d i n a l or transverse),
use of p i l l a r s , and b a c k f i l l ,
drill h o l e diameter (longhole or b l a s t h o l e ) .
These specifications have been chosen to c l a s s i f y open
stope mining methods, because they determine the
development and stope p r e p a r a t i o n required, the method of
r e t r e a t and the sequencing o f mining.
2.2.1 Mining d i r e c t i o n
The first criterion f o r the c l a s s i f i c a t i o n o f open
s t o p i n g methods i s the d i r e c t i o n o f mining. In l o n g i t u d i n a l
mining, the d i r e c t i o n of retreat i s along the orebody
strike, while i n transverse mining, retreat i s i n the
direction perpendicular t o the orebody strike. I f the
direction of retreat is vertical (ie. crater retreat) the
orientation o f the l o n g e s t o f the two h o r i z o n t a l axis of
the stope usually distinguish the mining direction.
Longitudinal open stopes have t h e i r longest axis parallel
to the orebody strike and t r a n s v e r s e stopes have their

l o n g e s t h o r i z o n t a l dimension a c r o s s orebody.
In general longitudinal open stoping requires less
development and i s therefore faster and less expensive to
bring into production. The limiting factor for
l o n g i t u d i n a l mining i s the a b i l i t y of the stope backs t o be
self-supporting. In figure 2.4, the width of the stope
backs mined l o n g i t u d i n a l l y has been p l o t t e d a g a i n s t the NGI
rock mass strength index 'Q' f o r the mines i n the data
base. The lines represent orebodies having a variable
width, while single p o i n t s denotes mine with a constant
width orebody. The t r e n d shown i n f i g u r e 2.4 i s that the
b e t t e r the rock mass i s , the wider i s the orebody t h a t can
be mined l o n g i t u d i n a l l y . A s i m i l a r graph has been prepared
for orebodies mined transversely (figure 2.5). I t can be
seen that transverse mining is practiced on wider
orebodies, and a minimum width of 15 metres i s needed to
make i t e f f i c i e n t .
2.2.2 Use o f p i l l a r s and backfill
Open stope mining methods have f o u r o p t i o n s r e g a r d i n g
the use of p i l l a r s and backfill:
full l e n s mining can be done without p i l l a r s or
backfill
permanent p i l l a r s can be l e f t unmined, which w i l l
limit the orebody recovery, but no b a c k f i l l i s used,
15
0RE30DY STRENGTH V S 0 R E 3 0 D Y WIDTH
LONGmjDINAL MINING
10-
0 R E 3 O 0 Y WIOTK (In m.trma)
FIGURE 2.4 Graph of the orebody rock mass quality (expressed

in terms of the Q index), versus the orebody width, f o r
longitudinal open stope mines.
C R E 3 0 D Y S T R E N G T H V S O R E B O D Y WIDTH
TRANSVERSAL. MINING
C R E 3 0 0 Y WIDTH (In m.lroa)
FIGURE 2.5 Graph of the orebody rock mass quality (expressed

in terms of the Q index), versus the orebody width, f o r
transverse open stope mines.
16
p i l l a r s can be recovered u s i n g cemented backfill,
a v o i d the c r e a t i o n of p i l l a r s by sequencing stope and
fill operations.
The ideal open stoping conditions exist i f the rock
mass surrounding the orebody i s strong enough that no
pillars or b a c k f i l l are necessary. This method has been
termed "full lens open stoping" and is possible in
relatively small ore lenses. Figure 2.6 is a graphical
presentation of the w a l l rock competency (NGI, Q index)
versus the w a l l area used in full lens open stopes. The
square shaped p o i n t s represent stopes t h a t were s t a b l e and
the diamond shaped points show walls that caved. The
dashed line i s a rough criterion f o r the f e a s i b i l i t y of
full l e n s open s t o p i n g , s i n c e most cases p l o t t i n g above the
line were s t a b l e and most cases below the l i n e experienced
stability problems.
Often when f u l l l e n s mining i s not p o s s i b l e , pillars
are left to maintain the overall mine stability. The
option of recovering the pillars at a later stage of
mining, i s a f u n c t i o n of the grade and v a l u e of the ore.
T h i s i s shown i n t a b l e 2.1, where the approximate v a l u e per
ton of ore i s i n d i c a t e d f o r mines t h a t recovered pillars
and f o r mines that left permanent pillars. I f the ore
value i s relatively high, the use of b a c k f i l l and pillar
recovery i s justified. Permanent p i l l a r s are l e f t i f the
17
WALL ROCK MASS STRENGTH VS WALL AREA
F U L L L E N S LONGITUDINAL O P E N STOPING
10O > B H 11 SB
tt a _

i a m
mm i
a

10-
mm a
mm
j^-.

r-
* .
HI
m
0.1
0 2000 4000 6000
WALL A R E A ( s q u a r e metres)
S T A B L E WALLS CAVED WALLS
FIGURE 2.6 G r a p h o f t h e s t o p e w a l l s r o c k mass q u a l i t y

(expressed i n terms o f the Q i n d e x ) , v e r s u s t h e s t o p e w a l l s
a r e a , f o r open s t o p e m i n e s , u s i n g a " f u l l l e n s " l o n g i t u d i n a l
extraction.
MINES USING APPROXIMATE VALUE
BACKFILL OF ORE
($US/ton)
NORITA $ 88
MATTAGAMI LAKE $ 60
MINES GASPE $ 68
WESMIN $ 128
CORBET $ 108
KIDD CREEK $ 125
KIENA $ 69
LOCKERBY $ 123
LAC SHORTT $ 69
GOLDEN GIANT $ 114
LYON LAKE $ 144
GECO $ 70
BRUNSWICK $ 125
CENTENNIAL $ 54
SELBAIE - ZONE B $ 100
FALCONBRIDGE $ 129
MEAN $ 98
MINES USING APPROXIMATE VALUE

PERMANENT PILLARS OF ORE
($US/ton)
RUTTAN $ 43
ALGOMA $ 25
HEATH STEELE $ 92
SELBAIE - ZONE A $ 47
MEAN $ 52
Table 2.1 Comparison o f the v a l u e of ore ($US/ton) f o r mines

u s i n g b a c k f i l l a g a i n s t mines u s i n g permanent p i l l a r s .
(Mine grades from 1987 Canadian Mines Handbook, p r i c e
of metals from January 1988 E n g i n e e r i n g and Mining
Journal).
19
ore v a l u e i s low. For mines l e a v i n g permanent p i l l a r s , the
maximum orebody r e c o v e r y i s about 75% t o 80%.
In heavily stressed ground, where bursting is a
potential problem and p i l l a r r e c o v e r y i s expensive, i t can
be advantageous to sequence the extraction and backfill
o p e r a t i o n s i n o r d e r t o a v o i d the c r e a t i o n of p i l l a r s . This
is done by filling a stope immediately after mining is
finished, and mining the stope directly adjacent to the
filled stope as soon as the b a c k f i l l has set. Success of
the "stope and f i l l " method i s dependent on the reliability
of filling cycle. In a d d i t i o n i t does not have the initial
h i g h r a t e of r e t u r n a s s o c i a t e d w i t h primary mining of stope
and p i l l a r methods.
2.2.3 Drill h o l e diameter
Originally, a l l open stope mining methods used small
diameter drill holes 51 to 64 mm (2 to 2.5 in) for
production blasting. In the 1970's, large diameter
b l a s t h o l e technology from open p i t mining was introduced i n
underground open stope mining. In g e n e r a l , b l a s t h o l e open
stoping i s more h i g h l y mechanized and more c o s t effective
and productive than the small diameter longhole open
stoping. However, b l a s t h o l e open s t o p i n g i s l e s s selective
and r e q u i r e s l a r g e r and more e x t e n s i v e development p r i o r to
mining. The drilling, blasting and methods of r e t r e a t of
l o n g h o l e and b l a s t h o l e open stope mining w i l l be described
20
i n s e c t i o n 2.5 and 2.6.
2.2.4 C l a s s i f i c a t i o n o f open stope mining
The classification of open stope mining methods,
according to the three specifications discussed above is
illustrated i n a flowchart, f i g u r e 2.7. The Canadian mines
using each option are also given. I t i s noteworthy that
some mines are u s i n g more than one open s t o p i n g method due
t o v a r i a t i o n s i n the orebody c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s . There are no
rigourous rules for the selection of the optimum open
s t o p i n g method. Although some g u i d e l i n e s based on orebody
geometry, rock mass strength and ore value have been
discussed above, factors such as the type of equipment
a v a i l a b l e and mine management p h i l o s o p h y o f t e n p l a y a major
r o l e i n the f i n a l mining method s e l e c t i o n .
2.3 DESCRIPTION OF OPEN STOPING PRE-PRODUCTION DEVELOPMENT
The typical development work necessary f o r open stope
mining ( e x c l u d i n g orepasses and ventilation raise systems)
i s comprised of the f o l l o w i n g f o u r components.
Development of interlevel access. Travel between the
production levels can be done v i a ramps, i n the case of a
mechanized o p e r a t i o n , or manways, f o r more t r a d i t i o n a l less
mechanized mining operations. Ramps are necessary in
b l a s t h o l e open s t o p i n g because of the l a r g e equipment.
21
FIGURE 2.7
CANADIAN OPEN STOPE MINES
LONGITUDINAL MINING TRANSVERSAL

DIRECTION
YES USE OF NO YES USE OF NO

PILLARS
PILLARS
YES USE OF NO YES USE OF

FILL
NO YES USE OF YES IUSE OF
FILL FILL FILL
DRILL
H O L E I-i
TYPE
"
flUgrj0
LONOBOLE BLASTHOLE LOBBBOLE BLASTHOLE LOmBOLE BLASTHOLE
CENTENNIAL FUN FLON LITTLE ALGOHA
FALCQNBRIDGE GECO CHADBOURNE GOLDEN CHADBOURNE CAMFLO BRUNSWICK
STOBIE HEATH INCO GIANT CORBET MATTAGAM INCO
EAST NINE GOLDEN NIDBEC STEELE LYON LAKE CORBET THOMPSON
FRASER GIANT THOMPSON ONAPING DOME MATTABI LAKE
RUTTAN RUTTAN LOCKERBY FRASER ODD CREEK
GECO LYON LAKE NIDBEC NORITA KDDD CREEK
VESTHIN STRATHCONA ROSS RUTTAN
INCD KIENA
THOMPSON RUTTAN LOCKERBY
LAC SHORTT SPRUCE MINES SELBAIE
LOCKERBY POINT
NORITA
MINES GASPE STOBIE
MINES SELBAIE STRATHCONA
STRATHCONA
Development of the d r i l l i n g horizon. An access drift,
usually located i n the footwall, i s driven p a r a l l e l t o the
orebody in order to maintain access to the drilling
l o c a t i o n s a f t e r t h e e x t r a c t i o n has s t a r t e d . The p r o d u c t i o n
drilling f o r longhole mining i s done from one (or s e v e r a l
parallel) drilling drifts running t h e l e n g t h o f t h e stope.
The number of d r i l l i n g drifts depends (vertically) on the
stope height and the maximum drill hole length, and
(horizontally) on t h e width o f t h e stope. B l a s t h o l e open
s t o p i n g g e n e r a l l y r e q u i r e s a f u l l overcut f o r t h e p r o d u c t i o n
drilling equipment. The overcut i s approximately four
metres h i g h and covers t h e e n t i r e top s u r f a c e o f the stope.
Sometimes, s m a l l p i l l a r s are l e f t i n t h e overcut t o p r o v i d e
temporary support t o l a r g e stope backs.
Development o f t h e mucking horizon. A haulage drift is
developed parallel t o t h e orebody, u s u a l l y 15 t o 30 metres
in the footwall. The mucking i s done from drawpoints
connected t o t h e haulage d r i f t by c r o s s c u t s spaced a t 10 t o
15 metres. There a r e t h r e e types o f drawpoints. Collection
cones which are suited to track or trackless loading
equipment as w e l l as chute l o a d i n g systems. V-cut scram
drifts have a role similar t o the c o l l e c t i o n cones, but
involve less complicated development work. The more
traditional s l u s h e r mucking i s often used with t h e V-cut
scram d r i f t s . A fully open undercut i s common i n b l a s t h o l e
open stoping. In t h i s case, the d r i l l i n g overcut of the
23
stope below i s used as undercut drawpoint of the level
above, which minimizes the amount o f development. Remote
control scooptrams are necessary t o enter the stopes and
remove the l a s t p o r t i o n o f broken ore.
Development of the s l o t raise. The slot raise i s used t o
c r e a t e a f r e e face f o r the p r o d u c t i o n b l a s t s . Its location
i s v a r i a b l e depending on the p r e f e r r e d d i r e c t i o n of r e t r e a t .
S l o t r a i s e s can be developed by c o n v e n t i o n a l s t a g i n g , Alimak
raise climber, drop r a i s i n g and i n h i g h l y mechanized mines
by r a i s e b o r i n g machines.
2.4 DESCRIPTION OF OPEN STOPE MINING AND SEQUENCING
The most common open stope mining and sequencing
procedures can be d i v i d e d i n t o two groups; methods t h a t do not
use b a c k f i l l and methods t h a t use b a c k f i l l . If backfill i s not
used, the major concern i s the sequencing of stope e x t r a c t i o n
in order to avoid an early overstressing of the permanent
pillars. T h i s i s done by mining from the c e n t r e of the orebody
towards the abutments. When backfill is used, different
s t r a t e g i e s cart be f o l l o w e d t o o p t i m i z e the r e c o v e r y of p i l l a r s
or t o simply a v o i d the c r e a t i o n of p i l l a r s . These o p t i o n s w i l l
be d i s c u s s e d in this s e c t i o n with i d e a l i z e d isometric drawings
and r e f e r e n c e s t o the open stope mining c l a s s i f i c a t i o n (section
2.2) and p r e - p r o d u c t i o n development ( s e c t i o n 2.3) w i l l be made.
24
2.4.1 Open s t o p i n g w i t h no b a c k f i l l
The most simple and economic open stope mining method i s
full l e n s e x t r a c t i o n because i t has no b a c k f i l l and no p i l l a r s .
T h i s method ( i l l u s t r a t e d i n f i g u r e 2.8) can be a p p l i e d i n s m a l l
o r e b o d i e s o r i s o l a t e d l e n s e s p r o v i d i n g t h e rock mass q u a l i t y i s
sufficient f o r stope surfaces to be self-supporting. A
variation o f t h i s approach i s t h e open stope sub l e v e l retreat
method shown i n f i g u r e 2.9. Once again, no p i l l a r s or b a c k f i l l
are necessary but t h e method o f r e t r e a t i s underhand (from t o p
to bottom) instead o f overhand (from bottom to top). The
methods o f r e t r e a t f o r l o n g h o l e and b l a s t h o l e mining will be
f u r t h e r d i s c u s s e d i n s e c t i o n 2.5.3 and 2.6.3.
When the value o f t h e ore does not j u s t i f y the use of
backfill, but t h e orebody i s t o o l a r g e t o be mined as a s i n g l e
stope, permanent p i l l a r s are l e f t (figure 2.10). The stopes
retreat towards the pillar and permanent stope access
development i s located i n the p i l l a r s . In o r d e r t o maximize
the orebody recovery, t h e p i l l a r s a r e kept t o a minimum width
but they need t o remain s t a b l e t o i n s u r e o v e r a l l mine stability
and t o p r o t e c t t h e access t o the stope.
2.4.2 Open s t o p i n g w i t h backfill
When backfill is involved, the sequencing of stope
e x t r a c t i o n becomes p a r t o f an o v e r a l l s t r a t e g y f o r t h e optimum
recovery of the secondary and tertiary stopes (temporary
pillars). By d e f i n i t i o n , primary stopes a r e mined a g a i n s t rock
25
FIGURE 2.8 Idealized isometric drawing of the " f u l l lens" ooen
stope mining method.
Stope Width
Stope
Height
Distance
Haulage p. . .
Orebody Drowpomt
7
Spacing
FULL LENS
VERTICAL CRATER
RETREAT
April 88 JMH o
FIGURE 2.9 I d e a l i z e d isometric drawing of the s u b - l e v e l
retreat open s t o p e m i n i n g method.
Ultimate
Stope
Height
Distance
Between
SubLevels
SUB--LEVEL
RETREAT
0A71 MAW rv.

Nov 87 JMH 0
walls, secondary stopes are u s u a l l y mined a g a i n s t one or more
cemented backfill wall and tertiary stopes are usually
surrounded by backfilled stopes. Consequently, primary and
secondary stopes will often need cemented backfill, and
t e r t i a r y can be f i l l e d w i t h uncemented fill.
The most widely used mining sequence i s commonly called
"leap frog" and alternates between mining a stope and leaving
the a d j a c e n t stope as a temporary pillar. In f i g u r e 2.11, the
traditional leap frog sequence is applied to a transverse
blasthole open stoping method. The actual order of stope
extraction is variable and depends on factors such as
development and drill scheduling and the availability of
backfill. I f t h e r e are a s u f f i c i e n t number of stopes, mining
can c o n c e n t r a t e on one level (as shown on figure 2.11), thus
minimizing drill movement. Otherwise, primary and tertiary
s t o p i n g are done s i m u l t a n e o u s l y on m u l t i p l e levels.
A variation of the "leap frog" sequence, applied to
longitudinal blasthole open s t o p i n g i s shown on figure 2.12.
Firstly, t h e r e i s stope e x t r a c t i o n on m u l t i p l e l e v e l s i n order
to i n c r e a s e the p r o d u c t i o n and the f l e x i b i l i t y of mining. It
can a l s o be observed t h a t the primary stopes are significantly
smaller than the tertiaries. This w i l l reduce the amount of
expensive cemented b a c k f i l l but on the o t h e r hand, the primary
stopes w i l l c o n t r i b u t e a much s m a l l e r tonnage i n the important
first stage of mining.
The 1-5-9 sequence, another v a r i a t i o n of "leap frog"
29
FIGURE 2.11 I d e a l i z e d i s o m e t r i c drawing o f t h e t r a n s v e r s e
b l a s t h o l e open s t o p e m i n i n g method, u s i n g t h e " l e a p f r o g "
sequence of e x t r a c t i o n .
Primary Secondary
Stope Stope
Length Length
TRANSVERSE
BLASTHOLE
FIGURE 2.12 Idealized isometric drawing of the longitudinal
blasthole open stope mining method, having small primary
stopes and large secondary stopes.
Primary Secondary
Stope Stope
Length Length
Footwall
Access
LONGITUDINAL
BLASTHOLE
" Dec 87 0
sequence i s shown i n l o n g i t u d i n a l s e c t i o n i n f i g u r e 2.13. The
first, fifth and ninth (thirteenth etc.) stopes are e x t r a c t e d
for the first t h r e e l e v e l s b e f o r e the middle stopes ( 3-7-11)
are s t a r t e d (see stage 1, 2, 3 of f i g u r e 2.13). When mining of
stopes 1, 5, 9 reach the f i f t h level, stopes 3, 7, 11 begin on
the t h i r d l e v e l and t e r t i a r y stoping i s i n i t i a t e d a t the first
level (see stage 4, 5, 6 of f i g u r e 2.13). The main reasons t o
follow this order of extraction are to i s o l a t e stopes i n the
same mining b l o c k from each other, and t o keep the l o c a l mining
rate low.
2.4.3 Stope and f i l l mining
The principle of "stope and fill" i s t o mine and backfill
a d j a c e n t stopes c o n s e c u t i v e l y i n a manner such t h a t no pillars
are created. A l l the stopes (except the v e r y first one) are
extracted a g a i n s t one backfill wall (secondary mining). This
method l o s e s the h i g h r a t e of r e t u r n of the primary mining, but
is sometimes necessary t o achieve total orebody recovery i n
highly stressed ground. A mining sequence u s i n g a stope and
fill method and a l o n g i t u d i n a l open s t o p i n g i s , shown i n f i g u r e
2.14. In this case, the retreat i s done from both ends
towards the c e n t r e of the mining b l o c k , on one l e v e l at a time.
This creates two production faces, minimizes the amount of
development (only t h r e e accesses t o the orebody are required),
but may cause stress c o n c e n t r a t i o n problems in the central
stopes. T h i s s i t u a t i o n can be avoided by r e t r e a t i n g from one

FIGURE 2.13
1-5-9 Mining Sequence

m Mining H Backfilled
11 '-ry
1 % i
Stage 1
i 1
Stage 2
'n-
UJII
Stage 3. Stage 4
Stage 5 Stage 6
33
open stope mining method, using the "stope and f i l l "
sequence of extraction.
Stope Length
oil Access
Ore Pass
LONGITUDINAL
BLASTHOLE
DATE DRAWN HV. 1
Nov 87 JMH o I
end of the orebody t o the o t h e r . However, o n l y one production
face w i l l be available. A third option i s to start a s e t of
stopes a t the c e n t r e of the mining b l o c k and t o r e t r e a t towards
both of the abutments. This w i l l prevent stress build up and
will keep two p r o d u c t i o n f a c e s but may c r e a t e access problems
and l o n g ore tramming d i s t a n c e s .
Stope and fill has also been applied t o wider orebodies
and has been rtamed panel mining. The mining block i s divided
into a number of s m a l l stopes i n a "chess board" manner (see
figure 2.15). The sequence of e x t r a c t i o n of i n d i v i d u a l stopes
varies from mine to mine and i s largely dependent upon the
orebody and geological conditions. I t uses s m a l l stopes, and
thus r e q u i r e s a l o t of pre-mining development. Almost a l l the
stopes are backfilled with cemented fill which makes panel
mining an expensive mining method. It is typically used in
massive orebodies that have bad ground conditions and/or
bursting problems.
2.5 LONGHOLE OPEN STOPING
Longhole i s the oldest and most c o n v e n t i o n a l open stope
mining method. I t i s c h a r a c t e r i z e d by s m a l l diameter h o l e s (51
to 64 m i l l i m e t r e ) which influence the drilling, blasting and
retreating practices. Those p r a c t i c e s must be adapted t o the
orebody geometry, g e o l o g i c a l c o n d i t i o n s and the l o c a t i o n of the
drilling drifts.
FIGURE 2.15 P l a n view showing t h e "panel m i n i n g " sequence o
e x t r a c t i o n , ( a f t e r A l e x a n d e r and F a b j a n c z y c k , 1981)
2.5.1 Longhole d r i l l i n g
Drilling patterns vary from mine t o mine, stope t o stope
and frequently from row t o row. However, t h e r e a r e two b a s i c
types o f longhole d r i l l i n g patterns. In t h e r i n g p a t t e r n , each
row has h o l e s d r i l l e d a t 360 from a f i x e d set-up p o i n t (figure
2.16 a and b ) , while f a n p a t t e r n s have o n l y down h o l e s (figure
2.16 c) . The main advantage of r i n g s i s that the distance
between sub-levels can be almost double t h e maximum hole
length. In Canadian shield rock, i t has been found that
longhole deviation becomes e x c e s s i v e a t hole lengths over 20
meters. Consequently, t h e t y p i c a l d i s t a n c e between sub-levels
using r i n g patterns i s approximately 30 t o 35 meters, while f o r
fan drilling, i t i s only 15 to 20 meters. One of the
disadvantages of the ring pattern i s that i t may have bad
fragmentation originating from the l o c a t i o n where the r i n g s
meet. Also, i t can be seen on f i g u r e 2.16 a) t h a t t h i s pattern
has holes ending against the stope walls, which i s not
favorable f o r wall stability. When t h e stope i s wider,
d r i l l i n g d r i f t s may be l o c a t e d a t t h e hanging w a l l and f o o t w a l l
limits. "Contour h o l e s " a r e d r i l l e d p a r a l l e l t o t h e stope/waste
contacts, and g e n e r a l l y result i n better stope w a l l stability
(figure 2.16 c ) . In f a n d r i l l i n g , contour w a l l h o l e s are also
p o s s i b l e and poor fragmentation i s not a common problem.
Typically, t h e t o e spacing between h o l e s i s greater than
the row burden t o help t h e b l a s t break c l e a n e r and reduce
37
FIGURE 2.16 T y p i c a l longhole d r i l l i n g patterns employed in
C a n a d i a n open s t o p e m i n e s .
a) Ring P a t t e r n . b) Ring p a t t e r n with c) Fan p a t t e r n with

p a r a l l e l wall holes. p a r a l l e l wall holes.
backbreak. The determination of the burden and spacing of
l o n g h o l e s depends upon the d r i l l h o l e diameter and the hardness
of the ore. F i g u r e 2.17 i s based on a c t u a l longhole patterns
and shows t h a t the amount of ore to be broken by each hole
(burden * spacing) i n c r e a s e s w i t h the d r i l l hole diameter.
2.5.2 Longhole b l a s t i n g
In general, 2 to 4 rings or fans are fired during a
longhole production b l a s t . Each h o l e i s detonated on a single
delay and frequently multiple holes are fired on the same
delay. Longholes within a ring or fan are often loaded
alternately right up to the collar while the next hole is
loaded t o a d i s t a n c e of 3 t o 5 meters from the c o l l a r . This i s
done t o a v o i d o v e r b l a s t i n g caused by the h o l e s converging near
the d r i l l drift.
2.5.3 Longhole r e t r e a t i n g methods
The conventional method of retreat in longhole open
stoping i s by slashing vertical slices into the slot area,
giving horizontal retreat. The retreat can be staggered or
full face. The staggered retreat method advances the bottom
sub-level first and i s f o l l o w by the next s u b - l e v e l above and
then the t h i r d one, etc. (see f i g u r e 2.10). T h i s i s done i n
order t o be able to s t a r t production b l a s t i n g , before a l l the
development i n the upper subs i s f i n i s h e d . However, a problem
a s s o c i a t e d w i t h staggered r e t r e a t i s t h a t the sharp corners
39
FIGURE 2i7 BURDEN*SPAOLNG VS HOLE DIAMETER
FAN AND RING PATTERNS
8.0 -i
o.o H 1 , 1 , 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 r r
50 54 58 62 66 70 74 78
HOLE DIAMETER (mm)

created are prone t o caving, which can lead to oversized muck
in the drawpoints and loss of the toe of some d r i l l holes.
Another disadvantage is that pillar stability problems can
start as soon as the bottom sub i s completed and jeopardize
the development and recovery of the r e s t of the stope.
The full face method retreats all the sub-levels
simultaneously (figure 2.18). The pillars created by
converging stopes are then d i m i n i s h e d p r o g r e s s i v e l y and pillar
stability problems are not expected until the final stage of
the stope e x t r a c t i o n . Furthermore, f i l l i n g and resequencing of
the extraction is possible i f stope or pillar problems are
encountered.
A completely different method of retreat is shown in
f i g u r e 2.9. T h i s method, o f t e n c a l l e d s u b - l e v e l r e t r e a t , mines
the top sub-level first, followed by the ones below. The
drilling consists e x c l u s i v e l y of up holes and the mucking is
done from each sub-level, instead of at the stope bottom.
Because the distance between the sublevels i s approximately 10
metres, this method requires a considerable amount of pre-
mining development. However, most of i t is located in ore
which makes the sub-level retreat method, one of the most
economic.
2.6 BLASTHOLE OPEN STOPING
B l a s t h o l e open s t o p i n g was d e r i v e d by m o d i f y i n g longhole
41
longhole open stope mining method, using a f u l l face
retreat.
Primary Secondary
Stope Stope
Length Length Manway
Distance
Between
Sub-Levels
LONGITUDINAL
LONGHOLE
mining t o the use of l a r g e diameter drill holes. At f i r s t , the
v i b r a t i o n s generated by the b l a s t i n g of b i g h o l e s caused ground
c o n t r o l problems. In r e c e n t years, new drilling, blasting and
r e t r e a t i n g techniques have been s u c c e s s f u l l y developed. Since
l a r g e equipment i s r e q u i r e d to d r i l l l a r g e diameter h o l e s , most
blasthole operations take advantage of mechanization. This
makes b l a s t h o l e open stoping one of the most cost efficient
mining methods.
2.6.1 Blasthole d r i l l i n g
The principal characteristic of b l a s t h o l e open s t o p i n g i s
the use of 100 - 200 mm (4 t o 8 inch) diameter drill holes f o r
production blasting. Because l a r g e h o l e s can be drilled with
more p r e c i s i o n over a long d i s t a n c e , the stope h e i g h t can be up
to 50 t o 60 metres. The s p a c i n g between h o l e s and the burden
between rows varies from approximately 2.4 metres to 3.6
metres. The most typical blasthole d r i l l i n g arrangement has
165 mm (6.5 inch) drill holes and a square p a t t e r n with a 3
metre burden and spacing. The holes are drilled mutually
parallel, from a fully open o v e r c u t to a fully open undercut
( f i g u r e 2.19 a). The h o l e s ' p r e c i s i o n can be surveyed from the
undercut. The same p r i n c i p l e can a l s o be apply to inclined
stopes, except a l l the h o l e s w i l l be i n c l i n e d p a r a l l e l t o stope
walls ( f i g u r e 2.19 b). A v a r i a t i o n i s shown on f i g u r e 2.19 c),
where most of the holes have been kept vertical and inclined
rows are d r i l l e d along the hanging w a l l . When d r i l l i n g drifts
43
FIGURE 2.19 Typical blasthole drilling patterns employed in
Canadian open stope mines.
are used i n s t e a d of a f u l l overcut, a fan p a t t e r n such as the
one shown in figure 2.19 d) must be used. This may cause
stability problems since large holes are blasted against the
stope walls, and a large quantity of explosive can be
concentrated near the drilling drift. B l a s t h o l e open s t o p i n g
is not ideal f o r i r r e g u l a r orebodies, but f i g u r e 2.19 e) shows
how the drilling can be adapted to better suit the orebody
definition. Shorter i n c l i n e d h o l e s sometimes have t o be added
to a vertical parallel pattern, in order to drill under
temporary small p i l l a r s which are l e f t f o r the support of the
overcut (see f i g u r e 2.19 f) .
2.6.2 Blasthole blasting
Large diameter h o l e s are b l a s t e d u s i n g two methods. The
first approach i s s i m i l a r t o l o n g h o l e open s t o p i n g and i n v o l v e s
the slashing of vertical slices (full stope height) and
resulting in horizontal retreat from the s l o t area. The holes
are loaded w i t h a s e r i e s of 2 t o 4 metre charges separated by 2
or 3 metres of stemming. The full hole is fired i n the same
blast, t o a v o i d p l u g g i n g problems. A t y p i c a l production blast
fires one or two rows (of 3 to 5 holes each) at a time.
However, mass b l a s t s of s e v e r a l rows are not uncommon.
The second approach for big hole blasting breaks
horizontal slices, causing v e r t i c a l r e t r e a t , from the bottom of
the stope towards the top. This i s known as v e r t i c a l crater
retreat or vertical block mining. A single charge having a

l e n g t h t o width r a t i o l e s s than 6 t o 1 i s l o c a t e d i n each h o l e ,
at an optimum d i s t a n c e from the f r e e face. During p r o d u c t i o n
blasts, the bottom portion of a l l the h o l e s are f i r e d and the
h o r i z o n t a l ore s l i c e i s cut.
One of the major concerns of many operators, in using
l a r g e diameter h o l e s , i s the p o t e n t i a l b l a s t i n g damage t o stope
walls. Several control blasting t e c h n i q u e s have been developed
to reduce blast vibrations and overbreak in blasthole open
stoping.
The amount of explosives in the hole is reduced by
separating the charge into s h o r t columns s e p a r a t e d by decks
of an i n e r t m a t e r i a l or wooden a i r s p a c e r s ( f i g u r e 2.20).
D i l u t e d AN/Fo i s used t o reduce the s h a t t e r i n g power of the
explosives, and i s especially effective i n perimeter holes
for wall control.
The weight of e x p l o s i v e f i r e d per d e l a y i s reduced.
Preshear h o l e s are used to create a plane o f shear along
the desired line of break. This is used to reduce
production blast effects on nearby development or weak
walls.
The pressure effects of the bulk explosive column are
reduced by decoupling the charge in a smaller diameter
cardboard or p l a s t i c tube (figure 2.20).
2.6.3 B l a s t h o l e r e t r e a t i n g methods
As mentioned i n s e c t i o n 2.6.2, b l a s t h o l e r e t r e a t can be
46
Primacbrd
~ TRUNK LINE
"-4"Cardboard tubes
E CORD DOWNLINE
5 FT. SAND STEMMING

Drill cuttings
AUSTIN PRIMER
A* #5 S.P. DELAY or crushed stone KîU. Primer
80 lb. TOVEX 448 Mi

-AN/FO
30 FT.
AUSTIN PRIMER
6 #3 S.P. DELAY ".-IS
Primer
AUSTIN PRIMER Wood plug.
#1 S.P. DELAY

I 6.5"!
WOOD PLUG SUSPENDED
ON POLY ROPE
Decked Charges Decoupled Charges
Detonating Cord
Air Spacer
FIGURE 2.20 I l l u s t r a t i o n of the l o a d i n g procedure f o r large

diameter b l a s t h o l e s .
47
horizontal (slashing) or v e r t i c a l (crater retreat). The steps
for extraction i n horizontal retreat include: the opening of a
slot (full stope height) at the extremity of the stope,
enlarging the slot to full stope width and retreating
horizontally towards the o t h e r extremity o f the stope. The
retreat can i n v o l v e slashing o f one o r two rows a t a time, or
the use o f mass b l a s t s . The p r i n c i p l e o f mass b l a s t i n g i s to
increase t h e volume of the blasts, as a greater void is
available f o r the s w e l l of the broken ore ( f i g u r e 2.21). The
l a s t h a l f o f the stope i s o f t e n taken a t once i n the l a s t mass
blast of the stope. The main advantage of this blasting
technique i s i t s h i g h p r o d u c t i v i t y . However, s i n c e the overcut
is exposed t o the b l a s t i n horizontal retreat, v i b r a t i o n and
fly rock may cause some damage t o the stope backs and the
remaining b l a s t h o l e c o l l a r s may r e q u i r e cleanup.
Vertical crater retreat methods are based on the use o f
spherical charges and c r a t e r i n g theory (Lang e t al.,1977).
The bottom h o r i z o n t a l slice o f the stope (three t o four metre
thick) i s blasted successively and mining retreats vertically
until a s i x t o t e n metre crown is left (figure 2.22) . The
final crown i s then mass blasted a t once. Some mines have
found that i t is difficult to crater blast in thin stopes. A
v a r i a t i o n c a l l e d "inverse bench b l a s t i n g " has been developed t o
alleviate t h i s problem. The c e n t r a l portion o f the stope i s
brought up a couple o f rounds i n advance i n o r d e r t o c r e a t e a
supplementary f r e e face f o r the p r o d u c t i o n b l a s t , and t o avoid
48
Develop slot raise. Open s l o t to f u l l stope width.
S l a s h s e v e r a l rows o f Mass b l a s t remaining ore.

blastholes into slot.
FIGURE 2.21 Idealized isometric drawing showing the "mass

b l a s t " r e t r e a t f o r blasthole open stope mining method.
49
3
6-10m
FIGURE 2.22 Cross s e c t i o n of the v e r t i c a l c r a t e r r e t r e a t

method u s e d i n b l a s t h o l e o p e n s t o p e m i n i n g , s h o w i n g an
i n i t i a l b l a s t , and t h e r e m n a n t c r o w n b l a s t .
50
blast choking conditions (figure 2.23). The advantages of
v e r t i c a l retreat are:
it does not need a f u l l stope h e i g h t s l o t r a i s e which i s
expensive and produces heavy b l a s t i n g vibrations,
i t uses s m a l l b l a s t s w i t h s m a l l charges,
good fragmentation and low e x p l o s i v e s c o s t s are o f t e n
achieved,
- the back o f the o v e r c u t i s not exposed t o p r o d u c t i o n b l a s t s ,
the o p t i o n o f l e a v i n g broken ore i n t h e stope f o r temporary
wall support i s p o s s i b l e . In t h i s case, t h e mining method
does not meet the open stope s p e c i f i c a t i o n d e f i n e d i n t h i s
study.
One p o t e n t i a l disadvantage o f v e r t i c a l r e t r e a t occurs i f a weak
h o r i z o n t a l s t r u c t u r e i s p r e s e n t i n the rock mass. Large b l o c k s
may be detached from the face (overbreak), causing mucking
problems and secondary blasting.
2.7 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS
Open stoping i s a s a f e non e n t r y mining method. It is
v e r y c o s t e f f i c i e n t because i t a l l o w s f o r f a s t e x t r a c t i o n , high
mechanization, high productivity and it is not labour
i n t e n s i v e . However, open stope mining has some l i m i t a t i o n s . It
is not s e l e c t i v e , and consequently i t i s more efficient in
regular orebodies. Better results a r e a l s o o b t a i n e d i n steep
o r e b o d i e s having a minimum t h i c k n e s s o f 5 metres. At l e a s t a
51
FIGURE 2.23 C r o s s s e c t i o n o f t h e i n v e r s e b e n c h b l a s t i n g method
u s e d i n n a r r o w b l a s t h o l e open s t o p e m i n i n g .
52
f a i r t o good rock mass s t r e n g t h f o r the ore and country rock i s
a l s o necessary.
There are s e v e r a l major variations o f open stope mining
methods. They have been c l a s s i f i e d in this chapter according
to:
the d i r e c t i o n o f mining ( l o n g i t u d i n a l or transverse),
the use o f b a c k f i l l and p i l l a r s ,
and t h e b l a s t i n g p r a c t i c e s (longhole or b l a s t h o l e ) .
The pre-mining development r e q u i r e d i n open s t o p i n g can be
r e l a t i v e l y e x t e n s i v e and i s comprised o f :
i n t e r l e v e l access (ramp o r manway),
development o f the d r i l l i n g h o r i z o n (access d r i f t ,
d r i l l i n g d r i f t or overcut),
development o f the mucking h o r i z o n (haulage d r i f t ,
drawpoints o r undercut, drawpoint cross-cuts),
and the s l o t r a i s e ( i f necessary).
Four general mining sequences have been observed in a
number of Canadian open stope mines. In t a b l e 2.2, these
sequences are compared against ' the open stope mining
c l a s s i f i c a t i o n proposed i n s e c t i o n 2.2.4.
There are fundamental differences between l o n g h o l e and
blasthole open s t o p i n g . Longhole uses s m a l l and c o n v e n t i o n a l
equipment which has b e t t e r selectivity and lower pre-mining
development costs. B l a s t h o l e i s the epitome o f b u l k mining

TABLE 2.2 Comparison of the mining sequence used with the
p r o p o s e d open s t o p e c l a s s i f i c a t i o n s y s t e m .
OPEN STOPE CLASSIFICATION SYSTEM
LONGITUDINAL TRANSVERSAL
NO
PILLARS NO PILLARS PILLARS PILLARS
FILL NO FILL FILL NO FILL FILL FILL

BLAST LONG BLAST LONG BLAST LONG BLAST LONG BLAST LONG BLAST
HOLE HOLE HOLE HOLE HOLE HOLE HOLE HOLE HOLE HOLE HOLE
.1*. LEAP
o FROG X X X X
PERMANENT
PILLAR X X
or
w DIRECTIONAL
X X X X
co STOPE AND FILL
O FULL LENS
MINING X X
PANEL
MINING X X X X
methods using large development, large equipment, and large
stopes. Blasthole open s t o p i n g g e n e r a l l y has lower production
costs than longhole, due to higher drilling productivity and
more efficient blasting practices which result in lower
explosives costs. The larger production scale of blasthole
g i v e s a v e r y high o v e r a l l p r o d u c t i v i t y .
55
CHAPTER 3
STRESS
3.1 INTRODUCTION
The stress acting a t any p o i n t i n t h e immediate area of
underground openings i s a combination o f t h e pre-mining state
of stress and the d i s t u r b e d s t r e s s caused by c r e a t i n g v o i d s i n
the medium. The resulting "induced" stress field i s often
r e p r e s e n t e d by stream l i n e s o f p r i n c i p a l s t r e s s t r a j e c t o r i e s i n
the d i r e c t i o n o f the maximum t r a c t i o n . Figure 3.1 shows t h a t
i n the v i c i n i t y of e x c a v a t i o n s the l i n e s c o n c e n t r a t e i n c e r t a i n
areas and p a r t i n other locations. Heavy c o n c e n t r a t i o n s of
lines identify zones of high compressive stress. This
condition may have various effects on opening stability
a c c o r d i n g t o the problem geometry and the nature o f the rock.
The absence of stress trajectory lines corresponds to a
state of r e l a x a t i o n i n t h e medium. The r e l a x a t i o n w i l l have a
significant effect i n a jointed rock mass because i t p r o v i d e s
more freedom o f movement t o i n d i v i d u a l b l o c k s . T h i s chapter i s
a summary o f background i n f o r m a t i o n on: the o r i g i n o f the p r e -
mining stress, how i t can be measured and the p r i n c i p a l laws
governing i t s redistribution around underground openings.
Understanding the magnitude and orientation of the
( r e d i s t r i b u t e d ) p r i n c i p a l s t r e s s i s an e s s e n t i a l s t e p i n the
56
FIGURE 3.1 A n a l o g y o f a f l o w i n g s t r e a m o b s t r u c t e d by t h r e e
b r i d g e p i e r s , r e p r e s e n t i n g s t r e s s s t r e a m l i n e s around
underground openings. ( A f t e r Hoek and B r o w n , 1980)
57
stope design procedure. The following discussion is a
comprehensive review of the subject by Hoek & Brown (1980) ,
Brady & Brown (1985), B i e n i a w s k i (1984), Herget (1987) and Kim
and Franklin (1987).
3.2 PRE-MINING STRESS
The pre-mining s t r e s s i s locked i n t o the e a r t h ' s c r u s t as a
result of the geological history. The stress regime i s often
represented by p r i n c i p a l stresses confining the rock mass at
every point in three orthogonal directions. Pre-mining
principal stress in the Canadian shield usually acts in the
sub-vertical and i n two mutually perpendicular sub-horizontal
directions. Because of the variability of the rock mass
domains, the pre-mining s t r e s s w i l l be s u b j e c t to unpredictable
v a r i a t i o n s i n space. The f a c t o r s i n f l u e n c i n g the in-situ state
of s t r e s s are summarized below ( a f t e r Brady & Brown, 1985).
a) S u r f a c e Topography:
Stress measurements have demonstrated that the vertical
stress i s approximately equal to the weight of overburden.
Consequently, major s u r f a c e irregularities such as mountain
and valley will influence the d i s t r i b u t i o n of load in the
underlying rock mass.
b) Erosion:
Erosion or g l a c i a t i o n may remove p a r t of the rock "crown" i n
c e r t a i n areas r e d u c i n g the v e r t i c a l in-situ stress. Because
58
the h o r i z o n t a l s t r e s s i s l o c k e d i n the medium t h i s situation
i s l i k e l y t o show h i g h h o r i z o n t a l - v e r t i c a l s t r e s s ratio.
c) R e s i d u a l S t r e s s :
The residual stress i s a t t r i b u t a b l e t o chemical o r p h y s i c a l
p r o c e s s e s such as thermal expansion d u r i n g t h e c o o l i n g phase
of crust formation. Other phenomena causing residual
stresses are local recrystallization in a rock mass or
changes i n t h e water content of a m i n e r a l aggregation.
d) I n c l u s i o n s , Dikes and V e i n s :
The formation of inclusions in a rock mass are o f t e n
extrusive, occurring after the host rock has s e t t l e d . The
orientation o f the i n c l u s i o n s i s largely i n f l u e n c e d by the
s t a t e of s t r e s s a t the moment of t h e i r f o r m a t i o n . They may
be composed of very hard o r very weak materials. The
difference in stiffness between the i n c l u s i o n and the host
rock may p r o v i d e a l o c a l rearrangement o f the s t r e s s field.
Very stiff inclusions will attract stresses while weak
i n c l u s i o n s w i l l be d e s t r e s s e d .
e) T e c t o n i c S t r e s s e s :
Tectonic activity may modify the l o a d i n g c o n d i t i o n s on a
regional s c a l e and are u s u a l l y a s s o c i a t e d w i t h major faults
and folding. Their effect i s t o i n c r e a s e both v e r t i c a l and
horizontal s t r e s s e s i n the s t i f f e r components o f the host
rock.
f) F r a c t u r e s e t s and D i s c o n t i n u i t i e s :
A triaxial compressive test on a rock specimen may help t o
59
i n t e r p r e t t h e i n t e r a c t i o n between f r a c t u r e formation and the
state of stress. The o r i e n t a t i o n , frequency and c o n t i n u i t y
of rock mass d i s c o n t i n u i t i e s a r e a l l i n d i c a t o r s of the i n -
s i t u stress field.
3.3 STRESS MEASUREMENT
A distinct d e f i n i t i o n of stress a t every point w i t h i n the
rock mass i s an impossible task. However, representative
values can be determined using a number of d i f f e r e n t stress
measurement techniques. Kim and Franklin (1987) in
collaboration with t h e Commission on Testing Methods have
reviewed t h e p r i n c i p a l methods of s t r e s s measurements. This
review i s summarized below.
3.3.1 Method 1 - F l a t j a c k
The method consists of i n s t a l l i n g measuring pins on t h e
surface o f an e x c a v a t i o n and c u t t i n g a slot between the p i n s
using a diamond saw, o r u s i n g a series of boreholes . The
creation of t h i s s l o t w i l l r e l a x the m a t e r i a l on each s i d e and
the r e l a t i v e movement can be recorded by t h e p i n s . The s t r e s s
e x i s t i n g i n t h e rock can be estimated by measuring t h e p r e s s u r e
required by a f l a t j a c k t o b r i n g t h e p i n s back t o t h e i r o r i g i n a l
locations. T h i s t e s t measures t h e s t r e s s i n o n l y one d i r e c t i o n
and a minimum o f s i x measurements w i l l be necessary t o o b t a i n
the stress tensor. Often, nine t e s t s a r e c a r r i e d out, t h r e e i n
60
the roof, three i n the wall and three i n the face. Elastic
properties are not necessary for this test. Brady & Brown
(1985) have i d e n t i f i e d t h r e e p r e r e q u i s i t e s for a successful in-
s i t u s t r e s s determination using f l a t j a c k s :
"(a) a r e l a t i v e l y undisturbed surface of the opening c o n s t i t u t i n g
the t e s t site;
(b) an opening geometry f o r which c l o s e d form s o l u t i o n s exist,
relating the far-field stresses and the boundary stresses;
and
(c) a rock mass which behaves e l a s t i c a l l y , i n that displacements
are r e c o v e r a b l e when the s t r e s s increments i n d u c i n g them are
reversed."
3.3.2 Method 2 - H y d r a u l i c fracturing
The hydraulic f r a c t u r i n g i s the only e x i s t i n g technique to
determine the pre-mining stress when direct access is not
available. The t e s t i s done i n p a r t of a drillhole, isolated
by packers, i n which a f l u i d pressure i s applied. "The fluid
pressures required to generate, propagate, s u s t a i n and re-open
fractures in rock at the test horizon are measured and are
related t o the existing stress field." (Kim & Franklin, 1987).
An inspection of the fractures at the test horizon using a
b o r e h o l e camera or an a c o u s t i c televiewer w i l l h e l p determining
the orientation of the principal stresses. I t w i l l be assumed
that the drillhole i s i n the same d i r e c t i o n ( 15) as one of
the principal stress. The hydraulic f r a c t u r i n g measures the
61
maximum and minimum principal stresses in the plane
perpendicular t o the d r i l l h o l e . I t i s found t o be more
efficient i n rock material which behaves as a brittle,
homogeneous, e l a s t i c , i s o t r o p i c and non-porous media.
3.3.3 Method 3 - O v e r c o r i n g t e c h n i q u e s
The overcoring measurement has become one o f t h e most
popular techniques because i t often obtains the f u l l three
dimensional state of s t r e s s from each measurement. Strain
gauges mounted on a cell are inserted in a pilot hole
(approximately 38mm diameter) and f i x e d a t t h e l o c a t i o n o f t h e
s t r e s s measurement. To o b t a i n t h e pre-mining stress a distance
of at least one opening diameter from the excavation i s
recommended. The rock specimen containing the c e l l is
r e c o v e r e d by o v e r c o r i n g u s i n g a core b a r r e l approximately 150mm
diameter. During t h e process o f o v e r c o r i n g , t h e rock specimen
is removed from i t s i n s i t u c o n f i n i n g s t a t e o f s t r e s s and w i l l
be allowed t o expand. T h i s deformation i s measured by s t r a i n
gauges and when combined with the e l a s t i c properties of the
rock, w i l l be used t o c a l c u l a t e t h e magnitude and d i r e c t i o n o f
the pre-mining stress. An o n - s i t e b i a x i a l t e s t on t h e specimen
determines the e l a s t i c properties. I t should be noted that
breakage o f t h e overcored sample d u r i n g t h e t e s t i s l i k e l y to
invalidate t h e measurement. Three types of c e l l s a r e widely
available commercially.
- The USBM drillhole deformation gauge i s a re-usable cell
62
that measures the rock deformation with strain gauge
cantilevers and adjustable length contact pistons. It
measures t h e maximum and minimum principal stress i n the
plane p e r p e n d i c u l a r t o the b o r e h o l e . Consequently, at least
t h r e e n o n - p a r a l l e l measurements a r e necessary t o o b t a i n the
three dimensional i n s i t u s t a t e o f s t r e s s . S i n c e no glue i s
necessary, the c e l l works well i n wet conditions. The
maximum horizontal range i s less than 30 metres while
measurements up to 70 metres away have been achieved
vertically.
Both t h e South African (CSIR) and A u s t r a l i a n (CSIRO) cells
are based on similar concepts. Three rosettes, each
c o m p r i s i n g t h r e e o r f o u r s t r a i n gauges a r e mounted i n t h r e e
directions on a non r e c o v e r a b l e cell. The c e l l i s glued
against the wall of the p i l o t hole several hours prior to
overcoring. Because the rosettes are i n s t a l l e d a t an
orientation such that s i x independent strain measurements
can be o b t a i n e d , each t e s t can completely d e f i n e t h e s t r e s s
tensor. Overcore breakage and a i r bubbles i n t h e glue a t
the s t r a i n gauges l o c a t i o n s a r e two frequent sources of t e s t
failure.
It has been generally found that stress measurement
t e c h n i q u e s a r e expensive and a l l have experimental problems and
inaccuracies. The success o f a s t r e s s measurement program i s
i n g e n e r a l dependent on t h e number o f t e s t s done. The r a t e of

success of individual tests has been reported to be
approximately 50 t o 70%.
3.3.4 C o m p i l a t i o n o f s t r e s s measurements
When stress measurement is not possible, a rough
estimation can be obtained from compilation of previous
measurements. Hoek and Brown have listed 116 stress
measurements from around t h e world. T h i s data tends t o c o n f i r m
that the v e r t i c a l stress i s generally equal t o t h e overburden
pressure and increases linearly with depth ( f i g u r e 3.2).
Horizontal s t r e s s i s o f t e n presented i n t h e form o f a r a t i o K,
where K i s t h e average horizontal stress divided by the
vertical stress.
K = Avq aH
aV
On a p l o t o f K v e r s u s depth, i t can be seen t h a t t h e h o r i z o n t a l
s t r e s s data i s q u i t e s c a t t e r e d ( f i g u r e 3.3). An envelope drawn
by Hoek and Brown d e f i n e s t h e minimum and maximum l i m i t s of the
ratio K at d i f f e r e n t depths and can be described by the
following formulas:
100 + 0.3 < K < 1500 + 0.5

depth (m) depth (m)
This p r o v i d e s a rough e s t i m a t i o n of the h o r i z o n t a l stress. It
also shows that K tends to diminish with depth, where more
i s o s t a t i c stress conditions a r e found.
Herget (1987) has compiled 54 s t r e s s measurements from the
Canadian s h i e l d . He concluded t h a t t h e v e r t i c a l s t r e s s i s
64
vtaricM. n u t it , - <*
' 8 <0 >0 W TO
1
* *

- o. 017 1

\
4
V
MIITtU IA -
v
*
*
0
UMlTtO ttt.ni
CAMAO*
n
10*0 IAVIA
\

tCUTHC Ui ATIICA
0 OTKH
\
sooo
FIGURE 3.2 P l o t of v e r t i c a l s t r e s s e s against depth below

surface. (After Hoek and Brown, 1980)
VilTtOL. tTH.il x
o o.s ' .0 i.; :.o IA [ô J.S

,-"!
T
s

*
A

0
*
A 0
/
/ o o
1

i <
o
'/
/
/
/
a'

[ - . /'1 AUJTtAllA
( / * IWlTlD ITATTl
1 1 A CAMAM
0 ICAaOlflAViA
;
! / tOU7"( AfllU

* / 3 OTxtt i[C(0af
/
. /
!
/
i
FIGURE 3.3 V a r i a t i o n of r a t i o of average h o r i z o n t a l s t r e s s to

v e r t i c a l s t r e s s with depth below s u r f a c e . (After Hoek and
Brown, 1980)
approximately 0.0260 t o 0.0324 MPa p e r metre o f o v e r l y i n g rock.
At a depth o f 0 t o 900 metres, the average h o r i z o n t a l stress
can be e s t i m a t e d by the f o l l o w i n g equation,
a H = 9.86 MPa + (0.0371 MPa * depth (m))
and from 900 metres t o 2200 metres, t h e average horizontal
stress i s ,
CT = 33.41 MPa + (0.0111 MPa * depth (m)).

H
Herget's e q u a t i o n s show t h a t a t a t y p i c a l Canadian open s t o p i n g
depth t h e minimum p r i n c i p a l compressive s t r e s s i s v e r t i c a l and
the maximum and i n t e r m e d i a t e p r i n c i p a l s t r e s s e s are h o r i z o n t a l .
Plotting h i s data in the form of K (average horizontal
stress/vertical stress), versus depth, Herget found trends
similar t o those p r e v i o u s l y i d e n t i f i e d by Hoek and Brown, but
obtained a better "envelope" definition f o r h i s region of
focus. The lower and upper bounds f o r K i n the Canadian s h i e l d
are shown on f i g u r e 3.4.
These relationships are very useful when no stress
measurements are a v a i l a b l e . I t i s important t o r e a l i z e that
the pre-mining s t r e s s regime may d e v i a t e s i g n i f i c a n t l y from the
estimations proposed by Hoek and Brown o r Herget due t o the
g e o l o g i c a l h i s t o r y or l o c a l e f f e c t s .
3.4 INDUCED STRESS AND STRESS DISTRIBUTION
66
FIGURE 3.4 V a r i a t i o n o f r a t i o of average h o r i z o n t a l s t r e s s
v e r t i c a l s t r e s s w i t h depth below s u r f a c e , from Canadian
s h i e l d measurements. ( A f t e r Herget, 1987)
67
Stress cannot be transferred through voids, thus the
creation of openings will produce a re-arrangement of stress
magnitudes and orientations in the vicinity of the openings.
The new stress distribution w i l l be a function of the original
loading conditions, the opening geometry, and the stress and
s t r a i n behaviour of the rock mass as a r e s u l t of l o a d i n g . The
interaction of these f a c t o r s w i l l reach a s t a t e of equilibrium
that will be verifiable at the e x c a v a t i o n boundary and at the
far field.
In order to understand how a new d i s t r i b u t i o n i s obtained,
it i s necessary t o look at some d e f i n i t i o n s and the concepts of
f o r c e , t r a c t i o n and s t r e s s i n a continuum.
3.4.1 Components o f stress
Consider a small surface element within the rock mass.
The r e s u l t i n g f o r c e a c t i n g on the element due t o the pre-mining
and induced stresses can be defined by three components, one
acting normal to the surface (a )

z and two shear components
acting p a r a l l e l (v , z x r y)
Z (Figure 3.5).
Now consider a v e r y small c u b i c a l element which r e p r e s e n t s a
better model since the pre-mining state of stress is three
dimensional. The three components of stress acting on a
surface element are now a p p l i e d t o each of the s i x faces of the
cube ( f i g u r e 3.6).
Assuming the cube i s v a n i s h i n g l y small, the components of
68
FIGURE 3.5 S t r e s s components a c t i n g on a s u r f a c e element.
(After Hoek and Brown, 1980)
FIGURE 3.6 S t r e s s components a c t i n g on a c u b i c a l element.

(After Hoek and Brown, 1980)
69
s t r e s s on p a r a l l e l faces becomes i d e n t i c a l . This s a t i s f i e s the
condition of translational equilibrium and allows
simplification of the problem by considering only three faces
of the cube. In order t o s a t i s f y the c o n d i t i o n s of rotational
equilibrium, the conjugate shear stresses must cancel each
other. Therefore,
xy
T = r
yx T
xz = T
zx T
yz = T
zy
The definition of the complete three dimensional state of
stress at a p o i n t ( d e s c r i b e d by the c u b i c a l element) can then
be expressed by the f o l l o w i n g s i x components of stress:
xi z' y T
xy T
xz' T
yz
S i n c e these components of s t r e s s are expressed as functions
of an arbitrarily chosen x, y, z cartesian set of reference
axes their magnitude will be influenced by the relative
orientation of the cube with the reference axes. A non-
arbitrary system of reference i s required t o have a base f o r
comparison and to develop mathematical r e l a t i o n s h i p s t h a t will
be i n v a r i a n t under any r o t a t i o n s with regard t o the reference
axes. I f the a p p l i e d l o a d on a s u r f a c e element i s i n the same
direction as the normal of the plane, the two shear stress
components will disappear. This direction i s defined as a
principal stress direction. By convention, the stress
direction having the highest magnitude is called the maximum
(or major) principal stress and i s represented by a^. The
lowest s t r e s s i s the minimum (or minor) p r i n c i p a l s t r e s s and i s
represented by a . 3 a 2 i s the i n t e r m e d i a t e p r i n c i p a l s t r e s s and
70
r e p r e s e n t s the s t r e s s a c t i n g i n the d i r e c t i o n o r t h o g o n a l t o
and o3 # The p r i n c i p a l stresses provide a useful non-arbitrary
system f o r which the components of s t r e s s can be expressed.
Transformation equations will be r e q u i r e d i n order t o change
the components o f s t r e s s from any a r b i t r a r y system o f r e f e r e n c e
to the principal stress system of reference. These
transformation equations are b r i e f l y discussed i n Hoek and
Brown (1980; p 89) and more d e t a i l s are given i n Brady and
Brown (1985; p 19).
3.4.2 Two dimensional s t a t e o f s t r e s s
A problem can be considerably simplified i f i t can be
considered in only two dimensions. In practice, this
assumption i s valid only i f the n e g l e c t e d dimension i s very
long compared with the two o t h e r s . For example, a mining raise
is very long i n one d i r e c t i o n compared to i t s cross-section.
The s t r e s s d i s t r i b u t i o n can be assumed t h e same f o r a l l c r o s s -
sections of the raise except close to the ends. Three
dimensional problems have the l e n g t h s o f a l l t h r e e axes of the
opening i n the same order o f magnitude.
The simplification from a t h r e e dimensional problem t o a two
dimensional problem can be made mathematically by assuming
plane stress o r plane strain conditions. Plane stress means
that a l l forces acting on a body a r e w i t h i n t h e same plane
(cross-section). Consequently, a , v
z x z , and T y Z a r e a l l equal
t o zero and t h e complete two dimensional s t a t e o f s t r e s s can be
71
expressed by a , x Oy, and r y X ( f i g u r e 3.5). P h o t o e l a s t i c models
where plates of plexiglass are biaxially loaded represent a
p h y s i c a l example of plane s t r e s s c o n d i t i o n s .
The basic assumption of plane strain i s that during the
process of e x c a v a t i o n , displacements can occur only w i t h i n a
p l a n e normal t o the l o n g a x i s of the opening. The f o r c e s are
all assumed t o be p e r p e n d i c u l a r t o the l o n g a x i s and invariable
along this axis. In the case of plane strain, the state of
stress can be simplified to only three components: a , x Oyf
xy.
T
3.4.3 Two d i m e n s i o n a l c l o s e d form s o l u t i o n o f simple
e x c a v a t i o n shape
The two dimensional simplifications of plane strain and
plane stress permitted the development of two dimensional
c l o s e d form s o l u t i o n s f o r e x c a v a t i o n s having simple geometries.
The c o n d i t i o n s t o be satisfied i n the s o l u t i o n of s t r e s s and
displacement distributions f o r s p e c i f i c problem geometries and
loading conditions, have been identified by Brady and Brown
(1985) as:
a) The boundary c o n d i t i o n s f o r the problem.
b) The d i f f e r e n t i a l equations of e q u i l i b r i u m .
c) The c o n s t i t u t i v e equation f o r the m a t e r i a l .
d) The strain compatibility equations.
The two dimensional solution f o r the s i m p l e s t p o s s i b l e case, a
single circular opening in a perfect elastic medium, was

proposed by Kirsh (1898). The equations are g i v e n on figure
3.7. They are expressed i n terms o f : the r a d i a l s t r e s s (a ) ,

r
tangential stress (OQ), and shear stress (T &)

R
a s
well as i n
terms of the major principal stress (cr^) and the minor
principal stress ( a ) . 3
Practical mining applications of the Kirsh equations are
limited since few mine have a c i r c u l a r shape. However, t h i s
closed form s o l u t i o n i s useful i n examining c e r t a i n e f f e c t s of
e x c a v a t i o n s on s t r e s s d i s t r i b u t i o n .
a) Boundary s t r e s s :
In the case of c i r c u l a r openings, the boundary s t r e s s can be
o b t a i n e d when " r " (the p o i n t of i n t e r e s t measured from the
c i r c l e centre) equals "a" (the c i r c l e r a d i u s ) . Substituting
this equality i n equations 1, 2, and 3, g i v e s r a d i a l stress
a r and shear stress r r 0 equal to 0. Thus, the only
component of s t r e s s a c t i n g a t the boundary o f an opening i s
the tangential stress, which in the case of circular
openings i s g i v e n by:
o Q = P z {(1+K) - 2(1-K)cosineG}
b) Zone of i n f l u e n c e of an opening:
The d i s t u r b a n c e e f f e c t on s t r e s s due t o e x c a v a t i o n s tends t o
diminish as the point of i n t e r e s t moves further from the
excavation i n t o the medium. The K i r s h equations can be used
t o determine the zone of i n f l u e n c e of a c i r c u l a r opening by
73
Vertical applied stress p 2
J II I.I I . I I L
1 i I 11 i 11 r
STRESS COMPONENTS AT POINT ( r , 6 )
Radial O r * i P {(1 + k) (1 - a / r-) * (1 - k) (1 - ka /r

z
2 2 2
* U /r")Zoi
u
29]
Tangential o g i P j ( ( 1 f k ) (1 + a / r ) - (1 - k)(1 + 3 a / r " ) C o s 29 J

2 2 u
Shear T - i P z ( - ( l - k)() - 2 a / r 2 2
- 3 a V r " ) S i n 26 )
PRINCIPAL STRESSES IN PLANE OF PAPER AT POINT ( r . 6 )
Maximum o j : (o * a.) +
( i ( o - o ) + T D' 2
8 r 9 ro
Minimum o 2 - H o +
c ) - l i f e - o j 2
+ T 2
) 5
r 8 r 6 r8
Inclinations to radial d i r e c t i o n Tan 2a * 2 T g / ( o g - a ) r r
FIGURE 3.7 K i r s h equations f o r the s t r e s s e s i n t h e m a t e r i a l

s u r r o u n d i n g a c i r c u l a r h o l e i n a s t r e s s e d e l a s t i c orebody.
( A f t e r Hoek and Brown, 1980)
74
calculating the t a n g e n t i a l s t r e s s along the h o r i z o n t a l axes
at different distances (r=a, r=2a, r=3a etc.), until the
induced t a n g e n t i a l s t r e s s e f f e c t i v e l y becomes the pre-mining
vertical stress P . z F i g u r e 3.8 shows t h a t t h i s occurs a t a
distance of r=3a from the centre of the opening. In the
case of m u l t i p l e openings, the effect of one excavation on
another will be n e g l i g i b l e when t h e i r c e n t e r s are separated
by a d i s t a n c e of a t l e a s t r=6a. I f the openings are c l o s e r ,
the components of stress due to each excavation will
cumulate to produce h i g h e r compressive s t r e s s e s or tensile
stresses inside the medium and at the boundaries of the
openings. An i n c r e a s e of t a n g e n t i a l s t r e s s a t the boundary
may result i n wall or roof instability (due t o t e n s i o n or
compression). While i n s i d e the medium, an i n c r e a s e d stress
may affect p i l l a r stability.
c) E f f e c t of e l a s t i c constants and the s i z e of the excavation:
It can be seen t h a t the elastic constants (poisson's ratio
and elastic modulus) and the opening s i z e do not appear i n
the K i r s h equation. T h i s suggests t h a t these factors have
no influence on the distribution of stress around
underground e x c a v a t i o n s . However, t h i s does not deny their
e f f e c t on the s t a b i l i t y of openings.
Bray i n 1977, proposed a s e t of formulae representing a
s i m p l i f i c a t i o n of the c l o s e d form s o l u t i o n , f o r the calculation
75
FIGURE 3.8 V a r i a t i o n i n the r a t i o of t a n g e n t i a l s t r e s s a
Q to
the v e r t i c a l a p p l i e d s t r e s s pz w i t h r a d i a l d i s t a n c e r along
h o r i z o n t a l a x i s f o r K=0. ( A f t e r Hoek and Brown, 1980)
I ' 1
q= W/H
FIGURE 3.9 D e f i n i t i o n o f nomenclature f o r an e l l i p t i c a l

e x c a v a t i o n w i t h axes p a r a l l e l t o the f i e l d s t r e s s e s . ( A f t e r
Brady and Brown, 1985)
of the state of stress at a point on t h e boundary o f an
elliptical opening. The s t r e s s e s acting at the sidewall (point
A) and i n t h e r o o f (point B) shown i n f i g u r e 3.9 are g i v e n by
the following equations:
a A = p (1 - K + 2q) = p (1 - K + (2W/P )^) A
a B = p (K - 1 + 2K/q) = p (K - 1 + K(2H/P )^) B
where:
a A = induced s t r e s s a c t i n g a t a p o i n t A o f the e l l i p s e
boundary
a B = induced s t r e s s a c t i n g a t a p o i n t B o f the e l l i p s e
boundary,
p = minimum pre-mining s t r e s s ,
K = r a t i o o f maximum over minimum pre-mining s t r e s s ,
q = ratio o f the e l l i p s e width and h e i g h t ,
W = e l l i p s e width,
H = ellipse height,
P A = r a d i i o f c u r v a t u r e a t a p o i n t A o f the e l l i p s e
boundary,
P B = r a d i i of curvature a t a point B o f the e l l i p s e
boundary.
These equations demonstrate t h a t the s m a l l e r the r a d i u s of
curvature ( P , P )<
A B
t n e
l a r g e r the s t r e s s e s at t h i s point will
be. Consequently, a high boundary curvature (1/P) w i l l
generate high stress concentrations. Theoretically, a sharp
c o r n e r produces i n f i n i t e l y high stresses. The equations also
77
show t h a t the s t r e s s d i s t r i b u t i o n i n the case of an e l l i p s e i s
a f u n c t i o n of the r a t i o of the axes and t h e i r o r i e n t a t i o n with
regard t o the principal stresses. When the long axis of the
ellipse is oriented in the same direction as the major
principal stress a more favorable stress distribution is
obtained.
These two dimensional elastic solutions are useful to
understand the factors influencing the distribution of
stresses. However, they are r a r e l y suitable to solve t y p i c a l
mining problems which involve v a r i o u s arrangements of stopes
having irregular shapes. " T h i s may be because the boundary
conditions cannot be described by simple mathematical
functions, the governing partial differential equations are
non-linear, the problem domain is inhomogeneous, or the
constitutive relations for the rock mass are non-linear or
otherwise insufficiently simple m a t h e m a t i c a l l y . " Brown (1987).
Consequently, in most practical problems, only numerical
modelling can provide a realistic solution for the stress
distribution.
3.5 NUMERICAL MODELLING
There are many types of numerical models having different
degrees of sophistication. Some models are limited to two
dimensional problems, assuming plane strain or plane stress
78
conditions, while others can handle three dimensional
geometries. A c c o r d i n g t o the mathematical concepts used i n the
development of numerical models, they are better suited to
a n a l y z e problems having s p e c i f i c c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s and behaviour.
The behaviour of a rock mass can be modelled assuming two
different approaches. The continuum approach assumes the rock
t o be a continuous medium with few o r no s i g n i f i c a n t geological
discontinuities. The discontinuum approach c o n s i d e r s the rock
mass t o be an assemblage of blocks capable of s l i d i n g and
rotating. The a p p l i c a t i o n o f discontinuum models i n mining
problems i s s t i l l i n i t s infancy. Consequently, the continuum
approach i s by f a r most popular and best developed method a t
this time. The emphasis of t h i s review will c o n c e n t r a t e on
m o d e l l i n g u s i n g a continuum approach.
3.5.1 Continuum approach
The basic concept used i n the continuum approach is
illustrated i n figure 3.10. A region "R" i s defined in a
medium subject to loading c o n d i t i o n s r e p r e s e n t i n g the p r e -
mining stresses. A c c o r d i n g t o the a n t i c i p a t e d response o f the
medium to load, a variety of rock mass properties may be
assigned t o the medium by means o f c o n s t i t u t i v e equations f o r
the m a t e r i a l . B i e n i a w s k i (1984), suggested t h a t t h e p r o p e r t i e s
that can be modelled include the following constitutive
behaviours; linear elastic, non linear elastic, linear
viscoelastic, elasto-plastic, elasto-visco-plastic,

FIGURE 3.10 Idealized sketch showing the p r i n c i p l e
numerical modelling.
80
anisotropic, dilatant, thermal-dependant and stochastic. In
hard rock mining, linear and non-linear elastic media are
u s u a l l y assumed.
The effect on the stress distribution in the medium of
creating excavations will be calculated at discrete points
inside the medium or at the excavation boundary, using
differential equations of e q u i l i b r i u m and strain compatibility
equations. Continuum numerical models can be divided into two
groups depending on the mathematical method utilized.
Differential methods approximate the solution for the entire
domain w h i l e the i n t e g r a l methods r e q u i r e approximation at the
problem boundary only.
a) D i f f e r e n t i a l methods: The d i f f e r e n t i a l methods d i v i d e
the e n t i r e region i n t o a mesh of elements having v a r i o u s shapes
and areas. The finite element methods transfer the load
originally applied to the region along the network of
elements. The transmission of the forces from element to
element i s completely r e p r e s e n t e d by i n t e r a c t i o n s at the nodes
of the elements. The problem i s then analyzed as a set of
nodal forces and displacements for a d i s c r e t i z e d region. The
finer the mesh, the more a c c u r a t e the solution w i l l be. When
p r e c i s i o n i s required i n c e r t a i n areas of the problem, the mesh
can be constructed with s m a l l e r elements. F i n i t e element i s a
powerful and v e r s a t i l e method that is capable of simulating
non-linear elastic, plastic and heterogeneous material
properties. However, the medium i s not assumed i n f i n i t e and a
81
far field boundary o f the r e g i o n must be a r b i t r a r i l y defined.
The far field stress conditions, in this case, may not be
completely satisfied which w i l l introduce inaccuracies i n the
solution.
The finite difference models also use a differential
method. Their best application i s in solving "transient or
dynamic problems". They are r a r e l y employed f o r problems i n
statics (Cundall, 1976).
b) Integral methods: Integral methods r e q u i r e only the
contour of the e x c a v a t i o n i n s i d e the r e g i o n t o be d i s c r e t i z e d .
This reduces the s i z e of the problem by an o r d e r of magnitude,
and makes them e s p e c i a l l y u s e f u l i n s o l v i n g complicated three
dimensional problems. In boundary element models, the
e x c a v a t i o n boundaries are d i v i d e d i n t o l i n e a r (two dimensional
models) or surface elements (three dimensional models). The
i n f l u e n c e of s t r e s s e s from one element t o another i s c a l c u l a t e d
using i n t e g r a l equations. Stresses a c t i n g anywhere i n s i d e the
region can be extrapolated from the boundary solution. The
boundary element method assumes the medium infinite or semi
infinite and is usually applicable when the material is
homogeneous and i s o t r o p i c . More s o p h i s t i c a t e d boundary element
models d i v i d e the r e g i o n "R" i n t o p i e c e wise homogeneous sub-
regions t o which d i f f e r e n t l i n e a r material properties can be
assigned. This feature i s useful i n mining a p p l i c a t i o n s when
hanging w a l l , ore and f o o t w a l l have v a s t l y d i f f e r e n t rock mass
82
characteristics. The boundary element models are generally
s i m p l e r t o use and intrinsically less c o m p l i c a t e d than finite
element models.
Another integral method commonly employed for mining
problems is the pseudo-three dimensional displacement
discontinuity model. In this method, the orebody is
discretized i n t o a g r i d o f square two d i m e n s i o n a l elements. The
third dimension i s the width of the orebody (seam), which must
be small in relation to the overall size of the problem in
order for the model to give an accurate solution. For
practical purposes, the reef can be considered two parallel
planes. Displacement discontinuity components in three
dimensions are associated with each element and represent
relative displacements between the two planes. Displacements
and s t r e s s e s a t unmined p o i n t s i n the seam are c a l c u l a t e d as a
linear combination o f the displacement d i s c o n t i n u i t i e s of a l l
the elements i n the seam.
3.5.2 Discontinuum approach
" When the rock s t r u c t u r e i s l a r g e or s m a l l compared with
the m a t e r i a l structure a continuum analysis is justified. In
intermediate cases the behaviour tends to be that of a
discontinuum. This requires the use of a method of analysis
that models adequately the load deformation responses of the
individual discontinuities and allows for several specific
f e a t u r e s o f discontinuum behaviour." Stewart & Brown (1984).
83
The most important f e a t u r e s o f discontinuum models are
their deformation characteristics can be rotational,
extensional o r by s l i d i n g , according t o the o r i e n t a t i o n , d i p
and stiffness of discontinuities. Consequently, the
interlocking of blocks or i n d i v i d u a l failure of blocks may
r e s u l t from t h e l o a d displacement characteristics.
Although p o p u l a r methods such as f i n i t e element, boundary
element and finite difference have been applied i n the
discontinuum approach, t h e b a s i c p r i n c i p l e o f these methods do
not model properly t h e discontinuum characteristics (after
Brady & Brown,1985). Brown (1987) described the distinct
element method as follows: "This method uses a dynamic
relaxation technique to solve Newton's laws of motion to
determine the forces between, and the displacement of, units
during the progressive, large-scale deformation of
discontinua." The t r a n s l a t i o n and r o t a t i o n at block centers
can be determined from t h e r e s u l t a n t f o r c e s and moments a c t i n g
on each block. The a p p l i c a t i o n of d i s t i n c t element method i n
Canadian mining problems i s c u r r e n t l y a t t h e r e s e a r c h stage.
The objective of this chapter was to review various
.aspects of stress i n the engineering design of underground
openings. The design parameter of greatest interest i s the
84
magnitude and orientation of the induced stress acting around
excavations. The induced stress is the result of the
redistribution of the pre-mining stress field caused by the
process of mining. In the Canadian shield, the minimum
principal stress is generally sub-vertical, the maximum
principal stress sub-horizontal and perpendicular to the
orebody strike and the intermediate principal stress is sub-
horizontal and along the orebody s t r i k e . Six f a c t o r s may have
had some i n f l u e n c e on the pre-mining s t r e s s field during the
geological history:
surface topography,
erosion,
residual stress,
i n c l u s i o n , dykes and veins,
tectonic stresses,
f r a c t u r e s e t s and discontinuities.
The t h r e e methods used t o determine the pre-mining s t r e s s field
at a given location are: the flatjack, hydro-fracturing and
overcoring methods. When stress measurements are not
available, relationships based on the compilation of existing
measurements can be used f o r rough e s t i m a t e s . Compilations of
s t r e s s t e s t s around the world (Hoek & Brown, 1980) are shown i n
f i g u r e 3.2 and 3.3, w h i l e a summary of the s t r e s s t e s t s done i n
the Canadian s h i e l d by Herget (1987) i s shown i n f i g u r e 3.4.
The stress d i s t r i b u t i o n around openings may be estimated from
the pre-mining s t r e s s , u s i n g a c l o s e form s o l u t i o n f o r a simple
85
geometry, or using numerical modelling in more complex and
practical applications. There are many models a v a i l a b l e having
different capabilities and limitations. They can be divided
based on the continuum or discontinuum approach of a n a l y s i s and
sub-divided according to the method of calculation
( d i f f e r e n t i a l or i n t e g r a l methods).
86
CHAPTER 4
FAILURE CRITERIA
4.1 INTRODUCTION
"A c r i t e r i o n of f a i l u r e i s an a l g e b r a i c e x p r e s s i o n o f the
mechanical c o n d i t i o n under which a m a t e r i a l f a i l s by f r a c t u r i n g
or deforming beyond some s p e c i f i e d limit. This specification
can be i n terms o f l o a d , deformation, stress, strain o r other
parameters." Z.T. B i e n i a w s k i (1984).
Because o f the v a r i a b l e nature o f the rock mass, failure
may follow several possible mechanisms. I f t h e rock mass
c o n t a i n s v e r y few o r no d i s c o n t i n u i t i e s , t h e f a i l u r e mechanism
will be c r a c k i n g o r c r u s h i n g o f i n t a c t rock. When several,
widely spaced discontinuities are p r e s e n t i n t h e rock mass,
sliding or shearing of large blocks i s p o s s i b l e . In the case
of a heavily jointed rock mass (discontinuities having close
s p a c i n g ) , the mechanism o f f a i l u r e w i l l be a r a v e l l i n g o f s m a l l
blocks. Consequently, t h r e e types o f f a i l u r e c r i t e r i o n w i l l be
reviewed in this chapter: intact rock failure criterion, a
shearing failure criterion for geological d i s c o n t i n u i t i e s , and
a j o i n t e d rock mass f a i l u r e criterion.
The v a r i a b l e s t a t e o f s t r e s s t o which the rock mass can be
submitted also adds to the complexity of the problem.
T y p i c a l l y , the rock mass a t the boundary o f e x c a v a t i o n s w i l l be
submitted t o a b i a x i a l s t r e s s c o n d i t i o n w h i l e f u r t h e r i n t o the
87
medium a t h r e e d i m e n s i o n a l s t a t e of s t r e s s i s l i k e l y t o e x i s t .
Different techniques have been used t o develop failure
criteria. Laboratory t e s t i n g of rock specimens c o n s t i t u t e s a
direct method of observing the behaviour of rock under
controlled stress conditions. I f t h e specimen and loading
conditions are representative of the in-situ conditions,
laboratory testing can provide useful failure criteria.
Otherwise, a n a l y t i c a l or empirical relationships have t o be
used t o account f o r t h e d i f f e r e n c e s between l a b o r a t o r y and i n -
situ conditions.
The criteria reviewed i n t h i s chapter a r e based on s t r e s s
and will be expressed i n terms o f major and minor p r i n c i p a l
stresses (o~]_, 03) o r i n terms o f shear and normal s t r e s s e s ( r ,
rj ) .
n The mathematical equations d e s c r i b i n g t h e f a i l u r e o f rock
are o f t e n normalized by d i v i d i n g each member o f t h e equation by
the uniaxial compressive strength o f t h e rock m a t e r i a l (CT ) .

C
This provides a base f o r t h e comparison of r e s u l t s from a
number o f t e s t s made on a v a r i e t y o f specimens under d i f f e r e n t
conditions. Also, t h e most common laboratory tests used i n
applied rock mechanics will be briefly discussed in this
chapter.
4.2 INTACT ROCK MATERIAL FAILURE CRITERIA
4.2.1 Laboratory t e s t i n g
In the case of intact rock, small specimens are
88
representative of the whole medium, which allows the
determination of t h e i r properties in a laboratory (provided
that the s c a l e e f f e c t i s accounted for). Testing procedures
have been developed to determine the u n i a x i a l (unconfined)
compressive strength or multi-axial (confined) compressive
s t r e n g t h , as w e l l as the t e n s i l e s t r e n g t h o f i n t a c t rock.
4.2.1.1 U n i a x i a l compressive s t r e n g t h (o"c, o r UCS)
The u n i a x i a l (or unconfined) compressive strength provides a
simple and u s e f u l index t o compare the r e s i s t a n c e o f rock t o
crushing. I t i s the most widely used characteristic i n rock
mechanics and i t i s i n c l u d e d i n most a n a l y t i c a l and e m p i r i c a l
failure criteria. I t can be estimated by s u b m i t t i n g a drill
core sample (of a standard size and shape) t o an i n c r e a s i n g
a x i a l load. The suggested diameter o f the sample i s 54 mm (NX)
core o r g r e a t e r . The core l e n g t h should be 2.5 t o 3 times the
diameter.
The value of u n i a x i a l compressive strength can be d e r i v e d
from the p l o t o f the a x i a l deformation o f t h e specimen versus
the load applied (figure 4.1). The ultimate compressive
strength i s the peak l o a d t h a t the rock specimen can s u s t a i n
before failure. I t i s represented by p o i n t B on f i g u r e 4.1.
Beyond t h i s p o i n t , rock may fail violently or simply lose i t s
elastic properties, which means greater and permanent
deformation under a g i v e n load. U n i a x i a l compressive testing
a l s o a l l o w s the c a l c u l a t i o n o f the deformation characteristics
89
Strain
FIGURE 4.1 T y p i c a l s t r e s s s t r a i n r e l a t i o n s h i p d u r i n g the

t e s t i n g o f an unconfined e l a s t i c specimen i n compression.
90
of the rock: p o i s s o n ' s r a t i o , and e l a s t i c modulus. The elastic
modulus i s the slope of the pre-failure region on the load
deformation curve (point A, f i g u r e 4.1). Thus i t d e f i n e s the
rock's capability to deform axially under uniaxial loading
before failure occurs. The Poisson's R a t i o i s d e f i n e d as the
ratio of the s l o p e of a x i a l deformation curve divided by the
slope of the radial deformation curve. In o r d e r t o determine
the v a l u e of Poisson's R a t i o , d i a m e t r a l s t r a i n gauges must be
installed on the sample to record the radial deformation.
These elastic characteristics are often used to numerically
model rock deformation or used in specific failure criterion
based on rock deformation. The v a l u e of intact rock elastic
modulus and Poisson's r a t i o are not a p p l i c a b l e t o j o i n t e d rock
masses u n l e s s they are m o d i f i e d t o account f o r the presence of
geological discontinuities.
4.2.1.2 Confined ( M u l t i a x i a l ) Compressive Strength
The objective of m u l t i - a x i a l testing i s t o determine the
a x i a l load (o^) necessary t o f a i l a rock specimen under a s t a t e
of confinement (a ).
3 The triaxial compressive test has been
designed to represent better the three dimensional stress
conditions to which in situ rock is submitted. The test
consists of l o a d i n g a p i e c e of d r i l l core w h i l e o i l p r e s s u r e
applies a constant radial stress on the specimen. The main
inaccuracy of t h i s test i s that in situ horizontal stress i s
r a r e l y c o n s t a n t and v a r i e s from the normal d i r e c t i o n .

A c c o r d i n g t o Brady and Brown (1985;p.102), the major e f f e c t s
of i n c r e a s i n g c o n f i n i n g p r e s s u r e are:
- the peak s t r e n g t h i n c r e a s e s ,
- there is a transition from typically brittle to fully
ductile behaviour, with the introduction of plastic
mechanisms of deformation including cataclastic flow and
grain sliding effects,
- the region i n c o r p o r a t i n g the peak of the axial stress-
deformation curve f l a t t e n s and widens,
- the post peak drop i n stress (to the r e s i d u a l strength)
reduces and disappears at high values of confining
stress.
A biaxial test also exists where load is applied to
r e c t a n g u l a r or c u b i c a l specimens i n two orthogonal directions,
leaving the specimen unconfined i n the third direction. This
test r e p r e s e n t s the e x c a v a t i o n boundary c o n d i t i o n s b e t t e r than
the uniaxial and triaxial tests. However, among other
experimental problems, the end e f f e c t s have a s t r o n g i n f l u e n c e
on the results.
4.2.1.3 U n i a x i a l t e n s i l e strength
Rock m a t e r i a l s i n g e n e r a l are known t o have a relatively
low tensile strength. For t h i s reason, t e n s i l e strength tests
are often not necessary since low tensile strength values
(approximately 0 to 5 MPa) can be assumed. However, when a
92
greater degree o f accuracy i s desirable, a uniaxial tensile
strength test can be performed. I t c o n s i s t s o f i n s t a l l i n g two
gripping devices a t each end o f the rock sample which allows
the application of a t e n s i l e l o a d on t h e specimen. The l o a d
measured at rupture i s the u n i a x i a l tensile s t r e n g t h o f the
i n t a c t rock m a t e r i a l .
4.2.2 A n a l y t i c a l Approach
Analytical approaches attempt t o reproduce mathematically
the exact mechanism o f rock failure. The most interesting
analytical failure criterion for intact rock i s probably the
one developed by G r i f f i t h i n 1921, and m o d i f i e d by McLintock
and Walsh i n 1962. I t formed the b a s i s o f f r a c t u r e mechanics
which has some application i n the study o f rock fracturing.
Griffith based h i s crack theory on the energy instability
concept.
"A crack will extend only when the t o t a l potential
energy o f the system of applied forces and m a t e r i a l
decreases o r remains c o n s t a n t w i t h an i n c r e a s e i n c r a c k
l e n g t h . " Brady and Brown (1985).
The e x t e n s i o n o f c r a c k s w i l l occur i n plane compression i f :
(o^ - a ) 2
2
- 8 To (tf! + a ) = 0 2 i f a x + 3a 2 > 0
or a 2 + To = 0 i f a-^ + 3 a 2 < 0
where, To i s the u n i a x i a l t e n s i l e s t r e n g t h o f i n t a c t m a t e r i a l .
Griffith equations can a l s o be w r i t t e n as f u n c t i o n s o f the
shear and normal stresses acting on the plane c o n t a i n i n g the
93
crack:
r 2
= 4 To (cT n + T ) . Q
4.2.3 Empirical Approach
Bieniawski (1974) s t u d i e d the a p p l i c a t i o n of two empirical
failure criteria (Murrell, 1965; Hoek, 1968), and found them
suitable for predicting the triaxial strength of intact rock
material. The M u r r e l l s 1
r e l a t i o n s h i p can be written:
a i / a c = A [a /a ] - 3 c
7 5
+ 1
where: o-^ = major p r i n c i p a l stress,
a2 - minor p r i n c i p a l stress,
OQ = u n i a x i a l compressive strength,
A = an e m p i r i c a l constant.
Hoek f a i l u r e c r i t e r i o n f o r i n t a c t rock i s d e s c r i b e d by:
r /a m c = B [a /a ] m c - 9
+ 0.1
where: T m = maximum shear s t r e s s ; = (a^-a )/2

3
a m = mean normal s t r e s s ; = {0^+02)/2
As a result of 412 tested specimens on five different rock
types, B i e n i a w s k i (1974) proposed the e m p i r i c a l c o n s t a n t s A and
B listed in Table 4.1 for the Murrel and Hoek empirical
relationships. The p r a c t i c a l mining application of a n a l y t i c a l
and empirical failure criterion for intact rock are limited
because g e o l o g i c a l d i s c o n t i n u i t i e s are p r e s e n t i n the rock mass
and p l a y an important r o l e i n excavation stability.
4.3 SHEAR FAILURE CRITERION ALONG AN EXISTING DISCONTINUITY
94
Criterion
a, <-<,->
Norile A = 5.0 Error: 3.6; B= 0 80 Error: 1.8%

Quart zite A = 45 9 2% B= 0 78 3.2%
Sandstone A = 4.0 5.8% B= 0.75 2.3%
Sillstone A = 3.0 5.6% B= 0.70 4.2%
Mudstone A = 3.0 6-1% B= 0 70 6.6%
Ail Prediction Prediction

types A = 3.5 error: 10.4% B = 0.75 error: 8.3%
TABLE 4.1 V a l u e s o f t h e constant A from t h e M u r r e l l i n t a c t

rock f a i l u r e c r i t e r i o n , and B from t h e Hoek i n t a c t rock
f a i l u r e c r i t e r i o n , f o r f i v e rock m a t e r i a l s . ( A f t e r
B i e n i a w s k i , 1984)
95
4.3.1 Shear strength
The shear strength developed along a discontinuity is
usually a controlling factor r e g a r d i n g the stability of large
blocks. It is dependent on the characteristics of the
discontinuity (roughness, a l t e r a t i o n and i n f i l l i n g ) , as w e l l as
the l o a d a c t i n g normal t o the d i s c o n t i n u i t y . The d i r e c t shear
test has been developed to determine the shear strength of
geological discontinuities i n the laboratory. The major cost
of the test comes from the c o l l e c t i o n of jointed specimens,
which involves careful diamond drilling and specimen
preparation. A shear box i s used t o apply shear and normal
stresses simultaneously on a specimen containing a
discontinuity aligned i n the d i r e c t i o n of the shear s t r e s s . It
is then possible to measure the force necessary to induce
movement under v a r i o u s normal loading conditions.
Coulomb (1776) proposed the f o l l o w i n g r e l a t i o n s h i p between
the shear s t r e n g t h ( r ) , the cohesion of the rock m a t e r i a l (C),
the s t r e s s component normal t o the d i s c o n t i n u i t y (an) and the
friction angle (0),
T - C + a n tan <p.
Referring to figure 4.2, r and a n can be expressed in
function of the compressive stress (cr^) and the confining
stress (cr ) 3 acting on the specimen containing the
discontinuity:
T = 1/2 (o 1 - CT )
3 s i n 2/3
96
FIGURE 4.2 I d e a l i z e d sketch showing a rock specimen submitted
to t r i a x i a l compression.
Tension I 0
Ccapressisn
Normal stress o
FIGURE 4.3 G r a p h i c a l r e p r e s e n t a t i o n of the Mohr c i r c l e and

f a i l u r e envelope. ( A f t e r Hoek and Brown, 1980)
a n = 1/2 (a-L + a ) + 1/2
3 (o 1 - a )
3 cos 2/3.
These r e l a t i o n s h i p s can a l s o be d i s p l a y e d on a c a r t e s i a n system
of axes, where on i s r e p r e s e n t e d on the x - a x i s and T on the z-
axis. The circle defined by the axial stress (a^) and
confining stress (a ) i s c a l l e d
3 the Mohr c i r c l e ( f i g u r e 4.3).
By t e s t i n g a d i s c o n t i n u i t y under d i f f e r e n t (o and CT ) l o a d i n g
3
conditions u s i n g a shear box, a s e r i e s of Mohr c i r c l e s can be
determined. This forms the Mohr-Coulomb failure envelope
( f i g u r e 4.3).
The u n c o n f i n e d compressive strength i s shown on t h i s graph
where the failure envelope crosses the shear axis (ie.
confining stress i s 0) , w h i l e the t e n s i l e s t r e n g t h can be read
where t h e envelope c r o s s e s the normal stress axis ( f i g u r e 4.3).
4.3.2 F r i c t i o n angle
The friction angle (cp) is a useful shear strength
characteristic because it is independent of the loading
conditions. I t can be o b t a i n e d from t h e Mohr-Coulomb failure
envelope by measuring the angle the envelope makes with the
horizontal. Physically, several factors may affect the
friction angle o f a m a t e r i a l . Among them the roughness of the
surface has a major influence. F i g u r e 4.4 shows exaggerated
i r r e g u l a r i t i e s on a d i s c o n t i n u i t y s u r f a c e . When shear movement
is induced a l o n g t h i s plane, depending on the s t i f f n e s s of the
irregularities, they may s l i p on each o t h e r and cause dilatancy
of t h e d i s c o n t i n u i t y o r may simply be crushed. I t i s expected
98
1
FIGURE 4.4 I d e a l i z e d sketch showing t h e s h e a r i n g along a

d i s c o n t i n u i t y s u r f a c e having an exaggerated roughness.
FIGURE 4.5 G r a p h i c a l r e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f t h e peak and r e s i d u a l

f r i c t i o n a n g l e . ( A f t e r Brady and Brown, 1985)
99
that a combination of these phenomenon happen c r e a t i n g the
resisting f o r c e a g a i n s t shear s t r e s s .
Another important factor i s t h e presence of infilling
within the d i s c o n t i n u i t y . Weak infilling material such as
chlorite or graphite has practically no cohesion and a
relatively low f r i c t i o n angle, while hard material such as
quartz infilling has a high friction angle and h i g h shear
strength.
It i s important to differentiate between t h e peak (0
peak) and t h e r e s i d u a l (0 res) f r i c t i o n angle. The peak angle
of friction i s measured as the i n i t i a l shear displacement
occurs. I t corresponds t o t h e maximum shear s t r e n g t h o f the
material tested. As s h e a r i n g p r o g r e s s e s , the resistance to
movement w i l l be d i m i n i s h e d u n t i l a residual (minimum) shear
strength and f r i c t i o n angle i s obtained. This i s i l l u s t r a t e d
on a shear v e r s u s normal l o a d diagram i n f i g u r e 4.5.
Barton and Choubey (1977) proposed an alternative
empirical technique t o estimate the peak and r e s i d u a l angle o f
friction. The r e s i d u a l friction angle which g e n e r a l l y varies
from 15 (weathered d i s c o n t i n u i t y ) t o 35, i s assessed from the
ratio between t h e Schmidt hammer rebound (r) measured on the
weathered joint wall and t h e rebound (R) measured on intact
rock. The peak angle o f f r i c t i o n usually ranges from 30 t o
70 and can be c a l c u l a t e d u s i n g the f o l l o w i n g relationship:
0 peak = J R C l o
9l0 (^-) +
<Pr
100
where: JRC i s t h e j o i n t roughness c o e f f i c i e n t estimated
u s i n g t h e roughness p r o f i l e c h a r t , f i g u r e 4.6,
JCS i s the j o i n t w a l l compressive strength obtain
from a Schmidt hammer measurement,
a n i s t h e normal l o a d ,
0 r i s t h e r e s i d u a l angle o f f r i c t i o n ,
A rough e s t i m a t i o n o f t h e r e s i d u a l f r i c t i o n angle can a l s o
be obtained e x p e r i m e n t a l l y by a simple t i l t t e s t u s i n g a rock
specimen c o n t a i n i n g an uncemented d i s c o n t i n u i t y . When r o t a t i n g
the specimen, t h e angle which i n i t i a t e s s l i d i n g c o n s t i t u t e s the
residual friction angle, assuming no c o h e s i o n and a low normal
force.
4.4 JOINTED ROCK MASS FAILURE CRITERION
An exact definition of j o i n t e d rock mass failure i s
difficult t o o b t a i n because o f t h e complexity o f t h e mechanism
involved. Chappell (1979) and (1987), by studying the
redistribution of stress as failure propagates proposed an
e x p l a n a t i o n t h a t i s summarized below.
The deformations of a blocky rock mass a r e i n f i n i t e s i m a l
at first. They accumulate t o form finite deformations and
i n i t i a t e small r o t a t i o n s of blocks. A r e d i s t r i b u t i o n of stress
r e s u l t s from these s m a l l r o t a t i o n s and i n t e n s i f i e s t h e
101
TYPICAL ROUGHNESS PROFILES for JRC range:
1 o-2
2 h H 2
4-6
.1 6-8
8-10
5 h
10 - 12
12-14
8 14 -16
9 \ 16 -18
18-20
10
3 10
l i l t I 1 cm SCAII
FIGURE 4.6 T y p i c a l d i s c o n t i n u i t y roughness p r o f i l e f o r the

e v a l u a t i o n of the JRC index. ( A f t e r Barton and Choubey,
1977)
102
development of s t r e s s gradients. Moments, caused by stress
gradients acting along interactive block joints, are
transferred a c r o s s the j o i n t s from b l o c k t o b l o c k and enhance
the tendency of blocks to rotate. F u r t h e r deformations of s l i p
and r o t a t i o n may c o n t i n u e u n t i l a s i n g l e b l o c k i s detached from
the excavation boundary, and the rest of the rock mass
s t r u c t u r e may o r may not c o l l a p s e . The l o c a t i o n o f the l i n e o f
thrust between the b l o c k s are d e f i n e d by t h e formation of
"hinges". A hinge i s a p o i n t o r s m a l l r e g i o n w i t h i n the rock
mass a t which the e f f e c t o f a f o r c e i s l o c a l i z e d t o t h a t small
area or region. As each hinge i s formed, the rock mass
stiffness decreases. F a i l u r e o f the rock mass as a whole w i l l
occur when a s u f f i c i e n t number of hinges have been formed.
The difficulties i n developing a failure criterion for a
jointed rock mass are extreme because o f t h e numerous p o s s i b l e
mechanisms involved and the large number of parameters
a s s o c i a t e d w i t h each mechanism. Although the understanding o f
rock mass behaviour has evolved considerably i n the last
decade, there are still no universally accepted failure
criteria f o r rock masses t o date. The author b e l i e v e s t h a t due
t o t h e complexity o f the problem, only e m p i r i c a l approaches can
approximate rock mass behaviour. The most w i d e l y used and
advanced failure criterion for jointed rock mass i s an
e m p i r i c a l r e l a t i o n s h i p proposed by Hoek and Brown (1980):
l/ C
a =
2/ C
a +
( 3 / C + s) ^
m a a
103
where: o-y and a 3 are the major and minor p r i n c i p a l s t r e s s e s
OQ i s the u n i a x i a l compressive strength
m and s are c o n s t a n t s which depend upon the p r o p e r t i e s
of the rock and upon the extent t o which i t has been
broken b e f o r e being s u b j e c t e d t o the s t r e s s e s o and
The purpose of t h i s c r i t e r i o n i s t o i n t e g r a t e the principal
strength characteristics of the rock mass i n t o two empirical
factors (m and s) and r e l a t e them t o s t r e s s c o n d i t i o n s (ay and
CT ).
3 In the Rankine L e c t u r e (1983), Hoek d e s c r i b e d the m and s
f a c t o r s as f o l l o w s :
"Constant m and s are both dimensionless and are very
approximately analogous t o the angle of friction, 0, and the
cohesion s t r e n g t h (C), of the c o n v e n t i o n a l Mohr-Coulomb failure
criterion." Hoek and Brown have p r o v i d e d c r i t e r i o n t o e v a l u a t e
the m and s factors for different rock masses, based on their
quality using rock mass classification systems (table 4.2).
The limitations of rock mass classification as a rock mass
strength index will cause some insensitivity of m and s to
certain adverse geological conditions. Consequently, i n order
to estimate a representative value for m and s, a site
c a l i b r a t i o n w i t h back a n a l y s i s of known f a i l u r e s i s necessary.
F a i l u r e c r i t e r i a are mathematical expressions that define
104
ac n
CI fci
* a oj - ~
r i
*1 ft. p

i
O r B
c a
M. b
a
Q 8
o
H O 1 D w
e
rt n ft O M> n T ^3
bo 0 3 i B. ^ ** *
82
M M Jf Jj O n
O O
B * *
-6 -o - o
O
SS. p. M
0 t ft
ft E M
P
O
r?
a
* n
M
n
IT
< n i
fie
2-
n
I* . * m
>J K ( A
I ( A
" 8
3 3
ft.
a 3 a 4 t> CARBONATE ROCKS WITH WELL DEVELOPED

* i I u CRYSTAL CLEAVACE
o o O
c o o o o o o 0 o. O u ^4 ^ - j
o
s 8^ Ot O ot
. . dolomita, limaatona and marbla
o o o
a a
a a a < a
LITHIFIED ARCILLACEOUS I0CKS
i * p i i i
thai* and
I I
o o C> O O o o ^ o o O Ot o C N* O U> mad*Urns, ailtatona,
O l 8
o g go
O O o o
lat* (normal to olaavaga)
Ot C A o
a < a a > ARENACEOUS ROCKS WITH STRONG

J" i < a CRYSTALS AND POORLY DEVELOPED
i *
Q
o o 8 P O CRYSTAL CLEAVACE
2 C> Ot Of
o 8" Oi . - Ol
Ol _ Ot
aandatona and quartmiLa
FINE CRAINED POLYHINERALLIC ICNEOUS

a " a a a a a a CRYSTALLINE ROCKS
i *
? P o o O 0* ondstit*, dolsri ta, diobaaa and
C. to ^t Nl r- ^4
rhyolita
8
i^. Oi
d d O O
COARSE CRAINED POLYHINERALLIC ICNEOUS

I** AND NET AMORPHIC CRYSTALLINE ROCKS
O O. O r- Ot * o Otfhibolita, gobbro, gnaiaa, granita,
8" Ot C4 o, C> d o o norite and quarta-diorita
the l e v e l a t which induced s t r e s s exceeds t h e b e a r i n g capacity
of t h e rock mass. The development of f a i l u r e c r i t e r i a can be
based on laboratory testing, analytical or empirical
t e c h n i q u e s . Three types o f f a i l u r e c r i t e r i o n s u i t a b l e f o r hard
rock mining a r e reviewed in this chapter: the i n t a c t rock
failure criterion, the shearing failure criterion along
geological discontinuities and t h e j o i n t e d r o c k mass failure
criterion.
In the case of i n t a c t rock m a t e r i a l , small specimens can
be representative of the whole medium which allows the
d e t e r m i n a t i o n of the i n t a c t p r o p e r t i e s i n the laboratory. Four
d i f f e r e n t t e s t s can be done i n order t o reproduce the f o l l o w i n g
induced s t r e s s conditions:
uniaxial (or unconfined) compressive stress,
t r i a x i a l compressive stress,
b i a x i a l compressive stress,
and uniaxial tensile stress.
The ultimate load a t r u p t u r e may be d i r e c t l y used as a f a i l u r e
criterion, o r as a parameter i n s i d e an a n a l y t i c a l o r empirical
failure criterion.
The shear strength of geological discontinuities can be
e s t i m a t e d u s i n g the r e l a t i o n s h i p proposed by Coulomb;
r= C + a n t a n cj>
By t e s t i n g a specimen c o n t a i n i n g a d i s c o n t i n u i t y under v a r y i n g
loading conditions (T and a ) , the Mohr-Coulomb f a i l u r e envelop

n
and t h e f r i c t i o n angle can be assessed.
106
The behaviour of a jointed rock mass is extremely
complicated and o n l y empirical relationships can approximate
its failure. The most advanced e m p i r i c a l failure criterion for
a j o i n t e d rock mass was developed by Hoek & Brown (1980) :
Oy/o-Q = o /a
3 c + (mo- /a
3 c +s) %
The empirical c o n s t a n t s m and s, a r e estimated u s i n g rock mass
c l a s s i f i c a t i o n and need t o be c a l i b r a t e d on s i t e .
107
CHAPTER 5
REVIEW OF EXISTING DESIGN METHODS FOR UNDERGROUND OPENINGS
5.1 INTRODUCTION
Design methods f o r mining e x c a v a t i o n s a r e r e l a t i v e l y new
and i t i s o n l y i n t h e 1980's t h a t an e n g i n e e r i n g approach has
been w i d e l y used t o o p t i m i z e stope dimensions. In t h e past,
mine operators relied essentially on their experience in
similar mining c o n d i t i o n s and on t r i a l and e r r o r f o r stope
design. A turning point i n applied rock mechanics was the
development o f t h e two major rock mass c l a s s i f i c a t i o n systems.
The Q-system by Barton et a l . (1974) and t h e RMR-system by
Bieniawski (1973), which divided the rock mass into
quantifiable parameters characterizing t h e p r o p e r t i e s o f the
rock mass. For the f i r s t time, this provided t h e necessary
"common ground" to systematically compile the geotechnical
experience i n a variety of geological conditions, and develop
reliable empirical models f o r the p r e d i c t i o n o f underground
excavation stability.
There a r e s e v e r a l types o f underground openings fulfilling
functions such as: e n t r y mining stopes, non-entry mining
stopes, mining d r i f t s , roadway t u n n e l s , h y d r o e l e c t r i c chambers,
nuclear waste storage caverns etc. Although a l l these cases
d e a l w i t h t h e problem o f c r e a t i n g an e x c a v a t i o n i n a rock mass,
their physical c o n d i t i o n s and environment are very different.
108
Furthermore, since the purpose of the openings are also
different, the d e s i g n requirements regarding the excavation
longevity and the degree o f i n s t a b i l i t y t o l e r a b l e may a l s o be
completely different. T h i s chapter w i l l review the p r i n c i p a l
methods used i n the d e s i g n o f underground openings.
Empirical models developed for tunnels (Barton and
Bieniawski) and c a v i n g methods (Laubscher) have been i n c l u d e d
i n t h i s review because some o f t h e i r concepts have been adapted
t o t h e more r e l e v a n t open stope model proposed by Mathews. The
fourth design method reviewed is the most widely used,
consisting o f a combination o f numerical m o d e l l i n g and f a i l u r e
criterion. The development of the desk-top computer has
contributed to make numerical models more accessible, and
assist the designer i n forecasting the e f f e c t of stress r e -
d i s t r i b u t i o n f o r d i f f e r e n t mining sequences.
5.2 ROCK MASS CLASSIFICATION DESIGN CHARTS
5.2.1 B i e n i a w s k i RMR system
Developed by Bieniawski (1974) at the South African
Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR), this
rock mass classification system defines an index of rock
competency called the rock mass r a t i n g (RMR) . The RMR value
varies linearly from 0 t o 100 and r e l a t e s t o the q u a l i t a t i v e
assessment o f rock as f o l l o w s :
RMR ROCK QUALITY ASSESSMENT
109
0 20 Very Poor Rock
21 40 Poor Rock
41 60 F a i r Rock
61 80 Good Rock
81 100 Very Good Rock
The RMR values are c a l c u l a t e d based on f i v e parameters which
c h a r a c t e r i z e the rock mass.
1) The rock quality designation (RQD) i s a measure of the
number of fractures i n t h e rock mass and w i l l be further
discussed i n section 7.2.1. Bieniawski assigns a relative
r a t i n g f o r RQD v a r y i n g from 0 t o 20 .
2) The uniaxial compressive s t r e n g t h of i n t a c t rock accounts
for the hardness of the rock m a t e r i a l . The r a t i n g for this
f a c t o r v a r i e s 0 t o 15 .
3) The r e l a t i v e s p a c i n g of j o i n t s i s given a r a t i n g from 5 to
30. This characteristic o f t h e rock mass i s indirectly
taken into account by RQD and consequently gives joint
spacing a large r e l a t i v e weighting.
4) The c o n d i t i o n of j o i n t s r e p r e s e n t s the shear s t r e n g t h of the
rock mass d i s c o n t i n u i t i e s . A descriptive scale including
five different joint c o n d i t i o n s i s p r o v i d e d t o determine a
r a t i n g v a r y i n g from 0 t o 25.
5) The groundwater f a c t o r v a r i e s from 10 f o r d r y c o n d i t i o n s t o
0 f o r severe water problems. (In the case of open stope
mining i n Canada, water r a r e l y has an e f f e c t on stability).
110
An adjustment f o r the orientation of jointing with
r e s p e c t t o openings i s also included. The adjustment w i l l be 0
for a favorable orientation, and up t o a maximum o f -12 f o r an
unfavourable joint orientation. The f i v e parameters and t h e i r
r e s p e c t i v e adjustment f a c t o r s a r e estimated u s i n g the c h a r t s i n
T a b l e 5.1 . The rock mass r a t i n g (RMR) i s c a l c u l a t e d by adding
the ratings described above. Bieniawski proposed a design
chart f o r t u n n e l l i n g by r e l a t i n g the RMR index t o t h e stand up
time o f t h e rock mass i n a number o f t u n n e l spans ( f i g u r e 5.1).
However, t h e a p p l i c a b i l i t y of t h i s c h a r t t o mining should be
limited to drift design. It has been found extremely
c o n s e r v a t i v e f o r t h e d e s i g n o f non e n t r y s t o p e s .
5.2.2 Barton e t a l . Q system
Barton, Lien and Lunde (1974) of the Norwegian
Geotechnical Institute, developed t h e NGI c l a s s i f i c a t i o n which
d e f i n e s t h e rock mass q u a l i t y index Q. The Q v a l u e v a r i e s from
0.001 to 1000 on a logarithmic scale and i s related to
q u a l i t a t i v e rock mass assessments as f o l l o w s :
ROCK QUALITY ASSESSMENT
0. 001 - 0.01 E x c e p t i o n a l l y Poor
0.01 - 0.1 Extremely Poor
0.1 - 1 Very Poor
1 - 5 Poor
5 - 10 Fair
111
A. CLASSIFICATION P A R A M E T E R S A N D THEIR R A T I N G S
PARAMETER RANGES OF V A L U E S
Poml load For this low range

Strength ) 8 MPo 4-8 MPo 2 - 4 MPa 1-2 MPo -untaiial compres-
strength ndex sive test is preferred
ot
Uniaxial
i intoct rock
compressive > 2 0 0 MPo 100 - 2 0 0 MPo 50 - 1 0 0 MPa 25 - 5 0 MPo
10-251 3-10 1-3
mater io( MPo | MPo MPo
strength
Rating 15 12 7 4 2 1 I I 0
Drill core quality ROD 90% -100% 75% - 9 0 % 50"/.-75% 25%-50% | (25%
2
Rating 20 17 13 8 | 3
Spacing of joints )3m l-3m 0.3-lm 5 0 - 3 0 0 mm < 50 mm

3
Rating 30 25 20 10 j 5
Very rougn surfaces ISIickensided surfaces

Soft gouge > 5 m m thek
Not continuous Sightly rough surfaces Slightly rough s u r f o c e s j * ^
or
( 5 r n m t h i c k
Condition erf joints No separation Seporation < 1 mm Seporation (1 mm or

Joints open > 5mm
4 Soft joint wall rock open l - 5 m m
Hard joint wall rock Herd joint wall rock Continuous )Otnts
j Continuous joints
Roung 25 20 12 | . 6 0
Inflow per lOm

None <25 litres/min | 25 - 1 2 5 litres/mm j > 125 litres/mm
tunnel length
,0-nt *ot*r
Ground
0 0 0 - 0 2 j 0.2-0.5 )0 5
5 waier
OR "OR "OR
General conditions Completely dry Moist only iWaier under moderate Severe
(interstitial water) | pressure water problems
Rating 10 7 | 4 j 0
B. R A T I N G A D J U S T M E N T F O R J O I N T O R I E N T A T I O N S
Strike and dip Very favourable Favourable Fair Unfavourable Very unfavourable
orientations of joints
Tunnels o -2 -5 -.0 -12
Ratings Foundations 0 -2 -7 -15 -25
Slopes 0 -5 -25 -50 -60
C. R O C K M A S S C L A S S E S D E T E R M I N E D F R O M T O T A L RATINGS
Rating OC81 8061 6041 4021 < 20
Class No, 1 II ... .V V
Description Very good rock Good rock Foir rock Poor rock Very poor rock
D. M E A N I N G O F R O C K M A S S C L A S S E S
' Cioss No i II III IV V
^Weroge siond-up * , T T
* 10 yeors fcr 5m span 6 montns for 4 m soon . week for 3 m span 5 hours for 1.5 m span 10 mm. tor 0.5m spon
Cohesion of ihe rock moss >300kPo 200-300kPo 1 5 0 - 2 0 0 kPo 100 - ISO kPo < .00 kPo
Friction angle al the rock mass >45 -

40"-45* i5-4C 3 0 * - 35" (30*
T A B L E 6 - T H E E F F E C T O F JOINT S T R I K E A N D DIP O R I E N T A T I O N S IN T U N N E L L I N G
Strike perpendicular to tunnel axis

Strike parallel
Dtp
to tunnel axis 0*-20
Drive with dip Drive agoinst dip
irrespective
of strike
Dip 45*-90* Dip 20 -45*
#
Dip 4 5"-90* Dip 20*-45* Dip 45*-90" Dip 20* -45*
Very favourable Favourable Fair Unfavourable Very unfavourable Fair Unfavourable
TABLE 5.1 Bieniawski CSIR geomechanics c l a s s i f i c a t i o n of

jointed rock mass. (After Hoek and Brown, 1980).
112
Stand-up time (h)
FIGURE 5.1 R e l a t i o n s h i p between t h e s t a n d - u p t i m e o f an

u n s u p p o r t e d u n d e r g r o u n d e x c a v a t i o n s p a n and t h e CSIR
Geomechanics C l a s s i f i c a t i o n . ( A f t e r B i e n i a w s k i , 1973)
113
10 - 50 Good
50 - 100 Very Good
100 - 500 Extremely Good
500 - 1000 Exceptionally Good
Q i s c a l c u l a t e d using the following equation:
Q = ROD * J r * Jw
Jn Ja SRF
The quotient (RQD/Jn) r e p r e s e n t s the degree o f f r a c t u r i n g
and size o f the b l o c k s forming the rock mass. The quotient
(Jr/Ja) accounts f o r the shear s t r e n g t h of i n t e r l o c k i n g blocks
formed by jointing. The q u o t i e n t (Jw/SRF) accounts f o r the
effect of stress and ground water i n t h e rock mass. The
i n d i v i d u a l f a c t o r s of the NGI c l a s s i f i c a t i o n a r e :
1) RQD - the rock quality designation index (see section
7.2.1). The e f f e c t o f RQD on Q v a r i e s from 1 t o 100.
2) Jn - the j o i n t s e t number quantifies the e f f e c t of the
number o f j o i n t s e t s i n the rock mass. I t a l s o i n c l u d e s the
influence o f random j o i n t s . Jn v a r i e s from 0.5 t o 20.
3) J r - the j o i n t roughness number, c h a r a c t e r i z e s the shape and
i r r e g u l a r i t i e s of f r a c t u r e surfaces. J r may have a value of
0.5 t o 4, based on a d e s c r i p t i v e scale.
4) J a - the j o i n t a l t e r a t i o n number, can be related t o the
friction angle of the j o i n t surface. I t considers the
presence of infilling and the condition of the joint
surface. J a v a r i e s from 0.75 t o 20 d e f i n e d on a d e s c r i p t i v e
114
scale.
5) Jw - the joint water reduction factor, accounts for the
presence of water p r e s s u r e i n the rock mass. This factor
v a r i e s from 0.05 t o 1.0 .
6) SRF - the s t r e s s r e d u c t i o n f a c t o r i s an attempt t o take into
account the i n f l u e n c e of an underground s t r e s s f i e l d on rock
masses. However, i t should be noted that the original
factor was proposed for tunnelling and does not represent
the s t r e s s e s c o n d i t i o n s induced around open stopes. The six
parameters are d e s c r i b e d on t a b l e 5.2.
Barton e t a l . have proposed a d e s i g n c h a r t (figure 5.2),
i n which the maximum unsupported span i s a f u n c t i o n of Q and an
equivalent opening dimension (De). The equivalent dimension
accounts for different types of underground e x c a v a t i o n s and is
c a l c u l a t e d as f o l l o w s :
De = opening span
ESR
where ESR i s g i v e n on Table 5.3 and i s analogous t o an inverse
factor of safety. Nevertheless, this design chart was
e m p i r i c a l l y developed based on t u n n e l l i n g and c i v i l engineering
case histories and is not calibrated for non entry stope
design.
5.2.3 D i s c u s s i o n o f t h e Q and RMR systems
The design charts for these two rock mass
c l a s s i f i c a t i o n systems have met with approval f o r t u n n e l
115
# (appro..)
f
Unaliertd Joint walls, Surface

staining only (25 )5>
A DC* QUALITY DESIGNATION Slightly altered joint M a l l s
non-oltcnlng mineral coalings, Values of e , (he residual
f
Very poor I 1. Where KQO It reported or H i i u r d et sandy particles, clay-frte friction angle, ere inland
10 ( Including 0 1, nomine) value disintegrated rock, etc (25 - J0) ed es en approalaeie guide
i. tooc n o l 10 It uied to evaluate Q. to the minerelogicel pro-
S i l l y , or sandy-day coatings, perties of the a Iteration
fair SO S>M11 eley-fract ion (non- products, 4f present.
2. Q0 Intervals of 5. 100, 1S, 90 etc tor lining) (20 - 2$)
0. Cood ?S are sufficiently accurate.
Soltenlng or low f r i c t i o n clay
{cedent )0
M i n e r a l coatings, i . e . keolinlta.
mice. Also chlorite, t e U , gypiua
1. JOINT SlT NUHMK and graphite t i c , and smell quan-
t i t i e s of swelling clays. (Dis-
festive, no or few Joint* continuous coatings, I-2mm or
One joint set

less in thickness) i a - i6)
C. One Joint >et plui random b. Rook vail contacttornfor*

10 cms enear.
0. T4 joint salt
C. Two joint t e n plus random Sandy particles, clay-free d i s -
integrated rock etc (2S J0)
Three Joint sett 1. For intersections use ( ) - 0 J )
n
Strongly o*er-tonolidetcd, non-
Three joint sets plus rendo* softening clay M i n e r a l f i l l i n g s
2. For portels use (2.0 J )
Four or more Joint sets, (continuous, ** thick) (16 2 * l
random, heavily jointed Medium or low owtr-r.om.olidatIon,
'sugar cube*. etc softening, clay M i n e r a l f i l l i n g s ,
Crushed rock, eerthlike (continuous, * Smm thick) (12 - 16)
Stalling clay f i l l i n g s . I.e.
monimorI Ilonlte (continuous, * S
). JOINTftOuCHNi&SNUnOER an thick ). Values of depend
on percent of Spelling c l a y - t i l e
a. Rook wait oontaot and particles, and access to water 1.0 - 12.0 ( 4 - 12)
b . Rock Mil contact btfon
10 c m tKtar. o. Mo rook uall contact
uHen Mktarmd.
A. 01SCOntInuoul joints
Zones or bands of disintegrated 4.0
1. Hough or Irregular, undulating 5 or crushed rock and clay (see 6.0
C . linooch, undulet ing 2 C,H and J for clay conditions)
8.0 - 12.0 ( 4 - 2k)
0. Sllchenslded, undulating IS Zones or bands of s i l l y * or
1. Add 1.0 If the mean spacing of the
sandy clay, small d a y fraction,
. Hough o r irregular, planar l-S releaent Joint set it greeter than \m.
(non*softening)
f. Smooth, planer 1.0 2. if * O.S can be used for planar, allck- Thick, continuous tones or
C. SIickensldad, planar OS entldad joints hawing llnettlons, provided bands or clay ( see C, M end 10.0 - M . I
( 4 - 2k<l
the Itneetlons are orientated for minimum J for clay conditions) n o - 20.0
0 . Ho rock vail contact tt renaih.
u n e n ihârtd.
appro*, water
H. Zona containing city minerals S. JOINT WATER A L OUCH OK FACTOR . preisure Ug'/cm ) 3
t h i c k enough to prevent rock A. Ory excavations or minor Inflow,

MII contect. >
I.e. S H i / - I n . locally 1.0 * 1-0
J . Sandy, grewelly or crushed
tone thick enough t o prevent I. Medium Inflow or pressure, occa-
sional out-ash of joint f i l l i n g s 0.44 1.0 2.S
rock e l I contact. I
C. Large inflow or high pressure In . Factors C to F era crude
competent rock with unfilled joints 0.$ 2 5 - 10.0 estimates. Increase J H
if drainage measures era

0. Large Inflow or high pressure ,
JQlHl ALTERATION MUnttH * (appro*.) installed.
f considerable outwesh of f i l l i n g s 0.3) IS - 10.0
t. exceptionally high Inflow or prei* Special problem* caused
a. Rock, uall oontaat.
sura at blasting, decaying with by Ue formation are
lime 0.2 0.1 > 10 not considered.
A. Tightly healed, hard, non-
so'ttntng. Impermeable f i l l i n g f. Incept tonally high Inflow or pres-
sure continuing without decay 0.1 - 0.0$
TABLE 5.2 Barton c l a s s i f i c a t i o n o f i n d i v i d u a l parameters i n

the NGI t u n n e l l i n g q u a l i t y index. (After Hoek and Brown,
1980).
i. ITMSS REDUCTION FACTO*
U M b w e * *ot*J intubating *xoa9ation, ttkioh nsy COUMI loomtni^

of rook maM9 vhen t w t a Z it txoauafd.
A. Multiple o c c u r r e n c e s o f weakness tones con ( f i n i n g

clay or chemically dlsIntegrated rock, very loos*
Surrounding rock (any depth)
fteduce these values of
I. Single weakness tones containing clay, o r choer SftF y 2$ - SOX i f the
Icelly disintegrated rock (excavation depth < 5QM) relevant shear tones only
influence but do n o t
C. Single weakness tones containing clay, o r Chaer- Intersect the excavation.
Ically disintegrated rock (excavation depth $4*0
ft. Multiple shear iont In c o m p e t e n t rock (clay free),

loo*a surrounding rock ( m y depth )
I. Single shear tones In c o a p e t e n t rock (clay free),

Excavation category ESR
(depth o f excavation $0*>)
2. for strongly anisotropic

f. Single sheer tones In c o m p e t e n t rock (clay t rea), A. Temporary mine openings 3 - 5
(dapth of excevetlon > SO*) virgin strati field (If
Matured) : U*en $ a
Loose open j o i n t s , heavily Jointed or 'sugar cube 1
4 10, reduce o to Q.So
c e
B. Permanent mine o p e n i n g s , w a t e r
(an T depth) and o t to 0.&o . t When
l/aj > 10, reduce o and t u n n e l s f o r hydro power ( e x -
b. Co*mp*t*nt rook.
rook etrvea p r e * La we
c
o t to 0 . 6 o c and 0 . o o , t cluding high pressure penstocks)

o /o, where o unconflnad
p i l o t tunnels, d r i f t s and head-
( c
compressive s t r e n g t h , and
H. U x stress, near l o r face > 200 2-5
0, " tenslIe strength ings f o rlarge e x c a v a t i o n s . 1.6
J. Hadlu* fltran 200-10 13-0.w 1.0 (point load) and a ( and
O) a r e the * e J o r and a i n o r
K. High stress, very tight structure
principal stresses. C. Storage rooms, w a t e r treatment
(uiually favourable to s t a b i l i t y , _
0.66-0.J3 0.5-1 plants, minor road and ra ilway
| Q
ay be unfavourable for wall

). Few c a s e records available
stability) tunnels, surge chambers, access
where d e p t h o f crown below
L. Nild rock burst (ewjsslve rock) $-1.5 0.J)-0.1b 5-10 Surface Is less than span
tunnels. 1.3
width. Suggest SftF In-
M. HaavY rock burst (aassive rock) <2-5 <0.16 10-20
crease fro* 2 . 5 to $ f o r
p. Power stations, major road and
a. Squstning rock, plastic ,T-*v of incoe>atint rock undtr (nas u c h cases ( l e e H).
influtnom of high rock prssiurt railway tunnels, civil defence

i(tf
Add SQueeilno, rock p r e s s u r e 5-10

chambers, p o r t a Is, in t e r s e c t ions. 1.0
Heavy s q u e e z i n g rock p r e s s u r e 10-20

E. Underground n u c l e a r power stations,
d. Smiling rock, ohtmizal fuelling aativity (Upending upon pnsmutm of w a t e r
railway stations, sports and p u b l i c
fllld swelling rock pressure 5-10
Heavy swelling rock pressure 10-20
facilities, factories. 0.8
TABLE 5.2 Barton c l a s s i f i c a t i o n of TABLE 5.3 The excavation support r a t i o

i n d i v i d u a l parameters i n the NGI (ESR) f o r d i f f e r e n t underground
t u n n e l l i n g q u a l i t y index, (cont) openings a p p l i c a t i o n s . (After Hoek
and Brown 1980)
FIGURE 5.2 R e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n t h e maximum e q u i v a l e n t
d i m e n s i o n (De) o f an u n s u p p o r t e d u n d e r g r o u n d e x c a v a t i o n and
t h e NGI t u n n e l l i n g q u a l i t y i n d e x Q. ( A f t e r B a r t o n L i e n and
Lunde, 1974)
118
d e s i g n , but not i n mine d e s i g n . F a c t o r s such as ESR and stand-
up time, which were developed t o a d j u s t the d e s i g n c h a r t s f o r
other types of openings, are too simplistic to overcome the
differences between tunnelling and mining. The differences
between mining and t u n n e l l i n g include:
1) The typical shape of tunnel i s long i n one direction and
relatively small in the other directions. The critical
v a r i a b l e t o be designed i n t u n n e l l i n g i s the r o o f width. In
the case of stopes, the shape i s o f t e n near c u b i c a l and a l l
t h r e e dimensions (stope h e i g h t , stope width and stope length)
must be designed.
2) Tunnels are u s u a l l y isolated openings. Mining l a y o u t s are
comprised of panels containing several stopes and pillars.
The effect of excavating multiple openings i s to produce
stress c o n c e n t r a t i o n s i n some areas and relaxation i n other
areas.
3) Pre-mining stress magnitudes i n c r e a s e s with depth. Most
tunnels are shallow and stress plays only a minor role in
their stability. Mine openings are occasionally excavated
near s u r f a c e , but are u s u a l l y found a t depth, where s t r e s s e s
play a c r u c i a l role i n s t a b i l i t y .
4) Tunnels are r e q u i r e d t o be s t a b l e f o r a l o n g p e r i o d of time.
They are permanent openings. Non-entry mining stopes have no
personnel inside them during the extraction process and a
c e r t a i n amount of i n s t a b i l i t y i s tolerable. Open stopes need
to remain open for a comparatively short period of time
119
(approximately 3 t o 18 months). They are temporary openings.
Consequently, the rock mass c l a s s i f i c a t i o n design charts
f i n d t h e i r best a p p l i c a t i o n i n tunnel design. They can be used
for designing mining drifts, but they will give conservative
answers. Both Bieniawski and Barton have supplemented their
design charts with artificial support design proposals which
are a l s o s u i t a b l e f o r t u n n e l and mining drifts.
The rock mass c l a s s i f i c a t i o n systems o f f e r a v i a b l e method
to estimate the competency of a rock mass on a comparative
scale. These form the base f o r o t h e r e m p i r i c a l d e s i g n methods
b e t t e r adapted t o mining c o n d i t i o n s .
5.3 LAUBSCHER'S GEOMECHANICS CLASSIFICATION OF JOINTED ROCK
MASSES
Laubscher (1976) was the f i r s t t o adapt one of the t u n n e l
classification systems f o r mining applications, based on his
experience with chrysotile asbestos caving operations in
southern Africa. H i s m o d i f i c a t i o n of the CSIR system i s the
r e s u l t of the c l a s s i f i c a t i o n of more than 50,000 metres of mine
development and drill core. T h i s r e s e a r c h was performed in a
wide variety of rock conditions and many mining methods
including open p i t , cut and fill, open stoping, shrinkage
s t o p i n g and c a v i n g methods.
120
5.3.1 D e s c r i p t i o n of the Model
Laubscher used the same f i v e b a s i c parameters as Bieniawski,
which are:
- RQD,
- i n t a c t rock strength,
- joint spacing,
- c o n d i t i o n of joints,
- groundwater.
In order to improve the ability of the CSIR method to
characterize rock masses, he proposed the following
modifications:
1) The r e l a t i v e s i g n i f i c a n c e of i n t a c t rock strength, on the
total rating was diminished from 15% to 10%, while the
effect of joint conditions has been increased from 25% to
30% of the t o t a l r a t i n g .
2) The joint condition descriptive scale was expanded and
improved t o p r o v i d e a more d e t a i l e s t i m a t e f o r the e f f e c t of
joint roughness, alteration and infilling. The new
g u i d e l i n e s are given in table 5.4.
3) The factor representing joint spacing has been totally
changed. Laubscher proposed a chart (figure 5.3) which
accounts f o r m u l t i p l e j o i n t systems, as w e l l as the spacing
of i n d i v i d u a l j o i n t s . T h i s f a c t o r i s a much b e t t e r i n d i r e c t
measure of the r e l a t i v e s i z e of the b l o c k s forming the rock
mass m a t r i x .
The RQD and j o i n t water parameters have not been changed. The
121
ASSESSMENTS OF-JOINT CONDITIONS
( A d j u s t m e n t s a s combined p e r c e n t a g e s o f t o t a l p o s s i b l e r a t i n g o f 3 0 )
Percentage
Parameter Description
adjustment
99
Wavy u n i - d i r e c t i o n a l
90
A. J o i r . t
Curved 89
expression:
SO
(large scale)
79
Straight
70
99
Straited
es
E. Jcint 84
expression Smooth
60
(small scale)
59
Polished
50
C. A l t e r a t i o n 99
Softer than w a l l rock
zone 70
99
Coarse hard-sheared
90
CO CO
cn o
Fine hard-sheared
79
Coarse soft-sheared
70
D.' J o i r . t 69
Fine soft-sheared
filling 50
49
Gouge t h i c k n e s s < Irregularities
35
23
Gouge t h i c k n e s s > Irregularities
12
11
Flowing material > I r r e g u l a r i t i e s
0
TABLE 5.4 Assessment of j o i n t conditions f o r the Laubscher

geomechanics c l a s s i f i c a t i o n of j o i n t e d r o c k mass. (After
L a u b s c h e r , 1976) .
R A T I N G S FOR M U L T I - J O I N T S Y S T E M S
MINIMUM SPACING , m
0,OJ OJ t to
0,01 0.1 1,0 '0
MAXIMUM SPACING. Tl
EXAMPLE : JOINT SPACING A: 0 , 1 m B r O . S m C = 0 . 6 m D: 1.0m

AB;15 A B C= 6 ABDill
FIGURE 5.3 Diagram f o r the e v a l u a t i o n o f the j o i n t spacing

parameter i n the Laubscher m o d i f i e d geomechanics
c l a s s i f i c a t i o n system. (After Laubscher, 1976)
123
five parameters used by Laubscher to characterize rock masses
are summarized with t h e i r a s s o c i a t e d r a t i n g s on t a b l e 5.5. The
total rating i s called the i n - s i t u rock mass rating.
In o r d e r t o extend the a p p l i c a b i l i t y of the classification
to mining c o n d i t i o n s , f i v e adjustment f a c t o r s were developed t o
quantify the sources of i n s t a b i l i t y t y p i c a l l y found i n mining
operations.
1) Weathering Adjustment. The effect of weathering i s to
decrease the overall competency of the rock mass. An
adjustment is made on three of the in-situ parameters.
Reductions of up t o 5% of the o r i g i n a l RQD v a l u e and 4% of
the intact rock s t r e n g t h are suggested. The main influence
of weathering i s on the joint condition with a possible
decrease of up t o 18% of the j o i n t condition rating can be
applied.
2) Field and Induced Stresses. Laubscher introduced a factor
to account for the effect of stress which may trigger
instability or contribute to stabilizing potential shear
f a i l u r e due t o an i n c r e a s e i n the component of s t r e s s acting
normal t o the d i s c o n t i n u i t y . Consequently, the adjustment
can decrease the total in-situ rating by 24% for stress
relaxation, or i n c r e a s e the r a t i n g by 20% i f the j o i n t s are
kept i n compression.
3) Change i n S t r e s s . A phenomenon a s s o c i a t e d w i t h most mining
situations is local variation in stress. However, for
c a v i n g mining methods the changes may have v e r y important

X 2 3 4 5
Class
A B A 3 A B A B A B
Eating IOO - ei 80 - 61 60 - 41 40 - 21 2 0 - 0
Description Very good Good Fair Poor Very poor
R.Q.D.Jfc ICC- 91 9C-76 75-66 65-56 55-46 45-36 35-26 25-16 15-6 5 - 0
1
Rating 20 18 15 13 11 9 7 5 3 C
I . R . S . (MPa) 141-136 135-126 125-111 110-96 95-81 80-66 65-51 50-36 35-21 20-6 5-0
2
Rating ' .10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0
Joint spacing R e f e r T a b l e II
3
Rating jU ^ ' 1
u
Condition S t a t i c a n g l e o f f r i c t i o
of joints 4? u
R e f e r T a b l e III > 5
4
Rating ^ u
I n f l o w p e r 10 m l e n g t h = 0 = 25 litres/^n = 25 - 125 > 125 litres/nun

OR litres/min
J o i n t water pressure ^
Groundwater = 0,0 - 0,2 = 0,2 - 0,5 > 0,5
Major p r i n c i p a l s t r e s s
5 OR Moderate Severe
Completely dry Moist only pressure problems
Rating 10 7 4 . 0
TABLE 5.5 Summary o f t h e f i v e b a s i c p a r a m e t e r s o f t h e

L a u b s c h e r g e o m e c h a n i c s c l a s s i f i c a t i o n o f j o i n t e d r o c k mass.
( A f t e r Laubscher, 1976).
125
influence, since large volume rock falls result in drastic
changes i n geometry. The adjustment applicable on the t o t a l
in-situ rating varies from minus 40% f o r t h e worst possible
change i n stress conditions t o an increase o f 20% when the
change i n stress favours, stability. I t appears that this
f a c t o r i s more r e l e v a n t t o caving mining methods.
4) Influence of S t r i k e and Dip O r i e n t a t i o n . The r e l a t i v e
orientation and i n c l i n a t i o n o f the opening with regard t o
geologic s t r u c t u r e has an i n f l u e n c e on the s t a b i l i t y of rock
walls. The adjustment i s proportional t o the l i k e l i h o o d of
b l o c k s b e i n g detached from the w a l l s . Laubscher suggested
that, since gravity i s the most s i g n i f i c a n t f o r c e in this
parameter, the adjustment should be a f u n c t i o n o f the number
of j o i n t s i n c l i n e d away from the v e r t i c a l a x i s . He p r o v i d e d
a guide t o e s t i m a t e t h e adjustment ( t a b l e 5.6), which may be
as significant as a 30% decrease o f the t o t a l in situ
rating. A d i s t i n c t i o n i s also made when the predominant
geological structures are shear zones o r f a u l t s r a t h e r than
joint sets. The proposed adjustment for a relative
difference i n orientation of:
0 - 15 i s minus 24%,
15 - 45 i s minus 16%,
45 - 75" i s minus 8%.
5) B l a s t i n g Effects. In the mining p r o c e s s , i t i s endeavoured
to minimize the e f f e c t of b l a s t i n g on stope stability,
however, development o f new f r a c t u r e s and a c e r t a i n degree
126
No. o f f a c e s i n c l i n e d away f r o m
No. o f
v e r t i c a l and a d j u s t m e n t p e r c e n t a g e
defining
joints
70% 75% 80% 85% 90%
3 3 2
4 4 3 2
5 5 4 3 2 1
6 6 4 3 2,1
TABLE 5.6 A d j u s t m e n t f a c t o r f o r t h e number o f j o i n t s e t s

i n c l i n e d away f r o m v e r t i c a l . ( A f t e r L a u b s c h e r , 1 9 7 6 ) .
Technique Adjustment, %
Boring 100
Smooth w a l l blasting 97
Good conventional blasting 94
Poor conventional blasting 80
TABLE 5.7 Adjustment factor f o rthe effect ofblasting. (After

Laubscher, 1976).
TOTAL P O S S I B L E REDUCTIONS
Joint Condition
Parameter R.Q.D. I.R.S. Total
spacing of j o i n t s
Weathering 95% 96% 82% 75%

F i e l d and induced 120% to 120% to
stresses 76% 76%
Changes i n s t r e s s 120% to 120% t o
60% 60%
S t r i k e and d i p 70% 70%
orientation
Blasting 93% 86% 80%
TABLE 5.8 Summary o f t h e p o s s i b l e a d j u s t m e n t factors. (After

Laubscher, 1976).
127
of shaking remains inevitable. T a b l e 5.7 shows the adjustments
proposed by Laubscher for different excavating and blasting
procedures.
The five mining related adjustments are summarized on Table
5.8. They are expressed i n terms of a d j u s t e d r a t i n g s .
5.3.2 Open Stope Design A p p l i c a t i o n
In a more r e c e n t p u b l i c a t i o n , D i e r i n g and Laubscher (1987)
proposed one more m o d i f i c a t i o n factor t o adapt the method f o r
open stope d e s i g n . Because the inclination of stope s u r f a c e s
influences the a c t i o n of g r a v i t y in potential block failures,
stope i n c l i n a t i o n adjustments were proposed and are reproduced
in table 5.9.
A relationship between the total adjusted rating and the
hydraulic r a d i u s of stope s u r f a c e s has been developed and is
shown on figure 5.4. The hydraulic r a d i u s of a surface i s
defined as the ratio of the surface area divided by its
perimeter:
H y d r a u l i c Radius = Stope S u r f a c e Area (m)

Stope S u r f a c e Perimeter (m)
The hydraulic r a d i u s accounts f o r the e f f e c t of s i z e and shape
of stope s u r f a c e s . As the r a t i o of spans on s u r f a c e i n c r e a s e s
beyond 4:1, the h y d r a u l i c r a d i u s remains relatively constant.
T h i s corresponds t o the most s t a b l e shape (long and narrow) f o r
a stope plane of a g i v e n a r e a .
128
Dip of surface Adjustment, %
0-30 80
30-50 85
50-70 90
70-30 95
80-90 100
TABLE 5.9 Adjustment f a c t o r f o r the i n c l i n a t i o n of the

designed stope s u r f a c e . ( A f t e r Laubscher, 1976).
O 10 20 30 40 SO SO
AREA
HYDRAULIC RADIUS = PERIMETER
FIGURE 5.4 R e l a t i o n s h i p between the adjusted rock mass r a t i n g

and h y d r a u l i c radius of a stope surface. ( A f t e r Laubscher,
1976)
129
The stability of each open stope plane can be evaluated
according t o where i t p l o t s on the graph. Stable and caving
regions are defined, as well as a transition zone where
artificial support i s recommended.
5.3.3 D i s c u s s i o n of the method
The modified classification system developed by Laubscher
overcomes most of the shortcomings of the CSIR classification,
giving a reliable characterization of rock masses. The
adjustment factors quantify the effect of mining induced
a l t e r a t i o n s to rock masses surrounding excavations.
Although Laubscher has tried to develop a design method
applicable to most underground mining methods, it remains
biased towards caving methods of extraction. Consequently,
some of the adjustment factors and their respective
calibrations do not necessarily represent open stoping
conditions. Furthermore, the extent of the open stoping
calibration data base is not known. In an earlier paper,
Laubscher (1976) s t a t e d ,
"Large open stopes can only be mined i n competent ground and
the stope should have a hydraulic radius 20% less than that
required for caving a rock mass with that adjusted
classification. 11
This is overly simplistic considering the differences
between c a v i n g and open s t o p i n g mining methods. As w e l l , i t i s
130
not i n agreement with the l i n e s proposed on t h e d e s i g n graph
(figure 5.4). Another major c r i t i c i s m of this system i s the
lack of guidelines f o r the s e l e c t i o n o f proper adjustment
factors. As a r e s u l t , this method i s more efficient when
employed by specialists having a considerable amount of
e x p e r i e n c e i n c l a s s i f y i n g and d e s i g n i n g underground openings.
As i n t h e NGI and CSIR systems, Laubscher has developed
artificial support p r o p o s a l s .
5.4 MATHEWS * OPEN STOPE DESIGN METHOD
In 1981, K. Mathews, E. Hoek, E. W y l l i e , and S.B.V. Stewart
of Golder Associates introduced a new e m p i r i c a l approach f o r
predicting the stability of open stopes i n deep mining
environments (below 1000 metres depth). This method i s an
extension o f t h e NGI rock mass classification and has the
p o t e n t i a l t o recognize:
i ) s t r e s s c o n t r o l l e d f a i l u r e i n open stopes,
ii) s t r u c t u r a l f a i l u r e i n stopes,
iii) and a combination o f both stress and structural
failure.
5.4.1 D e s c r i p t i o n o f t h e method
Mathews e t a l . suggested t h a t t h e s t a b i l i t y o f each plane i n
a stope should be analyzed s e p a r a t e l y . T h i s a l l o w s f o r a more
detailed investigation o f t h e rock mass, s t r u c t u r e o r i e n t a t i o n
131
and stress conditions a t an i n d i v i d u a l p l a n e . In the s t a b i l i t y
a n a l y s i s , two parameters a r e developed. The f i r s t parameter i s
defined as the s t a b i l i t y number, "N". The s t a b i l i t y number
quantifies the e f f e c t of the g e o t e c h n i c a l factors having a
major influence on stope stability. A high stability number
corresponds t o s t a b l e ground c o n d i t i o n s , w h i l e a low stability
number corresponds t o u n s t a b l e ground c o n d i t i o n s . The second
parameter i s the h y d r a u l i c r a d i u s which accounts f o r the e f f e c t
of s i z e and shape of the stope s u r f a c e . The h y d r a u l i c radius,
also used by Laubscher, was briefly discussed in section
(5.3.2) .
A r e l a t i o n s h i p between the s t a b i l i t y number and hydraulic
radius was derived by p l o t t i n g them on a semi-log graph (see
figure 5.5). The s t a b i l i t y o f the plane investigated can be
assessed according to where i t plots with respect t o the
following three zones:
- stable,
- potentially unstable,
- and p o t e n t i a l l y c a v i n g .
These t h r e e zones are separated by t r a n s i t i o n areas and were
defined based on 26 case s t u d i e s from t h r e e mines (2 Canadian
and 1 Australian) and 29 case h i s t o r i e s from literature.
The stability number is calculated with the following
formula:
N = Q 1
* factor A * factor B * factor C
where,
132
0.1 L. 1 1 : 1
0 5 10 15 20 25
Shape Factor, S = Area/Perimeter (m)
FIGURE 5.5 R e l a t i o n s h i p between t h e s t a b i l i t y number a n d

h y d r a u l i c r a d i u s of a stope s u r f a c e . ( A f t e r Mathews e t
1980).
Q 1
i s a m o d i f i c a t i o n o f t h e NGI rock mass classification.
It c h a r a c t e r i z e s the rock mass competency by u s i n g f i v e of the
s i x o r i g i n a l parameters i n Barton's NGI c l a s s i f i c a t i o n :
Q' = RQD * J r * Jw ( r e f . Chapter 5.2.2)

Jn Ja
The stress reduction factor SRF proposed in the NGI
classification is not included because i t is based on
tunnelling case histories and does not e f f e c t i v e l y represent
the e f f e c t o f s t r e s s i n open s t o p i n g .
Factor A replaces the SRF i n the o r i g i n a l NGI rock mass
classification to more accurately quantify the effect of
s t r e s s e s a c t i n g on the exposed s u r f a c e s o f open stopes. It is
estimated using f i g u r e 5.6. This f a c t o r i s a f u n c t i o n o f the
r a t i o o f i n t a c t rock s t r e n g t h t o induced s t r e s s where:
the intact rock strength i s represented by t h e u n i a x i a l
compressive s t r e n g t h o f t h e rock and,
the induced stress i s defined as t h e maximum tangential
stress acting parallel t o t h e exposed s u r f a c e a t the stope
boundary.
The uniaxial compressive strength can be determined by
laboratory testing while t h e induced s t r e s s i s best estimated
by numerical modelling. When such models a r e not a v a i l a b l e ,
Mathews e t a l . have provided two graphs figure 5.7 and 5.8
which describe the s t r e s s e s induced i n the roof and w a l l s of
isolated openings. These graphs a r e an approximation of the
closed form s o l u t i o n f o r a two dimensional elliptical opening.
134
1.0
o.e
o.
Z o n e of potential instability
0 5 10 15 20
ffl/ffl
Uniaxial compressive strength of intact rock

(T, Induced compressive stress
FIGURE 5.6 G r a p h f o r t h e e s t i m a t i o n o f f a c t o r A. ( A f t e r
135
MAJOR SURFACES
' H ,
Can be shown in
Strike plan or section
<T H l
Virgin S t r e t i Oioorom
10
o
i? 2.0
CO
\
\
15
c \
\
o ,a
ca
\ N
'35
cn \ K-0.5
CD \
a
E ft *
o
O
\ K.1.2
J _
i N \

c
o
6" \
\
K-1.5
O
c . K-2.0
-1.0
1( 2:1 3--I A 1 5 1 6 1 7 1 8:
Rotio of opening dimensions
LEGEND
Ti Induced stress
<Tv V e r n c o l v i r g i n s t r e s s
cr Hi * H o n r o n t o l virgin s t r e s s on s t r i k e
ff H j ' H o r i z o n t a l v i r g i n s t r e s s n o r m o l _ t o strike
Horizontal p l a n e , K <TH /<rH, 2
CTnormal to surface
Verticol p l o n e , K ' < T H / c r v 2
Oparallel to surface
FIGURE 5.7 Graph o f t h e s t r e s s i n d u c e d on t h e m a j o r s u r f a c e

a stope versus t h e r a t i o o f opening dimensions. ( A f t e r
136
MINOR SURFACES
Can be seen
in section
^ 1
HOT iiontol Sin de

plant
'H2 Can be seen
VifQin Strtst Dip g ro m in plan
~ 8.0
3
CO
E
o
6.0
ft
/
/
4.0
/
/
/
/
/ y .
2.0 ^ ^ .
y
c
o K ; 0 1 5 _
'35
. .
CO
CD
k_
a
E
o 1:1 2:| 4:| 6 1
8
O Rotio of o p e n i n g dimensions
1
LEG NO
CTj Induced s t r e s s
Cv V e r t i c o l virgin stress
CHI H o r i z o n t o l v i r g i n s t r e s s on s t r i k e
CT M j Horizontal virgin stresi normal to s t r i k e
Horizontol plane, K C V ^ / T H , 1 ~ p a r a l l e l to s u r t a c e
Vertical p l a n e , K <r ^C H v J " n o r m a l to s u r f a c e
FIGURE 5.8 Graph o f t h e s t r e s s induced on t h e minor s u r f a c e o f

a stope v e r s u s t h e r a t i o o f opening dimension. ( A f t e r
137
Factor B accounts for the orientation of persistent
geological structures i n t e r s e c t i n g the stope surface under
analysis. Depending upon the relative orientation of the
s t r u c t u r e with r e s p e c t to the i n v e s t i g a t e d plane, factor B w i l l
reflect favorable or unfavourable cases. The true angle of
intersection between the exposed surface and the most
predominant structure, is used in figure 5.9 to determine
factor B.
Factor C i s a surface i n c l i n a t i o n f a c t o r . Stope backs are
inherently less s t a b l e than w a l l s because of the i n f l u e n c e of
gravity. Barton (1974) suggested that the rock quality in a
tunnel wall i s h y p o t h e t i c a l l y improved five times compared to
an horizontal roof. Since some minor instability can be
tolerated i n non-entry mining, Mathews e t a l . suggested t h a t a
vertical open stope wall is eight times as stable as an
horizontal roof. Figure 5.10 or the f o l l o w i n g formula should
be used to determine f a c t o r C:
FACTOR C = 8 - 7 cosine (angle of stope plane
inclination).
This factor describes the increased potential for instability
as a s u r f a c e becomes more h o r i z o n t a l .
5.4.2 D i s c u s s i o n of the method
Despite the small data base the Mathews et a l . method
o f f e r s s t r o n g p o t e n t i a l f o r open stope d e s i g n . Similarly to
138
0. 5
ROCK DEFECT ORIENTATION FACTOR (B)
FIGURE 5.9 Sketch f o r t h e e s t i m a t i o n o f t h e rock d e f e c t

o r i e n t a t i o n f a c t o r B. ( A f t e r Mathews e t a l , 1 9 8 0 ) .
10
0 I 1
0 20 40 o SO 90
4ng/e of >/p fro/77 Mor/zon/a/ (degrees)
Factor C 8-7 Cosine fong/c of cfip)
FIGURE 5.10 Graph f o r t h e e s t i m a t i o n o f t h e stope s u r f a c e

i n c l i n a t i o n f a c t o r C ( A f t e r Mathews e t a l , 1 9 8 0 ) .
140
Laubscher, they based their method on an existing rock mass
classification system, and a d j u s t e d the parameters i n order to
be more r e p r e s e n t a t i v e of mining conditions. The combination
of the f o u r f a c t o r s ( Q, 1
A , B , C ) a l l o w s f o r the p r e d i c t i o n
of instability t h a t may o r i g i n a t e from h i g h s t r e s s , structure,
gravity or an incompetent rock mass, or any combination of
these factors. Because each factor is well developed and
p r e s e n t e d g r a p h i c a l l y , the method i s easy t o apply i n p r a c t i c a l
situations and can be used successfully by mine engineers on
site.
After extensive application of this method in back
analysis of case histories i n mines a c r o s s Canada, the author
has found the method very promising. I t addresses the most
important factors affecting the stability of open stopes, and
has roughly calibrated these factors. The design methodology
i s a l s o p r a c t i c a l and e f f i c i e n t . However t h i s method s t i l l has
some shortcomings:
a) As a r e s u l t of the s m a l l data base, the t h r e e zones d e f i n e d
on the stability graph are too vague f o r adequate design.
The transition zone between s t a b l e and c a v i n g i s very l a r g e
which may l e a d t o u n c e r t a i n p r e d i c t i o n and m i s i n t e r p r e t a t i o n
of the analysis.
b) The graphs proposed f o r the d e t e r m i n a t i o n of each f a c t o r are
based on experience, b a s i c rock mechanics concepts and some
analytical work. Their calibration appears to be
approximately correct f o r Canadian c o n d i t i o n s but should be
141
r e - e v a l u a t e d a g a i n s t a l a r g e r data base.
c) The original data base i n c l u d e d o n l y seven cases of stope
walls which a l l had a steep inclination. Consequently,
there i s no evidence that the method i s suitable f o r the
d e s i g n of i n c l i n e d w a l l s .
d) The effect of tensile stress, blasting and artificial
support have not been addressed i n t h i s method.
e) The method was originally i n t e n d f o r mining a t depth below
1000 meters.
5.5 NUMERICAL MODELLING DESIGN
Numerical m o d e l l i n g i s the most w i d e l y used method f o r the
design of a l l types of underground openings. The method i s
flexible and capable of m o d e l l i n g a l l kinds of geometries and
opening arrangements. Numerical m o d e l l i n g uses t h e o r e t i c a l and
empirical calculations t o determine the stability of the rock
mass a t selected points inside the medium and a t the opening
boundary. This is in opposition to the previous empirical
methods, which predict the stability of excavations based on
key geotechnical parameters and past experience. Digital
computers are required to solve the large number of
c a l c u l a t i o n s i n v o l v e d i n numerical m o d e l l i n g .
5.5.1 Open stope d e s i g n a p p l i c a t i o n
The primary function of numerical modelling is to
142
calculate the stress distribution around underground
excavations. This theoretical stress solution may be used in
d i f f e r e n t ways t o p r e d i c t e x c a v a t i o n s t a b i l i t y . The most simple
approach i s to r e l y on r u l e s of thumb t o a s s e s s the e f f e c t of
induced stress around openings. In hard rock mining, i t is
commonly assumed t h a t the rock mass w i l l fail in compression
when the induced stress is more than half the uniaxial
compressive strength. A no-tension failure criteria i s also
commonly used i n the a n a l y s i s of low t e n s i l e s t r e n g t h of rock
masses.
More s o p h i s t i c a t e d f a i l u r e c r i t e r i a can be i n t e g r a t e d into
the numerical model interactively or as a post processing
operation. The advantage of an i n t e r a c t i v e approach i s t h a t as
the s t r e s s exceeds the rock mass s t r e n g t h ( d e f i n e d by a failure
criterion), the failed rock i s (mathematically) detached from
the opening and the a n a l y s i s c o n t i n u e s assuming a new geometry
u n t i l a stable c o n f i g u r a t i o n i s obtained.
The post processing approach compares the final
distribution of s t r e s s around a fixed geometry with a failure
criterion. The stability at each point i n the medium (where
stresses have been c a l c u l a t e d ) can be estimated. Zones of
potential failure around openings due t o compressive, shear or
tensile s t r e s s can be d e f i n e d . The p r i n c i p a l failure criteria
applicable t o hard rock open stope mining, have been reviewed
i n chapter 4.
Numerical m o d e l l i n g can a l s o be very u s e f u l i n parametric
143
studies. By keeping a l l input parameters constant except f o r
the one of particular interest, assumptions and inaccuracies
regarding the i n p u t parameters can be minimized. For instance,
d i f f e r e n t opening shapes can be modelled with the one producing
the most favorable stress distribution being used for design.
The optimization of the mining sequence is another common
application of parametric studies. A mining strategy can be
developed i n which high stress concentrations have a minimum
e f f e c t on s t a b i l i t y . The c r e a t i o n of s t r e s s shadows to improve
s t a b i l i t y can a l s o be i n v e s t i g a t e d .
5.5.2 D i s c u s s i o n o f the method
Numerical modelling i s the most s o p h i s t i c a t e d method for
estimating the distribution of stress around underground
excavations. In comparison to the empirical models, this
t e c h n i q u e has the versatility t o be a p p l i c a b l e t o underground
openings of a l l types. However, i n order t o be v e r s a t i l e , i t s
formulation must stay general and has to r e l y entirely on the
input parameters and failure criteria to account for the
specific aspects of each problem's physical conditions. In
addition, this method is mathematically very complex and
contains i n t r i n s i c assumptions which are p r a c t i c a l l y impossible
to v e r i f y . Consequently, s i n c e numerical models have no built-
i n c a l i b r a t i o n , the s o l u t i o n s can be m i s l e a d i n g i f the model i s
not properly selected, applied and calibrated against case
histories.
144
"Clearly, limitations or inadequacies inherent to a
method of analysis may cause the results to be
restricted or m i s l e a d i n g , irrespective of how well the
i n p u t data are d e f i n e d . " Stewart and Brown (1984).
A c c o r d i n g t o Laubscher and D i e r i n g (1987), the reliability
of a stress a n a l y s i s problem i s dependent on the applicability
of i n p u t of f o u r data t y p e s .
1) Problem geometry: The contour of a c t u a l e x c a v a t i o n s i n hard
rock is usually well defined but too complex to be
accurately modelled. Model limitations such as two
dimensional plane stress or plane strain have to be
assumed. The s i z e of the models i s a l s o a l i m i t i n g factor
on the portion of the mine that can be included in the
analysis. P r a c t i c a l experience and e n g i n e e r i n g judgement i s
e s s e n t i a l t o d e f i n e a r e p r e s e n t a t i v e problem geometry.
2) Geology and material strength: Expressing the rock mass
behaviour i n the form of mathematical equations i s only an
approximation due t o the complexity and variability of the
medium. In numerical modelling, assumptions and
simplifications are necessary t o model the interaction of
calculated stress and rock mass failure criterion. As a
result, most models lack sensitivity to the important
factors characterizing the rock mass. Amongst them, the
effect of jointing is still p o o r l y taken into account by
numerical models and f a i l u r e criterion.
145
3) Loading condition: The loading conditions acting on a
specific problem geometry o r i g i n a t e from two sources. The
first source i s the pre-mining stress field which can be
measured with a certain degree of accuracy (often in
proportion to the budget invested in the testing). The
second source can arise from different forms of a r t i f i c i a l
loading against excavation s u r f a c e s , such as h y d r a u l i c or
rock fill, grouted cables and rock anchors and blasting.
The study of these effects in open stope mining remains
relatively new and has yet t o be measured, estimated and
calibrated adequately.
4) Choice of numerical model: The numerical models available
offer a wide range of c a p a b i l i t i e s and have a wide range of
limitations. Based on the understanding of the problem to
be modelled, a d e s i g n e r must s e l e c t between a continuum or
discontinuum approach according t o the relative importance
and c o n t i n u i t y of b l o c k s compared with the opening size. He
will also have to decide whether a two or a three
dimensional model is the most appropriate, based on the
geometry of the problem. The final c h o i c e of the model and
failure criterion will depend on the computer resources
available (hardware and s o f t w a r e ) , as w e l l as the purpose of
the e x e r c i s e and the degree of p r e c i s i o n r e q u i r e d .
146
Systematic engineering design of underground excavations
using empirical schemes, has been made possible with the
development of rock mass classification systems. Reliable
design charts f o r the p r e d i c t i o n of t u n n e l s t a b i l i t y have been
proposed by the authors of the p r i n c i p a l c l a s s i f i c a t i o n systems
(Barton et al. and Bieniawski). However, because of the
fundamental d i f f e r e n c e s between t u n n e l l i n g and open stoping,
these c h a r t s are not a p p l i c a b l e f o r open stope design.
M o d i f i c a t i o n of the two c l a s s i f i c a t i o n systems, to b e t t e r
r e p r e s e n t mining c o n d i t i o n s , has been proposed by Laubscher and
Mathews e t al. The model developed by Laubscher o f f e r s some
interesting concepts, but it lacks guidelines for the
estimation of the adjustment factors and more importantly,
remains strongly biased towards caving mining methods. The
most s u i t a b l e e m p i r i c a l method f o r the design of open stopes is
the one proposed by Mathews et al. It accounts for the
principal factors affecting the stability of open stopes and
the methodology i s p r a c t i c a l and easy t o use i n the field. It
appears to have a fair calibration f o r Canadian open stoping
conditions. The main c r i t i c i s m of t h i s approach i s i t s small
data base. Consequently, i t s r e l i a b i l i t y remains t o be proven
in conditions such as inclined walls and stopes at shallow
depth. Also, the transition zone between s t a b l e and caving
needs t o be b e t t e r d e f i n e d .
The fourth design method reviewed in this chapter is
numerical modelling. Numerical m o d e l l i n g is a versatile tool
147
that can be adapted t o a l l types of underground openings. The
principal f u n c t i o n of numerical modelling i s to c a l c u l a t e the
stress distribution around underground e x c a v a t i o n s . When used
as a d e s i g n method, numerical m o d e l l i n g must r e l y on a failure
c r i t e r i o n t o p r e d i c t ground s t a b i l i t y . Those f a i l u r e criterion
can be a p p l i e d i n t e r a c t i v e l y w i t h the s t r e s s c a l c u l a t i o n , or as
a post processing step. The inaccuracies of numerical
m o d e l l i n g may o r i g i n a t e from the:
problem geometry,
geology and m a t e r i a l s t r e n g t h ,
loading condition,
c h o i c e of numerical model.
One of the major disadvantages of numerical m o d e l l i n g , compared
t o the e m p i r i c a l approaches i s t h a t i t does not have a b u i l t - i n
calibration. Consequently, if the model is not properly
selected, applied, and calibrated, the solution can be
misleading.
148
CHAPTER 6
OPEN STOPE FAILURE MECHANISMS
6.1 INTRODUCTION
The d i r e c t cause o f underground failure i s . t h e c r e a t i o n of
an opening, which by removing a volume o f rock a l s o removes i t s
supporting effect on the rock mass a d j a c e n t t o the opening.
This unsupported rock mass i s submitted t o s t r e s s originating
from t h e pre-mining s t r e s s f i e l d and the induced s t r e s s caused
by excavation. The e f f e c t o f the r e s u l t i n g stresses around
openings can be looked a t i n terms o f zones o f compression and
zones o f r e l a x a t i o n .
The response o f a medium such as rock mass t o compressive
20 stress and relaxation i s extremely complex due to variable
nature o f t h a t medium. Consequently, the i n t e r a c t i o n between
the rock mass, opening geometry and s t r e s s conditions define
the p o t e n t i a l f a i l u r e mechanisms.
6.2 NATURE OF THE ROCK MASS
The nature o f the rock mass is intrinsically complex and
v a r i a b l e from one p o i n t i n the medium t o another. I t comprises
one o r more types o f rock m a t e r i a l which are c h a r a c t e r i s t i c a l l y
discontinuous due to the presence of geological
discontinuities. Brady and Brown (1985) proposed the f o l l o w i n g
149
d e f i n i t i o n f o r rock m a t e r i a l and rock masses:
"Rock m a t e r i a l i s the term used t o d e s c r i b e the
intact rock between discontinuities; i t might be
represented by a hand specimen or piece of d r i l l core
examined i n the l a b o r a t o r y . The rock mass i s the t o t a l
i n s i t u medium c o n t a i n i n g bedding planes, f a u l t s , joints,
f o l d s and o t h e r g e o l o g i c a l f e a t u r e s . "
The most common type of g e o l o g i c a l d i s c o n t i n u i t y i s the
joint. I t i s a regular fracture along which there has been
very little or no movement. Because of their formation
process, they u s u a l l y occur i n near parallel sets, having a
s p a c i n g range v a r y i n g from a few c e n t i m e t e r s ( f o l i a t e d rock) t o
s e v e r a l meters. The combination of i n t e r s e c t i n g j o i n t s e t s and
other random discontinuities divide t h e rock material into
blocks. The o r i e n t a t i o n and s p a c i n g o f t h e j o i n t sets define
the size and shape of individual blocks i n the rock mass
matrix. The c o n t i n u i t y o f g e o l o g i c a l f e a t u r e s determine how
w e l l t h e b l o c k s are d e f i n e d . Although difficult t o assess due
to limited exposure o f underground openings, the e f f e c t of
j o i n t c o n t i n u i t y may have a major i n f l u e n c e on s t a b i l i t y . As a
general rule, features less than approximately 1.5 meters (5
feet) long are not considered in a joint survey. This
e l i m i n a t e s most f r a c t u r e s induced by b l a s t i n g .
Major discontinuities such as faults or shear zones
usually have t o be d e a l t w i t h individually. On the s c a l e of
150
open stopes, they r a r e l y take r e g u l a r p a t t e r n s and t h e i r effect
on stability i s largely a function of t h e i r location and the
nature o f the f i l l m a t e r i a l and the amount o f movement t h a t has
taken p l a c e along the d i s c o n t i n u i t y .
With regard to stability, two of the most important
characteristics of the rock mass are the s i z e and shape of the
blocks forming the rock mass matrix. The importance of b l o c k
shape determines whether the rock mass w i l l be isotropic (in
the case of blocky shape) or anisotropic ( i n the case of
elongated or p l a t y shapes). The shape o f b l o c k s i s a function
of individual joint sets. I f a l l the j o i n t s e t s have similar
s p a c i n g , the b l o c k w i l l have a c u b i c a l shape and the behaviour
is likely to be isotropic. If the blocks formed by the
discontinuities have one or two long dimensions compared with
the third dimension, the shape w i l l be elongated or p l a t y and
the behaviour w i l l be a n i s o t r o p i c . In t h i s case, the r e l a t i v e
orientation of the b l o c k s with the stope surface w i l l become
critical. Generally, the s m a l l e r the d i f f e r e n c e i n d i p and
strike (the more p a r a l l e l ) the b l o c k s are t o the stope s u r f a c e ,
the less stable the condition will be. Blocks oriented
perpendicular to a stope surface have little effect on
stability.
Folk (1965) developed a t r i a n g u l a r c h a r t t h a t may provide
assistance i n e s t i m a t i n g b l o c k shape ( f i g u r e 6.1). He assumed
t h a t b l o c k s are composed o f the t h r e e most frequent j o i n t sets
(closest spacing). I f the s m a l l s i d e of t h e b l o c k s have a
151
0
30
PLATY 3 3
BLADED 67 ELONGATE
L-i
FIGURE 6.1 T r i a n g u l a r c h a r t f o r the e s t i m a t i o n of b l o c k shape.

( A f t e r F o l k , 1968).
152
length "S", the intermediate side length " I " and the larger
side length "L", the t h r e e axes of the F o l k b l o c k shape c h a r t
are d e f i n e d by S/L, ( L - I ) / ( L - S ) and (S /LI) /

2 1 3
(figure 6.1).
However, underground observation is usually sufficient to
determine the g e n e r a l shape of the b l o c k matrix, which i n t u r n
adequately d e f i n e s whether the rock mass i s expected to be
i s o t r o p i c or a n i s o t r o p i c .
The size of the b l o c k s i s the most important factor with
regard to excavation stability because geological
discontinuities are the weakest component of the rock mass.
The s m a l l e r the b l o c k s are, the more d i s c o n t i n u i t i e s t h e r e are
exposed per u n i t s u r f a c e area and the l e s s s t a b l e the rock mass
surface will be. Several authors have suggested that the
behaviour of a rock mass i s l a r g e l y i n f l u e n c e d by the relative
size of the blocks compared with the surface of rock mass
exposed.
F i g u r e 6.2 shows t h a t d i f f e r e n t exposures of the same rock
mass w i l l produce domains having very d i f f e r e n t characteristics
and behaviours. In t h i s open stope study, t h r e e major trends
i n the behaviour of rock masses have been i d e n t i f i e d according
to the r e l a t i v e s i z e of the b l o c k s composing the rock mass.
1. I n t a c t rock behaviour
2. Discrete block behaviour
3. J o i n t e d rock mass behaviour
These three types of behaviour and their associated
f a i l u r e mechanisms w i l l be d i s c u s s e d i n the f o l l o w i n g s e c t i o n s .
153
FIGURE 6.2
TRANSITION FROM
INTACT R O C K TO HEAVILY JOINTED R O C K M A S S
(After H o e k & B r o w n ,
1980)
Intact rock
Single
discontinuity
Two
discontinuities
Several
discontinuities
Rock mass
FIGURE 6.3 F a i l u r e mechanism of FIGURE 6 . 4 F a i l u r e mechanism of

i n t a c t rock submitted to i n t a c t rock i n s t a t e o f s t r e s s
compressive s t r e s s , relaxation,
f a i l u r e type l a ; r e f . f i g u r e 6.1*7 f a i l u r e type l b ; r e f . f i g u r e 6.17
154
6.3 INTACT ROCK BEHAVIOUR
The rock mass surrounding underground excavations will
behave as intact rock when the r e l a t i v e size of the block
matrix is similar in size or larger than the opening
dimensions. I t usually occurs i n a rock mass c o n t a i n i n g very
few o r no d i s c o n t i n u i t i e s which i s not common i n Canadian hard
rock mines. For stope d e s i g n , i n t a c t rock i s o f t e n assumed t o
be homogeneous, isotropic and show elastic deformation under
s t r e s s e d but p r e - f a i l u r e c o n d i t i o n s .
When t h e compressive s t r e s s a c t i n g p a r a l l e l t o the opening
faces exceeds t h e rock mass strength, tensile cracks may
develop i n the d i r e c t i o n of the compressive forces, i e .
parallel t o the stope walls and back (figure 6.3). This
phenomenon has been observed and e x p l a i n e d by s e v e r a l authors:
Griffith (1924), MacLintock and Walsh (1962), F a i r h u r s t and
Cook (1968), Hoek (1965). The compressive failure may then
occur i n t h e form of s l a b b i n g o r b u c k l i n g along these induced
cracks. Several factors such as b l a s t i n g vibration, blast
induced fractures, random d i s c o n t i n u i t i e s o r changes i n s t r e s s
can a l s o c o n t r i b u t e t o i n i t i a t e t h e f a i l u r e .
Another commonly observed effect of high compressive
s t r e s s o c c u r s i n sharp c o r n e r s o f e x c a v a t i o n s . T h i s e f f e c t has
been demonstrated w i t h a c l o s e d form s o l u t i o n i n s e c t i o n 3.4.3.
The deterioration of corners may continue until a smoother
155
p r o f i l e i s obtained.
Intact rock will respond differently in a zone of
relaxation. Rock i s known t o have very low s t r e n g t h when
submitted to tensile forces. Tensile cracks may develop
p e r p e n d i c u l a r t o the a c t i n g t e n s i l e s t r e s s and c r e a t e a zone o f
relaxation. Because the alignment of cracks is typically
perpendicular t o the s t r e s s and t h e opening boundary (figure
6.4), major rock falls solely due t o t e n s i l e cracks are not
common when d e a l i n g with open stope mining i n i n t a c t rock.
6.4 DISCRETE BLOCK BEHAVIOUR
The ground i n which d i s c r e t e block f a i l u r e occurs i s not
extensively fractured and typically contains three or less
j o i n t sets. The s p a c i n g o f the j o i n t s e t s a r e r e l a t i v e l y large
which produces blocks of a f a i r size ( i n the order of several
c u b i c meters). D i s c r e t e b l o c k f a i l u r e occurs when one o r more
b l o c k s a r e detached from the r o o f o r s i d e w a l l s .
For an i s o t r o p i c medium (blocks having a cubical shape),
if t h e rock mass i s submitted t o a zone o f compressive stress,
potential failure may be induced by s h e a r i n g wedges from the
e x c a v a t i o n boundaries (figure 6.5). When submitted t o a s t a t e
of relaxation, isotropic discrete block failure may occur
according to two different modes: gravity fall or sliding
(figure 6.6). The simple gravity fall i s the free vertical
displacement o f a b l o c k under the t r a c t i o n o f i t s own
156
FIGURE 6.5 F a i l u r e mechanism of FIGURE 6.6 F a i l u r e mechanism of
d i s c r e t e block for an isotropic discrete block for an i s o t r o p i c
rock material submitted to rock material i n a state of stress
compressive s t r e s s , relaxation,
f a i l u r e type 2a; ref. figure 6.17 f a i l u r e type 2b; r e f . figure 6.17

discrete block for an anisotropic discrete block for an anisotropic
rock material having elongated rock material having elongated
blocks oriented p a r a l l e l to the blocks oriented p a r a l l e l to the
stope surface and submitted to a stope surface in a state of stress
compressive stress, relaxation,
f a i l u r e type 2c; ref. figure 6.17 f a i l u r e type 2d; r e f . figure 6.17
157
gravitational load. Since t h e r e are no c o n f i n i n g s t r e s s e s and
geological d i s c o n t i n u i t i e s have a n e g l i g i b l e t e n s i l e strength,
the d e t e r m i n a t i o n of block s t a b i l i t y becomes p u r e l y kinematic.
In s l i d i n g , the d r i v i n g f o r c e i s a f u n c t i o n o f the i n c l i n a t i o n
of the " c r i t i c a l " d i s c o n t i n u i t y (sliding plane).
In the case of anisotropic rock (elongated or platy
b l o c k s ) , the e x c a v a t i o n s t a b i l i t y w i l l be g r e a t l y i n f l u e n c e d by
the relative orientation of the b l o c k s with regard t o the
opening faces. For s i m p l i f i c a t i o n , only t h e two extreme cases
w i l l be d i s c u s s e d here. F i g u r e 6.7 shows elongated b l o c k s sub-
parallel t o a stope f a c e , on which the compressive stress may
c r e a t e a b u c k l i n g type of f a i l u r e . I f submitted t o a zone of
relaxation, this c o n d i t i o n may produce g r a v i t y fall, slabbing
or s l i d i n g . F i g u r e 6.8, shows the s l a b b i n g mode o f f a i l u r e .
On the other hand, when elongated blocks are sub-
perpendicular to the face, the compressive stress will
contribute to s t a b i l i z e the surrounding rock mass by clamping
the b l o c k s t o g e t h e r ( f i g u r e 6.9). In a zone o f r e l a x a t i o n , the
stability of perpendicular blocks becomes purely kinematic
because the c o n f i n i n g e f f e c t no longer exists. Figure 6.10
shows the g r a v i t y f a l l and s l i d i n g modes o f f a i l u r e .
6.5 JOINTED ROCK MASS BEHAVIOUR
A jointed rock mass i s a less competent type o f ground
which i s c h a r a c t e r i z e d by a h i g h frequency of j o i n t i n g
158
FIGURE 6.9 F a i l u r e mechanism o f FIGURE 6.10 F a i l u r e mechanism o f
d i s c r e t e b l o c k f o r an a n i s o t r o p i c d i s c r e t e b l o c k f o r an a n i s o t r o p i c
rock material having elongated rock m a t e r i a l h a v i n g e l o n g a t e d
blocks oriented perpendicular to blocks o r i e n t e d perpendicular to
the stope s u r f a c e and s u b m i t t e d t o the stope s u r f a c e i n a s t a t e o f
compressive s t r e s s , stress relaxation,
f a i l u r e type 2e; r e f . f i g u r e 6.17 f a i l u r e type 2f; r e f . f i g u r e 6.17
FIGURE 6.11 F a i l u r e mechanism o f FIGURE 6.12 F a i l u r e mechanism o f

j o i n t e d . r o c k mass f o r an i s o t r o p i c j o i n t e o rock mass f o r an
rock m a t e r i a l s u b m i t t e d t o isotropic rock material i n a
compressive s t r e s s , state of stress relaxation,
f a i l u r e type 3a; r e f . f i g u r e 6.17 f a i l u r e t y p e 3b; r e f . f i g u r e 6.17
159
producing a rock mass matrix of small blocks. I t usually
includes three o r more well defined joint sets having a
relatively close spacing. The f a i l u r e o f a j o i n t e d rock mass,
whether i t occurs under conditions of compression or
relaxation, results i n a ravelling of blocks. Rock movement
will c o n t i n u e u n t i l the p e r i p h e r a l b l o c k s a r e i n t e r l o c k e d and a
s t a b l e a r c h i s formed. The amount o f d i l u t i o n c o n t a i n e d i n s i d e
the a r c h p r i o r t o f a i l u r e i s a f u n c t i o n o f t h e o r i g i n a l opening
span. When t h e c r i t i c a l span i s exceeded, a s t a b l e a r c h can no
l o n g e r be formed and r a v e l l i n g w i l l p r o g r e s s as a chimney u n t i l
better ground c o n d i t i o n s a r e met or i n t h e extreme situation,
i t w i l l extend t o s u r f a c e .
The f a i l u r e mechanisms a s s o c i a t e d w i t h a j o i n t e d rock mass
will be similar t o those previously described f o r discrete
b l o c k s , but on a s m a l l e r s c a l e . F i g u r e s 6.11 t o 6.16 show the
s i x b a s i c cases d i s c u s s e d f o r d i s c r e t e b l o c k f a i l u r e a p p l i e d t o
a j o i n t e d rock mass.
6.6 SUMMARY AND CLASSIFICATION OF FAILURE MECHANISMS
The open stope failure mechanism i s primarily influenced
by t h e nature of the rock mass. Based on t h e r e l a t i v e s i z e of
the rock mass b l o c k s , compared with t h e opening dimensions, the
rock mass will behave as i n t a c t rock, discrete blocks or a
jointed rock mass. Each o f these three types o f rock mass
behaviour can be submitted t o a compressive o r t e n s i l e s t a t e of
160
jointed rock mass for an jointed rock mass for an
anisotropic rock material having anisotropic rock material having
elongated blocks oriented p a r a l l e l elongated blocks oriented p a r a l l e l
to the stope surface and submitted to the stope surface in a state of
to a compressive stress, stress relaxation,
f a i l u r e type 3 c ; r e f . figure 6.17 f a i l u r e type 3d; ref. figure 6.17

jointed rock mass for an jointed rock mass for an
anisotropic rock material having anisotropic rock material having
elongated blocks oriented elongated blocks oriented
perpendicular to the stope surface perpendicular to the stope surface
and submitted to compressive in a state of stress relaxation,
stress. f a i l u r e type 3 f ; ref. figure 6.17
f a i l u r e type 3e; ref. figure 6.17
stress creating six possible situations.
It has been observed that the shape and relative
orientation of the blocks also play an important role in the
mechanism of failure. In the case of compact b l o c k s the rock
mass behaviour will likely be isotropic. If the blocks are
elongated, the relative o r i e n t a t i o n with respect to the stope
surface becomes c r i t i c a l . The most f a v o r a b l e o r i e n t a t i o n , f o r
discontinuities that delineate blocks, is perpendicular to
stope s u r f a c e . P a r a l l e l o r i e n t a t i o n i s more l i k e l y t o produce
instability. The criteria described above to classify open
stope failure mechanisms are shown on the diagram in figure
6.17 . Fourteen different potential failure situations may
result from t h i s classification and are illustrated in figures
6.3 to 6.16. Although this classification has fourteen
different failure scenarios, only five i n d i v i d u a l modes of
f a i l u r e emerge:
- gravity fall,
- slabbing,
- buckling,
- sliding,
- shearing.
A v a r i a t i o n of these modes of failure occurs i f the rock mass
i s h e a v i l y f r a c t u r e d , and the detachment of s m a l l b l o c k s occurs
in a r a v e l l i n g manner. When looked at from a kinematic point
of view (which i s based p u r e l y on d i s c o n t i n u i t y o r i e n t a t i o n and
does not account f o r n o n - g r a v i t a t i o n a l loads or s t r e s s ) , the
162
1 a)
Intact Rock
1 b)
compression 2 a)
Isotropic-
' relaxation 2 b)
Discrete
Block
compression 2 c)
o n g a t e d Block
Parallel to Stope-
Surface
relaxation 2 d)
Anisotropic-
I compression 2 e)
o n g a t e d Block
Perpendicular to
S t o p e Surface
relaxation 2 f)
compression 3 a)
I Isotropic-
' relaxation 3 b)
Jointed Rock
Mass
I compression 3 c)
Elongated Block
Parallel to S t o p e -
Surface
relaxation 3 d)
' Anlsotroplc-
compression 3 e)
o n g a t e d Block
Perpendicular to
Stope Surface
' relaxation 3 f)
FIGURE 6.17 C l a s s i f i c a t i o n of the f a i l u r e mechanisms i n open

stope mining.
163
s h e a r i n g become a sub-case o f s l i d i n g or gravity fall, and the
buckling and s l a b b i n g can be approximated by a t o p p l i n g mode of
failure. The p o t e n t i a l mode o f f a i l u r e can be determined by
stereographic analysis as d e s c r i b e d i n chapter 7 o f Hoek and
Brown (1980), o r with t h e f o l l o w i n g technique i n v o l v i n g simple
diagrams. Referring to figure 6.18, the e x c a v a t i o n and the
"critical joint" are f i r s t sketched. The critical joint
represents the persistent joint set oriented a t the shallowest
angle w i t h t h e stope surface.
If a gravity v e c t o r r e p r e s e n t e d by a v e r t i c a l arrow drawn
from t h e approximate c e n t r e o f g r a v i t y of the block (formed by
the critical joint), falls directly inside t h e opening, the
mode o f f a i l u r e will be g r a v i t y fall ( f i g u r e 6.18 a ) . I f the
gravity vector crosses the c r i t i c a l joint (see f i g u r e 6.18 b) ,
the potential for sliding failure exists. I f the g r a v i t y
vector stays inside the medium without intersecting the
critical joint, slabbing or b u c k l i n g failure can occur (figure
6 .18 c) .
164
BACK jj&jj WALL
FIGURE 6.18 a) Sketch showing the FIGURE 6.18 b) Sketch showing the
gravity fall mode of failure. sliding mode of failure.
FIGURE 6.18 c) Sketch showing the s l a b b i n g and buckling mode of

failure.
165
CHAPTER 7
DEVELOPMENT OF THE GEOMECHANICAL MODEL
7.1 INTRODUCTION
The review of e x i s t i n g empirical methods f o r underground
excavation design (chapter 5) has shown an e v o l u t i o n in their
development. Efficient empirical d e s i g n methods s t a r t e d with
rock mass classification systems, which allow the
characterization of the rock mass competency. Based on the Q
and RMR indexes, Mathews and Laubscher have proposed design
methods that were better adapted for mining conditions.
Because the Mathews e t a l . method was specially developed f o r
open stope mining and i t has been shown to possess a fair
calibration for Canadian conditions (Potvin et al., 1987;
Bawden et al. 1988), i t was decided to follow the same
methodology f o r the development of the geomechanical model.
Therefore, the factors described in this chapter will be
s i m i l a r t o the one used by Mathews e t a l .
The concept employed i n the proposed geomechanical model
i s based on t h r e e fundamental a s p e c t s of c r e a t i n g an e x c a v a t i o n
in a rock mass. By defining and calibrating the
characteristics of the rock mass (1st aspect) , the induced
stress (2nd a s p e c t ) , and the p h y s i c a l c o n d i t i o n s of the problem
(3rd aspect) , w i t h a l a r g e data base, i t will be p o s s i b l e to
p r e d i c t whether an e x c a v a t i o n w i l l be s t a b l e or w i l l experience
ground c o n t r o l problems. This w i l l c o n s t i t u t e the v e r i f i c a t i o n
166
of the main h y p o t h e s i s (chapter 1.2). The characteristics of
each aspect can be d e f i n e d by relevant factors affecting the
stability of e x c a v a t i o n s . The f a c t o r s w i l l be d e f i n e d based on
the study of open stope f a i l u r e mechanisms (chapter 6), and the
w e i g h t i n g used i n e x i s t i n g models (chapter 5).
A rock mass i s c h a r a c t e r i z e d by the block size and the
critical joint factors. A compressive stress factor, derived
from numerical modelling, represents the aspect of induced
stress. The p h y s i c a l c o n d i t i o n s are d i v i d e d i n t o a stope size
and shape f a c t o r and a g r a v i t y f a c t o r , the l a t t e r b e i n g related
to the stope surface inclination. External factors will be
d i s c u s s e d i n chapters 9 and 10.
The above f i v e f a c t o r s can be broken i n t o key g e o t e c h n i c a l
parameters. The g e o t e c h n i c a l parameters can be estimated from:
o b s e r v a t i o n s and measurements of f i e l d data, l a b o r a t o r y t e s t i n g
of rock specimens and numerical modelling. Figure 7.1 is a
conceptualization of the model showing how the problem is
s u b d i v i d e d i n t o f a c t o r s and parameters.
This chapter will focus on the definition of each factor
and its role in the potential failure mechanisms. The
techniques best suited f o r the e s t i m a t i o n of the geotechnical
parameters w i l l a l s o be discussed. The calibration procedure
for the factors w i l l be explained i n chapter 8. An e m p i r i c a l
philosophy was chosen to integrate a l l the factors into a
design method. I t i s b e l i e v e d t h a t an e m p i r i c a l approach i s
the most a p p r o p r i a t e because of the complexity of the problem
167
FIGURE 7.1
VISUALIZATION OF THE MODEL
EXCAVATION IN A ROCK MASS

THREE ASPECTS OF THE PROBLEM
ROCK MASS STRESS EFFECT PHYSICAL

CHARACTERISITCS
CONDITIONS
oo
BLOCK SIZE CRITICAL COMPRESSIVE STOPE EXTERNAL

FACTOR JOINT STRESS INCLINATION STOPE SIZE
FACTOR FACTOR FACTOR FACTORS AND SHAPE
FACTORS
DIFFERENCE DIFFERENCE SHEAR ORAIYY _
HYDRAULIC
IH DIP IN STRIKESTRENGTH SLIDING BLASTING CABLE
SLABBING BOLTING RAWS,.
OPTICAL S70PE
JOINT SURFACE
INQ IN ATI OH
and the difficulty in estimating representative input
parameters. E m p i r i c a l methods are likely t o be more reliable
because they make use of p a s t experience. However, they should
be a p p l i e d i n c o n d i t i o n s s i m i l a r t o the data base.
7.2 THE BLOCK SIZE FACTOR
The most important characteristic of a rock mass i s i t s
degree of fracturing, or the size of the blocks forming the
matrix. The s m a l l e r the blocks the less competent the rock
mass w i l l be. Consequently, the parameter representing the
b l o c k s i z e must have a l a r g e i n f l u e n c e i n the a n a l y s i s and have
a decreasing value as the rock mass i s more fractured. The
parameter s e l e c t e d t o q u a n t i f y the e f f e c t of b l o c k s i z e i s the
r a t i o of RQD/Jn which was proposed by Barton i n the o r i g i n a l Q-
system. The ratio RQD/Jn is easily estimated on site and
provides a useful scale to account f o r the number of joint
exposures. I t has a maximum v a l u e of 200 and a minimum of 0.5,
and thus a total possible relative i n f l u e n c e of 4 00 on the
stability number. A c c o r d i n g t o the data base f o r Canadian open
stope mines, t h i s i n f l u e n c e i n p r a c t i c e ranges from 1 to 90.
7.2.1 E s t i m a t i o n of b l o c k s i z e
RQD and Jn are the two parameters r e q u i r e d t o estimate the
block size factor. The Jn value represents the effect of
having persistent joint s e t s and random j o i n t s e t s i n the rock
169
mass. I t i s e a s i l y estimated u s i n g t a b l e 5.2. Kinematically,
a rock mass c o n t a i n i n g s e v e r a l j o i n t s e t s (of v a r i a b l e d i p and
orientation) will be less stable than a rock mass having a
s i m i l a r degree of f r a c t u r i n g but o n l y one p e r s i s t e n t j o i n t s e t .
The Jn parameter allows the differentiation between a rock
mass t h a t i s h e a v i l y f r a c t u r e d by a f o l i a t i o n , which c o u l d be
relatively competent when oriented perpendicular to stope
s u r f a c e , and a t o t a l l y incompetent rock mass c o n t a i n i n g s e v e r a l
variable joint sets.
The Rock Quality Designation RQD (developed by Deere,
1964) is a widely used technique measuring the frequency of
rock fractures. RQD can be assessed indirectly on diamond
drill cores and r e p r e s e n t s the percentage of i n t a c t p i e c e s of
core equal to or longer than 100 mm over the total length
considered.
% RQD = 100% * ( l e n g t h of core l o n g e r than 100 mm)

t o t a l length considered
RQD should be measured on core of a t l e a s t 54 mm diameter
(NX), drilled with double b a r r e l rods. Although RQD i s simple
and easy to estimate with little supplementary cost, it may
lead to incorrect assessment i f the core i s p o o r l y cared f o r
prior t o the RQD estimation. T h i s becomes important when the
rock i n v e s t i g a t e d i s weak or b r i t t l e .
Another c r i t i c i s m of RQD i s the p o t e n t i a l b i a s r e l a t e d to
the borehole orientation. Effectively, the discontinuities
170
parallel t o t h e borehole will not be i n t e r s e c t e d , which will
result i n an o v e r e s t i m a t i o n o f RQD. Consequently, t h e measure
of RQD should be v e r i f i e d a g a i n s t other techniques based on
direct underground j o i n t surveys. Hudson & P r i e s t (1976) and
Palmstrom (1982) have proposed methods t o c o r r e l a t e RQD with
underground j o i n t mapping,
a) Hudson and P r i e s t method
According to Hudson and Priest, the spacing of
discontinuities i s assumed t o have a range of values which
f o l l o w s some form o f s t a t i s t i c a l distribution. Based on twenty
seven measurements i n t h r e e t u n n e l p r o j e c t s i n t h e U.K., Hudson
and Priest found that the p r o b a b i l i t y d e n s i t y d i s t r i b u t i o n of
discontinuity spacings can be approximated the negative
exponential d i s t r i b u t i o n :
v -XX
f (x) = Ae
where x = individual discontinuity spacing,
= discontinuity frequency 1/x,
= mean d i s c o n t i n u i t y spacing.
Individual discontinuity spacing is measured along a
s c a n l i n e underground as shown i n f i g u r e 7.2. Hudson and P r i e s t
proposed t h e f o l l o w i n g r e l a t i o n s h i p between t h e discontinuity
frequency and RQD:
RQD = 100 e -0.1* ( 0 . l \ + 1)
When t h e d i s c o n t i n u i t y s p a c i n g frequency (X ) has a v a l u e
between 6 and 16 p e r meter, t h e above r e l a t i o n s h i p i s linear
( f i g u r e 7.3) and can be approximated by:
171
Oi&toncs from A to Iht iih
dittomrutyifl,
Spacing valuestogiven
OSl/o^-d,., tor i i !
(olD'SContirwly intersection points otong o (b)Sconiins (rneosuring tope^ on exposed

straight line CAB) through the rock moss lock tool
FIGURE 7.2 S k e t c h showing t h e measurement o f j o i n t s a l o n g a

s c a n l i n e . ( A f t e r P r i e s t a n d H u d s o n , 1976)
Linear approximation ROD** - 3.68* * 110.4
t i i i i Si i i I '
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 21 26 28 30 32 34 36 38 40
Average number ol discontinuities per m, X
FIGURE 7.3 R e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n RQD a n d t h e a v e r a g e number o f

d i s c o n t i n u i t i e s p e r m e t e r . ( A f t e r P r i e s t a n d H u d s o n , 1976)
RQD = -3.68X + 110.4
b) Palmstrom method
Palmstrom (1982) proposed an alternative technique also
based on direct underground joint surveys. The volumetric
joint count (Jv) i s an e s t i m a t i o n of the number of j o i n t s per
c u b i c metre i n rock mass. The factor Jv has been r e l a t e d to
RQD empirically by the f o l l o w i n g relationship.
RQD = 115 - 3.3 Jv
The volumetric joint count (Jv) can be estimated by
defining an area of the rock mass where the majority of the
persistent discontinuities are represented. The number of
discontinuities inside the d e l i n e a t e d area are counted and the
frequency of j o i n t i n g per u n i t of s u r f a c e can be c a l c u l a t e d (#
of joints per square metre). This value i s transformed into
volumetric units (# of j o i n t s per c u b i c metre) by multiplying
by a f a c t o r "K":
Jv (# of j o i n t s / m )2
* K = (# of joints/m ) 3
Palmstrom provided very few details on how this factor K was
derived and did not give a criteria on how to choose an
appropriate K f o r a given s i t u a t i o n . He stated:
"The factor K will vary with the distribution of the
joints. With an equal d i s t r i b u t i o n i n a l l t h r e e d i r e c t i o n s , K
will be 1.15 - 1.5 depending upon the orientation of the
surface with respect to joint planes. For unequal
d i s t r i b u t i o n s , the K w i l l have g r e a t e r v a r i a t i o n . Under normal
173
conditions, however, i t has been found t h a t k = 1.25 - 1.35"
Palmstrom (1982). In p r a c t i c e a k f a c t o r of 1.0 i s often used
assuming t h a t the s u r f a c e mapped i s r e p r e s e n t a t i v e of the t h r e e
dimensions.
7.3 STRESS FACTOR
7.3.1 E f f e c t o f compression
The e f f e c t of a h i g h compressive s t r e s s on a rock mass may
result i n c r u s h i n g or c r a c k i n g of i n t a c t rock, s h e a r i n g along
existing discontinuities, or rotating of blocks or any
combination of the above. The complexity and variability of
these phenomena negate any attempt to reproduce them with a
h i g h degree of p r e c i s i o n i n the e m p i r i c a l model. The approach
chosen was the one proposed by Mathews et a l . , where the
tangential stresses induced parallel to the excavation
boundaries (oy) is scaled against the uniaxial compressive
s t r e n g t h of the rock mass ( C T ) . c T h i s suggests t h a t the effect
of compressive s t r e s s i s p r o p o r t i o n a l t o the r e l a t i v e magnitude
of the t a n g e n t i a l s t r e s s normalized w i t h i n t a c t rock s t r e n g t h .
The adjustment factor f o r compressive stress i s roughly the
same as Mathews 1
factor A, and can be estimated using figure
7.4. I t has a t o t a l relative i n f l u e n c e of 10 i n the stability
number calculation. The only m o d i f i c a t i o n made was to set a
minimum adjustment of 0.1 when the r a t i o of o /oy

c i s equal t o
or l e s s than 2.0 ( i n s t e a d of assuming automatic f a i l u r e as
174
FIGURE 7 . 4 Graph f o r the e s t i m a t i o n of the compressive stress
factor.
175
suggested by Mathews e t a l . ) . This w i l l be further discussed
in chapter 8.4.2. The uniaxial compressive strength (a ) c was
d i s c u s s e d i n s e c t i o n 4.2.1. The induced t a n g e n t i a l s t r e s s (oy)
for simple open stope configurations can be determined using
numerical m o d e l l i n g or curves developed from a p a r a m e t r i c study
using two and three dimensional numerical modelling (section
7.3.2) .
7.3.2 Open stope numerical m o d e l l i n g p a r a m e t r i c study
The d e t e r m i n a t i o n of induced s t r e s s around open stopes can
be d i f f i c u l t t o estimate a t mine s i t e s , because of the l a c k of
numerical m o d e l l i n g hardware and software f a c i l i t i e s . Although
most mining operations possess computers and sometimes have
access t o two dimensional models, t h r e e d i m e n s i o n a l models are
uncommon, d i f f i c u l t t o use and time consuming t o run. Since
"three dimensional" geometries are frequent in open stope
mining, the development of s t r e s s induced curves was necessary
in order to make the design method applicable at the mine
sites. The curves presented below have been developed based on
70 runs of the t h r e e dimensional boundary element code "BEAP"
and a number of runs u s i n g the two dimensional boundary element
program "BITEM". A b r i e f d e s c r i p t i o n of both program i s g i v e n
in Appendix 2 and the most significant stope design output,
plotted i n terms of the stress acting i n the middle of each
plane, i s reproduced i n Appendix 3.
It should be kept i n mind t h a t a number of assumptions have
176
been made i n t h i s p a r a m e t r i c study. The stope geometries used
are based on open stopes seen i n more than 3 0 Canadian mines.
However, t h e i r shapes have been i d e a l i z e d and v e r t i c a l d i p only
has been considered. Consequently, the s t r e s s curves should
serve as a rough guide t o determining t h e s t r e s s around simple
three dimensional geometries.
7.3.2.1 General concept o f t h e p a r a m e t r i c study
The p r i n c i p a l s t r e s s e s induced on each s u r f a c e o f a stope,
act i n two p e r p e n d i c u l a r d i r e c t i o n s tangential t o t h e stope
plane ( f i g u r e 7.5). The magnitude (and e f f e c t on s t a b i l i t y ) of
these induced stresses i s primarily a function of the pre-
mining stress ratio and t h e problem geometry. These will
constitute the p r i n c i p a l v a r i a b l e s of t h i s parametric study.
The problem geometries are divided into longitudinal and
transverse stope configurations, while t h e pre-mining stress
ratios, "K", a r e v a r i e d from i s o s t a t i c t o 1.5, 2.0 and 2.5 i n
all three d i r e c t i o n s . The e f f e c t s o f these variations on the
induced stresses (acting i n two d i r e c t i o n s on each plane) will
be analyzed a c c o r d i n g t o t h e f o l l o w i n g scheme:
1) No s i g n i f i c a n t e f f e c t , t h e induced stress can be assumed
equal t o t h e pre-mining stress.
2) The induced s t r e s s may decrease (from t h e pre-mining stress
value), but never reaches tension, resulting i n a low
compressive stress condition. In t h i s case, t h e induced
s t r e s s w i l l have no n e g a t i v e e f f e c t on s t a b i l i t y and can be
177
PLANE A - ASPECT RATIO = L/H
HORIZONTAL PLANE K RATIO = 0<\/$2
VERTICAL PLANE K RATIO = <J-\
FIGURE 7 . 5 D e f i n i t i o n o f t h e a s p e c t r a t i o and K r a t i o used i n

t h e e s t i m a t i o n o f t h e induced s t r e s s a c t i n g on a stope
surface.
178
overlooked i n the d e s i g n a n a l y s i s .
3) The induced s t r e s s may decrease and possibly reach tension.
Induced s t r e s s curves w i l l be produced i n t h i s s i t u a t i o n , to
predict which conditions result in a tensile stress
environment.
4) The induced stress may show a s i g n i f i c a n t increase. Once
again, induced s t r e s s curves w i l l be produced i n order to be
able to determine the magnitude of o for the design
analysis.
An important observation, made on most t h r e e dimensional
problems modelled in this study, was that the induced stress
acting in a given direction is mainly affected by: the
dimensions of the stope aspect surface (see figure 7.5), and
the K ratio, defined by the pre-mining s t r e s s acting parallel
to the induced stress investigated and the pre-mining stress
acting perpendicular t o the surface of the stope (figure 7.5).
It i s assumed t h a t the pre-mining stress acting i n the third
direction generally has an i n s i g n i f i c a n t e f f e c t on the induced
stress. T h i s s i m p l i f i e s the o v e r a l l problem and s i m p l i f i e s the
presentation of the results. In the following sections,
guidelines for the estimation of the induced stress will be
given f o r each stope surface (of interest in longitudinal and
transversal open stoping).
7.3.2.2 Longitudinal open s t o p i n g p a r a m e t r i c study
179
The g e o m e t r i c a l shape of l o n g i t u d i n a l stopes i s generally-
characterized by a stope width that i s s m a l l compared t o the
stope height and length. According to the data base, most
Canadian (longitudinal) open stope geometries are between the
l i m i t s d e f i n e d on figure 7.6. A summary of the output of the
most important three dimensional models used for the
longitudinal study can be found i n Appendix 3. The modelling
of the extreme geometries has been done using BITEM. The
m o d e l l i n g was performed on i s o l a t e d stopes o n l y . The influence
of nearby stopes can be considered n e g l i g i b l e f o r stope wall
and stope back analyses. This is not true f o r the stope
abutments. The three stope surfaces of interest are
r e p r e s e n t e d on f i g u r e 7.5 by plane A (the stope w a l l ) , plane B
(the back) and plane C (the stope end).
Plane A, stope w a l l :
i) The stress induced i n the h o r i z o n t a l direction will show a
s i g n i f i c a n t decrease and may be t e n s i l e f o r c e r t a i n geometry
(L/H < 1) and stress ratio combinations. For longitudinal
stope walls, the surface aspect ratio i s d e f i n e d by L/H
(stope l e n g t h / s t o p e height) and K i s g i v e n by 0-^/02 (figure
7.7). The horizontal induced stress on plane A can be
estimated u s i n g the curves i n f i g u r e 7.7). The i n f l u e n c e of
v a r y i n g the stope width on the s t r e s s e s i n plane A can be
considered n e g l i g i b l e (see f i g u r e 7.8).
ii) The s t r e s s induced v e r t i c a l l y i s s i m i l a r t o the h o r i z o n t a l
180
FIGURE 7.6
LONGITUDINAL O P E N S T O P E T Y P I C A L DIMENSIONS
EXPRESSED IN TERMS OF STOPE WIDTH (W)
L = (1 TO 9)W LP = (1 TO 5)W
FIGURE 7.7 LONGITUDINAL OPEN STOPE STRESS
HANGING WALL - HORIZONTAL PLANE
0.7 -i
1:INF 1:7 1:5 1:4 1:3 1:2 1:1 2:1 3:1 4
STOPE ASPECT RATIO (LENGTH / HEIGHT)

HW / WIDTH = 5 + HW / WIDTH a 1.0 O HW / WIDTH = 20
A BACK / WIDTH a 5 X BACK / WIDTH = 10 V BACK / WIDTH a 20
induced s t r e s s except the problem i s r o t a t e d 90. The stope
aspect r a t i o remains L/H, but the s i g n i f i c a n t s t r e s s r a t i o K
i s d e f i n e d by a / a .
1 3 F i g u r e 7.9 can be used t o estimate the
vertical induced stress.
Plane B, stope back:
i) The induced tangential stress acting i n the direction
p e r p e n d i c u l a r t o the stope s t r i k e (oy d i r e c t i o n ) may show a
significant increase. Because the t y p i c a l stope width does
not v a r y d r a s t i c a l l y compared with stope h e i g h t and l e n g t h ,
the wall aspect ratio (L/H) will have a much greater
influence on the back induced stress, than a back aspect
ratio. Consequently, the curves developed for this
situation are a f u n c t i o n o f the w a l l aspect r a t i o (L/H) and
the K r a t i o o f a-y/o 3 (see f i g u r e 7.10). The stope width
assumed f o r the development o f the curves was 1/4 the s i z e
of t h e i n t e r m e d i a t e dimension. The i n f l u e n c e of stope width
however i s not n e c e s s a r i l y negligible. When d e a l i n g with
wider o r narrower stopes, the e r r o r made can be roughly
assessed from f i g u r e 7.8. As a g e n e r a l r u l e , the narrower
the stope the h i g h e r the back and abutment s t r e s s e s w i l l be.
ii) The induced stress ratio acting along the strike (a 2
d i r e c t i o n ) may show a s m a l l i n c r e a s e , but i t w i l l not be as
significant as the induced stress acting across strike.
Consequently, the a 2 induced s t r e s s can be overlooked i n the
stability a n a l y s i s of simple l o n g i t u d i n a l stope backs.
184
FIGURE 7.9 LONGTTUDMAL OPEN STOPE STRESS
HANGING WALL - VERTICAL PLANE
0.7 -,
1:INF 1:5 1:4 1:3 1:2 1:1 2:1 3:1 4:1 5:1 7:1 INF:1

FIGURE 7 10 LONGITUDINAL OPEN STOPE STRESS
BACK STRESSES
ASPECT RATIO (LENGTH / HEIGHT)

Plane C, stope end o r abutment:
i) The a n a l y s i s o f induced s t r e s s i n an i s o l a t e d abutment w a l l
is similar t o the a n a l y s i s i n the back, but r o t a t e d 90".
This means t h a t the stope aspect ratio used i s L/H again,
and the K r a t i o is a /a 1 2 f o r the induced h o r i z o n t a l stress.
This induced stress may have a large i n c r e a s e and can be
estimated using figure 7.11. The effect o f v a r y i n g the
stope width on the abutment w a l l induced s t r e s s i s similar
to the e f f e c t of varying the width on the back stress
(described above).
ii) The induced s t r e s s a c t i n g v e r t i c a l l y may show some i n c r e a s e ,
but i t will not be as s i g n i f i c a n t as the i n c r e a s e i n the
horizontal direction. The i n f l u e n c e o f t h e induced vertical
s t r e s s can g e n e r a l l y be overlooked i n t h e s t a b i l i t y analysis
of l o n g i t u d i n a l stope ends.
A summary of the possible stress conditions acting
tangentially at longitudinal stope boundaries i s found in
f i g u r e 7.12.
7.3.2.3 T r a n s v e r s e open s t o p i n g p a r a m e t r i c study
The t y p i c a l g e o m e t r i c a l shape of t r a n s v e r s e open stopes i s
a relatively s m a l l stope l e n g t h compared w i t h stope width and
height. A c c o r d i n g t o the data base, t h e stope dimensions o f
187
FIGURE 7 11 LONGITUDINAL OPEN STOPE STRESS
ABUTMENT STRESSES
2.5 - i
ASPECT RATIO (LENGTH / HEIGHT)

FIGURE 7.12
SUMMARY OF T H E
LONGITUDINAL PARAMETRIC STUDY
CASE # 4 . S M figure 7.10
CASE #1
CASE #4
>e figure 7.11
CASE #3.
B figure 7.7
CASE #3,
ee figure 7.9
PLANE A
CASE #1 no s i g n i f i c a n t i n c r e a s e in t h e i n d u c e d stress,
p r e - m i n i n g s t r e s s is a s s u m e d
CASE #2 induced stress d e c r e a s e s , low compression is assumed
CASE #3 induced stress decreases significantly, see

the referenced figure
CASE jfA - induced stress increases significantly, see

the referenced figure
189
most t r a n s v e r s e stopes are w i t h i n the limits shown oh figure
7.13. A summary of the output f o r the most important three
d i m e n s i o n a l models used i n the t r a n s v e r s e study can be found i n
Appendix 3. S i n c e the openings may have a l a r g e influence on
each o t h e r i n t r a n s v e r s e mining, a t l e a s t two stopes were used
for the m o d e l l i n g . In f i g u r e 7.13, the f o u r stope s u r f a c e s of
interest have been l a b e l l e d ? plane A (abutment w a l l ) , plane B
( p i l l a r w a l l ) , plane C (back) and plane D (stope end).
Plane A, abutment w a l l ;
i ) The h o r i z o n t a l induced s t r e s s i n the abutment w a l l may have
a significant i n c r e a s e depending on the w a l l aspect ratio
(W/H), and the K r a t i o of a / a 1 2 I t can be e s t i m a t e d u s i n g
the curves shown i n f i g u r e 7.14.
ii) The v e r t i c a l induced s t r e s s u s u a l l y shows a s l i g h t decrease
but never reaches tension for a typical transverse
geometry. Stress i n this direction can be overlooked i n
the a n a l y s i s .
Plane B, p i l l a r wall;
i ) The h o r i z o n t a l induced s t r e s s i n the p i l l a r w a l l may show a
major i n c r e a s e . The important stope aspect r a t i o is W/H.
Because a 2 i s shadowed by the openings, the s t r e s s r a t i o K
has o n l y a s m a l l i n f l u e n c e on the induced s t r e s s . However,
the opening l e n g t h t o p i l l a r length r a t i o (Lo/Lp) w i l l have
a major i n f l u e n c e on the c o n c e n t r a t i o n of h o r i z o n t a l
190
TRANSVERSE OPEN STOPE DIMENSIONS
E X P R E S S E D IN TERMS OF S T O P E L E N G T H (L)
FIGURE 7.13
FIGURE 7.14 TRANSVERSAL STOPE BOUNDARY STRESSES
ABUTMENT / SIGMA1 DIRECTION
STOPE WIDTH / STOPE HEIGHT

stress. The curves shown i n f i g u r e 7.15 can be used to
e s t i m a t e the h o r i z o n t a l induced s t r e s s i n the p i l l a r wall.
ii) The vertical induced stress may drop significantly
according to the aspect ratio (W/H) but, for typical
transverse stope geometries will not reach tension.
Consequently, i t does not have to be considered in the
analysis.
Plane C, stope back,
i) The induced s t r e s s a c t i n g a c r o s s s t r i k e remained s i m i l a r to
the pre-mining stress (oy) f r a

H the transverse cases
modelled. For the d e s i g n a n a l y s i s , v i r g i n stress (a-jj can
be assume i n the back.
ii) The induced stress acting along the strike also stay
similar to the pre-mining stress magnitude (cr )

2 Some
increase for stopes having a large width is seen.
Generally, the induced s t r e s s (a ) 2 i nt n e

back w i l l not be
greater than the stress i n the direction, and can be
ignored i n the s t r e s s analysis.
Plane D, stope end.
i ) The induced s t r e s s a c t i n g h o r i z o n t a l l y on the stope end may
have s i g n i f i c a n t decrease. In the v e r y extreme cases, when
01/02 i s greater than 2 or the length of the stope is
g r e a t e r than the width ( l o n g i t u d i n a l geometry), t e n s i o n i s
193
FIGURE 7 . 1 5 TRANSVERSE STOPE - BOUNDARY STRESSES
PILLAR WALL / K = 2.0
2.0 -i .
0.0 0.25 0.50 0.75
STOPE WIDTH / STOPE HEIGHT

possible (see figure 7.16). However f o r most transverse
cases, low compression can be assumed, and the horizontal
induced stress can be disregarded in the stability
analysis.
ii) In the vertical direction, the induced stress may also
decrease, but will stay into low compression. Generally,
i t does not need t o be c o n s i d e r e d i n the stress analysis.
A summary of the possible stress conditions acting
tangentially at t r a n s v e r s e stope boundaries i s found i n figure
7.17.
7.4 EFFECT OF JOINT ORIENTATION
The r e l a t i v e o r i e n t a t i o n and d i p of p e r s i s t e n t j o i n t s with
respect to each other and with respect to the excavation
surfaces, will determine the stability of blocks and the
p o t e n t i a l modes of rock mass f a i l u r e . Kinematic a n a l y s i s using
stereographic projection constitutes the most commonly used
method f o r investigating the e f f e c t of j o i n t orientation. One
of the basic assumptions of this type of analysis is that
movement must occur according to existing discontinuities.
Because i t does not account f o r new fractures created by stress
or b l a s t i n g , k i n e m a t i c a n a l y s i s alone has been found unreliable
in many open stoping situations. This was demonstrated by
applying stereographic projection i n the back a n a l y s i s of more
195
FIGURE 7. i6 TRANSVERSAL STOPE BOUNDARY STRESSES
STOPE END / SIGMA2 DIRECTION
1.2 - i
1.1 -
00 2.0 4.0 6.0
STOPE WIDTH / STOPE LENGTH

FIGURE 7.17
SUMMARY OF THE
T R A N S V E R S E P A R A M E T R I C S T U D Y
CASE #1 no significant induced stress increase,

premining stress is assumed
CASE #2 - induced stress decreases, low compression is assumed
CASE #3 significant induced stress decrease,

see figure referenced
CASE 4 - significant induced stress increase,

see figure referenced
197
than 60 case h i s t o r i e s . The r e s u l t s showed t h a t t e n cases of
predicted block f a i l u r e s o c c u r r e d i n stopes t h a t were stable.
The stabilizing effect of a j o i n t clamping compressive stress
can explain some of these cases. In a d d i t i o n , the success of
non entry mining methods are o f t e n not a f f e c t e d by isolated
block f a i l u r e when the s i z e of the rock f a l l i s not e x c e s s i v e .
Furthermore, n i n e cases of stopes t h a t e x p e r i e n c e d c a v i n g were
p r e d i c t e d s t a b l e by s t e r e o g r a p h i c a n a l y s i s .
7.4.1 The c r i t i c a l joint factor
A more general type of analysis that would account
indirectly f o r the p o s s i b l e c r e a t i o n of new fractures, i s more
suitable. In the c o l l e c t i o n and a n a l y s i s of case h i s t o r i e s , i t
was observed t h a t most cases of s t r u c t u r a l l y c o n t r o l l e d failure
occurred along joints having a shallow angle with respect to
the unstable surface. The principal reason for this
observation i s that the smaller the d i f f e r e n c e i n d i p (6)
between t h i s "critical" shallow j o i n t and e x c a v a t i o n f a c e , the
greater the p r o b a b i l i t y of having the b r i d g e "B" broken by
blasting, stress or other joint sets (figure 7.18).
Furthermore, the component of stress shearing the b l o c k or
acting parallel t o the c r i t i c a l joint is a function of the
c o s i n e o f the c r i t i c a l joint angle (0). T h i s i m p l i e s t h a t the
shear stress acting along the c r i t i c a l joint i n c r e a s e s as (8)
diminishes while the normal stress (which has a stabilizing
e f f e c t ) a l s o decreases. Consequently, the angle of the
198
199
critical j o i n t (9), or the s h a l l o w e s t d i f f e r e n c e i n d i p between
a persistent joint s e t and t h e stope surface, offers a good
indication o f t h e p r o b a b i l i t y o f having s t r u c t u r a l f a i l u r e and
is a viable means of accounting f o r the e f f e c t of j o i n t
orientation.
An adjustment factor f o r the influence of the c r i t i c a l
joint i s shown on figure 7.19. The graph was empirically
calibrated giving a adjustment o f 0.2 f o r a small critical
joint angle (9), and no adjustment ( i e . 1.0) f o r t h e i n f l u e n c e
of a critical joint angle (9) o f 90. This gives a total
influence o f 5 on t h e s t a b i l i t y number. Best results were
o b t a i n e d with t h e model by s e t t i n g t h e adjustment f a c t o r t o 0.3
for t h e common case of a j o i n t dipping sub-parallel t o stope
face, angle (9 equals 0 t o 10).
7.4.2 E f f e c t of anisotropy
Because t h e rock mass may be a n i s o t r o p i c , the r e l a t i v e
o r i e n t a t i o n of the c r i t i c a l j o i n t w i l l a l s o have a g r e a t e f f e c t
on stability. The c r i t i c a l joint will have a maximum e f f e c t
when i t s s t r i k e i s p a r a l l e l t o the stope s u r f a c e . The e f f e c t
w i l l diminish as t h e d i f f e r e n c e i n s t r i k e increases and w i l l be
minimum i n t h e case of perpendicular critical joint. This
effect of anisotropy i s included i n t h e adjustment factor for
j o i n t o r i e n t a t i o n by t h e dashed l i n e s i n f i g u r e 7.19, where the
difference in strike i s shown a t increments o f 15. These
curves were developed based on the t r u e angle between the
200
FIGURE 7.19
Influence of Joint Orientation
Difference In Strike
0.1 -
1 1 1 1 r 1 i 1 r
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
Relative Difference in Dip Between

the Critical Joint and Stope Surface
201
discontinuity and stope surface determined by stereographic
proj ections.
7.4.3 Shear s t r e n g t h of the c r i t i c a l joint
Another important consideration regarding the critical
joint is i t s associated shear strength. The simple shear
"index" J r / J a proposed i n the Barton c l a s s i f i c a t i o n (described
in table 5.2), has been selected for the model because it
relies on the observation of d i s c o n t i n u i t y c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s and
is quickly estimated on site. In addition, its effect has
already been weighted relative to the block size parameter
RQD/Jn. In theory, i t s effect on the stability number ranges
from 0.02 to 4. However according to the data base, its
sensitivity f o r Canadian open s t o p i n g conditions i s generally
less.
7.5 THE GRAVITY FACTOR
Gravity i s the d r i v i n g f o r c e a c t i n g on removable blocks.
Its influence varies according to the potential mode of
failure. In s e c t i o n 6.6, the modes of f a i l u r e r e l a t e d t o open
stope mining were identified as: gravity fall, slabbing,
buckling, s l i d i n g and shearing.
In the development of an adjustment factor for gravity,
the shearing mode can be t r e a t e d as a sub-case of sliding or
gravity fall with the stress plays a major r o l e i n t r i g g e r i n g
202
instability. Similarly, buckling can be c o n s i d e r e d as a sub
case o f s l a b b i n g which reduces the problem t o only t h r e e modes
of failure: gravity fall, slabbing and s l i d i n g . The p o t e n t i a l
mode of failure can be determined with a simple diagram
( d e s c r i b e d i n s e c t i o n 6.6) o r by s t e r e o g r a p h i c analysis.
The effect of gravity, i n the case of g r a v i t y fall and
.slabbing, i s mainly dependent on the i n c l i n a t i o n o f the stope
plane. For s l i d i n g , the e f f e c t o f g r a v i t y i s a f u n c t i o n of the
sliding plane's (critical joint's) inclination. Consequently,
two g r a v i t y adjustment f a c t o r s a r e proposed.
The f i r s t adjustment f a c t o r i s shown i n f i g u r e 7.20 and i s
used f o r the g r a v i t y fall and s l a b b i n g modes o f f a i l u r e . The
adjustment a c c o r d i n g t o t h e stope surface inclination has a
maximum v a l u e o f 8.0 f o r v e r t i c a l w a l l s and a minimum v a l u e of
2.0 for horizontal backs (where gravity has the largest
effect). The second adjustment factor i s used i n s l i d i n g mode
of failure and i s shown on f i g u r e 7.21. The adjustment has a
maximum value o f 8.0 when the c r i t i c a l joint inclination is
less than 30. This assumes t h a t the f r i c t i o n angle o f the
critical joint exceeds the d r i v i n g force. The adjustment will
decrease t o a minimum o f 2.0 as the c r i t i c a l joint inclination
increases.
7.6 EFFECT OF STOPE SIZE AND SHAPE
As employed by Laubscher (1976) and Mathews e t a l . (1980),
203
> I I 1 I
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
Inclination of Stope Plane
FIGURE 7.20 I n f l u e n c e of g r a v i t y f o r s l a b b i n g and g r a v i t y fall

modes of f a i l u r e .
7-
o 6 -
I?
5-
% =6 4
< 3
o
1-
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
Inclination of Critical Joint
FIGURE 7.21 Influence of g r a v i t y f o r s l i d i n g mode of failure.
204
the h y d r a u l i c r a d i u s o f i n d i v i d u a l stope s u r f a c e appears t o be
an adequate parameter t o account f o r the e f f e c t o f s i z e and
shape o f the plane under a n a l y s i s . I t i s calculated by the
quotient o f the stope plane area and stope plane perimeter.
Hydraulic radius favors a long and narrow shape over square
shape, a l l o w s the a n a l y s i s o f stope s u r f a c e plane by plane, and
i s easy t o a s s e s s .
7.7 CALCULATION OF THE MODIFIED STABILITY NUMBER AND
PRESENTATION OF THE MODIFIED STABILITY GRAPH
The calculation o f the m o d i f i e d stability number i s done
by m u l t i p l y i n g the e f f e c t s of the f o l l o w i n g f o u r f a c t o r s : block
s i z e , s t r e s s , j o i n t o r i e n t a t i o n and g r a v i t y . The e s t i m a t i o n of
each parameter composing the f a c t o r s has been explained i n
sections 7.2 t o 7.5 and i s shown i n page 207. The range of
values typically seen f o r each parameter i s given, and the
figures required t o estimate each parameter are referenced.
The a p p l i c a t i o n o f the d e s i g n method i n b a c k - a n a l y z i n g the case
histories collected in this study, has l e d to an improved
relationship between the m o d i f i e d stability number and the
hydraulic radius. This relationship i s shown on the m o d i f i e d
stability graph (figure 7.22). The c a l i b r a t i o n o f the design
method and the m o d i f i e d stability graph w i l l be d i s c u s s e d i n
chapter 8.
205
FIGURE 7.22
Modified Stability Graph

1000
....Ki I in'!
/:*: :<:::
:
.^: : :V:;:V: : : :-TJ>

: : ; : :
100
o
E
ZJ
10
o
CO
<D
^= 1.0
O
0.1
0 5 10 15 20 25
Hydraulic Radius (m)
206
Effect of Effect of Joint Effect of
Block Size Stress Orientation Gravity
RQD/Jn Comp. Relax. Critical Jt. Shear Sliding
N* = Angle 9 Jr/Ja Slabbing
(0.2-720) 1-90 (0.1-1) (1.0) (0.2-1) (0.05-3) (2-8) (2-8)
REFERENCE Table 5.2 Fig 7.4 Fig 7.19 Table 5.2 Fig 7.20 Fig 7.21
7.8 SUMMARY
A geomechanical model f o r open stope d e s i g n i s proposed i n
t h i s chapter. The methodology adopted i n t h e model i s based on
the modification of existing rock mass c l a s s i f i c a t i o n systems
to specific mining conditions, and was inspired by p r e c e d i n g
models proposed by Barton e t a l . (1974), B i e n i a w s k i (1973),
Laubscher (1976) and Mathews e t a l . (1980). The model i s based
on the estimation of five key factors related to the
geotechnical conditions and the geometry of open stopes. As
shown below, each factor i s composed of parameters easy to
e s t i m a t e on a mine site.
1. B l o c k s i z e f a c t o r : (RQD/Jn)
- RQD measures the degree of f r a c t u r i n g i n the rock mass and
can be estimated from core logging but preferably from
direct underground mapping using Hudson & Priest or
Palmstrom t e c h n i q u e s .
- Jn i s also estimated from underground mapping and account
f o r the number o f j o i n t s e t s p r e s e n t i n the r o c k mass.
2. E f f e c t of s t r e s s : (a /aj_)
c
207
a c i s usually obtain by l a b o r a t o r y t e s t i n g of drill
core. When this i s not p o s s i b l e o c can be roughly
estimated u s i n g a Schmidt hammer o r t h e p o i n t l o a d t e s t .
o i s b e s t estimated by numerical m o d e l l i n g . In s e c t i o n
7.3.2, a s e r i e s o f curves has been constructed from a
parametric study based on two and t h r e e dimensional
numerical modelling, can be read on t h e curves f o r
common l o n g i t u d i n a l and t r a n s v e r s e open s t o p i n g l a y o u t s
and a range o f pre-mining stress ratios.
The adjustment r a t i n g f o r s t r e s s can be read from figure
7.4.
Effect of j o i n t orientation:
The critical joint i s represented by the j o i n t s e t
having the smallest d i f f e r e n c e i n d i p and s t r i k e with
the stope surface. The two d e s i g n parameters r e q u i r e d
are t h e d i f f e r e n c e i n d i p and t h e d i f f e r e n c e i n strike
between the critical joint and t h e designed stope
surface. The r a t i n g f o r the c r i t i c a l joint i s assessed
from f i g u r e 7.19.
The shear s t r e n g t h o f t h e c r i t i c a l j o i n t i s estimated by
the r a t i o of J r / J a . J r q u a n t i f i e s t h e roughness o f t h e
joint while t h e J a r e p r e s e n t s t h e degree o f a l t e r a t i o n
of the j o i n t surface.
E f f e c t of gravity
In a gravity fall or slabbing s i t u a t i o n , the e f f e c t of
208
gravity i s estimated from the i n c l i n a t i o n of the design
surface, using figure 7.20.
- The effect of gravity in a sliding situation is a
function of the dip of the joint along which the
movement will occur. The rating is read from figure
7.21.
5. Stope s i z e and shape
- The hydraulic radius r e p r e s e n t s the e f f e c t of stope s i z e
and shape and is calculated by the ratio of the
p e r i m e t e r / a r e a of the stope s u r f a c e under analysis.
The g e o t e c h n i c a l parameters are l a r g e l y based on observational
techniques that can be learned quickly, but require a certain
amount of p r a c t i c e . The input data f o r the application of the
model can then be c o l l e c t e d at low cost.
209
CHAPTER 8
DATA BASE AND MODEL CALIBRATION
8.1 INTRODUCTION
Much importance was given to the construction of a
complete data base because of the empirical nature of this
study. The m a j o r i t y of the f i e l d work was undertaken d u r i n g the
summers of 198 6 and 1987 by the author assisted by Marty
Hudyma, MASc student. More than f o r t y mining o p e r a t i o n s were
visited, and data from thirty-four mines using open stoping
methods was collected to form the data base. A principal
o b j e c t i v e of the mine v i s i t s was t o back a n a l y z e case histories
of open stope's s t a b i l i t y and i n s t a b i l i t y . The t o t a l data base
now comprises 175 cases of unsupported stopes and 67 cases of
cable bolted stopes. The a n a l y s i s of case h i s t o r i e s has helped
to understand f a i l u r e mechanisms found i n open stope mining and
formed the b a s i s f o r the c a l i b r a t i o n of the d e s i g n method.
The calibration procedure used the components of a widely
accepted rock engineering design methodology (after Brown,
1987). The f l o w c h a r t concept has been adapted f o r the e m p i r i c a l
development of the d e s i g n method as shown below:
210
SITE CHARACTERIZATION
D e f i n i t i o n o f geomechanical
p r o p e r t i e s o f the host rock mass
GEOTECHNICAL MODEL FORMULATION
Conceptualization of s i t e
c h a r a c t e r i z a t i o n data
DESIGN ANALYSIS
S e l e c t i o n and a p p l i c a t i o n o f
mathematical and computational
schemes f o r study o f t r i a l d e s i g n
ROCK MASS PERFORMANCE MONITORING
Measurement o f the performance

of the host rock mass d u r i n g
and a f t e r e x c a v a t i o n
RETROSPECTIVE ANALYSIS
Q u a n t i f i c a t i o n o f i n s i t u rock mass
p r o p e r t i e s and i d e n t i f i c a t i o n o f
dominant modes of rock mass response
( a f t e r Brown, 1987)
The site characterization (using the g e o t e c h n i c a l parameters
defined i n chapter 7) f o r each case h i s t o r y has been performed
in the field with the assistance of mine staffs. The

formulation of the geotechnical model c o n s i s t s of grouping the
parameters into factors representing the potential sources of
open stope i n s t a b i l i t y (also described i n chapter 7 and figure
7.1). The Mathews e m p i r i c a l method was selected as the most
s u i t a b l e d e s i g n a n a l y s i s approach and served as a g u i d e l i n e for
the model calibration. The rock mass performance for each
stope surface was classified as stable, unstable or caved.
This i s i n accordance w i t h the sub-objective of developing a
method that predicts the overall stability of openings (ref.
section 1.3). The retrospective analysis investigated the
effect of each factor on the accuracy of the prediction of
stope stability. As a result, new parameters have been
created, other parameters have been re-calibrated, and
modifications t o the stability number and s t a b i l i t y graph have
been proposed.
8.2 DATA COLLECTION
The c o l l e c t i o n of data had to be done d u r i n g short mine
visits at the convenience of mine o p e r a t o r s . The first task
was to understand the mine history and layouts, the mining
practices and the extraction sequence. Areas of the mine were
subsequently selected for in-depth study and case histories
were investigated. The use of equipment was reduced to the
minimum: a high power spot light, a Brunton compass and a
geological hammer. Direct underground observational methods
212
such as rock mass c l a s s i f i c a t i o n and geological mapping were
used t o c h a r a c t e r i z e the rock mass. The parameters measured by
more sophisticated equipment (pre-mining stress and uniaxial
compressive s t r e n g t h ) were p r o v i d e d by the mines from existing
in-house or c o n s u l t a n t s t u d i e s .
8.3 DATA BASE
The total data base i s comprised of 175 case histories
from Canadian open stope mining o p e r a t i o n s . The information i n
the data base i n c l u d e s : the rock mass characterization, the
stress c o n d i t i o n and physical c o n d i t i o n s a s s o c i a t e d with the
case histories. On some o c c a s i o n s , i t was not p o s s i b l e to
estimate a l l the parameters with c o n f i d e n c e due t o the l a c k of
access for site characterization, or the lack of background
information (no stress measurements for instance). For this
reason, the total data base has been d i v i d e d i n t o a main data
base c o n t a i n i n g the accurate data, and a complementary data
base c o n t a i n i n g i n f o r m a t i o n t h a t i s less accurate. Data from
literature has also been included i n the complementary data
base. The geomechanical model d e s c r i b e d i n chapter 7, w i l l be
calibrated with the main data base and confirmed using the
complementary data base. Each data base i s p r e s e n t e d on two
tables: one providing the background information for the
calculation of the geotechnical parameters, and the second
containing the parameter rating and the modified stability
213
number f o r each case h i s t o r y . The f o u r f a c t o r s i n v o l v e d i n the
calculation of the modified stability number (block size,
stress, critical joint and g r a v i t y ) are shown as headings on
all the tables, i n order to facilitate the identification of
t h e i r r e l e v a n t parameters and background i n f o r m a t i o n .
8.3.1 D e s c r i p t i o n o f the main data base
The main data base i n c l u d e s 84 case h i s t o r i e s . Table 8.1
shows the background i n f o r m a t i o n f o r the main data base. The
first three columns identify the case histories by a mine
number (at the request of many o p e r a t i o n s , mine names have been
kept anonymous) , a case number and the stope surface
investigated. Column 4 i s the b l o c k s i z e f a c t o r (RQD/Jn). The
stress condition is given in column 5 for compression and
column 6 f o r r e l a x a t i o n . T h i s i s determined u s i n g the induced
stress graph (figures 7.7 to 7.17) and confirmed where
possible with underground visual observations of stress
effects. Four types of background data are r e q u i r e d f o r the
characterization of the e f f e c t of j o i n t o r i e n t a t i o n . Column 7
shows the d i f f e r e n c e i n d i p between the c r i t i c a l j o i n t and the
designed stope s u r f a c e and column 8 i s the r e l a t i v e difference
in strike. Column 9 g i v e s an indication of the a n i s o t r o p y of
the rock mass (blocky rock tends t o be i s o t r o p i c w h i l e foliated
rock tends to be anisotropic). The shear strength of the
critical joint, represented by Jr/Ja, i s found i n column 10.
The e f f e c t of g r a v i t y can be assessed from the d i p of the

TABLE 8.1 Background i n f o r m a t i o n f o r t h e main d a t a base.
JOINT ORIENTATION FACTOR [ EFFECT OF GRAVITY ! ! SIZE !
; BLOCK ; | STRESS ! ! AND !
; SIZE i ! FACTOR JJ CRITICAL BLOCK i SHEAR ; SLIDING ! FREEFALL/ | ! SHAPE ;
j FACTOR I JOINT SHAPE ! STREN. BUCKLING !
! ! 1 FACTOR 1
JHINE CASK PLANE ! ! RQD ;! COMP RELAX j J DIP ! STRK BLOCKY/ ! J f ! CRITICAL ; STOPE ! ! HYD. {i ASSESS. TYPE OF FAIL
: 1 ! /Jn 1 ! DIFF J DIFF FOLIATED ! /Ja ! JNT DIP | PLANE D I P i
1 RADIUS !
BEHAVIOUR MODE
1 (1) (2) (3) ', ! (*) : ', <5) (6) ', : o ) ', (8) (9) ! (10) i (ti) : (12) )! (13) :! (14) (15) (16)
! i 1 HW ;! i8 ; ! COMP ! 45 ! 35 BLOCKY ; 3.0 ! 45 ; 90 ', 1 5.0 ; ; STABLE DISC. BLOCK

! ] 2 WALL ;! 6 ! ; COMP ! 5 ! 0 BLOCKY ; 1.0 ! 85 ; 90 ; .' 8.9 ; 1 UNSTABLE JOINTED RM 3a
j 3 3 WALL !! 6 ! | COMP J 5 : 0 BLOCKY ! 1.0 ; 85 ; 90 !! 7 7
! J CAVE JOINTED RM 3a
! 4 4 HW ;! 7
! RELAX ! ! 15 : 0 FOLIATED ! 1-5 ! 30 ; 45 ;! 7
- i ! ; UNSTABLE JOINTED RM 3d
! 5 5 HW ;! *o ! RELAX ! ! 0 ! 90 BLOCKY ; 1.0 ! 90 ! 90 ;! 1 4 . 0 ; 1 STABLE DISC. BLOCK
!
:
5
5
6
7
HW
HW
;!
;!
40
40
;
; ! COMP
RELAX ! !
!
0
15
;
J
90
90
BLOCKY
BLOCKY
;
!
1.0
10
1
! 90
90 ;;
90
7
!!
5
|
1 I STABLE
i 5i -. 2o I! I STABLE
DISC. BLOCK
DISC. BLOCK
! 6 8 HW ;! 6 ! RELAX i ! 30 ! 30 BLOCKY ! 1-5 : 60 1 90 ;; 8 . 5 ! | STABLE JOINTED RM
! 6 10 END ;; 4 ; [ COMP ! 15 ! 0 FOLIATED ; 0.8 ?5 ! 90 ;! 4 . 7 ! ; UNSTABLE JOINTED RM 3c
! 7 12 HW ;! 7
! RELAX ! ! 0 ! 0 BLOCKY ! 0.6 ! 7
5 ! 7
5 !! 9.1 ; ; UNSTABLE JOINTED RH 3b
'.
!
8
9
13
16
HW
BACK
;!
;!
i s ',
25 ! ! COMP
RELAX ; !
I 70
0 !
!
0
0
BLOCKY
BLOCKY 1
; 2.0
0.25
i
!
so
7 0
;
!
so ; !
0 !!
8.3 !
5.8 ; ! 1 STABLE
CAVE
DISC. BLOCK
DISC. BLOCK 2a
! 9 17 BACK !
1 ! COMP ! <> ! 0 BLOCKY ! 0.25 ; 70 ; 0 :i 4.2 : DISC. BLOCK
7
18 HW !! 25
30 i! RELAX ! ! 50 BLOCKY ; 1.0 ! 40 ; 90 ; ; 8 . 8 ; 1; STABLE
STABLE DISC. BLOCK
! ii ! 0
! ii 19 BACK ;1 30 | ! COMP ! 40 ! 0 BLOCKY ; 1.0 ! 40 ; 0 !! 3.5 ; J UNSTABLE DISC. BLOCK la
! 12 20 BACK ;! u ! i COMP ! 20 ! 0 BLOCKY ! 1-5 ! 20 ; 0 !! 1.8 ; ! STABLE DISC. BLOCK
i 12
I 12
21 HW !! ii : RELAX ! ! 10 ! 0 BLOCKY ! 1-5 ! 65 !
55
!
1 4.7 !
1, STABLE
STABLE
DISC. BLOCK
| 12
22
23
HW
BACK
;!
;1 ii
H I
! | COMP
!
RELAX 1 !
10
20 1
! 0
0
BLOCKY
BLOCKY
!
!
1-5
1-5 !
65
20
;
|
55 ', ;
0 !!
s.s
2.1
:'
; I STABLE
JOINTED RM
DISC. BLOCK
! 13 24 BACK ;! 1 7
! J COMP ! 30 ! 0 BLOCKY 1 2.0 ! 30 | 0 !! 10.5 i ; CAVE DISC. BLOCK 2a
1 13 25 BACK ;! 1 7
! i COMP ; 30 ! 0 BLOCKY | 2.0 ! 30 ; 0 ;! ii-3 !; CAVE DISC. BLOCK 2a
! n
! 13
26
27
BACK
BACK
;
; 1 1
17
7
i
! COMP
! ', COMP
;
!
30
30
!
!
0
0
BLOCKY
BLOCKY
!
I
2.0
2.0
;
', 30
30 ;
;
0
0
;!
;;
12.2 ! ;
4.11
CAVE JOINTED RM
DISC. BLOCK
2a
-6 ; 1 ; STABLE
! 13 28 WALL ;! 8 ; RELAX !! 0
1 BLOCKY
1 ! 90 i 90 :! STABLE JOINTED RM
7
! 13 29 WALL ;! RELAX ;! 10 BLOCKY ! 21.5

.0 ' 90 : j 7 . 6 ! 1 STABLE DISC. BLOCK
1 7
! 10 ! 10 ! BO !
! 13
! 1*
30
31
HW
HW
!
;! 1 1
90
7
!!
RELAX
RELAX
J !
i!
20
90
!
!
10
N/A
BLOCKY
BLOCKY
!
!
2.0
1.0
1
! N/A
so ;
;
60 ; !
90 ;!
9.0 ;
16.6 ; ! 1 STABLE
STABLE
DISC. BLOCK
DISC. BLOCK
I 14
! 1*
32
33
BACK
HW
i !
;!
90
90
;
; 1 COMP RELAX i ! 1 90
90
!
!
N/A
N/A
BLOCKY
BLOCKY
!
;
1.0
1.0
!
!
N/A
N/A
|
I
0 i!
90 ;|
4 . 0 ! i STABLE
23.0 ! ! STABLE
INTACT ROCK
DISC. BLOCK
34
! 14
! 15 35
BACK
BACK
!!
;!
90
6 !!
; ; COMP
COMP 1
!
90
0
I
!
N/A
0
BLOCKY
BLOCKY
!
!
1.0
1-5
;
!
N/A 1
20 !
0 '. ;
20 1 !
1 0 . 7 J ', STABLE
1 0 . 5 | J CAVE
DISC. BLOCK
JOINTED RM 3a
! is 36 HW ;! 6 !! COMP J 20 ! 25 BLOCKY ; 1.5 i 80 ; 60 -| ! 9 . 0 ; ! STABLE JOINTED RM
; 19 53 BACK ;! 29 ;! COMP ! 10 ! 0 BLOCKY ! 1.5 ; 10 i 0 !! 2 . 4 ; I STABLE INTACT ROCK
! 19 54 BACK ;! 29 J ! COMP ! 10 ! 0 BLOCKY ! 1.5 ! 10 ! 0 !! 6.8 ! J CAVE DISC. BLOCK 2a
55
; 19
! 19 56 BACK 1J !
WALL
! 29
4
|
!1 COMP
;
RELAX 1 !
10
0
!
!
0
0
BLOCKY
FOLIATED 1
J 01.5
.5
!
'!
10
90
!
J
0 i!
90 ! !
8.0 ;
1 9 . 0 : J1 CAVE
CAVE
DISC. BLOCK
JOINTED RM
2a
3d
! i ' 57 BACK ; ! 29 ;! COMP : 10 ! 0 BLOCKY ! 1-5 '! 10 ! 0 ;! 3.7 1 STABLE DISC. BLOCK
! 19 58 i WALL ; J 29 ;; COMP ; so ! 90 BLOCKY ! 1-5 ! 8 ; 90 ; : 8.4 i! STABLE DISC. BLOCK
I 19 59 WALL ! ! 4 j! COMP : 0 ! 0 FOLIATED ! 0.5 ! 90 ! 90 ! ! 4.5 !! STABLE JOINTED RM
; 20
! 20
61
62
; HW
! FW
|!
;!
1
1
7
7
!;
!!
COMP
COMP
!
!
0
0
!
!
0
0
FOLIATED
FOLIATED
I
!
1.5
1-5
I
! 7
70
o
;
!
70 ! !
70
!
1 7
7
-5
-5
!
!!1 STABLE
STABLE
DISC. BLOCK
DISC. BLOCK
t 1 t " It t 1 1 1 1 1 II 1 1 1 , 1 1 1 1
TABLE 8.1 Background i n f o r m a t i o n f o r t h e main d a t a base (cont).
JOINT ORIENTATION FACTOR EFFECT OF GRAVITY SIZE
BLOCK STRESS AND
SIZE FACTOR CRITICAL BLOCK SHEAR SLIDING FREEFALL/ SHAPE
FACTOR JOINT SHAPE STREN. BUCKLING FACTOR
NE CASE PLANE RQD COMP RELAX DIP STRK BLOCKY/ CRITICAL STOPE HYD. ASSESS. TYPE OF
I /Jn DIFF DIFF FOLIATED /Ja JNT DIP PLANE DIP RADIUS BEHAVIOUR
(1) (2) (3) ! (4) ! (5) [ (6) || (7) j (8) (9) | (10) J (11) I (12) | 1 (13) 1 (14) (15) (16)
22 132 ! HW ! 6 ; ; RELAX | i 10 ! 20 FOLIATED i 1.0 | 80 j 90 |i 5.6 I STABLE JOINTED RH

22 133 HW ! 6 ! COMP !
!1 I
io i 0
20 FOLIATED | 1.0 ! 80 | 90 I
1 6.7
| STABLE JOINTED RM |
22 134 BACK ! 5 i COMP j
!! 30
BLOCKY J 10 l 30
0 1 !1 1-9
| STABLE DISC. BLOCK |
22 135 BACK ! 13 ; COHP j
11
!! 50 50 | | 0
0 BLOCKY | 2.0 ; 50 |
0 1', '2 1 | STABLE DISC. BLOCK |
22 136 BACK ! 13 ! COMP ! BLOCKY | 2.0 |
50 1| 0
1 2.4
22 137 BACK ; 13 ! COMP ! II 50 | 0 BLOCKY |
2.0 1| J 50 0 !I 2.9 | STABLE
DISC. BLOCK 1
22 138 BACK {; 13 I COMP !
501! |
0 BLOCKY i 2.0 50 !
0 1| ! 3.1 I STABLE DISC. BLOCK !
22
22
139
140
BACK
HW
i
;!
13
8
! COMP !
; COMP ; 1 0
II i o 50 | | 0
BLOCKY
FOLIATED
j
! 2.0
1.0 1I 50
70
|
| 700 1I I 3.0
7-5
I STABLE
| STABLE
DISC. BLOCK
JOINTED RM
|
|
22 141 HW ',; 8 i COHP ; i i o | 0
FOLIATED 1J
FOLIATED
1.0 ;
70 1 70 1| ! 8.1 | UNSTABLE JOINTED RH | 3c
22 142 HW ;; 8 ! COMP ! II 4 | 0 1.0 |
70 1| 66
1 5.3
22 143 HW !! 8 | COMP ! !! 7 | 0
FOLIATED 1|
10 | 70
63 1 || 5.7 | STABLE JOINTED RM ]
22 144 BACK ;; 8 ! COMP ! !! i o | 0 BLOCKY
1.0 1|!! 10 |
0 1 1.9 I STABLE DISC. BLOCK {
22 145
BACK' !l
8 ! COMP ! II io I 0 BLOCKY | l.o io ;
0 1 || 1.8 | STABLE DISC. BLOCK |
22 146 BACK ;; 8 ! COHP I
!! io
0
1 BLOCKY | 1.0 I 10 |
00 1I 2.1
1| UNSTABLE DISC. BLOCK I
2a
22 147 BACK ;! 8 ! COMP !
II i o
0
1 BLOCKY |
1.0 | i 10 |
1 2-3
UNSTABLE DISC. BLOCK 1 2a
23 148 BACK !! 11 ', COHP ! II o ) 0
BLOCKY 1
2.0 l!
700 1| 700 1| 1 5.0 1 STABLE
DISC. BLOCK
|1
23 149 HW ;| 5 ! ! RELAX ;! o ! 0 0.1 || JOINTED RH 3d
FOLIATED 1|
FOLIATED 9.0 1 CAVE
I1
23 150
HW ; i 5 ; COMP ; II o | 0 o.i I! 70 | 70 JOINTED RM 3c
11.3 1 CAVE
27 151 BACK ;; 15 ; COMP ; II io I 0
BLOCKY 1|
2.0 !| 10 ; 0
1 10.0 I1 CAVE
DISC. BLOCK 2a
27 152 BACK ;; 15
1 COMP ; II io | 0 BLOCKY
2.0 1
|| |
10 | 0 1| | 6.7 STABLE DISC. BLOCK
27 153 WALL !] 15 ; ; RELAX ]; o ; 45
BLOCKY 1
2.0 90 | 90
1 18.0
| STABLE JOINTED RM
28 155 HW. |; 16 ; ! RELAX I; 10 ! 15
BLOCKY 1 2.0 1| 80 1 90 1| | 9.7 ] STABLE DISC. BLOCK
28 , 156 END ;! 16
1; COHP
COHP ; !! io 1I 75
BLOCKY 1 2.0 11| | 80 1| 90
|1 5.6 1| STABLE
DISC. BLOCK
28 157 FW ! 9 ; II io 25
BLOCKY 1
1.8 80 90
1 8.4
STABLE JOINTED RH
28 158 BACK ]! 10
1 COMP i 1II1 20o ;|
0
BLOCKY 1|
2.5 || 20 |
0 1| 3.4
1| STABLE
DISC. BLOCK
28 159 BACK ;, 8 ! COHP ; 0 BLOCKY 2.0 ||
700 1| 900 1| 1 7.6
CAVE JOINTED RM 3a
29 161 WALL i; 3
1 COHP ! II 20 1 0
BLOCKY 1|
FOLIATED 1.0 1
| j 1 20.0
| CAVE JOINTED RH 3c
30
30
164
165
BACK |1
i
14
14 1! COHP !! RELAX !| 60011 1I 0
0 BLOCKY |
1.5
60
90 1| 900 1J !| 8.6
9.9
I CAVE DISC. BLOCK
JOINTED RH
2a
HW I 1.5 11 1 STABLE
30 166
FW | j
9
I| COHP JI RELAX U 10
J1
0
FOLIATED 1I 1-5 11 80 1 90 1I 1| 9.9 1| UNSTABLE
JOINTED RM 3d
31 170 BACK ;; 18 i! 35 60 BLOCKY 1.5 IJlI 65 1 30 12.5 CAVE JOINTED RM 3a
31 171 BACK ;; 18
II COMP
COMP 1I
II 35 | 60 BLOCKY | 1.5
65 1 30
|1
',
15.0 1 CAVE
JOINTED RM 3a
31 172 BACK !! 18 II 35 | 60 BLOCKY | 1.5 !|
65 1! 30 I 15.9 | CAVE JOINTED RM 3a
31 173 BACK I; 18 | COMP |
1 ! 35 60
| 60 BLOCKY 1|
15 | 65
30 1| !I 7-7 I STABLE DISC. BLOCK
31 174 BACK !] 18
1I COHP
COHP 1; 11 35 | BLOCKY 1.5 i; 65 | 30 5.4 | STABLE DISC. BLOCK
31 175
BACK ;1!
WALL
18
1 1 20 25
| 60 BLOCKY 1J
1-5 | 70 I
90 1J 1 11.6
| UNSTABLE DISC. BLOCK 2a
31 176 18
1| COMP
COHP 1|
!'. *5 | BLOCKY
1.5 1J| 65 | 20
1 7.3
I STABLE DISC. BLOCK
31 177 BACK ! 18
1 ! *5 60
| 60
BLOCKY | 1.5
65 1 20 1| 9.9 | STABLE DISC. BLOCK |
31 178 18
1 1 *5 1l1 1| 1| 1| 2a
BACK ; I COHP j DISC. BLOCK |
|0 BLOCKY 1 1.5 65 20 l t6.9
.l 1 UNSTABLE
32 1 180 ; HW ; 6 | COMP |
1 ! 0 | 0
FOLIATED I .1-0 70 70
1| UNSTABLE
JOINTED RH | 3c
32 183 ; WALL ; 16 ! COMP | II 0 |
BLOCKY 1
1-5 J 90 |
90 1 || 4.9 STABLE DISC. BLOCK |
32 ; 184 1 HW ; 6 ', COHP ;
11 0 | 0 1.0 J 80 |
1 6.7 J STABLE JOINTED RH |
1
FOLIATED 1 80
critical joint (column 11) i n the case of a s l i d i n g mode of
failure and by t h e i n c l i n a t i o n o f the designed stope surface
(column 12) f o r the o t h e r modes o f f a i l u r e . Stope s i z e and
shape a r e accounted f o r by h y d r a u l i c radius, column 13. The
assessment o f the stope plane s t a b i l i t y i s g i v e n i n column 14.
The mode o f f a i l u r e can be determined using figure 6.18 and
columns 4 t o 12.
The second table (8.2) c o n t a i n s the c a l c u l a t e d input
parameters necessary f o r the d e s i g n a n a l y s i s . I t i s based on
the background information previously described ( t a b l e 8.1).
Columns 2, 4, 10, 13 and 14 have been kept identical to table
8.1. Column 17 i s the induced stress factor calculated from
figure 7.4. The magnitude o f induced stress (ay) can be
estimated from figures 7.7 t o 7.17 according t o t h e mining
direction (longitudinal/ transverse), stope geometry and p r e -
mining stress field. The c r i t i c a l joint factor can be read
from figure 7.19. The d i f f e r e n c e i n d i p and s t r i k e o f the
critical joint necessary t o read figure 7.19 a r e found i n
columns 7 and 8 o f t a b l e 8.1. The c r i t i c a l joint shear index
(Jr/Ja) i s given i n column 10. Column 19 i s the sliding
gravity f a c t o r and i s e v a l u a t e d u s i n g f i g u r e 7.21 and column 11
of t a b l e 8.1. Column 20 i s the g r a v i t y f a c t o r used f o r other
modes o f f a i l u r e and i s estimated w i t h f i g u r e 7.20 and column
12 o f t h e background i n f o r m a t i o n t a b l e (8.1). Hydraulic radius
(col. 13) and stope assessment ( c o l . 14) a r e taken directly
from t a b l e 8.1. Finally, the s t a b i l i t y number ( c o l . 21) i s
217
TABLE 8.2 I n p u t p a r a m e t e r s from t h e main d a t a base n e c e s s a r y
f o r open s t o p e d e s i g n b a c k - a n a l y s i s .
; ILOCX STRESS J O I N T ORIENTATION ) : EFFECT ;
: sizz FACTOR FACTOR

i OF c u v m
CASE j
: IQD (REF. CRITICAL Jc 1 SLIDINC FREEFALL/ 1 ; HYD. N ASSESS. 1
; /Jn FIC. 7.4) JOINT /J SLABBING ; RADIUS
(2) ' : <*> (17) (18) (10) : <i9) (20) ; :

(i3> (21) (i*) :
I
: is
; 1.0
0.2
0.65 3.0 ;: 6.5 :s.o 228 STABLE 1
23 :; 66 0.1 0.20.25 i.o : :: 2.2.5s ;

8.9 0.7 UNSTABLE ;
1.0 i.o : !
7.7 0.3 CAVE ;
4 : 7
0.2 1.5 | 3.7 ! 1 7.1 7.8 UNSTABLE 1
S !
!1 40 1.0
1.0 1.0
1.0 i.o ; a.o ; 1 14.0 320 STABLE ,'
6 \ 40
1.0 j 8.0 ! ;: u.o 320 STABLE 1
7 : 40 1.0
1.0
1.0
i.o :: 6.5 1 5.2 260 STABLE 1
8 i ! 6
0.4
1.5
i 5.0 :: s.4.7s 18 STABLE 1
i12o ;; ', | 4 0.3

0.2 o.i : J 3.5 0.7 UNSTABLE |
7
1.0 0.2 o.6
2.0 ;; 6-5 i ! 9.1 5.5 UNSTABLE |
13
; is 1.0
0.2 7.0 ! 8.3 42 STABLE 1
it i ! 25 0.25 ; 2.0 ! ! 5.8

!
0.1
0.1 0.15 1.1 CAVE !
17 i i 25 1.0 0.85 0.25 ; 2.o ; : 4.2 1.1 STABLE t
is
19 :: ! 30 0.1 0.6 i.o ; 8.0 !
: 8.8
144 STABLE ;
20 ; ! 30 i.o :; 2.0 : ! 3.5 UNSTABLE |

0.4 1.5 2.4
I 11
1.0
1.0 0.2 2.0 ! ! l-> 6.6 STABLE 1
ii22 ;; i U 0.2 1.5 i i 4.7 15 STABLE ',
! ll 0.2 l.s :: .s
4-5
2.0 ;; ::
!
1.0
1.0 1.5 >2.1.8 15 STABLE 1
23 1 ; ' ! 11
t7 1.0 0.2 2.0 :: 6.6 STABLE 1
24
25
!
; 1.0 0.2 2.o ; IO.S 14 CAVE !
17 i 1.0 0.2 2.0 J 2.0 i ! 11.3 14 CAVE ;
22?6 ;! I 1.0 0.2 2.0 ; 2.o ; i 12.2 14 CAVE !
! 17
17 ! 4.1 14
1.0 0.2 2.0 1 2.0 ; !
STABLE 1
28
25
: !
:!
8 0.3
i.s ;1
2.0 2.o : 7.6
6.9
20
STABLE !
;
17
17
1.0
1.0 0.2 2.0 ; 3.0 ! 7.6 STABLE !
i 1.0 0.2 5.0 i 1 9.0 34 STABLE ,'
3i : : 9090
30 1.0
i.o ; >.o ; : i6.6 720 STABLE !
3332 !: : 90
I
0.1
1.0
i.o ; 2.0 J I 4.0 18
i.o j i.o ;; :i 210.7

3.0 720
STABLE j
STABLE 1
1.0 1.0
1.0 2.0
3* !; 90 0.4
i.o :: 72 STABLE 1
35 i | 6
0.6
0.3 1.5
2.3 ,' ! 10.5 3.9 CAVE :
36 :: ;
53
6 0.9 0.3
i.s ; 5.0 ! :: 9.2.4o 13 STABLE 1
:! 29 i.s ; 2.2.0o :: STABLE 1

0.5 0.2
0.2 8.a
5*
i 29 0.5 i.s : ; 6.8 8.8 CAVE !
ss : J 0.5
0.2
i.s ; 2.0 ! ; a.o 8.8 CAVE 1
5576 :: 1.0
a.o ; :
294
;
0.2
0.3
0.2 o.s ; i9.o 5.2
! 29 i.s ;: 2.o ; :1 3.5
CA
ST AB
VLEE J{
1.0 1.0 1.5 3.7
; ;! 294 8.o : 352
58 ; 8.4 STABLE 1
1.0
59
1.0
0.3
o.s ; 8.0 ! ! 4.5 5.2 STABLE !
6i ;
;! 171' 1.0
0.3
i.s : 6.o :! i
4.0 7.5 45
1.5 i 3100
62 .: SS T
TAAB
BLLE
E J[
0.3 : 7-s
132 :! 6 1.0
0.2 i.o ; a.o : ! 5.6 STABLE 1
133
134
;!
;
6 1.0
0.1
0.2
0.2 i.o : a.o ; 1 6.7 9.4
STABLE !
; 5 i.o
2.0 :; 2.0 ', ', 1.9 0.2 S TA
ABBL
LEE J1
135 !: ;; 1313 0.6 0.6
2.0 : 2.o : 1 2.1 19 ST
136 0.5 0.6
2.0 : 2.
2.0o :: ! 2.4 16 STABLE |
137
138 ;; ;! 1313 0.4
0.6 2.0 ; 1 2.9 13 STABLE :
2.0 J 1 3.1 1103

0.4 0.6 STABLE ;
2.0 :
;; 13 2.0 ;| ! 3.0
139 : 0.3 0.6 STABLE 1
:: 8 i.o ; 78.1.5 15
140 1.0 0.3 6.0 STABLE !
1.0 1:
141 ! 8
1.0
0.3
0.2 i.o ; 6.o ; : 15 UNSTABLE !
:: 8 i.o ; s.s ; : 9.2

142 i 5.3 STABLE :
1.0
143 ! 8
0.1 0.2
0.2 i.o ; 5.5 i 5.7
9.2 STABLE ;
144 ;! 8 i.o ; 2.o ; | 1.9 0.3 STABLE ;
145 ;: 8 0.
3
0.1 0.2
0.2 i.o : 2.2.00 !; ;: i.s
2.1 1.0
STABLE !
:: s i.o :
146 ;
0.1 0.2 2.0 :: 2.3 0.3
147
: s i.o :;
UN
U NS
STTA
ABBL
LEE 1I
0.2 2.0 0.3
148 ;; ! 11
0.7
1.0 0.2
2.0 ;
: s.o 5.9 STABLE 1
149
150 ; ; s 1.0 0.2 o.i : 6.o ; | 9.0 0.8
CAVE ;
;: s 6.2.0o :; ! 11.3 CAVE :

151 : 15 0.4 0.2 0.1
2.0 ;| : IO.O 0.8 CAVE !
152 ; 1.0 2.0 : 2.0 :: 6.7 4.8
12
! 15 0.2
STABLE !
153 i !: 15i6 1.0

1.0
0.5
0.2
2.0 :
a.o ; ;: u.o
9.7 120 STABLE 1
155 ! 0.1 1.0

2.0
2.0
;
:: i 3.3.00 19
10
STABLE ;
156 ;: !! 169 1.0 0.2 : s.8.46 STABLE :

157
is8 ; 0.1 0.2 i.8 : 8.0 i : 26 STABLE 1
;: io 2.s :: 1.0 STABLE ',

159 0.2 2.0 2.0 ', 3.4
! 8
oa
1.0 0.2 2.o ; ;; 7.6
20.0 0.6
CAVE 1
161 ; :; 3
i.o ;: s.o : 4.8 CAVE :
116564 ;: 14 0.1
1.0
0.8
0.2
1.5
2.0 ! :: 8.9.96 3.3 CAVE :
:: u9 1.0 i.s : 8.o : : 31 STABLE ',

166 ;
1.0
0.2
i.s ;; i 3.0
9.9 8.3
! 18 2-8 i ; 60
170 ; 0.8 1.5 U NCS A
TVAE
BLE I|
1.0 i2.s
171 ;; : is 0.8 i.s ; 2.8 :1 15.0 60 CAVE !
;: is i.s :; ;: 60
172 1.0 0.8 2.8 ; CAVE 1
is.9
; ; is ! 7.7 60
173 1.0 1.5 2.8 STABLE 1
1.0 0.8
;! 18 i 60
174 0.8 1.5 ; STABLE !
i7s 2.8 5.4
: i< 0.5 0.3
i.s : B.O ;;
: u.6 32 UNSTABLE |
176 j; i> 0.5

0.
0 . 8855 1.5 ', 2.5 ', ! 7.9.9
3 29
177 i: is 1.5 | 2.5 ; 29
0.5 ST
S TA
ABBL
LEE i!
178 ; ! 18
0.5
1.0 0.0.385 I.S :
2-5 : : u.i 2109
180 ;: i.o ! 6.o : :: 6.4.99
6 UNSTABLE i
183 ; 166 ! s.7.0o :; 5.812

0.1 0.3 U SNTS A
TBAL
BEL E II
1.0 1.5
184 ;; 0.3
i.o ! ! 6.7
STABLE 1
218
c a l c u l a t e d by m u l t i p l y i n g columns 4,17,18, 10 and (19 or 20).
8.3.2 D e s c r i p t i o n o f t h e complementary d a t a base
The complementary data base is comprised of 91 case
histories. It was built using the same principles (and
parameters) as the main data base. The background information
is displayed on t a b l e 8.3 and the d e s i g n parameters are shown
on table 8.4. As mentioned before, i t i s composed of case
histories which have some degree of uncertainty in the
e v a l u a t i o n of one or more parameters, and d a t a from literature.
The data from literature originate from the PhD thesis of R.
Pakalnis (1986). A t o t a l of 68 w e l l documented case h i s t o r i e s
of open stopes a t the Ruttan operation i n n o r t h e r n Manitoba
(mine 21 o f the data base) have been s e l e c t e d from the P a k a l n i s
study and form the m a j o r i t y of the complementary data base.
8.4 CALIBRATION OF THE FACTORS COMPOSING THE MODIFIED
STABILITY NUMBER
The c a l i b r a t i o n of the f o u r f a c t o r s composing the m o d i f i e d
stability number (block size, stress, joint orientation and
gravity) was carried out following the design approach
described i n section 8.1. Because of the e m p i r i c a l nature of
the c a l i b r a t i o n , the v a l u e o f the r a t i n g s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h the
factors is completely arbitrary. However, their relative
w e i g h t i n g must be r e p r e s e n t a t i v e of the i n f l u e n c e o f the
219
TABLE 8.3 Background i n f o r m a t i o n f o r t h e complementary data
base.
J O I N T ORIENTATION FACTOR E F F E C T OF GRAVITY SIZE
BLOCK STRESS AND
; SIZE ;! FACTOR !! CRITICAL BLOCK SHEAR j SLIDING FRKEFALL/ ! i SHAPE 1
; FACTOR ;; STREN. BUCKLING i i FACTOR !
! JOINT SHAPE
i
|HINE CASE PLANE ; ) RQD !! C0HP ! RELAX \ i DIP i STRK BLOCKY/ Jr STOPE i ! HYD. i; ASSESS. T Y P E OF FAIL
1 CRITICAL
t II ! /Jn ! ! J | | DIFF | DIFF FOLIATED /Ja | JNT DIP PLANE D I P i i RADIUS ! BEHAVIOUR MODE
(1) (2) (3) !! (4) i! (5) j (6) ;! (7) i (8) (9) (10) i (ID (12) !! (13) !! (14) (15) (16)
21 64 HW ; ! 4
!| i RELAX ! ! o ! o FOLIATED 1.5 i '65 65 ii 6.0 !; STABLE J O I N T E D RM
21 65 HW ; ! 4 !; ; RELAX ; ! o i o FOLIATED 1.5 ! 65
65 1; i i2.o ;! CAVE J O I N T E D RH 3d
i1
21 66 HW ; ! 3 i; ; RELAX ; ! o i o FOLIATED 0.8 ! 82 82 ! STABLE J O I N T E D RM
3.o ;
21 67 HW ; ! 3 i! ; RELAX ; ! o ! o FOLIATED 0.8 ! 82 82
1 9.o ;| J1 UNSTABLE
J O I N T E D RM 3d
21 68 HW ; ! 3 !| ! RELAX ; ! o i o FOLIATED 0.8
1 82
82 J ! 12.0 CAVE J O I N T E D RH 3d
21
21
69
70
HW
HW
;
; ! 1 18
6
!|
!!
!
;
RELAX
RELAX
;
;
!
t
o
o
:
i
o
0
FOLIATED
FOLIATED 0.8
3.0
;1 55
90
55
90
;;
;i
i6.o
5.o
;I
;
UNSTABLE J O I N T E D RH
J O I N T E D RH
3d
3d
21 71 HW ; ! 6 ;; ; RELAX ! 0 i o FOLIATED 0.8 ; 90 90 |i 8.o ; ;1 UNSTABLE
CAVE J O I N T E D RH 3d
21
21
72
73
HW
HW
|
; 11 16
i !!
ii
;
;
RELAX
RELAX
;
; !
0
0
!
i
o
o
FOLIATED
FOLIATED
0.25
3.0 1
! 25
90
25
90
!;
ii
i6.o
7.0
;i
;J
CAVE
STABLE
J O I N T E D RH
D I S C . BLOCK
3d
21 74 HW ; ! 8 ;! ! RELAX ! 0 i o FOLIATED 1.5 i 55 55 ii 2.0 ;; STABLE D I S C . BLOCK

21 75 HW ; ! 8 !; i RELAX ! 0 ! o FOLIATED 1.5 I 55 55 i! no ;! STABLE J O I N T E D RM
21 76 HW I! is i i ! RELAX i 0 ! o FOLIATED 3.0 ; 60 60 iI 5.o ;! STABLE D I S C . BLOCK
21
21
77
78
HW
HW
;
; ! 33 11!! ;
i
RELAX
RELAX
!
;
0
0
i
i
o
o
FOLIATED
FOLIATED
0.25
0.25
;
;
90
so
90
80
i!
;i
14.0
6.0
;!
!!
CAVE
CAVE
J O I N T E D RM
J O I N T E D RM
3d
3d
21
21
79
80
HW
HW
]
;
3
i i i
;; !
!
RELAX
RELAX
;
;
0
0 1 oo
FOLIATED
FOLIATED
0.25
0.25
:
:
so
25
80
'5
i;
i!
10.0
n o
;|
;;
CAVE
CAVE
J O I N T E D RH
J O I N T E D RH
3d
3d
21 81 HW ; i is :; ; RELAX l 0 i FOLIATED 3.0 ; 60 60 !! 9.0 |J STABLE D I S C . BLOCK
21 82 HW ; ! 3 ;; i RELAX ; 0 i 0
FOLIATED 0.8 i 65 65 ii 6.0 ;; UNSTABLE J O I N T E D RH 3d
21 83 HW ; ; l-s ;; ; RELAX ; 0 i o FOLIATED 1.5 i 62 62 !i i3.o ;; CAVE J O I N T E D RH Id
O 84
21 HW ;
i
i is : i
i RELAX 1
0 1 o FOLIATED 3.0 i 55 55 i; IO.O ;
1 STABLE
D I S C . BLOCK
21 85 HW
! ' 1i ; RELAX ! 0 i o FOLIATED 3.0 1i 65 65 ;i 4.0 ;1 STABLE
D I S C . BLOCK
21 86 HW ; i 20 :; 0 i o FOLIATED 3.0 66 66 ;i i.o ;! STABLE INTACT ROCK
1 RELAX ;
87 i
! 21 FW
1 20 ;; ; RELAX ] 0 i o FOLIATED 3.0 ! 66 66 ;i 12.0 |; UNSTABLE D I S C . BLOCK 2d
1! 2121 88
89
HW
HW
|
|
1
1
20
20
;;
;;
;
;
RELAX I
RELAX ;
0
0
i
i
o
o
FOLIATED
FOLIATED 0.8
0.8 I
|
90
90
90
90
:!
:i
4.0
n.o
;I
i
STABLE D I S C . BLOCK
D I S C . BLOCK
; 1; SS T
TAAB
BLLE
] 1 1!
! 21 90 HW | ; RELAX ; 0 FOLIATED 0.25 ! 52 52 ii 3.0 E J O I N T E D RM
! 21 91 HW ! 33 !; || ! RELAX ; 0 o
o FOLIATED 0.25 i 52 52 ii n.o iJ CAVE J O I N T E D RM 3d
j !
i
!
21
21
92
93
HW
HW ;
3
3
;!
i i
!
|
RELAX !
RELAX ]
0
0
1! o
o
FOLIATED
FOLIATED
0.25
0.25
!
i
65
65
65
65
!
:!1 2.0
7.0 ;i !
! STABLE
CAVE
D I S C . BLOCK
J O I N T E D RM 3d
21 94 HW ;
3 1! i; RELAX 1;
0 i o FOLIATED 0.25
1 65
65 !i 9.0 !! CAVE J O I N T E D RM 3d
21
21
95
96
HW
HW
;
;
3 i i
i i ! ;
RELAX
RELAX ;
0
0
i
i
o
o
FOLIATED
FOLIATED
0.25
0.25 1i 65
28
65
78
!!
J i
16.0
8.0
i!
;!
CAVE
CAVE
J O I N T E D RM
J O I N T E D RM
3d
3d
21 97 HW ] ii 0 i o FOLIATED 0.25 i 90 90 ;i 3.0 J! UNSTABLE J O I N T E D RM 3d
1 RELAX ;
21
21
98
99
HW
HW
;
J 8i 1;;! i
i
RELAX
RELAX
]
!
0
0 !
i o
FOLIATED
FOLIATED
0.25
2.0
!
i
90
65
90
65
|i
i!
5.0
3.o
!;
;!
CAVE
STABLE
J O I N T E D RH
D I S C . BLOCK
3d
21 100 HW | t 3 i; ; RELAX ; 0 i o FOLIATED 1.0 i 60 60 ;I 3.0 !{ STABLE J O I N T E D RM

21 101 HW ] 3 i! ; RELAX ; 0 i FOLIATED 1.0 i 60 60 i! 6.o ;{ UNSTABLE J O I N T E D RM 3d
21 102 HW ; 3 ii i RELAX ! 0 i o FOLIATED 1.0 ; 60 60 ;! i4.o ;j CAVE J O I N T E D RM 3d
1 21 103 HW ; 1 6 ii ; RELAX ; 0 ! o FOLIATED 0.25 ! 63 63 J ! 3.o !I STABLE D I S C . BLOCK
! 21 104 HW ; ! 6 | i ! RELAX ; 0 ! o FOLIATED 0.25 i 63 63 ;! 8.o ;! UNSTABLE J O I N T E D RM 3d
I1
1 21
I
21 105
106
HW
HW
;
; !! 6 !
! RELAX i 0
0
! o FOLIATED 0.25
2.0
!
!
63
20
63
70
!!
!!
no
io.o
!;
;j
CAVE J O I N T E D RM 3d
15 i ! RELAX ! i o FOLIATED STABLE D I S C . BLOCK
! 21 107 HW ; ! 2. ! | ! RELAX ; 0 ! o FOLIATED 0.8 ! 80 80 ;! 4.0 ; CAVE J O I N T E D RM 3d
!
!
21
21
108
109
HW
HW
;
; !! 32 11| ! 1 RELAX i
i RELAX i
0
0
i
i
o
o
FOLIATED
FOLIATED
0.8
1.0
!
!
80
60
80
60
;!
;!
io.o
6.0
!;
Ii
CAVE
UNSTABLE
J O I N T E D RM
J O I N T E D RM
3d
3d
! 21 no HW | ! 3 ;; i RELAX J 0 i o FOLIATED 1.0 ! 60 60 ;! n.o !! CAVE J O I N T E D RM 3d
TABLE 8.3 Background i n f o r m a t i o n f o r t h e complementary data
base (cont).
J O I N T ORIENTATION FACTOR E F F E C T OF GRAVITY SIZE
BLOCK STRESS AND
SIZE FACTOR CRITICAL BLOCK SHEAR SLIDING FREEFALL/ SHAPE
FACTOR JOINT SHAPE STREN. BUCKLING FACTOR
|MINE CASE ; RQD ! COMP RELAX ! ! DIP STRK BLOCKY/ Jr ! CRITICAL STOPE ;i HYD. ;! ASSESS. T Y P E OF FAIL
PLANE 1
n II ! /Jn ! | DIFF DIFF FOLIATED /Ja i JNT DIP PLANE D I P ! ! RADIUS ' BEHAVIOUR MODE
(O (2) (3) :! () ! (5) (6) ;! (7) (8) (9) (10) 1 (11) (12) :! (13) !! (14) (15) (16)
21 111 HW ; : 2 j RELAX ! ! o 0 FOLIATED 0.5 ! 72 72 !! 3.o ;! STABLE J O I N T E D RM

! 21 112 HW j ! 2 j RELAX ; ! o 0 FOLIATED 0.5 ! 72 72 !! B.O ! ! UNSTABLE J O I N T E D RM 3d
21 113 HW |! 2 RELAX ; ! o 0 FOLIATED 0.5 ! 72 72 !! 14.0 ]; CAVE J O I N T E D RM 3d
j
! 21 114
HW 1; | 3 RELAX t ! o 0 FOLIATED 0.8 ; 65 65 ;! 2.0 ] ! STABLE D I S C . BLOCK
J 1
! 21 US HW I RELAX i ! o 0 FOLIATED 0.8 ! 65 65 !! s.o ; ; UNSTABLE J O I N T E D RH 3d
33 j
21
21
116
117
HW
HW
|
; ! 4
RELAX | !
RELAX ! !
o
o
0
0
FOLIATED
FOLIATED
0.8
1.5 1I 65
65
65
65
i;
;!
IO.O
io.o
;
! 1I U SNTSAT BA LBEL E
J O I N T E D RM
J O I N T E D RM
3d
21 118 HW ; [ 1 j RELAX i ! o 0 FOLIATED 0.25 J 76 76 ;| 6.0 ] i UNSTABLE J O I N T E D RH 3d

! ! i
I1
21 119 HW RELAX ! o 0 FOLIATED 0.25 ! 76 76 !! 9.0 |J CAVE J O I N T E D RM 3d
21 120 HW J ; I RELAX ; ! o 0 FOLIATED 0.25 i 60 60 ;! i.o ; J O I N T E D RM
21 121 j STABLE
! ,'1 UNSTABLE 3d
21 122
HW
HW !
;
1 l
i
j. RELAX 1!
RELAX
! o 0
0
FOLIATED 0.25
0.25
i
!
60
60
60
60
!!
!;
2.0
u.o !i
J O I N T E D RH
J O I N T E D RM 3d
! o FOLIATED CAVE
21 123 HW ; ; i ; RELAX ; ! o 0 FOLIATED 0.25 ! 65 65 ;; 6.0 !; UNSTABLE J O I N T E D RM 3d
l j
21
21
124
125 HW
HW 1; | l ]
RELAX ;
RELAX !
!
!
o
o
0
0
FOLIATED
FOLIATED
0.25
0.25
!
!
65
71
65
71
;;
!;
io.o
i.o
!!
!!
CAVE
STABLE
J O I N T E D RH
J O I N T E D RH
3d
21 126 HW ; l ; RELAX ! o 0 FOLIATED 0.25 ! 71 71 !| 2.0 |I UNSTABLE J O I N T E D RM 3d

| i
21
21
127
128
HW
HW ; ! 12 1j RELAX |
RELAX ;
!
!
o
o
0
0
FOLIATED
FOLIATED
0.25
0.8
!
I
71
65
71
65
!!
!!
i3.o
7.0
;;
;|
CAVE
STABLE
J O I N T E D RH
D I S C . BLOCK
3d
1! 21 129 HW
; ! l 11 RELAX ', ! o 0 FOLIATED 0.25 I 65
65 1! 12-0 ;i UNSTABLE J O I N T E D RH 3d
21
! 21
130
131
HW
HW ; [ l j
RELAX !
RELAX ',
1! o
o
0
0
FOLIATED
FOLIATED
0.25
0.25
| 60
65
60
65
i!
;I
4.0
3.0
!
1 UNSTABLE
; ; UNSTABLE
J O I N T E D RH
J O I N T E D RH
3d
3d
I
1 76
9
11
WALL
HW
| :
; :
12
5 j
RELAX ;
RELAX I
!
;
io
io
0
0
BLOCKY
BLOCKY
2.0
0.6
;
|
80
70
90
80
|!
;i
4.7
7.9
;
! 1', STABLE
STABLE
D I S C . BLOCK
J O I N T E D RH
! 8 14 HW ; ! 9 RELAX ; ! 6 0 BLOCKY 0.5 | 78 72 !! 8.8 ;! CAVE J O I N T E D RH 3b
! 8 15 HW ; ! 9 | RELAX I ! o 0 BLOCKY 0.5 ! 78 78 J
1 8.8
J O I N T E D RH 3a
! 28 154 BACK ; ! 16 ! COMP ! o 0 BLOCKY 2.0 ! o 0 !! 5.2 !; 1! U NCSATVAEB L E D I S C . BLOCK 2d
! 30 167 HW ; I 9 J RELAX ; ; 20 0 FOLIATED 1.5 ; 70 90 ;
| I! 7.8 1! 1| SS TT A
A BB LL EE
J O I N T E D RM
1! 3030 168
169
HW
BACK
;
1
I !
15
15 !1 COMP
RELAX ! !
!
20
o
0
0
BLOCKY
BLOCKY
1.5
1.5 1! 70
o
90
0 !!
6.0
5.0 ;! STABLE
D I S C . BLOCK
D I S C . BLOCK
! 32 179 BACK ; ! 15 ; COMP ! 70 0 BLOCKY 1.5 ! 70 0 !! 4.1 ;i STABLE D I S C . BLOCK
I 32 181 BACK ; ! 15 ! COHP ! 70 0 BLOCKY 1.5 ! 70 0 :! 4.o !! STABLE D I S C . BLOCK
! 32 182 HW ; ! .15 ; RELAX ! ! o 0 BLOCKY 1.5 I 90 90 !! 4.9 | D I S C . BLOCK
SS T
TAAB LE
E
! 1!
! 16
16
37
38
BACK
BACK
;
;
!
i
45
45
!
I
COHP
COMP
|
!
90
90
0
0
BLOCKY
BLOCKY
2.7
2.7
;
!
90
90 o
o
1!!
| 2.7
6.1
BL
! ! UNSTABLE
I N T A C T ROCK
D I S C . BLOCK 2a
! 16 39 BACK ; ! 45 ; COHP ! 90 0 BLOCKY 2.7 ! 90 o ;| 7.6 | ] UNSTABLE D I S C . BLOCK 2a
', 16 40 BACK ; ! 30 ', COMP ; 90 0 BLOCKY 1.3 ; 90 o !! s.s ; ! UNSTABLE D I S C . BLOCK 2a
! 16 41 BACK I ! 15 ] COMP ! 90 0 BLOCKY 2.6 ! 90 o !! 13.4 | j UNSTABLE J O I N T E D RH 3a
'. 16 42 BACK ; ', 14 ', COMP ! o 0 BLOCKY 1.3 ! o o !! 6.1 i D I S C . BLOCK 2a
! 16 43 BACK ; ! 14 ! COMP ! o 0 BLOCKY 1.3 I 0 o ;! 15.2 ! 1; U NCAVE
STABLE J O I N T E D RH 3a
! 16 44 BACK ; ! 14 ! COMP
1! o
0 BLOCKY 1.3 ! o o ', ; 6.4 ; J UNSTABLE D I S C . BLOCK 2a
!
! 16
17
46
47
HW
BACK
; !
; !
30
9
1 COMP
;
RELAX j
;
o
90
0
0
BLOCKY
BLOCKY
1.3
2.0
|
J
90
90
90
o
|!
!!
i3.i
7.3
! J STABLE
!; CAVE
D I S C . BLOCK
J O I N T E D RH 3a
! 17 | 48 BACK ! ! 9 ! COMP ! 90 0 BLOCKY 2.0 ! 90 o !| 5.0 ! ! UNSTABLE D I S C . BLOCK 2a
!
!
17
17
49
! 50
BACK
BACK
; !
; !
9
9
;
!
COMP
COMP
!
;
90
90
0
0
BLOCKY
BLOCKY
2.0
2.0
;
!
90
90
o
o
',
,' !
1 9.9
6.8 ]]
J
;
CAVE
CAVE
J O I N T E D RM
J O I N T E D RH
3a
3a
TABLE 8.4 I n p u t p a r a m e t e r s from t h e c o m p l e m e n t a r y d a t a base
n e c e s s a r y f o r open s t o p e d e s i g n b a c k - a n a l y s i s .
BLOCK STRESS JOINT ORIENTATION EFFECT
SIZE FACTOR FACTOR OF GRAVITY
CASE'! ! RQD |1 (REF. 1 CRITICAL Jr 1 SLIDING FREEFALL/ J 1 HTO. 1 N 1 ASSESS.
! ', /Jn II FIG. 74) i
1 JOINT /J SLABBING ', 1 RADIUS
(2) ! ! (4) !! (17) 1 (18) (10) 1 (19) (20) 11 (13) 1 (21) : (u)
64 i ! 4 ;] 1 o !1 0.3 1.5 5.5 |! 6 10 STABLE

65 !! 4 |; 1 1.5 12 : CAVE
o 11 0.3 5.5 !i 10
66 ;! 3 :; 1 0.8 STABLE
o 11 0.3 7.0 1 ! 3 1 5.0
67 !: 3 1 0.8 7.o ; ! 9 ! UNSTABLE
0 11
i ; 5.0
0-3
68 ;! 3 ! | 1
o 11 0.3
0.8
7-0 1! 12 ! 5.0 CAVE
69 ;; 1 o ; 3.0 UNSTABLE
70 !!
is ;!
1
1 0.3
0.8
4.5 11 16 ; 73
6 !! o 11 0.3 8.0 1! 5 ! 12 UNSTABLE
!1 1 o ', ! 0.8 J ', 1 CAVE
71
72 !
6 !',
1
0-3
0.25
8.0 8 1 12
: i 11 0 11 0.3 6.5 1! 1 16 1| 0.5 ! CAVE
1 3.0 ! STABLE
73 !! i* !! 0 11 0.3 8.0 ! 7 115
74 !! 8 !! 1 1.5 1 ,' STABLE
o 11 0.3 4.5 ,' ! 2 16
75
76
1! ! 8 ; | 1 o ;
1
1 0.3
1.5
3.0
4.5 |i ii : 16 1 STABLE
1 18 !! 0 11
1 o !
0.3
0.25
5.0 1 ! 5 81 1 STABLE
77
78
i
;
1 3 1 1 1 0.3 8.0 ! ! 1* 1.8 1 CAVE
! 3 1! 1 o 11 0.3 0.25 7.0 ; ! 6 1.6 1 CAVE
79 ; 1 0.25
] 3 1 1 0 11 0.3 7.0 1 1 10 1.6 1 CAVE
80 ;! 1 0.25
i l l 0 11 0.3 6.5 1 ! ii ! 0.5 1 CAVE
1 3.0 5.0 ; ! 9 ! ! STABLE
si ;! 18 1 1 0 11 0.3 81
82 ;I 3 i; 1 ! 0-3 0.8 1 UNSTABLE
o 1 5.5 ', ', 6 4.0
83 ; 1 o ! 1.5 1 CAVE
84 ;
1 1-5 11 1
1 0.3
3.0
5.0 1 1 13 3.4
85 ;
1 18 1 1 1
o 11 0.3
3.0
4.5 1 1 10 73 1 STABLE
86 ;!
1 7 1| o 11
1 o I
0.3 5.5 1 ! 4 ! 35 1 STABLE
87 ;
2 ! !
1
1 0.3 3.0
3.0
1 4.5 ! i 81 1 STABLE
1 20 1 | o 11 0.3 1 4.5 ! 12 81 UNSTABLE
88 ; 1 0.8 STABLE
89 !!
1 20 1 1 1
0 11 0.3
0.8
8.0 1 1 4 ] 38
20 ; i 0 11 0.3 8.0 1 ! ii ! 38 1 STABLE
90 ;! 1 0.25
3 1 1 0 11 0.3 4.0 1 1 3 1 0.9 1 STABLE
91 ! 1 o ! CAVE
1 3 11 1
1 0.3 0.25
0.25
4.0 1 ! n 1 0.9
92 ; 1 3 11 o 11 0.3 5.5 1 1 2 ! 1.2 STABLE
93 ', 1 o ', ', 0.3 0.25 5.5 ', 1 1.2
94 !
I 3',1 1 0.25
7 ] 1 CAVE
95 |
1 3 11 1
o 11 0.3
0.25
5.51! 9 | 1.2 1 CAVE
! 3 1] o 11 0.3 5.511 16 1 1.2 CAVE
96 ; 1 0.25 CAVE
97 ;
1 111 1
o 11 0.3
0.25
7.0 1 1 8 ; 0.5
1 11 11 11 o 11 0.3 8.0 1 1 3 1 0.6 UNSTABLE
98 :1 1 0.25 CAVE
0 11 0.3 8.0 1 1 5 | 0.6
99 ! 1 2.0 ! 26 STABLE
! 8 1 1 o 11 0.3 5.5 1 1 3 1
100 ! 1 STABLE
101
1 ' 3 11 1
o 11 0.3 1.0
1.0
1 5.0 1 !
5.0 |
3 1 4.5
i
! 3 1 1 0 11 0.3 6 | 4.5 UNSTABLE
102 ! 1 CAVE
! 3 ] 1 0 11 0.3 1.0 1 5.0 1 1 14 1 4.5
103 ! 1 I 0.3 STABLE
! 6 1 1 0 1 0.25 1 5.5 1 ! 3 1 2.5
104 ;! 6 i ; 1
0 11 0.3 0.25 1 5.5 1 i 8 1 2.5 UNSTABLE
105 : 1 1 CAVE
6 11 o 11 0.3 0.25 1 5.5 1 1 13 1 2.5
106 ! 1 STABLE
! 15 11 0 11 0.3 2.0 1 6.0 1 1 10 1 54
107 ! 1 CAVE
i 2 11 0 11 0.3 0.8 1 7.0 1 1 4 1 3.4
108 1 ', 0.3 3.4 CAVE
109
i
|
1 2 11 1
0 1 0.8 1 7.0 1 1 10 1
! 3 11 o 11 0.3 1.0 1 5.0 1 ! 6 1 4.5 UNSTABLE
no ! 1 CAVE
! 3 1 l 0 11 0.3 1.0 5.0 1 1 12 1 4.5
in ; ! 2 ; l 1 STABLE
o 11 0.3 0.5 1, 6.0 1 1 3 1 1.8
112 ! ! 2',l 1 I 0.3 0.5 1.8 UNSTABLE
o 1 6.0 1 1 8 1
1 CAVE
113 1I 2 11 1
0 11 0.3 0.5 1 6.0 1 1 14 1 1.8
114 ; 1- 3 11 0 11 0.3 0.8 1 5.5 1 1 2 1 4.0 STABLE
us :! 3',| 1 o ! UNSTABLE
1
1 0.3 0.8 1 5.5 ', ', 8 1 4.0
116 ; 1 3 11 0 11 0.3 0.8 1 5.5 1 1 10 1 4.0 UNSTABLE
117 | 1 STABLE
us ;
! 4 11 1
0 11 0.3 1.5 1 5.5 1 1 10 1 10
i 111 o 11 0.3 0.25 1 6.5 1 1 6 1 0.5 UNSTABLE
119 1 CAVE
' 1 1 1 0 11 0.3 0.25 1 6.5 1 1 91 0.5
120 ; 1 1 0.4 STABLE
121 ;
111 1
0 11
I
0.3
0.3
0.25 1 5.0 1 1 1 1
0.4
1 111 0 1 0.25 1 5.0 1 2 1 UNSTABLE
122 ! CAVE
123 :
' 111 1 0 11
1
0.3 0.25 1 5.0 1 1 13 1 0.4
0.4
1 111 0 11 0.3 0.25 1 5.5 1 1 61 UNSTABLE
124 1 0.4 CAVE
125
i
!
1 111 o 11 0.3 0.25 1 5.5 1 1 10 ;
] 1 1 1 1 0 11 0.3 0.25 1 6.0 1 1 1 ! 0.5 STABLE
126 ; UNSTABLE
! 1 1 1 1 o 11 0.3 0.25 1 6.0 1 ! 2 l 0.5
127 | 1 6.0 ! CAVE
128 ]
| 111 o 11 0.3 0.25 1i ! 13 1 0.5
1 12 1 1 1 o 11 0.3 0.8 1 4.5 1 7 1 13 STABLE
129 ! 5.5 i UNSTABLE
! 6 1 1 1 o 1! 0.3 ; 0.25 1 I 12 1 2.5
130 ', 1 1 11 1 0 ', ', 0.3 ' 0.25 1 5.0 1 1 4 ] 0.4 UNSTABLE
0.4 UNSTABLE
131 ;I i 1! 1 0 11 0.3 0.25 1 5.5 1 ! 3' l
9 !! n i l 0 3 11 0.2 ' 2.0 1 8.0 1 1 4.7 1 12 STABLE
ii !1 5 !; 1 o 11 0.2 ' 0.6 1 7.0 1 ! 7.9 1 4.2 STABLE
222
TABLE 8.4 Input parameters from t h e complementary d a t a base
n e c e s s a r y f o r open s t o p e d e s i g n b a c k - a n a l y s i s ( c o n t ) .
BLOCK STRESS JOINT ORIENTATION EFFECT
SIZE FACTOR FACTOR OF GRAVITY
CASE RQD (REF. CRITICAL Jr SLIDING FREEFAU./ HYD. ASSESS.

t /Jn FIG. 7.4) JOINT / J SLABBING RADIUS
(2) (4) (17) (18) (10 (19) (20) (13) (21) (14)
l* ! 9 !', i.o 0.2 6.0 8.8 S.4 CAVE

ll
154
is !
;
9
ie
1
;;
1 1.0
o.i ;i
0.3 7.0 8.8 9.5 , CAVE
0.3 2.0 5.2 1.9 UNSTABLE
167 | 9 !! i.o ! i 0.2 8.0 7.8 22 STABLE
168 ; is ;: i.o ;; 0.2 8.0 6 36 STABLE
169 ;
179 |
15
15
1i!; 0.3
o.i
l!
!:
0.3
0.85
2.0
2.0 4.1
5 4.1 STABLE
3.8 STABLE
181 ; is i: o.i ;! 0.85 2.0 4 3.8 STABLE
182 ;
15 ! 1 i.o i; 0.3 8.0 4.9 54 STABLE
37 : 45 ! i o.4 |! 1.0 2.0 2.7 97 STABLE
38 ; 45 ! ! 0.4 ;; 1.0 2.0 6.1 97 UNSTABLE
39 ! 45 : i 0.6 | ] 1.0 2.0 7.6 146 UNSTABLE
40 ; 30 i; 0.6 ;! 1.0 2.0 8.8 47 UNSTABLE
4i ; is ;; o.6 ;; 1.0 2.0 13.4 47 UNSTABLE
42 ; 14 ;; o.s i; 0.3 2.0 6.1 5.5 UNSTABLE
43 ! 14 : i o.s ;; 0.3 2.0 15.2 5.5 CAVE
44 J 14 !; 0.3 ;; 0.3 2.0 6.4 3.3 UNSTABLE
46 ; 30 ;! i.o ;; 0.3 8.0 13.1 94 STABLE
47 | 9 ;! 0.3 ; i 1.0 2.0 7.3 11 CAVE
48 ! 9 ;! o.i ;; 1.0 2.0 5 3.6 UNSTABLE
49 : 9 !! i.o ;| 1.0 2.0 9.9 36 CAVE
50 ; 9 !! 0.4 ;; 1.0 2.0 6.8 14 CAVE
223
i n d i v i d u a l f a c t o r s on open stope s t a b i l i t y . The starting point
or p r e - c a l i b r a t i o n of the f a c t o r s was p r o v i d e d by Q 1
and factor
A, B and C of the original Mathews design method. The
modification and calibration of the factors was an on-going
e m p i r i c a l adjustment process as new cases were analyzed and the
effect of d i f f e r e n t parameters on stope stability were b e t t e r
understood. For this reason, i t is difficult to provide a
detailed justification f o r the d e r i v a t i o n of each parameter's
rating scheme. However, in this section, a brief explanation
is given on how the ratings of each parameter presented in
s e c t i o n s 7.2 t o 7.5, have been determined.
8.4.1 Block s i z e rating
The rating f o r the e f f e c t of b l o c k s i z e (RQD/Jn) has been
kept unchanged from the Q-system. There are s e v e r a l advantages
in considering block size and shear strength separately. The
main advantage i s that i t avoids c o n f u s i o n when a rock mass
contains joint sets having different shear characteristics.
Instead of assigning the shear characteristics of the most
prominent joint set i n the rock mass, as suggested by Barton
(1974), the shear s t r e n g t h of the c r i t i c a l joint, which has a
g r e a t e r i n f l u e n c e on s t a b i l i t y , i s used.
The block size factor RQD/Jn can also be used in the
c a l c u l a t i o n of a rough c r i t e r i o n t o i d e n t i f y the t h r e e types of
rock mass behaviour (intact rock, discrete block and jointed
rock mass). I t was mentioned i n s e c t i o n 6.2 t h a t the rock mass
224
behaviour i s dependent on the r e l a t i v e s i z e o f b l o c k s compared
with the surface o f the rock mass exposed. U s i n g t h i s concept,
the q u o t i e n t o f the b l o c k s i z e f a c t o r RQD/Jn and the h y d r a u l i c
radius o f the stope surface were c a l c u l a t e d f o r 10 cases of
discrete block failure and 19 cases of jointed rock mass
failure (see t a b l e 8.5). Only the cases i n which the s i z e of
the failed blocks could be v i s u a l l y estimated were included.
From table 8.5, i t can be seen t h a t most d i s c r e t e block
f a i l u r e s have a (RQD/Jn / h y d r a u l i c r a d i u s ) r a t i o g r e a t e r than
1.5. For a j o i n t e d rock mass t h i s r a t i o i s s m a l l e r than 1.5.
S i n c e t h e r e i s no case o f i n t a c t rock f a i l u r e i n the data base,
the only guide to identify this behaviour i s the largest
(RQD/Jn / h y d r a u l i c radius) ratio for discrete block failure,
which i s 8.6. This can be used as a rough guideline to
a n t i c i p a t e t h e t h r e e t y p i c a l open stope rock mass b e h a v i o u r s .
Finally, the block size factor will be useful f o r the
estimation of a s u i t a b l e density of cable b o l t s . This w i l l be
f u r t h e r d i s c u s s e d i n chapter 9.4.2.
8.4.2 Stress factor rating
The r a t i n g f o r the compressive s t r e s s f a c t o r i s a function
of the r a t i o of the u n i a x i a l compressive strength and the
induced stress (o /oy).

c The relationship between the r a t i o
(o /oy)
c and t h e compressive stress rating comes from r u l e of
thumb adapted by Mathews e t a l . i n t o t h e o r i g i n a l f a c t o r A
225
TABLE 8.5 Relationship between the r e l a t i v e block size factor
(RQD/Jn / h y d r a u l i c radius), and rock mass behaviour.
Discrete Rock Mass Failure

RQD/Jn
RQD/Jn Hyd. Radius /Hyd. Radius
25 5.8 4.3
30 3.5 8.6
17 10.5 1.6
17 11.3 1.5
17 12.2 1.4
29 6.8 4.3
29 8.0 3.6
8 2.1 3.8
8 2.3 3.4
15 10.0 1.5
M e a n = 3.4
Jointed Rock Mass Failure

RQD/Jn /
RQD/Jn Hyd. Radius /Hyd. Radius
8 7.6 1.1
6 8.9 0.7
7 7.1 1.0
4 4.7 0.9
7 9.1 0.8
6 10.5 0.6
4 19.0 0.2
8 8.1 1.0
5 9.0 0.6
5 11.3 0.4
3 20.0 0.2
14 8.6 1.6
9 9.9 0.9
18 12.5 1.4
18 15.0 1.2
18 15.9 1.2
18 11.1 1.6
6 6.9 0.9
6 7.7 0.8
Mean=> 0.9
226
curve. This relationship has been kept roughly t h e same,
except f o r s e t t i n g a minimum r a t i n g o f 0.1 ( f i g u r e 7.4). This
was j u s t i f i e d by s e v e r a l cases of highly s t r e s s e d backs which
were stable because of t h e i r small dimensions. These cases
have been plotted on the m o d i f i e d stability graph i n figure
8.1. A c c o r d i n g t o the b a c k - a n a l y s i s o f a l l t h e case histories,
the factor A calibration appears to be adequate f o r the
m a j o r i t y o f case histories.
The e f f e c t o f s t r e s s r e l a x a t i o n on the d e s i g n a n a l y s i s has
also been investigated. Zones of r e l a x a t i o n are created i n
walls of l o n g i t u d i n a l stopes when the pre-mining stress ratio
"K" i s approximately g r e a t e r than 1.5 t o 1. Since i n t a c t rock
has a v e r y low t e n s i l e s t r e n g t h and j o i n t s have no s t r e n g t h i n
tension, tensile stress i s not l i k e l y to build up i n a rock
mass. Instead, tensile stress will open existing joints or
induce new cracks through intact rock creating a zone of
relaxation. Inside t h i s zone of r e l a x a t i o n individual blocks
have more freedom o f movement and become more s e n s i t i v e t o the
a c t i o n of g r a v i t y , because they are unconfined. Consequently,
it appears that tensile stress and i t s associated zone of
r e l a x a t i o n have an e f f e c t on stope s t a b i l i t y . T h i s e f f e c t has
been investigated u s i n g two dimensional and t h r e e dimensional
numerical m o d e l l i n g (parametric study, s e c t i o n 7.3.2), with the
intention of developing an adjustment factor. The case
h i s t o r i e s o f stope s u r f a c e s i n a s t a t e o f s t r e s s r e l a x a t i o n has
been p l o t t e d on the m o d i f i e d s t a b i l i t y graph, i n f i g u r e 8.2.
227
FIGURE 8.1
Modified S t a b i l i t y Graph
Total Data Base: C a s e s of High Stress
9 case histories
#H : X*
: : :X;x :x :X:v:x-* '''
: -
yyyyy:^
^ :;;;;!;'!'!':':'!!>'
****
ym
f&i-
0 5 10 15 20 25
Stable Stope Surface

Unstable Stope Surface
T Caved Stope Surface
228
It can be seen that the data does not justify ah adjustment
factor for stress relaxation, since the assessment of the back-
analyzed case histories are generally i n accordance with the
modified s t a b i l i t y graph.
Nevertheless, from the p a r a m e t r i c study i t has been found
that the relative shape of the stope surface is the most
important parameter influencing the "theoretical" tensile
stress. Since hydraulic r a d i u s (which account f o r the s i z e and
shape of the stope surface) and the effect of gravity are
included i n the model, i t seems reasonable t o assume t h a t the
effect of r e l a x a t i o n i s i n d i r e c t l y taken i n t o account. Ninety
seven case h i s t o r i e s (shown i n f i g u r e 8.2) of r e l a x e d w a l l s are
i n agreement w i t h t h i s h y p o t h e s i s .
8.4.3 Joint orientation factor rating
The j o i n t o r i e n t a t i o n t o t a l r a t i n g depends on the critical
joint parameter and the shear strength c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s . The
shear strength rating i s Jr/Ja i s taken d i r e c t l y from the Q-
system and i s a l r e a d y c a l i b r a t e d w i t h r e s p e c t t o the b l o c k s i z e
factor. The critical joint rating can be estimated using
figure 7.19. The chart was constructed according to the
following principles:
The total influence of the c r i t i c a l j o i n t on the stability
number c a l c u l a t i o n , should be approximately similar t o the
influence of gravity, because they are two approximately
equally important f a c t o r s . Empirically, i t has been found
229
FIGURE 8.2
Modified S t a b i l i t y G r a p h
Total Data Base: Cases of S t r e s s Relaxation
97 case histories
1000
100
_Q
E
Z3
10
O
00
TD
1.0
"O
o
0.1
10 15 20 25
Hydraulic R a d i u s (m)
complementary main d a t a base
d a t a base ^ , , i L O L
o Stable Stope Surface

v Caved Stope Surface
230
t h a t an i n f l u e n c e of 5 works w e l l .
The rating, which is a function of the d i f f e r e n c e i n dip
between the critical joint and the stope surface, is a
minimum (0.2) when the d i f f e r e n c e i n d i p i s shallow (10 to
30) .
A slightly better case (with regard t o s t a b i l i t y ) occurs i f
the c r i t i c a l joint i s sub-parallel (0 t o 10 d i f f e r e n c e ) to
the stope surface. A rating o f 0.3 i s assigned in this
situation.
A difference in dip of approximately 60 has a small
influence on stope s t a b i l i t y and a r a t i n g of 0 . 8 i s used.
Critical j o i n t s perpendicular t o the stope surface have no
influence on s t a b i l i t y ( t h i s i s g i v e n a r a t i n g of 1.0).
The e f f e c t o f a n i s o t r o p y i s accounted f o r by c o n s i d e r i n g the
true difference in dip, which is influenced by the
difference in strike between the c r i t i c a l joint and the
stope s u r f a c e . As the d i f f e r e n c e i n s t r i k e increases, the
true difference i n dip increases and the effect of the
critical j o i n t r a t i n g decreases.
8.4.4 The g r a v i t y f a c t o r r a t i n g
The g r a v i t y factor rating i s estimated using figure 7.21
for the sliding mode of failure. The gravity rating will
increase the m o d i f i e d s t a b i l i t y number (by up t o a f a c t o r of 4)
as the d i p of the s l i d i n g plane (critical j o i n t ) decreases and
sliding is less likely to happen. If the dip of the
231
discontinuity i s s m a l l e r than o r equal t o 30, t h e r a t i n g i s a
maximum, because t h e f r i c t i o n angle o f a t y p i c a l rock joint i s
around 30.
When t h e mode o f f a i l u r e i s by g r a v i t y f a l l or slabbing,
the rating i s a function of the i n c l i n a t i o n o f t h e designed
stope surface. As i n the s l i d i n g analysis, the rating's
influence varies from 2 t o 8. I t i s a maximum for vertical
walls and a minimum f o r h o r i z o n t a l backs. The equation used t o
d e r i v e t h e r a t i n g curve ( i n f i g u r e 7.20) i s g i v e n below:
rating = 8 - 6 (cosine (angle o f i n c l i n a t i o n ) ) .
T h i s r e l a t i o n s h i p d e s c r i b e s t h e i n c r e a s i n g e f f e c t o f g r a v i t y on
stopes s u r f a c e d i p p i n g c l o s e r t o t h e h o r i z o n t a l .
8.5 THE MODIFIED STABILITY GRAPH
The modified stability number and h y d r a u l i c radius are
r e l a t e d g r a p h i c a l l y on a s t a b i l i t y graph, as i n the methodology
proposed by Mathews e t a l . T h i s allows t h e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f a l l
the key parameters on one graph i n order t o determine what
combination of stability number (rock mass quality) and
hydraulic radius (stope surface size and shape) leads to
stable, unstable o r caved conditions. Stable stopes (planes
that had low d i l u t i o n ) a r e represented on t h e graph by round
shaped points. Case histories that had experienced dilution
and ground f a l l s causing o p e r a t i o n a l problems a r e c l a s s i f i e d as
unstable. They a r e shown on t h e graph by square shaped p o i n t s .
232
The t r i a n g u l a r p o i n t s r e p r e s e n t case h i s t o r i e s t h a t had severe
ground c o n t r o l problems.
The stability graph i n f i g u r e 8.3, i s a p l o t of the main
data base (84 p o i n t s ) . As expected the graph shows t h a t most
points located i n the upper l e f t c o r n e r (good rock q u a l i t y and
s m a l l stope s u r f a c e ) are s t a b l e w h i l e the cases p l o t t i n g i n the
lower right area (poor rock quality and large stope surface)
have caved. A transition zone between the stable and caved
areas i s r e p r e s e n t e d on the graph by a grey band. I t can be
noticed that the unstable cases (square points) tend to
concentrate around that transition zone, which is also
expected. The modified stability graph i s now comprised of a
s t a b l e area, a t r a n s i t i o n zone and a caved a r e a .
In the next stability graph (figure 8.4), the
complementary data base has been added and confirms the
r e l a t i o n s h i p p r e v i o u s l y d e f i n e d i n the m o d i f i e d s t a b i l i t y graph
(figure 8.3). T h i s new relationship has a reduced transition
zone between s t a b l e and c a v i n g areas which makes the m o d i f i e d
stability graph a more p r e c i s e d e s i g n t o o l and l e a v e s l e s s room
for mis-interpretation of a n a l y s e s . The l a r g e data base i s a
warrant of the method 's reliability and confirms the
applicability of the d e s i g n method f o r stope w a l l s , and stopes
at shallow depth.
8.6 DESIGN PHILOSOPHY
233
FIGURE 8.3
Modified S t a b i l i t y Graph
Main Data B a s e
84 case histories
1000
100
CD
_Q
E
Z3
^ 10
D
-I-'
CO
" O
(D
b 1.0
o
0.1
0 5 10 15 20 25

Caved Stope Surface
234
FIGURE 8.4
Modified Stability G r a p h
Total Data Base
176 case histories
1000
100
E
Z3
^ 10
O
00
"O
CD
it: 1.0
o
0.1
0 10 15 20 25
complementary Hydraulic RadlUS ( m )

d a t a base main d a t a base
\ /
235
The modified stability graph ( f i g u r e 7.22) can be used as
a reliable tool for predicting open stope dimensions. The
f i n a l d e s i g n must c o n s i d e r the g e o t e c h n i c a l parameters i n v o l v e d
in the calculation of the modified stability number but also
should account f o r economic, s c h e d u l i n g and mining c o n s t r a i n t s .
Consequently, engineering judgement is required to determine
the most efficient design. As a general rule, the amount of
dilution i s expected to increase as the design plots deeper
i n t o the c a v i n g zone. When mining i n the v i c i n i t y of other ore
lenses, or when there is no flexibility in the production
schedule and no instability can be tolerated, all designs
should p l o t above the grey area, i n the s t a b l e zone.
Sometimes i t i s not practical or economical to d e s i g n i n
the stable zone. Because of the non entry nature of open
s t o p i n g , stopes p l o t t i n g i n or below the grey area may still be
viable. The author's experience with the revised stability
graph has been t h a t when p l o t t i n g inside the transition zone
(grey area) , the stope w i l l be v e r y s e n s i t i v e to b l a s t i n g and
the effect of time. In t h i s case, i t i s recommended to use
control blasting techniques and to b a c k f i l l immediately after
the stope is emptied. Designing below the transition zone
usually requires a r t i f i c i a l support. The principal a c t i o n of
cable bolts is to limit movement along existing
discontinuities. This results i n a hypothetical increase in
rock mass quality and the stability number. This will be
further discussed in chapter 9 (cable bolt support in open
236
stoping).
8.7 POSSIBILITY OF USING STATISTICS
Empirical research can be divided into exploratory-
r e s e a r c h and confirmatory research. In c o n f i r m a t o r y research,
meaningful hypotheses are developed when the understanding of
the empirical r e a l i t y i s w e l l advanced and a sounded theory i s
proposed. For t h i s type of r e s e a r c h the s t a t i s t i c a l inference
allows f o r the e v a l u a t i o n of the p r o b a b i l i t y of e r r o r r e g a r d i n g
e i t h e r the c o n f i r m a t i o n or i n f i r m a t i o n of the hypotheses.
In t h i s thesis, the proposed h y p o t h e s i s i s more r e l e v a n t
to exploratory research because the theoretical background i s
limited. This i s mainly due to the high complexity of the
problem and the relative scarcity of applied geomechanics
research. Therefore, only a limited degree of sophistication
c o u l d be achieved i n the model development.
Statistical inference in exploratory research although
less powerful than in confirmatory research, is used to
estimate the e r r o r i n i n f e r r i n g knowledge t o a p o p u l a t i o n from
observations based on a sample. The quality of this type of
i n f e r e n c e i s h i g h l y dependant on the sampling scheme. In order
to obtain a s i g n i f i c a n t s t a t i s t i c a l i n f e r e n c e i n t h i s study, a
random sample of the p o p u l a t i o n of a l l p o s s i b l e stopes would be
required. Due to practical considerations, the sample of
stopes (and the assessment of their stability) used is a

convenient sample (in opposition to a random sample). The
sampling was based on the typicality of the stopes and the
possibility for safe measurements of the geotechnical
parameters.
8.8 SUMMARY
The principal o b j e c t i v e of the proposed d e s i g n method i s
to predict the stability of open stopes i n terms of o p e r a t i n g
problems. Because of the economic consequences of a bad
design, the reliability of the model is crucial. For an
empirical model, the reliability i s largely a f u n c t i o n of the
e x t e n t of the data base. In a d d i t i o n , the model i s expected to
work better inside the bounds defined by the geotechnical
c o n d i t i o n s i n the data base.
The total data base of unsupported stopes contains 175
case h i s t o r i e s from t h i r t y - f o u r Canadian mines. The data base
has been divided into a main data base (high level of
confidence) and a complementary data base (data from literature
and data with a lower l e v e l of c o n f i d e n c e ) . The main data base
was used f o r the calibration of the design method while the
complementary data base was used t o c o n f i r m the r e l i a b i l i t y of
the method.
The calibration of the geomechanical model was done
through the b a c k - a n a l y s i s of case histories. For each case,
the input data was estimated on site, and the modified
238
stability number was calculated and plotted on the modified
stability graph. For the cases i n which the stability graph
assessment d i d not f i t the actual stope behaviour, the causes
of the mis-interpretation were investigated, and the
geomechanical model was modified i n order to become a better
predicting tool. This procedure resulted i n the creation of
new parameters, the r e - c a l i b r a t i o n of e x i s t i n g parameters and a
better d e f i n i t i o n of the stability graph (a s m a l l e r t r a n s i t i o n
zone between s t a b l e and caving). The r a t i n g s a s s i g n e d t o each
parameter i n the model ( r e f . chapter 7) are briefly discussed
( i n s e c t i o n 8.4) w i t h regard t o r e l e v a n t case h i s t o r i e s .
239
CHAPTER 9
CABLE BOLT SUPPORT IN OPEN STOPING
9.1 INTRODUCTION
Artificial support, i n the form of rock anchors, has
become an important component of a l l underground mining
operations because their stabilizing effect contributes to
make underground workings safer. There are several types o f
rock anchors featuring different properties and having a
variety of functions. T h i s chapter focuses on the a p p l i c a t i o n
of grouted cable bolts i n open stope mining. Such a support
system may improve the competency o f a d i s t u r b e d rock mass t o a
point approaching the u n d i s t u r b e d rock quality by limiting
joint movement and d i l a t i o n . This results i n more stable,
p o s s i b l y l a r g e r and thus more e f f i c i e n t p r o d u c t i o n s t o p e s . The
effect of increasing t h e rock mass stability resulting in
larger stope dimensions i s investigated in this chapter u s i n g
the modified stability graph and case histories o f supported
open s t o p e s .
It i s i n c u t and f i l l applications that cable bolts have
gained their greatest popularity. The installation o f long
c a b l e b o l t s i n c u t and f i l l backs has the advantage o f c o v e r i n g
three or four lifts, which reduces the r e h a b i l i t a t i o n work
necessary after each blast and reduces the cost of b o l t i n g .
240
Furthermore, since the reinforcement i s installed prior to
blasting, i t considerably limits t h e degree o f d i s t u r b a n c e i n
the rock mass induced by b l a s t i n g . This concept i s known as
pre-reinforcement.
In recent years, the Canadian, Australian and Swedish
mining i n d u s t r i e s have been attempting t o t r a n s f e r the c a b l e
b o l t technology from c u t and f i l l t o open stope mining. In the
beginning, because the fundamental d i f f e r e n c e s between the two
mining methods (with regard to cable bolting) were not w e l l
understood, this technique had l i t t l e success. Fabjanczyk
(1982) r e p o r t e d i n a survey o f t e n A u s t r a l i a n mines t h a t 75%
of open stopes using cable bolts suffered overbreak. The
principal source o f the problems i n open s t o p i n g was the l a c k
of access f o r the i n s t a l l a t i o n o f the c a b l e bolts. This
problem was particularly acute i n hanging walls but also
existed i n stope backs, when the d r i l l i n g horizon was not
fully open. As a r e s u l t , only a low d e n s i t y of cable bolts
could be installed using unfavourable patterns and cable
orientations. Another major d i f f e r e n c e between c u t and fill
and open s t o p i n g i s t h a t open s t o p i n g u s u a l l y i n v o l v e s l a r g e r
stope spans and has r a p i d changes i n geometry, c a u s i n g frequent
stress redistributions.
Although the a p p l i c a t i o n of cable bolts i n open stope
mining i s relatively new, the p o p u l a r i t y of this support
technique i s increasing. Among the t h i r t y - f o u r Canadian mines
v i s i t e d d u r i n g t h i s two year study (1986 t o 1988), twenty mines
241
used cable bolts t o some extent, with a rate o f success of
approximately 75%. This shows the progress made i n recent
years t o overcome t h e problems mentioned above and emphasizes
the p o t e n t i a l f o r c a b l e b o l t a p p l i c a t i o n i n open stope mining.
However, t h e r e are s t i l l no accepted g u i d e l i n e s f o r the design
of cable b o l t systems and r u l e s of thumb o r i g i n a l l y developed
for c o n v e n t i o n a l rock b o l t s a r e sometimes s t i l l applied. This
explains the majority o f the 25% o f the underdesigned case
h i s t o r i e s , as w e l l as other cases t h a t seem t o be overdesigned.
The different options available f o r the d e s i g n of cable
bolt support systems f o r open stopes w i l l be presented in this
chapter. The complex interaction o f the c a b l e b o l t s with the
ground c o n d i t i o n s and opening geometry w i l l be looked a t i n a
simplified empirical manner using the open stope stability
model proposed i n p r e c e d i n g c h a p t e r s .
9.2 DESIGN CONCEPT
9.2.1 Prereinforcement
O r i g i n a l l y the support p h i l o s o p h y was t o suspend the l o o s e
rock i n t h e p e r i p h e r y o f the e x c a v a t i o n t o t h e more competent
and undisturbed layers remote from the opening surface. A
b e t t e r understanding of rock mass behaviour and support systems
has l e d t o a more e f f i c i e n t technique c a l l e d prereinforcement.
The concept o f p r e r e i n f o r c e m e n t c o n s i s t s o f i n s t a l l i n g the
support prior to excavating the rock adjacent to the
242
excavation. The principal effect i s t o l i m i t the displacement
of the rock mass to small values. Fuller and Cox (1978)
suggested t h a t when p r e r e i n f o r c e d , the rock mass displacement
is limited to less than two millimeters. T h i s minimizes the
shear and dilation along existing geological structures and
preserves t h e i r in-situ cohesion and f r i c t i o n angle. The rock
mass becomes " s e l f - s u p p o r t i n g . "
Another interesting advantage of the prereinforcement
technique is that blasting is done against an already
reinforced surface, reducing the amount of damage caused by
blasting vibrations. In addition, the effect of the sudden
changes in the surrounding stress field resulting from the
change i n opening geometry (after each b l a s t ) can be better
c o n t r o l l e d by a p r e r e i n f o r c e d rock mass.
The principal limitation i n a p p l y i n g the prereinforcement
technique t o open stopes i s the l a c k of access f o r cable bolt
installation. Typically, open stope development i s l o c a t e d i n
the footwall. The mucking h o r i z o n (undercut, drawpoints) is
developed first, followed by the opening of the drilling
horizon (overcut or d r i l l i n g drift(s)) . The ore between the
two h o r i z o n s can then be r e t r e a t e d v e r t i c a l l y or h o r i z o n t a l l y .
As opposed to cut and fill mining, at no time during this
sequence is access available to install cable bolts in the
o v e r c u t and undercut b e f o r e they are opened.
However, the use of p r e r e i n f o r c e m e n t may be attempted by
installing the cable b o l t s i n the overcut as soon as p o s s i b l e
243
a f t e r i t i s open. A c e r t a i n amount o f displacement i s expected
to occur, but i f c a r e f u l blasting i s used and t h e time delay
before the support i s installed i s minimized, the open stope
back should be e f f e c t i v e l y supported. The advantage o f having
the r o o f r e i n f o r c e d f o r the heavy p r o d u c t i o n b l a s t i n g remains.
This has become the most commonly employed cable bolting
procedure and i t has been proven effective.
About t h e concept o f p r e r e i n f o r c e m e n t , Hoek & Brown (1980)
concluded that:
"The principal objective i n the d e s i g n of excavation
support i s t o h e l p the rock mass t o support i t s e l f . P r e -
placed grouted reinforcing elements are probably the
most e f f e c t i v e means o f a c h i e v i n g t h i s o b j e c t i v e and the
authors have no doubt t h a t the f u t u r e w i l l see a g r e a t
i n c r e a s e i n t h i s support t e c h n i q u e . "
9.2.2 S t i f f n e s s o f t h e support system
The stiffness of a material represents i t s capacity to
deform when submitted to stress. Stiff m a t e r i a l s show s m a l l
deformation before failing and are prone t o v i o l e n t failure.
M a t e r i a l s having a low s t i f f n e s s may s u s t a i n l a r g e deformations
before collapsing. In o r d e r t o o b t a i n the maximum advantage of
a cable bolt support system, i t s stiffness must be designed
according t o the rock mass s t i f f n e s s . I f the support i s too
stiff, the rock mass w i l l be r e s t r a i n e d from deforming but the
energy u s u a l l y d i s s i p a t e d through deformation w i l l b u i l d up and

c o u l d cause the sudden f a i l u r e of the support system. However,
if the stiffness of the support i s very low compared with the
rock mass stiffness, the stabilizing effect may be
insignificant.
The stiffness of a cable bolt system is dependent on
several factors. The density of b o l t i n g and the length of
cables are important f a c t o r s and w i l l be discussed i n sections
9.4.2 and 9.4.3. The bonding s t r e n g t h between the grout and
rock and the grout and steel also play a major role because
they constitute the weakest points of the system. A full
discussion on this subject i s beyond the scope of t h i s t h e s i s
and can be found elsewhere (Stheeman, 1982; Jeremic and
D e l a i r e , 1983). Although t h e r e are c e r t a i n v a r i a t i o n s i n c a b l e
bolting practices in Canadian mines, in general 16 mm (5/8
inch) diameter c a b l e s are used with a water cement r a t i o less
than 0.5. Sometimes additives w i l l be used to reduce the
amount of grout slumping i n the h o l e . When o n l y a low density
of cable bolts is employed, some operators will double the
number of c a b l e s i n each h o l e . I t i s important to n o t i c e t h a t
quality c o n t r o l i n the i n s t a l l a t i o n of c a b l e s can have a l a r g e
influence on their strength. Fuller (1983) r e p o r t e d that the
g r o u t - s t e e l bond can be damaged by d i r t or d e b r i s i f the cables
are not properly cleaned before their installation. On the
o t h e r hand, the bond s t r e n g t h w i l l i n c r e a s e when the c a b l e s are
s l i g h t l y rusted. The " b i r d cage" type of c a b l e b o l t s have been
specially designed t o improve the g r o u t - c a b l e bond but are not
245
w i d e l y used i n Canada a t t h i s time.
The d e s i g n e r may also a d j u s t the stiffness of the cable
support system for specific applications, using different
t e c h n i q u e s d u r i n g the i n s t a l l a t i o n . These adjustments increase
or decrease the support stiffness.
- I n c r e a s i n g the support stiffness.
A s t i f f e r support system may be more e f f i c i e n t i n zones of
stress relaxation where a d d i t i o n a l reinforcement i s required.
This can be achieved by tensioned cable bolts. At first,
tensioned c a b l e b o l t s were a p p l i e d i n a l l s i t u a t i o n s . It was
later realized that the expansion of the rock mass after
excavation i n most cases was sufficient to n a t u r a l l y tension
the c a b l e s . S i n c e i t i s a time consuming technique and i n most
cases redundant, it is now practiced only in specific
applications such as clamping layers of r e l a x e d rock together
i n a hanging wall.
- Decreasing the support stiffness.
When a large amount of deformation i s expected, i t is
desirable to design a cable bolt system capable of high
deformation without losing i t s support capacity. Matthews,
T i l l m a n n and Worotnicki (1983) d e s c r i b e d a debonding procedure
to decrease the stiffness of cable bolts. The procedure
i n c l u d e s the i n s t a l l a t i o n of supplementary anchors (swages) and
artificially debonding sections of the cable with plastic
246
tubing or p a i n t . T h i s minimizes the r i s k of premature s t r a n d
failure due t o the localised movement of a j o i n t . Matthews,
T i l l m a n n and Worotnicki also reported a s u c c e s s f u l a p p l i c a t i o n
of t h i s technique i n the case of a h i g h l y s t r e s s e d crown p i l l a r
where lateral expansion was excessive. However, none of the
case histories collected for this study used the above
debonding technique.
9.3 CABLE BOLT SUPPORT SYSTEMS IN CANADIAN OPEN STOPE MINES
Cable bolt support systems should be installed according
to the nature of the rock mass t o be supported, the access
a v a i l a b l e and the s p e c i f i c f u n c t i o n of the support system. The
different c a b l e b o l t p a t t e r n s observed i n Canadian open stopes
d u r i n g the data c o l l e c t i o n phase are i l l u s t r a t e d i n figures 9.1
t o 9.8 and w i l l be d i s c u s s i n t h i s s e c t i o n . Typical cable bolt
length and d e n s i t y of c a b l e s are also given. However, these
v a l u e s should not be used as d e s i g n g u i d e l i n e s s i n c e c a b l e b o l t
systems should be designed according to the rock mass
c o n d i t i o n s and the p o t e n t i a l rock mass f a i l u r e mechanism.
9.3.1 Cable b o l t p a t t e r n s f o r open stope backs
The principle of the system shown i n f i g u r e 9.1 a) i s to
create a regular p a r a l l e l pattern with a uniform distribution
of c a b l e s . T h i s c o n s t i t u t e s the most commonly used system and
i s g e n e r a l l y a p p l i e d when the overcut i s f u l l y open. According
247
FIGURE 9.1 a) Uniform cable b o l t FIGURE 9.1 b) Uniform cable b o l t
p a t t e r n i n s t a l l e d i n open s t o p e p a t t e r n i n s t a l l e d i n open s t o p e
overcuts. o v e r c u t s and supplemented w i t h
short rebar.
to the data base, the length of cable associated with this
pattern varies from 10 to 25 metres while the density of
bolting i s designed at 0.1 to 0.4 c a b l e b o l t s per square metre
(cb/ m ) .2
In some cases, a s e t of two t o t h r e e metres grouted
reinforcing bar are installed in between the cables with a
pattern i n t e n s i t y of about 0.7 rebar/ m . 2

The o b j e c t i v e i s to
create a r e i n f o r c e d rock beam with a high density of short
bolts, and t i e t h a t beam i n t o more competent l a y e r s with long
cable b o l t s . T h i s i s shown i n f i g u r e 9.1 b). Some mines have
also added fan p a t t e r n s of c a b l e b o l t s i n the s i d e w a l l s i n an
attempt t o p r o v i d e a l o c a l i z e d w a l l support as the stopes above
are e x t r a c t e d .
The second support system tries t o take better advantage
of the concept of p r e r e i n f o r c e m e n t . The overcut in this case
is driven i n two stages. The central section (C) i s opened
first and c a b l e b o l t s are installed vertically i n the back of
the open s e c t i o n (see figure 9.2). Supplementary c a b l e b o l t s
are a l s o i n s t a l l e d a t an angle, over the s i d e s (S) t h a t w i l l be
"slashed" during the second stage of overcut development. At
the o n l y mine u s i n g t h i s design, the l e n g t h of c a b l e b o l t used
was 9 meters with a d e n s i t y of b o l t i n g of 0.16 cb/ m . 2

As i n
the preceding case, 2.7 metre long rebar were utilized in
between the c a b l e s with a d e n s i t y of 0.44 rebar/ m.2
Another m o d i f i c a t i o n of open stope roof b o l t i n g i s shown
on f i g u r e 9.3. Cable b o l t s ( i n t h i s case s i x metres long) are
i n s t a l l e d a t an i n c l i n a t i o n of 76 i n one d i r e c t i o n f o r a given
249
FIGURE 9.2 Cable b o l t support FIGURE 9.4 Cable b o l t support
system using inclined cables system designed f o r overcuts
and two phases of overcut containing a small p i l l a r ( s ) .
d e v e l o p m e n t f o r
prereinforcement.
row while in the next row the cables are inclined in the
opposite direction. This alternate inclination produces an
interlaced pattern which aims at intersecting geological
discontinuities at more favorable angles. The density of
b o l t i n g achieved i n t h i s type of d e s i g n v a r i e s from 0.2 to 0.25
cb/ m.
2
When temporary pillars are left in the overcut, or
parallel drilling drifts are used as the d r i l l i n g development,
cable b o l t d e s i g n has been done as shown i n f i g u r e 9.4. The
original spans t o be supported were very s m a l l but w i l l become
wider as the stope is extracted. Once again, this takes
advantage of the concept of p r e r e i n f o r c e m e n t . The bolt length
observed i n these cases were roughly 10 metres w i t h a density
of b o l t i n g of 0.2 cb/ m.
2
9.3.2 Cable b o l t p a t t e r n s f o r open stope w a l l s
The first application of cable bolts in stope walls
attempted to distribute the cables as uniformly as possible
over the supported wall (figure 9.5). Because of the
restricted access, the d r i l l h o l e s had t o be fanned which does
not necessarily produce a favourable bolt inclination for
support. Only a low b o l t i n g d e n s i t y of approximately 0.06 cb/
m.
2
was achieved with such design and the bolt lengths were
variable.
The approach illustrated in figure 9.6 consists of
c r e a t i n g a r e i n f o r c e d beam i n v e r t i c a l or i n c l i n e d w a l l s . This
251
FIGURE 9.5 U n i f o r m c a b l e b o l t p a t t e r n i n s t a l l e d i n an open
stope w a l l .
252
FIGURE 9.6 C r e a t i o n o f a r o c k beam i n t h e h a n g i n g w a l l
i n s t a l l i n g a l o c a l i z e d high density of cable bolts.
253
can be done by installing cable bolts i n a high d e n s i t y fan
pattern at every sublevel. The concept of this form of
reinforcement i s to limit the w a l l spans t o e f f e c t i v e l y only
one stope height. The length of cable bolts in this case
v a r i e s w i t h the stope w a l l dimensions.
The most expensive but c e r t a i n l y the most e f f i c i e n t cable
bolt support system f o r hanging w a l l s i s when the c a b l e s are
installed from a bolting drift running parallel to the
supported wall (see figure 9.7). The concept of
p r e r e i n f o r c e m e n t can be fully a p p l i e d and cable i n c l i n a t i o n i s
near optimum. Because of the h i g h c o s t of the b o l t i n g drift
development, t h i s approach has been used only o c c a s i o n a l l y in
two mines of the data base.
The last example i n v o l v e d the support of p i l l a r w a l l s (or
secondary stopes) i n t r a n s v e r s e b l a s t h o l e mining. As shown i n
figure 9.8, cables are installed from the undercut at such
angles t h a t h a l f of the p i l l a r i s supported by the stope on i t s
left and the second h a l f by the stope on i t s right. The main
purpose of the system i s t o prevent the detachment of b l o c k s
from the pillar in order to maintain the integrity of the
pillar.
In the preceding discussion, the principal options of
cable bolt support systems and their applications have been
reviewed, as well as the concept of prereinforcement and
stiffness. All these elements must be considered in the
o p t i m i z a t i o n process of a support system. The remainder of
254
FIGURE 9.7 Cable b o l t support system f o r a hanging wall,
i n s t a l l e d from a p a r a l l e l b o l t i n g d r i f t .
255
FIGURE 9.8 Cable b o l t support system s t a b i l i z i n g pillar walls.
256
this paper will focus on the design of three variables
characterizing cable bolt support: the d e n s i t y of b o l t i n g , the
length and the r e l a t i v e o r i e n t a t i o n of c a b l e bolts.
9.4 DEVELOPMENT OF CABLE BOLT DESIGN GUIDELINES
During the data gathering program, 66 case histories of
open stopes supported by c a b l e b o l t s were c a r e f u l l y documented.
The collected data i s presented on t a b l e s s i m i l a r t o those for
the unsupported data. Table 9.1 shows the background
information of the case h i s t o r i e s and table 9.2 contains the
g e o t e c h n i c a l parameters necessary f o r the d e s i g n a n a l y s i s . The
t h r e e p r i n c i p a l v a r i a b l e s of c a b l e b o l t d e s i g n are the density
of b o l t i n g , the l e n g t h of the c a b l e s and the o r i e n t a t i o n of the
cable bolts.
9.4.1 Design a n a l y s i s o f the c a b l e b o l t support data
The use of the geomechanical model (and the modified
stability graph) in the design analysis allows for the
empirical q u a n t i f i c a t i o n of the supporting effect of cable
bolts. G u i d e l i n e s f o r the e s t i m a t i o n of b o l t d e n s i t y and bolt
length will be derived from the analysis. This type of
a n a l y s i s also provides some a s s i s t a n c e i n the d e t e r m i n a t i o n of
the most suitable cable bolt orientation by analyzing the
p o s s i b l e f a i l u r e mechanisms.
The m o d i f i e d stability numbers and h y d r a u l i c r a d i u s have
257
TABLE 9.1 Background i n f o r m a t i o n f o r t h e d a t a base o f case
h i s t o r i e s t h a t have used s u p p o r t .
JOINT ORIENTATION FACTOR ! E F F E C T OF GRAVITY i { SIZE ;
! STRESS ; ! AND ;
1 BLOCK FREEFALL/ J ; SHAPE ;
; SIZE ! ; FACTOR ;J CRITICAL BLOCK i SHEAR ; SLIDING !
i i
! FACTOR ! JOINT SHAPE BUCKLING ! ; FACTOR !
1 STREN.
HIHE CASE ! RQD !; COMP RELAX ! ! DIP j STRK BLOCKY/ ! Jr i CRITICAL J STOPE ; ! HYD. |; ASSESS. 1
TYPE OF FAIL
PLANE 1
I ff ! /Jn ! I DIFF ! DIFF FOLIATED ! /Ja ! JNT DIP ! PLANE DIP J ; RADIUS ; BEHAVIOUR MODE
(1) (2) (3) ! : (*) i ! (5) (6) i! (7) ! (8) (9) ! (10) : (ID ; (12) i: d3) : ,' (14) (15) (16)
1 251 BACK 1 ! 25 ! i COMP ; 20 ; o BLOCKY ! 0.75 ! 20 ; o ;! 8 4 ; ! CAVE DISC. BLOCK 2a

1 252 BACK i ! 25 | J COHP ! 20 ! o BLOCKY J 0.75 ! 20 ; o ;! 8 4 ; ! CAVE DISC. BLOCK 2a
1 253 BACK ! ! 25 ] ! COMP ! 20 ! o BLOCKY
1 0.75
! 20 ! o ;; 5 3 |! STABLE DISC. BLOCK
1
1
254
255
BACK
HW
;
;
',
!
is
25
:
!
', COMP !
RELAX ! !
20
20
1
!
0
o
BLOCKY
FOLIATED
1
! 0.753
!
!
20
20
l
;
o
90
;!
1
;
6
5
4
o
!!
!j
STABLE
STABLE
DISC.
DISC.
BLOCK
BLOCK
1 256 BACK ; ! IB ! j COMP ! 20 ! o BLOCKY ! 3 ! 20 ! o !; 5 9 ! ,' STABLE DISC. BLOCK
I!
1
1
257
258
BACK
BACK
! !
! !
18
18
; ! COMP
! ! COMP
!
!
20
20
!
!
o
o
BLOCKY
BLOCKY
;
!
3
3
!
!
20
20
;
;
o
o
!
;! 1 76
7
i ;!
STABLE
STABLE
DISC.
DISC.
BLOCK
BLOCK
1 259 BACK ', ; 18 ! ; COMP i 20 ! o BLOCKY ; 3 ', 20 ', o ;! 4 6 ;i STABLE DISC. BLOCK
1 260 BACK ! ; is ;; COMP ; 20 ! o BLOCKY I 3 ! 20 ; o ;; 5 o !I STABLE DISC. BLOCK
2 261 BACK ;
! 14 I ;! COMP : 40 ! o BLOCKY ! 0.5 ; 66 ; 25 ; ! 13 9 !| STABLE J O I N T E D RM
2 262 BACK ;
; 14 i! ! COMP ! 40 ! o BLOCKY ! 0.5 ! 66 ; 25 ; ! 16 o ;; CAVE J O I N T E D RM 3a
2
2
263
264
BACK
BACK
!
;
!
;
6
4 ; ;
COMP
COMP
1
!
22
42
!
!
o
o
BLOCKY
BLOCKY
;
!
0.7
0.2
!
!
42
42
;
;
20
o
; ]
;!
7 3
6 o
;I
!i
STABLE
STABLE
J O I N T E D RM
J O I N T E D RM
; 2 265 BACK ; ! 6 ; ; COMP ! 22 ! o BLOCKY ! 0.7 ! 42 ; 20 ; : B o !! STABLE JOINTED RH
2 266 BACK ! ! 6 ! ; COMP ! 22 ! o BLOCKY ! 0. 7 ! 42 ! 20 ;
1 14
8 ;! CAVE J O I N T E D RM 3a
|
2
3
267
268
BACK
WALL
;
!
!
!
4
6
]
;
! COMP
RELAX
!
! !
66
15
!
!
o
o
BLOCKY
BLOCKY ;
! 0.2
i
1
!
66
75
:
; 90
o !|
; !
7 8
8 9
;;
i
CAVE
1 J O I N T E D RM
J O I N T E D RM
3a
1 STABLE
! 3 269 BACK ; ! 6 : ; COHP ! 24
1 o
BLOCKY ; i 1 24 ;
o !; 4 4 ; i STABLE J O I N T E D RM
', 3 270 BACK ; ! 6 | ; COMP
1! 24 ! o BLOCKY ! l ! 24 ; o :| 5 3 ;
1 STABLE
JOINTED RH
!
;
4
s
271
! 272
BACK
BACK
! !
; !
7
'o
;
;;
; COMP
COMP ;
*5
90
1
!
o
o
FOLIATED
BLOCKY
!
!
1.5
i
!
!
45
90
|
;
o
o
;;
!! 6
5 3
2
;
1
; !
STABLE
STABLE
J O I N T E D RM
DISC. BLOCK
! 6 ! 273 BACK ! ! 6 !; COMP ! 20 ! o BLOCKY I 1.5 ! 20 ; o !! 2 6 :j STABLE DISC. BLOCK
: 6 274 BACK ; ! 6 !1 COMP
i 20
1 o BLOCKY ! 1.5 I 20 ; o i! 4 2 !! STABLE J O I N T E D RM
! 6 | 275 END ; ! 6 ;! COMP ! 30 ! 30 FOLIATED ', 1.5 t 60 ; 90 1! St 4 7
i
;
!!
1 STABLE
J O I N T E D RM
:
:
6
6
1! 276
277
END ; ! 6 !! COMP ;
!
5
20
!
!
o
o
FOLIATED ! 1-5 ! 60 ; 55
i!
6
5 2 !!
STABLE
STABLE
J O I N T E D RM
J O I N T E D RM
BACK ; ! 6 !! COMP BLOCKY ! 1.5 ; 20 ; 0
I 7 278 BACK ! ! 4 j ! COMP ! 20 ! o BLOCKY ! 0.8 ! 20 ; o i! 2 5 !! STABLE DISC. BLOCK
! 7 279 BACK ! ; 4 | ! COMP ! 20 ! o BLOCKY ; o.8 : 20 ; o !I 7 s ;I CAVE J O I N T E D RM 3a
: 8
8
280
281
BACK
BACK
;
; !
!
15
is ! ',
! ; COMP
COMP !
!
20
20
!
1
o
o
BLOCKY
BLOCKY
!
!
2
2
',
!
20
20
!
;
0
o
',
!I
1 2 7
3 6
1! i
!
STABLE
STABLE
DISC.
DISC.
BLOCK
BLOCK
1
I 9
282
284
BACK
HW
; !
; !
25
9
! ! COMP
; RELAX ! !
! 70
Q 1
!
o
o
BLOCKY
BLOCKY
i
!
0.25
0.5
!
!
70
70
;
! 70
o !S
|!
4 l
7. 5
!I
!!
STABLE
STABLE
DISC. BLOCK
J O I N T E D RM
! >o 285 BACK ! ! 8 ! J COMP ! 15
1 o
BLOCKY ! 0.75 ! 15 ! o !! 6. 3 ! | UNSTABLE J O I N T E D RM 3a
TABLE 9.1 Background i n f o r m a t i o n f o r t h e d a t a base of case
h i s t o r i e s t h a t have u s e d s u p p o r t , ( c o n t ) .
JOINT ORIENTATION FACTOR | E F F E C T OF GRAVITY i ! SIZE ;
; BLOCK ! STRESS ! J ; AND ;
; SIZE ! FACTOR !! CRITICAL BLOCK ; SLIDING ! FREEPALL/ |
1 SHEAR 1 SHAPE |
! FACTOR 1
JOINT SHAPE ! STREN.
i i BUCKLING !
i FACTOR 1
MINE CASE PLANE !

1 RQD ;
J COMP RELAX ! ! DIP ! STRK BLOCKY/ ! Jr ; CRITICAL ; STOPE ! ; HYD. ! ! ASSESS. TYPE OF FAIL
f ! /Jn ! ! DIFF ! DIFF FOLIATED ! /Ja ! JNT DIP ; PLANE DIP ! ! RADIUS ; BEHAVIOUR MODE
(1) (2) (3) ! ! (4> ; ! (5) (6) J! (2) ! (8) (9) ! (10) : (ii) : (12) :i (13) !: d4) (15) (16)
10 286 HW ; ! s ! RELAX I ! o ! o FOLIATED ! 0.75 J 70 ! 70 ! 1 io.o ; ; STABLE J O I N T E D RM

11 287 HW ; ! 30 ] RELAX | ! o ! o FOLIATED ! 1 ', 90 ! 90 ji 19.7 J ; STABLE DISC. BLOCK
13 289 BACK ! ! i !! COMP ! 20 ! o BLOCKY ; 2 ! 20 i 0 !: 6.2 i; STABLE DISC. BLOCK
15 290 BACK ! ! 6 !! COMP ! o ! o BLOCKY | 1.5 ! 20 ; 20 ; ! ii.4 ;! CAVE J O I N T E D RM 3a
15 291 BACK ; ! 6 ;! COMP ! o ! o BLOCKY | 1.5 ! 20 ; 20 ; ! s.o ;; STABE J O I N T E D RM
15 292 BACK ! ; 6 ;; COMP ! o ! o BLOCKY ! 1-5 ! 20 ! 20 ; ; 20.8 ;| CAVE J O I N T E D RM 3a
15 293 BACK ! ! 6 ;; COMP ! o i o BLOCKY ! 1-5 ! 20 ! 20 ;| 9.2 !j STABLE J O I N T E D RM
19 294 ! ! o 1 0.5 ! 90 i 90 ; 1 19.0 3b
WALL ! ! 4 ; RELAX
o BLOCKY ! |
; CAVE J O I N T E D RM
19 295 BACK ! ! 29 !; COMP ! o ! o BLOCKY ! 1-5 ! o ! o ; ; 3.7 ;! STABLE DISC. BLOCK
20 296 BACK ! ! I? !1 COMP : 20 ! o FOLIATED ! 1-5 i 20 : o ! ! 5.3 |; STABLE DISC. BLOCK
20 297 BACK ; | 25 !; COMP ! 20 ! o FOLIATED ! 2 i 20 ; o ;! 9.0 !! STABLE DISC. BLOCK
20 298 BACK j ', 25 i; COMP | 20 ! o FOLIATED ! 2 ! 20 J o !! 3.9 ;; STABLE DISC. BLOCK
20 299 BACK ! ! > 7
! ; COMP | 70 ! o FOLIATED ! 1-5 ! 70 ! o !| 8.0 !! STABLE DISC. BLOCK
22 300 BACK ; ! 9 ; 1 COMP ! 10 ! o FOLIATED ; i.s ! io ! o ;! 4. 7 !! STABLE DISC. BLOCK
22 301 BACK ; ! 9 j; COMP
1 10 ! o FOLIATED ; i.s ! io ! o 1! 7.7 i| CAVE J O I N T E D RM 3c
26 302 BACK ; ! 2 |! COMP ; 20 ! o BLOCKY ; I .o ! 20 J o !: 5.6 i! STABLE J O I N T E D RM
26 303 BACK ! ! io ;! COMP ! 20 ! o BLOCKY i 1.0 ; 20 ! o !I 4.3 |! STABLE DISC. BLOCK
26 304 BACK ! ! 5 ;! COMP ! ?o ! o BLOCKY ! io ! 7o ! o !! 2.7 ; ; STABLE DISC. BLOCK
26 305 BACK | ; 2 ;! COMP ! 20 ! o BLOCKY ; i.o ! 20 ; o !! 14 ! ; CAVE J O I N T E D RM 3a
26 306 BACK ; ! 5 ;; COMP ! 20 ! o BLOCKY ; i.o 1 20 i o ;1 9.3 ;
i UNSTABLE J O I N T E D RM 3a
! ! i !; ! 20 ! o
26 307 BACK COMP BLOCKY ! io 1 20 ; o 11 12.7 ;j ; CAVE J O I N T E D RM 3a
, 26 308 BACK ; ! 8 i1 COMP 1 20 !
I 20 !
o BLOCKY ; I .o ; 20 ! o !! 146
1 STABLE
J O I N T E D RM
1 26
309 BACK ; ; 15 : ; COMP o BLOCKY ! i.o ! 20 ; o !! 7.1 ; ! STABLE DISC. BLOCK
! 26 310 BACK ; ! 25 ;; COMP ! 20 ! o BLOCKY ; i.o ! 20 ; o I: s.o ; 1 STABLE
DISC. BLOCK
! 26 , 311 BACK ; ! 20 |; COMP i 20 ! o BLOCKY ; i.o ', 20 ', o ; ', 7.4 | ', STABLE DISC. BLOCK
! 26 312 BACK ; ! 5 || COMP ! 20 ! o BLOCKY ; i.o ! 20 ! o ! 1 13.7 ; ! CAVE J O I N T E D RM 3a
! 26 313 BACK ; ! io i; COMP | 20 ! o BLOCKY ; 1.0 ; 20 ; o !! io ! 1 J O I N T E D RM
STABLE
26 314 BACK ; ! 20 ; ! COMP
1 20 ! o BLOCKY ; 1.0 1 20 ; o 1 ! 5.3 ; ! STABLE DISC. BLOCK
I 26 315 BACK ! ! 20 ; ; COMP ! 20 ! o BLOCKY ; i.o 1 20 ! o i ! 6.9 ; ! STABLE DISC. BLOCK

28 316 HW ; ! 9 ! RELAX J ! >5 ! o BLOCKY ; i.s i so ; 65 ; ! 8.4 ;i STABLE J O I N T E D RM
30 317 BACK ; I 14 !; COMP ! 60 ! o BLOCKY ! 1-5 ! 60 ; o !! 8.6 ;! UNSTABLE DISC. BLOCK 3a
32 318 BACK | ! n !; COMP ! 70 ! o BLOCKY ; i.s ! 70 ! o !! 5.9 ; 1 STABLE
DISC. BLOCK
I I I I I I I I ii i i i I I i I I I I i i
TABLE 9.2 Input parameters f o r t h e data base o f case histories
t h a t have used s u p p o r t .
; BLOCK ; ; STRESS ; 1 JOINT ORIENTATION \ ! EFFECT CABLE BOLT
: S I Z E i ! FACTOR || FACTOR !! OF GRAVITY j DATA
|CASE ! RQD !! oc/ ! ! CRITICAL Jr | ! HYD. ; N !! SUPPORT BOLT BOLT BOLTING i;

! ;1 SLIDING !; FREEFALL/
SLABBINC ! ASSESS. 1J
; i ! /Jn !
1 01 ;
! JOINT /J ; ; RADIUS ! ;; TYPE DENSITY LENGTH FACTOR ;;
: (2) : (4) i: (i2) i! (18) do) :I (19) ! (20) ;! (i j) ; (21) (14) j i! (22) (23) (24) (25) ii
! 251 ! 25 ! 1 0.25 !! 0.2 0.75 ;! ! 2 o !! 8 4 ; 1 9 CAVE J ;; REBAR 0.7 2.2 5.1 ii

|j
1 252
J
!
J
25 [ ! o.s i! 0.2 0.75 1
J! 1! 2 o i: 8 4 ; 3 8
! ;;
I;
CABLE
REBAR
0.17
0.7
21
2.2 5. i ;;
CAVE 1
! 253 1! 25 j|
i 0.25 !! 0.2 0.75 i1
; 1i 2 0 i; 5 3 1 9
;;
;;
CABLE
REBAR
0.17
0.7
21
2.2 5.1
;;
;|
] | ! ! STABLE 1! !; CABLE 0.17 21 ;;
! 254 ! is ;! o.i !i 0.2 3.0 i! ; 2 o i: 6 4 2 2 0.7 2.2 5.1 ;;
! ! ! i STABLE 1| ;I!
1 REBAR
CABLE 0.17 21 j [
! 255 ! 25 !! i.o ;i 0.2 0.75 i! ! 8o ii 5 o 30 STABLE ; i.o ;;
1| CABLE
i 256 ! 18 ;i o. I i! 0.2 3.0 ; 1 ! 2 o ii 5 9 2 2 STABLE 1 ;; CABLE 0.16 9 i.7 ;!
] ] ; i j ;; REBAR 0.44 2.7 ;;
J 257 :; o.i ;
!
!
is
; 1 0.2
3.0 ;!
! ;
! 2 o !! 6 7 j 2 2 STABLE i
;
;;
;;
CABLE
REBAR
0.16
0.44 2.7
9 1.7 |;
;;
:! o. I
1 258 ]
! is
|
|| 0.2 3.0 i !
] ;
! 2 o I| 7 1 ] 2 2 STABLE |
J
;;
;:
CABLE
REBAR
0. 16
0.44 2.7
9 1.7 ;;
Ij
i ;i
259 ', 18 1[i o.i ;! 0.2 3.0 J ', ', 2 o ;J 4 6 i 2 2 STABLE ', i', CABLE 0.16 9 I . 7
! I ; | 1; REBAR
0.44 2.7
1 1
;
1 260 ;
;
is ;1
]
o. I !
o.2 3.0 ;:
!
;
|
2 o !; 5 o ; 2 2 STABLE !
;
;; CABLE 0.16
0.44 2.7
9 1.7 ;;
;;
;i 1! REBAR
! 261 ! 14 o.i ;! 0.4 o.s ;I ! 2 6 ; i 13 9 ; 0 7 STABLE j ;; REBAR 0.7 2.4 6.8 ; j
; ; | [ | ;] CABLE 0.17 6 ;;
; ; ; ] ] ;; CABLE 0.17 24 j |
;! o . i ;;
| 262 :
1;
14
]|
0.4 0.5 i !
j
!
|
2 6 :
1 16
o ! 0 7 CAVE ;
- ;
;;
;;
REBAR
CABLE
0.7
0.17
2.4
6
6.8 ;;
; [
! 263 ! 6 ;i 0.36 j; 0.2 0.7 i!

; ]
1 2
4 ]; 7 3 ! 0 7 1 ;;
;;
CABLE
CABLE
0.17
0.17
24
3 3.6
;j
!|
I | j j STABLE 1| ;; CABLE 0. 17 18 ] |
i : i
! 264 !
]
4 ;
|
1 0.1 |
! 0.4 0.2
1I !
I
2 o ;! 6 o ; 0 1 STABLE !
|
;;
;;
CABLE
CABLE
0.17
0.17 18
3 3.6
! |
| 265 ! 6 !i 0.35 '; ! 0.2 0.7 ;] ! 2 4 ; i 8 o ; 0 7 STABLE ! ;; CABLE 0.17 3 5.1 ||
j | ; | ; ;; CABLE 0.17 18 ! |
i 266
|
i 6
|
;| 0.77 J! 0.2 0.7
!
j!
]
! 24 !! 14 8 ! 1 6 CAVE !
1 !;
!;
CABLE
CABLE
0.05
0.17
30
3 3.6 1|1|
|1
i i | ] ;; CABLE 0.17 18 ! |
! 267 ! 4 ;! o.i ;! 0.85 0.2 |! ! 2o !! 7 8 i 0 1 CAVE !; CABLE 0.23 18 4.2 ||
1
! 268
269
!
:
6
6
;!
;!
i.o
0.2
j|
;;
0.2
0.2
1.0
i.o
!!
:!
3.5 J
! 2 o i ;!
! 8
4
9
4
!
!
4
0
2
5
STABLE
STABLE
!
i
;;
;!
CABLE
CABLE
0.04
0.2
10
3 0.4
0.6 11| |
J 270 ! 6 :! o.i ;! 0.2 1.0 |! ! 2 o ! 5 3 ; 0 2 STABLE ! 0.2 6 1.1 ||
;;;
1 CABLE
! 271 ! 2 !! o.i ;! 0.5 1.5 ;! ! 2 o ;| 5 3 ; 1 1 STABLE ! CABLE 0.3 9 2.8 | |
! 272 ! 40 !! o.i ;! i.o i.o ;! ! 2 o !: 6 2 | 8 0 ;; CABLE 0.7 3 2.1 II
STABLE 1
j1
! 273 ! 6 ; ! 0.2 1.5 !! ! 2 o !; 2 6 ! 0 4 STABLE ! ;: REBAR 0.7 2.4 3.0 | |
j 0.1 | [ ;; CABLE 0.24 6 I|
j i
ti II (i i II i II i i I I I i i i II
TABLE 9.2 Input parameters f o r t h e data base o f case histories
t h a t have used s u p p o r t , ( c o n t ) .
BLOCK STRESS JOINT ORIENTATION EFFECT CABLE BOLT
SIZE FACTOR FACTOR OF GRAVITY DATA
iCASE ; RQD ! ! 0c/ 1

! CRITICAL Jr ! SLIDING ! FREEFALL/ | ; HYD. ; N ASSESS. ! ;! SUPPORT BOLT BOLT BOLTING
I /Jn i! oi ; JOINT /Ja ; ; SLABBING ; ; RADIUS ;

j || TYPE DENSITY LENGTH FACTOR
(2) ! (*) !: d7) ! (18) (10) ! (19) ! (20) ;! d3) ! (21) (u) ; !! (22) (23) (24) (25)
274 ! !! o.i ! 0.2 1.5 ! ! 2.0 |! 4 2 1 0.4 STABLE ; ;; REBAR 0.7 2.4 3.0
|! CABLE 0.24 6
275
276
!
!
6
6
Ii ji 0.1
0.23
j
!
0.4
0.25
1.5
1.5
!
!
5.0 !
! 4.6
j! !! 4
6
7
i ;
; 1.8
2.4
STABLE
STABLE
1
!
;;
; |
CABLE
CABLE
0.06
0.06
9
9
0.5
0.5
277
278
!
!
6
4
i;
|!
o.i
o.i
!
|
0.2
0.2
1.5
0.8 !
!
1
!
2.0
2.0
!
;
;
!
5
2
2
s
!
;
0.4
0.1
STABLE
STABLE
!
!
!;
;;
CABLE
REBAR
0.23
0.4 2.4
9 2.1
1.1
279 ! 4 !! 0.2 ! 0.2 0.8 ; ! 2.0 ; ; 7 5 ; 0.3 CAVE ! !! REBAR 0.4 2.4 1.1
280 ! 15 !! 0.6 ! 0.2 2.0 ! ! 2.0 { ! 2 7 ! 7.2 STABLE ! ;; REBAR 0.7 2.1 1.5
281 ! is !; o.s ; o.2 2.0 ! ! 2.0 ! ! 3 6 ! 9.6 STABLE ; ;; REBAR 0.7 2.1 1.5
282 ! 25 ; ! o.i | 0.9 0.25 ! l 2.0 ;! 4 i ; 1.1 STABLE ; ]; CABLE 0.1 15 1.7
284 ! 9 !! 0.45 : o.3 0.5 ! ; 6.o ;! 7 5 ! 3.6 STABLE ! 1! CABLE 0.03 15 0.4
285 ! s ;! 0.5 i 0.2 0.75 ! ! 2.0 ! !
6
3 ] 1.2 UNSTABLE I ;; REBAR 0.7 2.4 0.7
286 ! 8 ;I 1.0 ! 0.3 0.75 ! ! 6.0 ;! io o ! 11 STABLE ; ;; REBAR 0.04 2.4 0.1
287 ! 30 ;! l .o ! 0.3 1.0 ! [ s.o !! 19 7 ! 72 STABLE ; ;! CABLE 0.07 21 1.5
289 ! 1? !! i.o ! 0.2 2.0 ! ! 2.0 ! ! 6 2 ! 14 STABLE ; ;! CABLE 0.07 11 0.8
290 ! 6
!! 0.6 ; o.3 1.5 ! ! 2.4 ;! ll 4 ; 3.9 CAVE J ;; CABLE 0.1 20 1.9
291 ! 6 ;! l .o ! 0.3 1.5 ! ! 2.4 i: 8 o 1 6.5 STABE ; ;; CABLE 0. 1 20 1.9
6.5 0.1 20 1.9
O 292
293
!
!
6
6
!i
! ;
1 .0
l .o
J
;
0.3
0.3
1.5
1.5
',
!
!
|
2.4
2.4
;;
;!
20
8
9 2
1! 6.5
CAVE
STABLE
i
;
;;
;;
CABLE
CABLE 0.1 20 1.9
294 ; 4 ;i 1.0 i 0.3 0.5 ! i 8.0 |! 19 o ! 4.8 CAVE ; !i CABLE 0.02 6 0.1
295 ! 29 !; 0.2 ; o.3 1.5 ! | 2.0 ; ; 3 7 ; 5.2 STABLE ! ;; CABLE 0.15 6 0.9
296 ! i' !! o.i ; 0.2 1.5 ; ! 2.0 ; ; 5 3 ! 1.0 ;; CABLE 0.23 9 2.1
6.0 STABLE 1 0.27 10 2.7
I! 297
298
!
!
25
25
!!
;! o.
0.3
I
|
!
0.2
0.2
2.0
2.0
!
!
!
;
2.0
2.0
|
; :
1 9 o
3 9
!
! 2.0
STABLE
STABLE
,'
J
;;
;;
CABLE
CABLE 0.2 5 1.0
! 299 1 17 1; 0.3 ! 0.9 1.5 ! ! 2.0 ; : 8 o ! 11 STABLE i ;; CABLE 0.21 10 2.1
! 300 ! 9 !; 0.1 I 0.2 1.8 1 ! 2.0 ;; 4 7 ; 0.6 STABLE I ;; CABLE 0.22 12 2.7
! 301 ! ' ;! o.i ! .0.2 1.8 1 ! 2.0 ; | 7 7 ! 0.6 CAVE ! !! CABLE 0.22 12 2.7
! 302 ! 2 ;; l .o ; 0.2 1.0 ! i 2.0 |; s 6 ] 0.8 STABLE ; !; CABLE 0.33 10 3.3
! 303 ! io ;| 1.0 ! 0.2 1.0 I ; 2.0 |! 4 3 ; 4.0 STABLE J ;; CABLE 0.33 7.5 2.5
! 304 ! 5 [! i.o ! 0.9 1.0 ! ! 2.0 | ! 2 7 ! 9.0 STABLE ! ; i CABLE 0.37 7.5 2.8
! 305 ! 2 ;; i.o ; o.2 1.0 | ! 2.0 i! 14 ! 0.8 CAVE ! ;l CABLE 0.22 10 2.2
! 306 ! 5 !! i.o ! 0.2 1.0 ! ! 2.0 I! 9 3 ; 2.0 UNSTABLE | ;; CABLE 0.19 10 1.9
307 ! i !! i -0 ; o.2 1.0 ! ! 2.0 ! ! 12 7 ! 0.4 CAVE ; !i CABLE 0.28 10 2.8
308 ! 8 ;! i.o i 0.2 1.0 ! ! 2.0 ; ! 14 6 ! 3.2 STABLE ! ! ! CABLE 0.2 10 2.0
309 ! 15 !! 0.7 ! 0.2 1.0 ! ! 2.0 ; ; 7 i ! 4.2 STABLE ; ;; CABLE 0.16 15 2.4
310 | 25 !! 0.7 ; o.2 1.0 ! ! 2-0 !! 8
o | 7.0 STABLE ! !; CABLE 0.16 10 1.6
311 ! 20 |! 0.7 ! 0.2 1.0 ! ! 2.0 ! ! 7 4 ; 5.6 STABLE J 0.16 25 4.0
;1 CABLE
312 ! 5 !! 0.7 ! 0.2 1.0 ! ; 2.0 ; ! 13 7 ! 1.4 CAVE ! ;; CABLE 0.25 10 2.5
313 ! io !! 0.7 ! 0.2 1.0 ! ! 2.0 ; ! 10 ! 2.8 STABLE | ;; CABLE 0.16 18 2.9
314 ! 20 ; ! 0.5 ! 0.2 1.0 ! ! 2.0 ! J 5 3 ! 4.0 STABLE ; ; i CABLE 0.16 15 2.4
| 315 ! 20 ; ! 0.5 i 0.2 1.0 ! ! 2.0 |; 6 9 ! 4.0 STABLE ! ;; CABLE 0.13 25 3.3
! 316 ! 9 !! l .o ; 0.2 1.8 ! ! 5.5 ;! 8 4 ; 18 STABLE j ;; CABLE 0.07 12 0.9
1 317 ! >4 !! o.i ! 0.8 1.5 ! ! 2.0 ; ! 8 6 : 3.4 UNSTABLE ! ;; CABLE 0.11 15 1.7
; sis ! 13 !; o.i : o.9 1.8 ! ! 2.0 ; ; 5 9 ! 4.2 STABLE ! ;; CABLE 0.31 6 1.9
been c a l c u l a t e d f o r a l l s i x t y - s i x case h i s t o r i e s ( t a b l e 9.2).
They have been p l o t t e d on the r e v i s e d s t a b i l i t y graph i n f i g u r e
9.9. The assessment o f the c a b l e bolted stope planes was
divided into three groups. Stable stope surfaces are
represented by round shaped points. Cases where the support
system failed a r e shown on the graph by t r i a n g l e s . The empty
t r i a n g l e s represent f a i l e d cases where t h e cause was a t t r i b u t e d
to bad g r o u t i n g . The square shaped points a r e the unstable
cases where r a v e l l i n g o f rock occurred between the c a b l e s . A
couple of interesting conclusions can be d e r i v e d from figure
9.9.
Most case histories plot i n o r below the t r a n s i t i o n zone
between stable and caving. Assuming that the r e v i s e d
stability graph i s accurate this means t h a t c a b l e b o l t s i n
general have been used by open stope mine operators only
when i t was necessary.
Only one c a b l e b o l t support system had success when p l o t t i n g
below the dashed line drawn on figure 9.9, w h i l e twelve
other attempts have been reported unsuccessful. This
suggests that cable bolts a r e an impractical means of
support when p l o t t i n g below the dashed line because o f the
combination o f bad ground c o n d i t i o n and l a r g e openings. The
only stable case was heavily bolted with three different
sets of cables.
The grey area o f the support s t a b i l i t y graph ( f i g u r e 9.9)
262
Main Data Base
66 case histories
1000
CD
100 ^*-*-* V.'.'.v.vvv'VC**
_Q
^ 10
CO
-a
1.0
T5
o
0.1
0 5 10 15 20 25

FIGURE 9.9 The modified stability graph f o r supported case
histories.
263
shows t h e maximum unsupported stope s u r f a c e dimensions t h a t can
be opened for different geotechnical conditions. The maximum
c a b l e b o l t e d stope s u r f a c e dimensions are d e f i n e d by the dashed
line. The i n c r e a s e i n p o s s i b l e stope dimensions can be roughly
estimated for a given stability number by subtracting the
hydraulic radius corresponding to the grey area and the
h y d r a u l i c r a d i u s a t the dashed l i n e . The economical b e n e f i t of
c a b l e b o l t i n g can then be estimated.
9.4.2 D e n s i t y o f b o l t i n g
The purpose of cable bolts i s t o prevent the movement
along existing discontinuities. Consequently the d e n s i t y of
bolting should be r e l a t e d t o the frequency of j o i n t i n g . The
ratio of the block size parameter (RQD/Jn) and the h y d r a u l i c
radius of the stope surface are useful parameters in
r e p r e s e n t i n g the r e l a t i v e s i z e of b l o c k s . I t i s expected t h a t a
higher d e n s i t y of b o l t i n g ( c l o s e r spacing) should be used when
the b l o c k s i z e i s r e l a t i v e l y small.
Figure 9.10 shows a plot o f the r a t i o of (RQD/Jn) and
hydraulic radius, versus the d e n s i t y o f b o l t i n g used i n the
case histories. Only the cases involving stope backs are
included in this analysis. The convention regarding the shape
of the p o i n t s i s the same as the one i n t h e s t a b i l i t y graph i n
figure 9.9. Once again, several interesting observations can
be made from t h i s data.
The f i r s t observation i s the s c a t t e r o f t h e data. This
264
FIGURE 9.10
Design Chart for Cable Bolt Density

0.40
0.35
0.30 H
0.25 H
0.20 H
0.15
0.10
0.05
0.00
1 2 3 4 5 6
(RQD/Jn) / Hydraulic Radius

O Stable Stope Surface Unstable Stope Surface v Caved Stope Surface
implies that for similar rock mass c o n d i t i o n s the intensity
of b o l t i n g used at different mines v a r i e d greatly. Some
cases must have been designed conservatively while others
have been n e a r l y underdesigned. This also r e f l e c t s well the
trial and e r r o r approach used i n most cases.
The horizontal dashed line indicates that with only one
exception, the minimum b o l t i n g d e n s i t y used i n open stope
backs i s 0.1 cb/ m. 2
In the zone between the v e r t i c a l dashed l i n e and the y-axis
only two cases have been r e p o r t e d s t a b l e out of a t o t a l of
t e n attempts. T h i s suggest t h a t c a b l e b o l t s are not likely
t o be e f f e c t i v e when the r e l a t i v e b l o c k size f a c t o r (RQD/Jn
/ h y d r a u l i c radius) i s s m a l l e r than 0.75.
The band shown on f i g u r e 9.10 i n d i c a t e s the t r e n d of u s i n g a
higher density of bolting for smaller block size (and
smaller (RQD/Jn / h y d r a u l i c r a d i u s ) . I t can be noted that
most cases plotting inside this zone are stable.
Consequently, it appears that a conservative design
g u i d e l i n e f o r the d e n s i t y of b o l t i n g i s t o use the c e n t r e of
that zone. This corresponds to the average density of
b o l t i n g used with success i n s i m i l a r rock mass c o n d i t i o n s .
9.4.3 Cable b o l t length
The length of cable bolts should reach f a r enough into
undisturbed ground to insure a proper anchor. According to
numerical modelling a n a l y s i s , the d i s t u r b a n c e e f f e c t of s t r e s s
266
i n the rock mass surrounding underground openings i s a f u n c t i o n
of the r e l a t i v e size and shape of i n d i v i d u a l stope surface.
Consequently, a rough r e l a t i o n s h i p i s expected t o e x i s t between
the h y d r a u l i c r a d i u s o f stope s u r f a c e s and t h e l e n g t h o f c a b l e
bolt used. These two parameters have been p l o t t e d on f i g u r e
9.11, f o r t h e cases of supported backs i n the data base, and
the f o l l o w i n g o b s e r v a t i o n s can be made.
As i n t h e b o l t d e n s i t y p l o t , f i g u r e 9.11 shows t h a t t h e data
is quite scattered. Once again i t i s b e l i e v e d t h a t t h i s can
be a t t r i b u t e d t o the l a c k o f g u i d e l i n e s f o r support design
and a trial and e r r o r process.
The use o f c a b l e b o l t s i n very l a r g e open stope s u r f a c e s has
had little success. I t can be seen on f i g u r e 9.11 t h a t f o r
h y d r a u l i c r a d i u s exceeding t e n , seven support systems out of
nine have c o l l a p s e d .
The minimum stope plane dimension i n which c a b l e b o l t s have
been installed has an hydraulic radius of approximately
three.
The minimum cable b o l t length included i n the data base i s
t h r e e meters. T h i s was a r b i t r a r i l y decided p r i o r t o the data
collection i n order to d i f f e r e n t i a t e cable bolt a c t i o n and
o t h e r kinds o f s h o r t e r rock anchors.
A rough and c o n s e r v a t i v e g u i d e l i n e can be d e r i v e d from the
plot of cable bolt length and hydraulic radius. This i s
shown on f i g u r e 9.11 by the l i n e "L" which correspond to a
c a b l e d e s i g n approximately equal t o the span o f opening. It
267
FIGURE 9.11
Design Chart for Cable Bolt Length

30 - i 1

o Stable Stope Surface v Caved Stope Surface
also constitutes an approximate average o f what Canadian
open stope o p e r a t o r s have been u s i n g w i t h success.
9.4.4 Bolting factor
The conditions i n which c a b l e b o l t systems a r e capable of
stabilizing open stopes have been d e f i n e d i n f i g u r e 9.9, 9.10,
and 9.11. In t h e s t a b i l i t y graph a n a l y s i s i t seems reasonable
to assume t h a t the i n t e n s i t y of b o l t i n g (density and length)
should increase as a stope surface plots towards t h e dashed
line of figure 9.9. A practical factor t o account for the
intensity of b o l t i n g has been developed and i s c a l l e d the
bolting factor. The b o l t i n g factor i s simply calculated by
multiplying the density of b o l t i n g (bolts/ square meter) and
b o l t length (meter). When used on t h e support s t a b i l i t y graph,
the b o l t i n g f a c t o r i s expected t o i n c r e a s e as a case i s l o c a t e d
further below t h e grey area. Figure 9.12 i s a plot of the
bolting factors from t h e support data base and roughly shows
the trend expected. However, t h e s c a t t e r o f t h e data makes i t
impossible t o draw recommended design b o l t i n g factor l i n e s on
the graph.
9.4.5 Cable b o l t orientation
The design of cable bolt orientation is a three
d i m e n s i o n a l problem i n which t h e optimum s t r i k e and i n c l i n a t i o n
must be d e f i n e d . At t h e optimum o r i e n t a t i o n , the cable bolt
system should develop a maximum s t r e n g t h against the forces
269
FIGURE 9.12
Bolting F a c t o r
66 case histories
1000

Caved Stope Surface
270
acting on the cables. These forces a r e dependant on the
p o t e n t i a l mode o f f a i l u r e o f t h e stope s u r f a c e . For instance,
in t h e case of gravity fall the p r i n c i p a l f o r c e s generated on
the cables are t e n s i l e . The cable bolts should then be
oriented v e r t i c a l l y i n o r d e r t o maximise t h e t e n s i l e s t r e n g t h
acting against gravity.
For a sliding mode of f a i l u r e , t h e shear force acting
along the potential sliding plane i s t h e one t h a t may induce
s t a b i l i t y problems. Miller (1984) based on a t h r e e dimensional
analytical model suggested that cable bolts develop a maximum
shear strength when installed i n t h e same d i r e c t i o n as the
shear plane but having an i n c l i n a t i o n o f 17 t o 27.
The optimum orientation of b o l t i n g when dealing with
slabbing o r b u c k l i n g mode o f f a i l u r e i s p e r p e n d i c u l a r t o the
foliation because i t i s the d i r e c t i o n of p o t e n t i a l movement.
The intention in this case i s t o clamp the layers o f rock
together.
The mode of failure can be easily determined using
stereographic projection techniques or a simple "sketching"
method d e s c r i b e d i n s e c t i o n 6.6.
9.5 SUMMARY
The use o f c a b l e b o l t support systems i n open stope mining
has become increasingly popular and e f f i c i e n t . The o r i g i n a l
problem o f a l a c k o f proper access f o r c a b l e b o l t installation
271
can be p a r t l y s o l v e d by u s i n g t h e support p a t t e r n s d e s c r i b e d i n
section 9.3.1 i n t h e case o f stope backs and 9.3.2 f o r stope
walls.
Two important design concepts f o r t h e o p t i m i z a t i o n of a
support system have also been discussed. The concept of
prereinforcement contributes to make the rock mass self-
supporting and h e l p s t o minimize the disturbance o f t h e rock
surrounding the opening during the excavation process.
Consequently, when d e s i g n i n g support systems, prereinforcement
should be used whenever i t i s p o s s i b l e .
The concept of s t i f f n e s s can have a l a r g e i n f l u e n c e on the
performance o f a support system. In most a p p l i c a t i o n s it is
d e s i r a b l e t o match t h e s t i f f n e s s o f t h e support system w i t h the
s t i f f n e s s o f t h e rock mass. However, forspecific applications
i t might be u s e f u l t o i n c r e a s e o r decrease t h e s t i f f n e s s o f the
cable bolts. This can be done using special cable bolting
i n s t a l l a t i o n techniques such as p r e t e n s i o n i n g o r debonding.
The t h r e e p r i n c i p a l variables t o be designed i n a cable
bolt system are the density of b o l t i n g , the length of cable
bolts and t h e i r relative orientations. The o r i e n t a t i o n of
cable bolts should be designed a c c o r d i n g t o t h e p o s s i b l e mode
of f a i l u r e . When g r a v i t y f a l l o r s l a b b i n g a r e a n t i c i p a t e d , the
c a b l e should be i n s t a l l e d v e r t i c a l l y . In t h e case o f s l i d i n g ,
the most efficient design i s when t h e c a b l e s a r e i n s t a l l e d a t
an angle between 17 and 27 t o t h e shear direction.
Based on t h e c o m p i l a t i o n o f a c t u a l Canadian experience,
272
some rough design guidelines have been proposed f o r the
determination o f d e n s i t y and l e n g t h of cable bolts. I t has
been found t h a t a rough r e l a t i o n s h i p e x i s t s between the d e n s i t y
of b o l t i n g and the r e l a t i v e s i z e o f b l o c k s formed by j o i n t i n g .
Figure 9.10 can be used t o estimate an a p p r o p r i a t e d e n s i t y o f
bolting according to the block s i z e factor (RQD/JN / h y d r a u l i c
radius). S i m i l a r l y , the l e n g t h o f c a b l e b o l t s has been r e l a t e d
t o t h e s i z e and shape o f t h e supported stope s u r f a c e and f i g u r e
9.11 can a s s i s t i n the d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f adequate cable bolt
length.
It i s important t o mention t h a t these g u i d e l i n e s have not
been used i n a c t u a l design at this time and s t i l l need t o be
proven. N e v e r t h e l e s s , the g u i d e l i n e s appear t o be c o n s e r v a t i v e
when compared with some past experience and offer an
i n t e r e s t i n g a l t e r n a t i v e t o the t r i a l and e r r o r p r o c e s s .
273
CHAPTER 10
EXTERNAL FACTORS: BLASTING, BACKFILL AND TIME EFFECT
10.1 INTRODUCTION
The effect of external factors on the stability of open
stopes i s w e l l r e c o g n i z e d by rock mechanics engineers, although
the factors are hardly ever measured, monitored or accounted
f o r i n a d e s i g n procedure. The p r i n c i p a l reason f o r t h i s over-
simplification i s the l a c k of a c c e s s i b l e m o n i t o r i n g technology
and the fact that mining practices have evolved rapidly. In
this chapter, the effect of blasting, time, and backfill in
adjacent stopes will be discussed qualitatively, based on
o b s e r v a t i o n s of these e x t e r n a l f a c t o r s i n case h i s t o r i e s . The
number of r e l e v a n t case histories is sufficient to formulate
hypotheses, but further work and a l a r g e r data base would be
r e q u i r e d t o c o n f i r m some of them.
10.2 BLASTING EFFECT
The principal objective of a blast design i s to obtain
good fragmentation a t the lowest p o s s i b l e c o s t , t o a v o i d miss-
f i r i n g and t o minimize the v i b r a t i o n r e l a t e d damage done t o the
rock w a l l s exposed t o the b l a s t . The e x p l o s i v e energy r e l e a s e d
has the desirable effects of fracturing the rock mass around
the charge and relieving the h o l e burden. In a non optimum
274
blast, this energy may also create flyrock, temperature
increases, a i r blasts and e x c e s s i v e ground v i b r a t i o n s . These
will r e s u l t i n a decrease of the rock mass q u a l i t y i n the stope
w a l l s and may cause p o t e n t i a l s t a b i l i t y problems.
Ideally, the effect of blast damage in a case history
design analysis should be accounted f o r by c l a s s i f y i n g the rock
mass a f t e r the b l a s t . However, i n p r a c t i c e , t h e r e i s no access
to enter the stopes and map the walls after production has
begun. In g e n e r a l , the rock mass i s c l a s s i f i e d i n the drilling
or mucking h o r i z o n , p r i o r to production. I t i s then assumed,
t h a t the e r r o r made i n (over) e s t i m a t i n g the rock mass quality
(due to o v e r - l o o k i n g the effect of b l a s t damage) i s i n c l u d e d
within the precision and sensitivity of the design method.
This will be true only i f the blasting practices are not
excessive and are similar to the majority of the data base
conditions. T h i s assumption i s confirmed f o r the m a j o r i t y of
the cases shown on the modified stability graph, figure 8.4.
However, i n s p e c i f i c cases, the e f f e c t of b l a s t i n g on stability
was i s o l a t e d by the s t a b i l i t y analysis.
10.2.1 Case h i s t o r i e s o f b l a s t induced damage
The effects of blast induced damage was observed in
several case histories at different mines. For instance at
Ruttan, Pakalnis (1986) documented the percent dilution
attributed to blasting for his entire data base (which is
included in this study's complementary data base). On the
275
stability graph (figure 10.1), the s t a b i l i t y prediction of
case numbers 70, 107, 121 and 12 6 i s s t a b l e , which i s not i n
accordance with the actual assessment. F o r a l l these cases,
the d i l u t i o n induced by b l a s t i n g was between 3% and 7%.
The effect of blasting was a l s o observed i n four other
case h i s t o r i e s (170, 171, 172, 175, see f i g u r e 10.1) from mine
number 31 o f t h e data base. Once again, stopes that should
have been at least marginally stable, have suffered large
ground falls. Blasting induced damage i s suspected as being
part of t h e problem since this mine uses t h e mass blast
technique d e s c r i b e d i n s e c t i o n 2.6.3. The amount o f e x p l o s i v e
f i r e d s i m u l t a n e o u s l y i n t h e mass b l a s t i s s e v e r a l times g r e a t e r
than t h a t o f r e g u l a r p r a c t i c e s .
It can surmised that other cases of blasting induced
damage have o c c u r r e d but c o u l d not be i s o l a t e d by t h e s t a b i l i t y
graph analysis because b l a s t i n g was not t h e predominant cause
of caving. Cases 71, 78, 79, 82, 83, 109, 118, 119, 123, 124
(figure 10.1) from t h e Ruttan study have a l l experienced more
than 5% d i l u t i o n r e l a t e d t o b l a s t damage.
10.2.2 B l a s t m o n i t o r i n g and p r e d i c t i o n o f b l a s t damage
Significant progress has been made i n recent years, i n
using monitoring systems t o q u a n t i f y b l a s t induced damage and
to optimize blast design. A blast can be monitored by
measuring t h e v i b r a t i o n waves c r e a t e d by t h e e x p l o s i o n . Some
of t h e energy r e l e a s e d by t h e b l a s t , t r a v e l s a t t h e speed of
276
FIGURE 10.1
BLASTING DATA B A S E
18 case histories
1000
0.1
5 10 15 20 25

complementary main d a t a base
d a t a base ""^^ Stable Stope Surface
J

277
sound into the unbroken rock i n t h e form o f a p r e s s u r e wave.
There a r e t h r e e types o f wave motion:
compressional,
shear,
and raleigh.
The pressure wave causes ground particles to move. This
movement, can be compared t o a cork bobbing on water. The
displacement of a p a r t i c l e i s the distance t r a v e l l e d from i t s
static position. I f movements are w i t h i n t h e e l a s t i c l i m i t s o f
rock, no breakage occurs and the m a t e r i a l w i l l recover to i t s
original shape and volume. I f movements exceed the e l a s t i c
limits, breakage occurs as the rock mass i s pulled apart i n
tension.
The particle velocity i s the speed a t which the ground
particles have moved. By measuring the v e l o c i t y of rock
particle vibrations, the s i z e and s t r e n g t h o f a p r e s s u r e wave
can be determined and r e l a t e d t o damage c r i t e r i a . The p a r t i c l e
velocity can be measured by r e c o r d i n g audio frequency signals
from the b l a s t . The dynamic range necessary t o capture the peak
amplitude is in the order of 50 inches per second at
frequencies over 1000 Hz. The peak p a r t i c l e v e l o c i t y i s the
h i g h e s t v e l o c i t y v a l u e a t t a i n e d a t a g i v e n p o i n t and time, by a
p a s s i n g wave. The a n a l y s i s of the v i b r a t i o n t r a c e a l l o w s the
d e t e r m i n a t i o n the peak p a r t i c l e v e l o c i t y .
Rock fracture i s associated with peak p a r t i c l e velocity
levels o f approximately 25 t o 40 inches p e r second o r higher,
278
depending on the rock q u a l i t y and g e o l o g i c a l c o n d i t i o n s . Table
10.1. shows how peak p a r t i c l e v e l o c i t y i s r e l a t e d t o the amount
of rock damage. Page (1987) proposed a slightly refined
r e l a t i o n s h i p by a c c o u n t i n g f o r t h r e e types of rock mass q u a l i t y
(table 10.2). Page has also empirically developed a
relationship between the peak particle velocity and the
percentage r e d u c t i o n i n the rock mass quality i n terms of Q
(Barton e t a l ) and MRMR (Laubscher) (see f i g u r e 10.2). This
technology, when better understood and documented, may
ultimately generate enough a c c u r a t e data t o develop a reliable
b l a s t c o r r e c t i o n f a c t o r c a l i b r a t e d i n f u n c t i o n of the stability
graph d e s i g n method.
10.2.3 Optimization of b l a s t design f o r w a l l s t a b i l i t y
The amount of damage caused by b l a s t i n g w i l l be minimized
if the ground v i b r a t i o n s and peak p a r t i c l e velocity are kept
low. T h i s can be achieved by o p t i m i s i n g :
the b l a s t p a t t e r n and geometry,
the charge weight per d e l a y ,
and the b l a s t sequencing.
The amount of burden, as shown i n f i g u r e 10.3, is critical for
the relief and fragmentation of the rock mass. In open stope
mining, this burden is largely a function of the drillhole
size. Large diameter blastholes, typically have a burden of
approximately 3 metres, w h i l e a burden of 1.2 t o 1.8 metres i s
o f t e n used f o r s m a l l h o l e diameters. The most common longhole
279
PPV Resulting condition on rock
in/s structure
falls of rock in unlined tunnels:

10-12
no fracturing of intact rock
12-25 minor tensile slabbing will occur
strong tensile and some radial

25-100 cracking will occur
>100 complete break-up of rock mass
TABLE 10.1 R e l a t i o n s h i p between t h e p e a k p a r t i c l e v e l o c i t y and

t h e r e s u l t i n g c o n d i t i o n on r o c k s t r u c t u r e . (After Atlas
Powder company, 1987)
ROCK THRESHOLD DAMAGE LIMITS

MASS STABILITY PPV
QUALITY mm/s in/s
MARGINAL 200 8
POOR
HIGH 600 25
MARGINAL 600 25
GOOD
HIGH 2000 80
UNFAVOURABLE MARGINAL 100 4

JOINTING
(Unstable Key
Blocks) HIGH 600 25
TABLE 10.2 R e l a t i o n s h i p between t h e p e a k p a r t i c l e v e l o c i t y ,

t h e r o c k mass q u a l i t y a n d t h e r e s u l t i n g s t a b i l i t y o f a
stope.
280
1000 2000 3000 4000
P t i k Partkle Velocity mm/i
FIGURE 10.2 R e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n t h e r e d u c t i o n i n r o c k mass

q u a l i t y and t h e peak p a r t i c l e v e l o c i t y o r i g i n a t i n g f r o m a
blast. ( A f t e r Page, 1987)
281
FIGURE 10.3
T H E E F F E C T OF REDUCBNG THE BURDEN ON A C H A R G E

OF CONSTANT ENERGY
TOP VIEW
co
CO
to
Overblast
Optimum crater
(fly
nro
oiscek),
Confined
Cracks
on face (
ful rel
i
e f
,
good fragmentation)
ch(fe
aw
rgece
rjaecck
tios,n) (no relief)
and b l a s t h o l e d r i l l i n g p a t t e r n s have been d i s c u s s e d i n chapters
2.5.1 and 2.6.1.
The amount of e x p l o s i v e detonated a t one time a l s o has a
large influence on the blast vibrations generated (peak
particle velocity). The cube root scaling equation is an
empirical, site calibrated relationship which can be used to
estimate the peak particle velocity at a distance "D",
a s s o c i a t e d w i t h the charge detonated "W".
VELOCITY = K( D/(W' ))~ 3 3 m
The cube r o o t scaling equation i s u s e f u l t o estimate the
maximum amount of e x p l o s i v e per d e l a y t h a t can be used without
damaging the stope walls. In blasthole mining, i t will be
found t h a t the decking and d e c o u p l i n g of charges i s a p r a c t i c a l
means of l o w e r i n g the b l a s t vibrations.
Finally, the sequencing of the blasting and the delay
interval between i n d i v i d u a l d e t o n a t i o n s must be l o n g enough t o
eliminate of possibility of vibration wave superposition.
Figure 10.4 shows an idealized wave packet from an isolated
detonation, a two wave packet of a p r o p e r l y delayed pair of
detonations and a wave packet from two improperly delayed
detonations. In the third situation, the wave amplitude and
peak p a r t i c l e v e l o c i t y from the packet are superimposed because
the delay was too short. This could r e s u l t in blast induced
damage.
10.3 EFFECT OF BACKFILL IN ADJACENT STOPES
283
FIGURE 10.4 The e f f e c t o f d e l a y i n g d e t o n a t i o n d e c k s o n t h e
resulting wave p a c k e t s . ( A f t e r S p r o t t , 1986)
wave packet from one deck detonation
*\]^/jM/vw
J- -I at
wave packets from two properly delayed decks

to
^ll^f^
CO
VÂrw- * > At
|: -id,
At
resulting wave packet from two improperly delayed decks
AX
AX Xj
2
d t < At
The present trend i n open stoping i s towards totally
recover t h e orebody, which i n most case means mining against
cemented b a c k f i l l w a l l s . Although i t i s not intended t o review
thoroughly the subject of b a c k f i l l i n open stope mining, the
effect of backfill ( i n adjacent stopes) on the s t a b i l i t y
a n a l y s i s w i l l be i n v e s t i g a t e d .
Backfill provides passive support counter acting the
displacement o f the w a l l s towards t h e opening and g i v e s some
confinement i n the d i r e c t i o n o f movement. If this confinement
is sufficient, i t can be assumed that the t o t a l effective
opening span i s l i m i t e d by t h e b a c k f i l l .
10.3.1 E f f e c t o f b a c k f i l l i n l i m i t i n g w a l l s and back exposure
Figure 10.5 illustrates a common situation when mining
with b a c k f i l l . The mining b l o c k has f o u r stopes; stopes 1 and
3 are b a c k f i l l e d , stope 2 i s empty and mining i n stope 4 has
not s t a r t e d y e t . For the s t a b i l i t y a n a l y s i s o f the r o o f (plane
B) and the w a l l (plane E) o f stope 2, two hypotheses w i l l be
formulated:
1) The s u r f a c e t o be designed f o r the w a l l o f stope 2 i s the
s u r f a c e o f plane E, which i m p l i e s t h a t b a c k f i l l effectively
l i m i t s the exposure o f the b a c k f i l l e d w a l l s (plane D and F ) .
2) The designed s u r f a c e o f t h e stope back i s the summation of
a l l t h e backs o f c o n s e c u t i v e b a c k f i l l e d and empty stopes
285
286
(plane A + plane B + plane C) . I t i s assumed t h a t the
backfill i s not t i g h t enough against t h e back t o have a
significant effect on confinement, and t h e r e f o r e does not
effectively limit the t o t a l stope back exposure. However,
if a back c a v i n g occurs, p a r t o f t h e f a i l e d rock may s i t on
backfill restricting most o f t h e emptied stope back (plane
B) .
It should be noted that a common assumption made i n
numerical m o d e l l i n g i s t o ignore t h e b a c k f i l l meaning s t r e s s i s
not t r a n s m i t t e d through t h a t medium. In t h e d e t e r m i n a t i o n of
the induced stress oy f o r each stope surface, the b a c k f i l l e d
stopes w i l l be c o n s i d e r e d empty.
10.3.2 Case h i s t o r y analyses
The i m p l i c a t i o n s o f t h e above h y p o t h e s i s w i l l be d e s c r i b e d
with respect t o case histories from mine #19, which uses a
transverse b l a s t h o l e mining method (ref. section 2.6). An
i d e a l i z e d i s o m e t r i c view o f t h e mining b l o c k i s shown on f i g u r e
10.6. The stope dimensions are i d e n t i c a l on each l e v e l : 11m
long, 23m wide and 60m h i g h f o r t h e bottom l e v e l , and 11m x 23m
x 45m f o r the top l e v e l . The sequence of e x t r a c t i o n i s
indicated on t h e stopes by c i r c l e d numbers. I t i s a variation
of t h e leap frog sequence described i n s e c t i o n 2.4.2. The
mining o f a l l primary stopes (stopes 1 t o 18) was completed
with no s t a b i l i t y problems i n t h e r o o f o r w a l l s . As shown
287
FIGURE 10.6 Idealized isometric view of the mining block at
M i n e #19 of the data base.
TRANSVERSE B L A S T HOLE OPEN STOPING

below, t h e back analysis o f case h i s t o r i e s 59 (hanging w a l l )
and 57 (roof) a r e i n accordance with this assessment (see
F i g u r e 10.7) .
RQD/Jn STRESS CRITICAL Jr/Ja GRAVITY N S ASSESS

FACTOR JOINT FACTOR MENT
WALL 4 1 0.3 0.5 8.0 4.84.5 Stable

#59
BACK 29 0.2 0.2 1.5 2.0 3.5 3.7 Stable

#57
In the mining of the t e r t i a r y stopes (between two
b a c k f i l l e d w a l l s ) , the hanging w a l l s o f stope 19 t o 34 remained
s t a b l e but t h e backs experienced c o n s i d e r a b l e d e t e r i o r a t i o n and
systematic cable bolt support had t o be i n s t a l l e d i n a l l the
tertiary backs. This w i l l allow the t e s t i n g of the hypothesis
regarding b a c k f i l l (mentioned above).
a) Tertiary hanging walls: Supposing that h y p o t h e s i s 1) i s
true and backfill effectively limits the stope wall
dimensions t o t h e exposure o f t h e empty stope, t h e s t a b i l i t y
number and h y d r a u l i c radius of t e r t i a r y walls will remain
i d e n t i c a l t o t h e ones c a l c u l a t e d f o r primary w a l l s , case #59
(see f i g u r e 10.7, case #59). T h i s i s i n accordance w i t h the
stable t e r t i a r y wall assessment. I f h y p o t h e s i s 1) i s f a l s e
and the b a c k f i l l does not e f f e c t i v e l y limit the wall
exposure, then the h y d r a u l i c radius of t h e t e r t i a r y walls
would be c a l c u l a t e d based on a hanging w a l l exposure o f a t
l e a s t t h r e e stope l e n g t h s (stope 19, 2 and 8 i n f i g u r e
289
FIGURE 10.7

cases of backfilled stopes
1000
0.1
5 10 15 20 25
Hydraulic Radius ( m )

Caved Stope Surface
290
10.6). The new hydraulic radius would be 10.6 and the
stability number is still 4.8. This plots i n the caving
zone (see f i g u r e 10.7, case 59-) which i s not i n accordance
with the actual assessment. Both of the above analyses
support hypothesis 1) r e g a r d i n g the e f f e c t of b a c k f i l l i n
adjacent walls.
b) Tertiary backs: The hypothesis 2) for tertiary backs i s
that backfill does not effectively limit the back
dimensions, and b a c k f i l l e d stopes should be c o n s i d e r e d empty
i n the a n a l y s i s . The h y d r a u l i c r a d i u s of the t e r t i a r y back
will be c a l c u l a t e d f o r an exposure of t h r e e times the stope
l e n g t h s and the stope width. The s t a b i l i t y number remains
3.5 but the h y d r a u l i c r a d i u s i n c r e a s e s t o 6.8 which p l o t s i n
the caving zone of the stability graph (figure 10.7 case
57 + ) . This i s i n accordance with the s t a b i l i t y problems
reported, and the need f o r cable b o l t support of the back.
Supposing the h y p o t h e s i s 2) was incorrect and the backfill
e f f e c t i v e l y l i m i t s the stope backs, then the a n a l y s i s of the
tertiary backs would be similar to that of primary backs
(case 57) . A stable "prediction" f o r the t e r t i a r y backs
does not f i t the a c t u a l assessment.
These hypotheses have been verified f o r a number of other
cases. However, monitoring, instrumentation and more case
h i s t o r i e s would be r e q u i r e d t o prove them s y s t e m a t i c a l l y .
291
10.4 THE TIME EFFECT
The time effect i n hard rock mining can be considered i n
two different perspectives. The first p e r s p e c t i v e i s when
t h e r e i s no mining a c t i v i t y i n the stope area t o c r e a t e dynamic
loads (such as changes i n stress or b l a s t i n g vibration). In
t h i s case, the time e f f e c t w i l l be d i r e c t l y a s s o c i a t e d with the
sources of rock mass a l t e r a t i o n (mainly ground water). Since
open stope e x t r a c t i o n i s u s u a l l y r a p i d ( l e s s than one year) and
open stope mines i n the Canadian Shield are u s u a l l y dry, the
time effect will not be significant in dormant mining
conditions. I t was possible t o observed this absence of the
effect of time i n some case h i s t o r i e s where open stope mining
(with no b a c k f i l l ) was used and the stopes remained open f o r a
long p e r i o d of time. These cases are p l o t t e d in figure 10.8.
At the time of the b a c k - a n a l y s i s , the stopes had been open f o r
more than one year (sometimes s e v e r a l years) and no s i g n s of
instability had been reported, even though their stability
a n a l y s i s p l o t t e d c l o s e t o the grey area (see f i g u r e 10.8).
The second perspective of the time effect can be
c o n s i d e r e d when t h e r e are mining a c t i v i t i e s i n the area. The
dynamic loads induced by mining may cause premature failure
during the stope extraction. Most of the case histories of
i n s t a b i l i t y and c a v i n g i n c l u d e d i n the database can be
292
F I G U R E 1 0 . 8
TIME EFFECT DATA BASE
17 c a s e histories
1000 i . I

293
classified in this group. Although the s t a b i l i t y of stope
s u r f a c e s has shown r a p i d d e t e r i o r a t i o n with time, the p o s s i b l e
sources of i n s t a b i l i t y a r e numerous and v a r i e d which make an
exact quantification of the ( s h o r t term) time effect nearly
impossible. However, when the design analysis predicts
stability problems, c a v i n g i s expected t o occur w i t h i n a s h o r t
p e r i o d of time and l i k e l y d u r i n g the e x t r a c t i o n p r o c e s s .
10.5 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION
The effects of blasting, backfill and time in the
stability a n a l y s i s are d i s c u s s e d i n t h i s chapter and a r e based
on the o b s e r v a t i o n of these external factors in specific case
histories. For the b l a s t i n g effect, i t will be assumed t h a t
the reduction in stability i s within the sensitivity and
accuracy of the design method, unless excessive blasting
t e c h n i q u e s are used. The amount of b l a s t induced damage can be
minimized by optimising the drilling patterns, the charge
weight per delay and the sequence of the blasting. The
development of blast monitoring techniques allows the
measurement of the peak p a r t i c l e v e l o c i t y a s s o c i a t e d with each
detonation, which can be related to blast induced damage.
Ultimately, this may offer a means f o r the development of a
b l a s t c o r r e c t i o n f a c t o r f o r the s t a b i l i t y graph d e s i g n method.
The presence of b a c k f i l l i n adjacent stopes is a very
common s i t u a t i o n i n open stope mining. I t i s suggested that

the t h r e e f o l l o w i n g assumptions can be used t o account f o r t h i s
e f f e c t i n the s t a b i l i t y analysis;
1) Stope w a l l s are supported by b a c k f i l l and o n l y the s u r f a c e
are actually exposed t o empty openings should be c o n s i d e r e d
i n the c a l c u l a t i o n of the h y d r a u l i c r a d i u s .
2) Stope backs are not g e n e r a l l y supported by b a c k f i l l and the
total surface exposed by a l l the consecutive empty and
b a c k f i l l e d stopes should be c o n s i d e r e d i n the c a l c u l a t i o n of
the h y d r a u l i c r a d i u s .
The effect of time on stope stability can be assumed
n e g l i g i b l e when d e a l i n g w i t h stopes t h a t are remote from mining
activities, because the typically dry c o n d i t i o n s of Canadian
open stope mines r e s u l t o n l y i n a slow d e t e r i o r a t i o n of exposed
rock mass. When stopes show a r a p i d d e t e r i o r a t i o n of s t a b i l i t y
with time, i t i s generally due to mining activities in the
vicinity of the stopes. In these c o n d i t i o n s the time e f f e c t i s
nearly impossible to d i f f e r e n t i a t e from the e f f e c t s of dynamic
l o a d i n g due t o mining.
The effect of e x t e r n a l factors in the s t a b i l i t y analysis
can make the difference between a stable and a caving
prediction. Consequently, i t i s e s s e n t i a l t o understand these
effects and attempt to take them into account i n the design
analysis. Although the assumptions r e g a r d i n g the effects of
external factors have not been confirmed by a l a r g e number of
case histories, the e x p l a n a t i o n s are i n accordance with the
295
case histories of the data base. Future work should be
undertaken t o improve the c o n f i d e n c e i n the above assumptions,
which will contribute to the accuracy of the stability
predictions.
296
CHAPTER 11
SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION
11.1 SUMMARY
The problem investigated i n this thesis i s the design of
open stopes in typical Canadian geological settings. The
geomechanics investigation focus on t h e e f f e c t of creating a
specific type o f opening i n a variety o f r o c k mass media and
submitting them to mining related dynamic loads. For
simplification, t h e problem was s u b d i v i d e d i n t o t h r e e a s p e c t s :
the c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f t h e rock mass,
the r e d i s t r i b u t i o n o f i n s i t u stress, or the stress
induced on t h e stope surfaces,
the p h y s i c a l condition o f t h e problem including
stope geometry and i n c l i n a t i o n , c a b l e b o l t , blasting,
backfill and t h e e f f e c t o f time.
Each o f t h e above aspects i s d i v i d e d into factors i n order t o
quantify and calibrate the possible sources of ground
instability. The rock mass c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s a r e r e p r e s e n t e d by
the b l o c k s i z e and t h e c r i t i c a l joint factors. The e f f e c t o f
stress i s accounted f o r by t h e s t r e s s induced f a c t o r , which i s
based on t h r e e dimensional numerical m o d e l l i n g . The p h y s i c a l
condition o f t h e problem includes t h e stope size and shape
factor (hydraulic radius), the gravity f a c t o r and t h e e x t e r n a l
factors. Each factor i s quantified by a combination of
parameters (geotechnical or geometrical) . Most of the

parameters are estimated from field investigation, relying on
observational methods such as rock mass c l a s s i f i c a t i o n , joint
mapping and the study of mine layouts. The methodology of
d e s i g n and the o r g a n i z a t i o n of the i n p u t data i s s i m i l a r t o the
one proposed by Mathews et al. (1980). Figure 11.1 is a
graphical p r e s e n t a t i o n of the open stope design method. It
shows how the parameters combine into factors and how the
s t a b i l i t y a n a l y s i s i s developed.
The main h y p o t h e s i s of the study i s : "The stability of
open stopes can be p r e d i c t e d by q u a n t i f y i n g the e f f e c t of the
rock mass characteristics, the stress induced at the stope
surfaces and the physical c o n d i t i o n s of the problem". The
verification of the h y p o t h e s i s i n v o l v e s the a p p l i c a t i o n of the
model d e s c r i b e d i n f i g u r e 11.1 i n the b a c k - a n a l y s i s of a l a r g e
number of r e p r e s e n t a t i v e case histories. I f the actual stope
behaviour corresponds t o the model's p r e d i c t i o n on the m o d i f i e d
stability graph, the h y p o t h e s i s will be verified. Figure 8.4
shows a p l o t of the t o t a l data base of unsupported stopes. The
clear s e p a r a t i o n between stable and caving cases confirm the
d e s i g n method (and the hypothesis) f o r stopes not u s i n g c a b l e
bolt reinforcement. The effect of external factors on the
d e s i g n a n a l y s i s i s summarized as f o l l o w s :
The stabilizing a c t i o n of c a b l e b o l t s a l l o w s the d e s i g n
of stope dimensions, below the transition area of the
modified stability graph (see f i g u r e 9.9). However, a
minimum i n t e n s i t y of b o l t i n g i s necessary t o m a i n t a i n
298
663
CRITICAL JOINT B L O C K SIZE

FACTOR FACTOR
o S
_s
IP ic STRIKI
FFERENICE 1
0.2
0.5
NUMB
4h
JOIN
it lis
- 1.0
-
> 2
m -H
. O
s5> -
CO to
to CO
-3
>
COMPRESSIVE
STRESS FACTOR ii
SI
ti
P c
o
"ito
Q
>
>> CD O >
Tl
GRAVITY FACTOR -3.

O
2
=3 -n
C ""I
> m
-ui
=d
O
-H a
m z: o
POTENTIAL o
EXTERNAL FACTORS
POTENTIAL
CO
EXTERNAL FACTOR
z
o
o ?
w
> c
O m
* z
3 n
o
CO
II
Q
1
I
O -
O S
II
S T O P E P L A N E SIZE
AND S H A P E F A C T O R
stability, and the necessary intensity i s expected to
increase as a case plots further into the caving zone
(figure 9.12). A practical limit t o the a p p l i c a b i l i t y
of cable b o l t i n g i n open stope mining i s indicated by
the dashed line in figure 9.9.
The e f f e c t of b l a s t i n g i s t o decrease the q u a l i t y of the
rock mass i n w a l l s exposed t o the e f f e c t of the blast.
It w i l l be assumed t h a t , f o r normal blasting practices,
this effect is built into the model's c a l i b r a t i o n , and
is within the p r e c i s i o n of the d e s i g n method. This i s
supported by the good c o r r e l a t i o n o b t a i n e d between stope
predictions and actual stope assessments f o r the total
data base (see f i g u r e 8.4), and the f a c t t h a t cases of
excessive blasting practices were isolated in the
analysis graph (figure 10.1).
The e f f e c t of b a c k f i l l i n a d j a c e n t stopes i s taken into
account by two assumptions: backfill effectively limits
wall exposure, and the backfill does not effectively
l i m i t back exposure.
The e f f e c t of time, when t h e r e are no mining a c t i v i t i e s
in the investigated stope area, can be considered
negligible. No s i g n s of i n s t a b i l i t y have been noticed
in the case h i s t o r i e s shown i n f i g u r e 10.8, which have
been open f o r a p e r i o d of time exceeding one year. When
a stope is not isolated from mining activities, the
dynamic loads associated with mining may induce
300
premature failure. The stope stand-up time in these
c o n d i t i o n s was e v a l u a t e d o n l y i n f u n c t i o n of the entire
stope life. F i g u r e 8.4 shows the case histories that
have been stable for their full stope lives, and the
stopes t h a t have caved a t one time d u r i n g t h e i r life.
11.2 APPLICABILITY OF THE DESIGN METHOD
The d e s i g n method proposed in this thesis was developed
for open stope mining methods i n g e o l o g i c a l c o n d i t i o n s s i m i l a r
to those encountered i n the Canadian shield. Open stope mining
is better suited t o steep d i p p i n g orebodies (dip g r e a t e r than
50), having a relatively regular definition, and a minimum
width of approximately 5 meters. Because the stope roof and
w a l l s must be s e l f s u p p o r t i n g , a f a i r t o good rock mass q u a l i t y
is desirable for the ore zone and the country rock. In
appendix 1, the orebody shape of the open stope mine i n c l u d e d
in the data base has been drawn, along with the mining method
used and the g e o t e c h n i c a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of the ore, hanging
w a l l and footwall.
Open stope mining i s a non e n t r y mining method which means
mine workers are not exposed to the production face.
Consequently, a c e r t a i n degree of i n s t a b i l i t y can be tolerated,
as long as adjacent mine workings are not affected and the
dilution does not become e x c e s s i v e . The calibration of the
proposed d e s i g n method w i l l be non c o n s e r v a t i v e i f used with
301
e n t r y mining methods.
Open stope mining a l s o i n v o l v e s f a s t e x t r a c t i o n resulting,
in significant mining related dynamic l o a d i n g . The effect of
frequent changes i n stope dimensions, stope geometry and large
production blasts may p l a y an important role i n the stability
of open stopes.
11.3 INDUSTRY BENEFITS FROM THIS STUDY
There are several potential benefits in using the
systematic open stope d e s i g n method proposed here. The most
important one i s the reduction in stope dilution. Bawden
(1988) d e s c r i b e d the economical impact of d i l u t i o n as follows:
"If we assume b a s i c costs of $5.00/ton for milling and
crushing, $2.00/ton f o r mucking and haulage and $1.00/ton f o r
hoisting then, for a "typical" open stope hanging w a l l of say
100m x 30m, each meter of w a l l d i l u t i o n which i s h o i s t e d and
milled reduces the profitability of the stope by over
$100,000.00. Alternatively, if the dilution results in
plugging of the drawpoints, serious production delays and
secondary blasting c o s t s may be incurred. In the worst case,
the stope may be lost." Bawden (1988) a l s o provided a table
showing the large influence of d i l u t i o n on the ROR of a zinc
orebody (see t a b l e 11.1).
Another benefit of t h i s d e s i g n approach i s in providing a
c l e a r understanding of the rock mass medium behaviour and
302
TABLE 11.1 I m p o r t a n c e o f d i l u t i o n o n t h e DCF ROR. (After
Bawden, 1988)
Zinc
Tomagt 2,500.000 torn

Grade 20X Zn
Mining Rata : 360,000 tpy
DILUTION % OK MK 20X JOK 40X
Tomaae 2.500.000 2.780,000 3.130.000 3.570.000 4.170.000

Grade 20.OX 18.0X 16.0X 14.0X 12.0X
Mining Rat* 360,000 360,000 360.000 360.000 360.000
Nina L i f t , yr. 6.9 7.7 8.7 9.9 11.5

o Natal Recovery 85X BSX 85X 85X 85X
U)
*7n/ton 340 304 272 238 204
Zn/yr 1.22*10 1.OtalO 8

0.98x10 S
O.SSxIO 8
0.73x10*
Nina Revenuee/yr (25c/lb) $30.50x10* $27.25x10* $24.S0x10 6

21.25*10* $18.36x10*
All Nina Coata (U0/T) $14.4x10* 14.4*10* $14.4x10* $14.4x10* 14.4K10*
Operating Proflta $16.10x10* $12.85x10* $10.10x10* 6.85x10* $3.9x10*
Taxes (50X of O.P.) $a.osxio* 06.41x10* 5.05x10* $3.43x10* $1.98x10*
Nat Profit $8.05x10* $6.43x10* 5.05*10* $3.43x10* $1.98x10*
Capital Coat of Nina $2.5x10* - -
0CF ROR 25.5X 18.9X 13.5X 6.0X 1.5X

giving the means f o r a n t i c i p a t i n g failure mechanisms t h a t may
occur d u r i n g the stope e x t r a c t i o n . This w i l l result in better
engineered design of mine s t r u c t u r e and support components as
w e l l as a s a f e r mining environment.
The design concepts developed during t h i s study have been
applied with success in several Noranda mines for actual
design. This work is documented in Bawden et al (1988),
Bawden, Nantel and Sprott (1988) and in a series of internal
report l i s t e d i n the b i b l i o g r a p h y .
11.4 FUTURE WORK
The future improvements to this design approach should
concentrate on the e f f e c t of e x t e r n a l f a c t o r s . Some progress
has been made in accounting f o r the effect of cable bolts,
blasting, backfill and time i n the d e s i g n a n a l y s i s . This has
been realized entirely based on the interpretation of case
histories. However, a much g r e a t e r degree of p r e c i s i o n can be
achieved i n accounting f o r the above e f f e c t s with systematic
m o n i t o r i n g programs. In r e c e n t years, s i g n i f i c a n t p r o g r e s s has
been made i n the development of e f f i c i e n t m o n i t o r i n g t o o l s f o r
underground blasting (peak particle velocity measurements)
which may lead to a blast correction factor in the design
analysis.
The range of efficiency of cable b o l t s has been d e f i n e d
and rough g u i d e l i n e s r e l a t i n g ground c o n d i t i o n s , stope s i z e and
304
shape, and the required intensity of bolting have been
developed. Once again, a g r e a t e r data base and the use of
monitoring techniques such as cable b o l t s strain and tension
gauges can improve the p r e c i s i o n and reliability of the cable
b o l t design g u i d e l i n e s .
There are a l s o a c e r t a i n amount of p e r s o n a l interpretation
specifically in the classification of the rock mass, which
c o u l d be reduced i f an instrumented system f o r c l a s s i f y i n g the
rock mass e x i s t e d . T h i s i s another important area of r e s e a r c h
t h a t c o u l d improve a c t u a l stope d e s i g n .
11.5 CONCLUDING REM/ARKS
The actual trend i n rock mechanics i s towards a g r e a t e r
use of computer technology and numerical modelling. Although
very useful in investigating the effect of stress, i t is
b e l i e v e d t h a t rock mechanics r e s e a r c h should put more emphasis
on underground observation, monitoring and the classification
of the rock mass, i n order t o b e t t e r understand the behaviour
of the rock mass medium. Commenting on the use of finite
element models, Barton (1985) s t a t e d :
"One problem that arises i s that these methods are so
s o p h i s t i c a t e d t h a t the people working w i t h them, i n my o p i n i o n ,
are not going to have t o much time to investigate rock mass
properties."
T h i s study was l a r g e l y based on o b s e r v a t i o n a l methods and
305
past experience. Historically, mines have been designed from
the results of p r e v i o u s designs in similar ground c o n d i t i o n s .
I t i s the author's o p i n i o n t h a t a v a s t amount of experience and
knowledge exists at each mine site and the entire mining
industry can b e n e f i t from the s y s t e m a t i c compilation of this
experience. By making such a compilation a v a i l a b l e t o the
mining operators, i t gives them a broader data base for
comparison, i n c r e a s e s the c o n f i d e n c e i n t h e i r design, and w i l l
ultimately reduce the o v e r a l l d i l u t i o n u s u a l l y a s s o c i a t e d with
open s t o p i n g .
306
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310
APPENDIX I
OREBODY DIAGRAMS
AND ROCK MECHANICS DATA
311
MINE No. I
ORE BANGING WALL
Rock T y p e : Breccia Bock Type: Peridotite
2 . 9 t/m
1
T -
- 80 MPa
- 46.1 CPa
v - 0.26
312
MINE No. 2
QBE (LENS i t II
UANCIWG HALL t ROOP [t.VMK ->
f
Rock Typei t u s s i v e Sulphide

Rock Typei Andeslte
T 4.2 t/m?
c 200 MP* Y 2.9 t/m*
E 61.0 CPs t 109 MPa
V 0.3 E 63.0 CPs
w 0.2S
Q' 7
0' 4
LENS 2 ' ' '
115m- I' i . 1
' '/'",' -'/' ' ' ". ' >
OPEN , '/<'//;//< A;;/ -,/,,;;"',*V.'VHk':V$C 1

;s;-'---
HANGING WALL * ROOP (LEWS 3)
Rock Typei A l t e r e d Andeslte
Y - 3.0 t/m*
ot - 87 MPs
E - 84.0 CPs
v - 0.28
Q' - 0.9
MINE No. 3
o,= n
Y
o,-1.6vh
o, -th
B
ORB
Rock Typei Maaalve S u l p h i d e
t - 4.3 t/u*
o c - 116 MPa
K - 39.0 CPa
v - 0.11
0' - 6
N
200m
pih
1050m
MINE No. 4
ORE HANGING WALL rOOT WALL

FW Contact HW Contact Rock Type: Dark N o r i t e Rock Typei r e l a t e Gneiss
Typei Late Granite Dark Norite
Breccia Breccia 2.7 t/ J
141 MPa
E 58.8 CPa
T " 3.4 t>> 3.2 t/m* V 0.28
c - 131 MPa 81 MPa
E - SO.O GPa 53.0 GPa
v 0.26 0.26
0* - 18 18
MINE No. 6
O R E
Rock Type: Breccia 4

Massive Sulphide
T 3 . 1 t/m 3
125 MPa
9 4 . 0 CPs
V 0.22
0' 9
NORTH WALL
Rock Type: Norite
Y 2 . 9 t/m 1
113 MPs
2< 5 6 . 0 CPs
v 0.17
0* 9
274m
SOOTH WALL
Rock Type: Granite
T
2<
V
0"
Depth
1050 m
316
MINE No. 8
o,'yb
317
03
MINE No. 10 o , - 1 . 7 th
ORB
e -Th
l o
Hock Typei S i l i c e o u s Ore
3.0 t/m* 200m

41 - 9 M P a
44 - SJ C P S ,-h
0.21 - 0.40
LON0ITU0INAL 100m
LONOHOLE
OPEN STOPES
M HANGING WALL
i 2Sm
Hock Typei Siliceous SedlMnt SILL PILLAR
Tf " 2.8 t/m*

o. 60 MPs
0S
- 6
N
SU8LEVEL
RETREAT STOPES 100m
P0OT WALL
CONTINUES
Hock Typei Siliceous Schist TO 1000m
- 2.8 t/m*
- 1 4 0 MI'S
w
MINE No. II
<
MINED OUT
(Ne Bockflll)
MINED OUT
(Ne Backfill)
/ f
PERMANENT PILLAR
(No Grode)
200m
4*
LONGITUDINAL
LONGITUDINAL LONGHOLE
LONGHOLE OOm STOPE
LONGITUDINAL STOPE
LONGHOLE 62 m
STOPE
_Dplh
925m
30m-H -62m
200m
ORE
0,-1.ISTO
Rock T y p e : Porphyry
I J o-l.Syh
y - 2.72 t/w*
o t - 148 MPa
E I B . 5 GPa
v - 0.20 eio1.7Yh
Q* - 30
320
MINE No. 13
MINE No. 14
322
MINE No. 16
OR! Surfoce
Rock Typei Maaoive Sulphide
j - 4.6 t/mi*
o, - 176 MPa
B - 119.0 CPa
v - 0.24
0* m 20
HANGING WALL
Hook Typei Ouarti Porphyry
u>
w
y - 2.9 t/a)' 850m
o , - 9 1 MPa
K - 68.7 GPa
v - 0.19
Q' - 42
FOOT WALL
Rock Typei C h l o r i t e Tuff
y - 2.9 t/a? 1
o, - 84 MPa
E - 68.5 GPa
V - 0.25
Q - 40
MINE No. 17
o,-yh
2.th*
J.lyh*
LONGITUDINAL 'stress based on

870m
LONGHOLE f o r a u l s by Oerget
OPEN STOPINO
co
ro
JL
-IBOOm-
ORE HALL
Rock Typei Massive Sulphide Rock Typei Gnelaa
Y 5.3 t/m* T - 2.7 t/ai J
c - 100 HPa "c " 52 MPa

E - 103 GPa E - 105 CPa
v 0.31 V 0.20
O' . 19 IS
Q" -
MINE No. 18
A o,-3.3th
ORE .
Rock T y p e : Maaalve S u l p h i d e TRANSVERSE LONGHOLE

OPEN STOPING
y - 4 . 8 l/m*
oc - 285 MPa
E - 65.5 GPa
v - 0.10
Q* - 15
MINE No. 19
o,-T
MINEO OUT A
BACKFILLED TO SURFACE
420m 150m
LONQITUOINAL LONOITUOINAJL
70m 2-ISm
SUB-LEVEL ReTRCAT US-LEVEL RETREAT
to
-o 30m
110m TRANSVERSAL
BLASTHOLE BTOPES
760m
-210m.
ORE NORTH WALL 190*1 SOOTH WALL (90*1
Rock Typoi Maaelve Sulphlda Rock Typai Baaaltle Tuff Rock Typoi Rhyolltlo Tuff
O, - 316 MP* a, - 90 MPa

E - 232.2 GPa E B - 67.9 CPa
v - 0.16 V v - 0.1S
0' - 44 N 0' - 2.2 N
MINE No. 20
328
MINE No. 21
TYPICAL
MINE
CROSS SECTION
LONGHOLE tc
BLASTHOLE
LONGITUDINAL
OPEN STOPING
ORE
Rock Type: Massive Sulphide
Oc = 100 MPa
E = 88 GPa
V = 0.20
Q' = 10-20
HANGING WALL & FOOTWALL
Rock Type: Quartz Meta = 2.5 crv
Sediments
CT = 50-135 MPa
C
E = 50-75 GPa
y = 0.12-0.34
Q' = 0.1-50
329
MINE No. 23
330
MINE No. 30
TYPICAL
MINE
CROSS SECTION
TRANSVERSE
BLASTHOLE
OPEN STOPING
ORE
Rock Type: Massive Sulphide
Y = 3.3 t / m
3
Oc = 160 MPa
E = 80 GPa
V = 0.21 1500m
Q' = 22
HANGING WALL
Rock Type: Rhyolite
Y = 2.7 t / m
5
or = 120-150 MPa CT =YH

E = 80 GPa
c V
0.14
v =
13-30 CT = 0.8 CT,
Q' =
2
FOOTWALL
0\ = 6+0.055H(m)
Rock Type: Andesite/Diorite
Y 3.0 t / m
3
Oc 160 MPa
E 85 GPa
V 0.23
Q' 14
331
MINE No. 31
TYPICAL
MINE
CROSS SECTION
LONGITUDINAL
LONGHOLE
OPEN STOPING
ORE
Y = 3.5 t / m
3
Oc = 265 MPa
E = 63 GPa
Q' = 2 5 - 4 0
HANGING WALL
Rock Type: TUFF
Y = 2.8 t / m
3
850m OY^YH
CTc = 195 MPa
E = 44 GPa
Q' = 2 5 - 4 0
FOOTWALL
Rock Type: Iron Formation 0~ = 8+l.6YH(m)
Y = 2.9 t / m
3
(isostatic)
CT = 275 MPa
C
E = 51 MPa
Q' = 2 5 - 4 0
3 32
APPENDIX I I
D E S C R I P T I O N OF THE BOUNDARY E L E M E N T PROGRAMS
2D: BITEM AND 3D: BEAP
333
BITEM
The 2D direct boundary integral model "BITEM" is based on
the program "BITE" developed by P.C. Riccardella at the
Carnegie-Mellon university in 1973. I t was expanded to perform
piece-wise homogeneous e l a s t i c i t y analyses by CSIRO
(Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organization,
Australia) in 1978. The program was subsequently modified for
the U.B.C. mainframe computer by R. Pakalnis (1983) and later
for an IBM compatible computer by CANMET under the program name
PCBEM (Pakalnis 1987).
The boundary integral technique is designed for problems
that have one long dimension and a constant cross sectional
shape. It requires the discretization of a l l excavation
surfaces into segments connected by nodes (see figure ). An
explicit solution is selected to represent the medium's in situ
stress conditions. These field stresses can be constant or can
vary linearly with position. When excavations are created,
the stress perpendicular to the boundary nodes becomes zero.
BITEM then calculates tractions and displacements at a l l the
modes of a l l the boundaries. The boundary solution is
determined through an iterative procedure in which the stress
and displacement at each node influences the stress and
displacement of the other nodes of the boundary. This
procedure ends when the difference between the last two
iterations is less than a user defined convergence criterion.
334
Once a boundary s o l u t i o n has been determined, s t r e s s e s and
335
OPENING TO
FIGURE 2 3 . I s o m e t r i c v i e w o f an o p e n i n g t h a t i s l o n g i n
d i r e c t i o n a n d t h e d i s c r e t i z a t i o n o f t h e boundary u s e d
two d i m e n s i o n a l m o d e l l i n g ( a f t e r Hudyma 1988b).
displacements internal to the problem boundary can be
determined using the boundary solution and stress-strain
relationships. A more detailed description of the boundary
i n t e g r a l t e c h n i q u e i s found i n Brady and Bray (1978).
337
BEAP
BEAP is a three dimensional boundary element program

developed by J.A.C. Diering as a PhD t h e s i s , at Pretoria
University (1987), i n c o n j u n c t i o n w i t h CANMET, INCO (Thompson
D i v i s i o n ) and GEMCOM (Pty.) L i m i t e d . V e r s i o n 1.0, used i n t h i s
p r o j e c t , i s due f o r p u b l i c r e l e a s e i n t h e F a l l 1988.
Excavation boundaries are generally discretized by
q u a d r i l a t e r a l elements (see f i g u r e ) . The problem i s s u b j e c t
to an a r b i t r a r i l y oriented stress field. The s t r e s s and

displacements on t h e boundary elements v a r y q u a d r a t i c a l l y and
a r e non-conforming. T h i s means d i s p l a c e m e n t s and t r a c t i o n s a r e
assumed t o v a r y according to a quadratic polynomial, and t h e
displacements between a d j a c e n t elements a r e d i s c o n t i n u o u s . The
r e s u l t i n g n u m e r i c a l model has some p o w e r f u l a b i l i t i e s i n m i n i n g
related stress analysis, including:
- t h e need f o r fewer elements t o d i s c r e t i z e an e x c a v a t i o n than

o t h e r 3d boundary element models,
- the a b i l i t y t o accommodate up t o f i v e zones w i t h different,

material properties,
- t h e use o f lumping t o reduce d a t a s t o r a g e requirements,

- and t h e a b i l i t y t o determine s t r e s s e s and d i s p l a c e m e n t s very
c l o s e t o an e x c a v a t i o n boundary.
Further d e t a i l s about BEAP can be found i n D i e r i n g (1987) and

D i e r i n g and Stacey (1987).
338
85
FIGURE 25. A t y p i c a l BEAP geometry showing the boundary of

t h e e x c a v a t i o n s d e f i n e d by two dimensional q u a d r a t i c , non-
conforming elements i n a t h r e e dimensional s t r e s s f i e l d
( a f t e r Hudyma 1988b).
339
APPENDIX I I I
PLOT OF INDUCED STRESSES
FOR DIFFERENT GEOMETRIES AND K RATIOS
340
23-^
H=40
x
L=120
Ct-28
f 05-29
2 - _ J >
$1
,1?
VV^ 1 7 ^
5*
H=40
1=120
Oj-U.7
Ot-2ft
H=40
tf
L=120
0J<-1Z5
<*-
13
H=40
tf
1=120
0,-10
05-:
ct-i
T4~3"
349
350

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EMPIRICAL OPEN 8TOPE DESIGN IN CANADA

B . A . S c , U n i v e r s i t e LAVAL, Quebec 1982

A THESIS SUBMITTED I N PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF

THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF

THE FACULTY OF GRADUATE STUDIES

DEPARTMENT OF MINING AND MINERAL PROCESS ENGINEERING

to the required standard

THE UNIVERSITY OF BRITISH COLUMBIA

department or by his or her representatives. It is understood that copying or

Department of KtKtii^C hiotfc*) PROCESS E/Q'

The University of British Columbia

Date hft<tctt \ \R<\

This thesis addresses the t o p i c o f underground excavation

stability in open stope mining methods. There are three

fundamental aspects t o be considered i n an engineering rock

mechanics design of open stopes. The first aspect i s the

characterization o f the rock mass t o i d e n t i f y and q u a n t i f y the

properties and components affecting the rock mass behaviour.

The second aspect i s the e f f e c t o f the s t r e s s f i e l d s on the rock

mass that may result i n zones of high compressive stress or

zones of relaxation i n stope walls. The t h i r d aspect i s the

physical condition of the problem and i s d e f i n e d p r i m a r i l y by

the size, geometry and r e l a t i v e orientation o f openings with

regard t o t h e rock mass and the s t r e s s field. The i n t e r a c t i o n

of these t h r e e fundamental a s p e c t s c o n s t i t u t e s t h e problem t o be

The principal objective of the study i s to develop a

reliable geomechanical model (based on the above t h r e e aspects)

that can predict the stability of open stopes in typical

Canadian geological settings. An e m p i r i c a l approach was chosen

for t h e development o f the model, because o f t h e complexity of

the problem and the difficulty in estimating the input

parameters with p r e c i s i o n . Empirical methods are l i k e l y t o be

more reliable since they make use of past experience. A

c o n s i d e r a b l e amount o f e f f o r t has been spent i n b u i l d i n g a broad

data base which includes more than 250 case histories of

The application of the model in the b a c k - a n a l y s i s of a

large number of representative case histories allowed

calibration of each of the f a c t o r s composing the model. Since

the model's p r e d i c t i o n corresponds very w e l l t o the a c t u a l stope

behaviour in most case histories, the model is considered

The effect of e x t e r n a l factors (parameters affecting stope

stability that are not related to the geotechnical or

g e o m e t r i c a l c o n d i t i o n s ) have a l s o been i n v e s t i g a t e d . The limit

of applicability of cable b o l t i n g has been d e f i n e d and rough

guidelines f o r the d e s i g n of c a b l e support systems are proposed

based on the systematic c o m p i l a t i o n of past experience. The

effect of b l a s t i n g , although not quantified, has been observed

in 18 case histories. More r e s e a r c h i s r e q u i r e d i n order t o

include the effect of blasting in the actual modelwhile the

effect of time i s not of concern i n open stope mining, when

there are no mining activities in the imediate area of the

LIST OF FIGURES xiii

1.1 DEFINITION OF THE PROBLEM 1

1.2 OBJECTIVE OF THE PROJECT 4

1.3 CONTENTS OF THE THESIS 6

CHAPTER 2 REVIEW OF OPEN STOPE MINING PRACTICES . . . . 8

2.1.1 D e f i n i t i o n o f open stope mining . . . . . . . 8

2.1.2 A p p l i c a t i o n s o f open stope mining 9

2.2 CLASSIFICATION OF OPEN STOPE MINING METHODS . . . . 14

2.2.2 Use o f p i l l a r s and b a c k f i l l 15

2.2.4 Classification o f open stope mining . . . . . 21

2.3 DESCRIPTION OF OPEN STOPING PRE-PRODUCTION DEVELOPMENT 21

2.4 DESCRIPTION OF OPEN STOPE MINING AND SEQUENCING . . 24